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Columbia  Umbersittp 

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KURTZ'S  MANUAL  OF  SACRED  HISTORY; 

OR,  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  UNDERSTANDING  OF  THE  DIVINE  PLAN  OF 
SALVATION,  ACCORDING  TO  ITS  HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT. 

TRANSLATED  FROM  THE  SIXTH  GERMAN  EDITION, 

BY 
CHARLES   F.  SCHAEFFEE,  D.D. 

Fourteenth  Edition,  l'imo.    Trice,  $1.50. 

— «*<>• 

Extracts  from   Notices  of"  the  Press- 

Bibliotheca  Sacra, 

"This  is  the  best  book  of  the  kind  we  have  ever  examined,  and  one  of 
the  best  translations  from  German  into  English  we  have  ever  seen.  The 
author  makes  no  parade  of  learning  in  his  book,  but  his  exegetieal  state- 
ments are  evidently  founded  on  the  most  careful,  thorough  and  extensive 
study,  and  can  generally  be  relied  upon  as  among  the  best  results,  the  most 
surely  ascertained  conclusions,  of  modern  philological  investigation.  We 
cordially  recommend  it  to  every  minister,  to  every  Sunday-school  teacher, 
to  every  parent,  and  to  every  intelligent  layman,  as  a  safe  and  exceedingly 
instructive  guide  through  the  entire  Bible  History,  the  Old  Testament  and 
the  New.  It  is  a  book  which  actually  accomplishes  more  than  its  title 
promises.'' 

Biblical  Repertory  and  Princeton  Review. 

"This  book  is,  according  to  the  Lutheran  standard,  thoroughly  orthodox 
in  matters  of  doctrine,  and  is  more  thoroughly  religious  in  spirit  than  any 
similar  German  work  with  which  we  are  acquainted. 

"The  English  translation  is,  in  our  opinion,  highly  creditable  to  its 
author;  not  only  accurate,  so  far  as  we  have  yet  had  time  to  judge  it.  but 
less  disfigured  by  undue  adherence  to  German  idiom,  by  awkward  stiffness, 
and  by  weak  verbosity,  than  any  version  we  have  recently  examined." 

Christian  Chronicle  (Baptist). 
"An  admirable    volume      [ts   literary  and  theological  merits  are  of  a 
high  order,  and  entitle  it  to  a  wide  circulation  among  the  lovers  of  a  religious 
literature.     The  translator  has  faithfully  executed  his  task." 

Lutheran  Standard, 
"This  volume  deserves  to  be  in  every  family;  all  may  read  and  study  it 
with  profit.  It  is  well  adapted  for  schools  and  seminaries  of  learning  and 
theology.  .  .  .  We  know  of  no  work  in  any  language,  in  all  the  bounds  of 
sacred  literature,  calculated  to  exert  a  more  wholesome  and  beneficial  in- 
fluence in  the  cause  of  Christ,  than  this  work." 

ii 


NOTICES    OF    THE    PRESS. 

Protestant  Churchman! 
"The  present  volume  treats  the  subject  of  sacred  history  on  a  novel 
plan.  It  embraces  the  period  covered  by  the  Scriptures,  and  undertakes 
to  develop  the  essential  principles  of  human  redemption  in  their  historical 
manifestations.  Without  following  in  the  steps  of  Prideaux  and  Shuck- 
ford,  and  tracing  the  relations  between  the  Scriptural  narratives  and  the 
course  of  external  history,  it  furnishes  a  suggestive  comment  on  the  inci- 
dents recorded  in  the  Bible,  considered  as  illustrations  of  the  Divine  pur- 
pose in  the  salvation  of  man.  The  style  is  clear,  compact,  and  forcible, 
presenting  a  mass  of  weighty  thoughts,  in  simple  and  appropriate  language." 

German  Reformed  Messenger. 
"  It  contains  a  vast  amount  of  important  information,  conveniently  and 
systematically  arranged,  throwing  much  light  upon  the  teachings  of  the 
Sacred  Volume.  Its  author  is  a  very  distinguished  Lutheran  divine,  whose 
productions  in  the  German  language  have  met  with  great  favor  from  the 
Christian  public.  The  translator  has  done  an  important  service  to  the  in- 
terests of  Christianity  by  putting  this  work  into  an  English  dress.  He  has 
also  executed  his  task  well." 

Harper's  Magazine. 
"  Profound  in  thought,  vigorous  in  style,  and  thoroughly  Christian  in 
spirit,  the  student  of  theology  will  find  it  a  suggestive  and  valuable  guide. 
The  translation  has  evidently  been  made  with  conscientious  accuracy,  and 
has  succeeded  to  a  remarkable  degree  in  reproducing  the  spirit  of  the  orig- 
inal. We  regard  it  as  an  important  and  seasonable  aid  to  the  understanding 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures." 

Puritan  Recorder. 

"The  work  is  remarkable  for  condensation  and  point;  more  being  often 
crowded  into  a  simple  paragraph  than  would  suffice  many  other  writers 
for  a  dozen  papers.  The  arrangement  is  exceedingly  logical,  and  the 
style,  notwithstanding  it  is  a  translation,  is  clear  and  agreeable,  and  very 
free  from  the  German  idiom.  What  we  knew  of  this  book  previous  to  its 
appearance  in  an  English  dress,  has  led  us  to  anticipate  it  with  more  than 
common  interest ;  and  we  can  truly  say,  that  it  has  more  than  answered 
our  highest  expectations." 

Philip  Schaff,  D.D. 

"  I  know  of  no  work  in  the  English  or  German  language  which  gives,  in 
so  short  a  compass,  so  full  and  clear  an  account  of  the  gradual  develop- 
ment of  the  divine  plan  of  salvation,  from  the  fall  of  man  to  the  resur- 
rection of  Christ  and  the  founding  of  the  apostolic  church,  and  which  is, 
at  the  same  time,  so  sound  in  sentiment,  so  evangelical  in  tone,  and,  with- 
out being  superficial,  so  well  adapted  for  popular  use,  as  the  '  Manual  of 
Sacred  History,'  by  Dr.  J.  H.  Kurtz.  The  translation  of  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Charles  F.  Schaeffer  seems  to  me,  as  far  as  I  have  examined  it,  to  do  full 
justice  to  the  German  original,  as  well  as  to  the  English  idiom." 


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TEXT-BOOK 


OF 


Chitegh  History. 


BY 

DR.  JOHN  HENRY  KURTZ, 

PROFESSOR   OF   THEOLOGY   IN   THE   UNIVERSITY   OF   DORPAT:    AUTHOR   OF   "A    MANUAL 
OF  SACRED    HISTORY,"   "THE   BIBLE   AND   ASTRONOMY,"    ETC.,    ETC. 


<§w  fykm*  in  $iw, 


Revised,  with  Corrections  and  Additions  from  the  Seventh 
German  Edition. 


VOL.  I. 

TO  THE  REFORMATION. 


PHri/ADEirPH'l'A: 

SMITH,  ENGLISH  i  CO., 

N"  O.   7  L  0    A  EC  H/ Si  RIv  E  T.    ,    ,- 
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Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1875,  by 

SMITH,  ENGLISH  &  CO., 

in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


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CAXTON  PRESS  OF  SHERMAN  &  CO. 


REVISER'S  PREFACE. 


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rpiiE  present  revision  is  in  no  sense  either  a  new  translation  or  a 
X  recast  of  an  old  one.  The  chief  labor  has  been  directed  to  cor- 
recting  in  part  the  oversights  or  errors  not  unfrequently  common  to 
cs/'  translations.  Generally  these  corrections  have  been  simply  verbal, 
including,  however,  when  it  seemed  necessary,  the  remodelling  of 
whole  sentences,  and  in  a  few  cases  even  more  than  this.  But,  in  the 
main,  only  such  alterations  were  attempted  as  could  be  made  without 
destroying  the  plates  from  which  the  American  translation  was 
d  printed.  Many  of  the  corrections,  though  involving  very  slight 
changes,  are  of  considerable  importance,  the  translation  in  some  cases 
having  quite  reversed  the  statements  of  the  author.  Examples  of  this 
first  part  of  the  revision  may  be  found  by  carefully  comparing  the 
translation  and  the  revision  on  the  following  page- :  Vol.  I.,  on  pages 
45,  54,  67,  83,  92,  97,  98,  104,  135,  143,  212,  228,  236,  299,  344,  371, 
379,  387,  392,  400,  432,  447,  491,  513,  and  Vol.  II.,  on  pages  57,  101, 
105,  123,  133,  139,  207,  209,  212,  225,  229,  247,  252,  261,  265,  282,  29S, 
307,  318,  319,  324,  336,  342,  and  359. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  several  hundred  minor  corrections  were 
made,  in  large  part  merely  of  typographical  errors,  errors  of  dates, 
names  and  references,  and  in  part,  though  in  small  part,  corrections 
aiming  to  modify  Germanized  forms  of  expression.  It  will,  however, 
be  readily  observed  that  to  completely  expurgate  the  foreign  idioms 
would  involve  a  greater  number  of  changes  than  the  limits  of  the 
present  task  permit. 

The  other  principal  aim  of  the  revision  was  to  introduce  new  mate- 
rial from  the  seventh  German  edition.  Where  it  could  be  easily  accom- 
plished, this  was  done  by  modifying  the  text,  as  will  be  seen  by  refer- 
ring, as  above,  in  Vol.  I.,  to  pages  64,  65,  215,  232,  279,  340-2,  and  in 
Vol.  II.,  to  pages  150,  304,  343  and  376.  The  paragraph  on  page  341, 
relating  to  The  Forged  Decretals  of  Isidore,  has  been  almost  entirely 
retranslated  from  the  last  German  edition.     But  this  new  matter  has 


vn 


viii  reviser's  preface. 

been  annexed,  for  the  most  part,  in  registered  Addenda  at  the  close 
of  the  volume.  References  to  the  Addenda  are  made  in  the  small 
figures  printed  just  above  the  lines  in  which  they  occur,  through  the 
body  of  the  work.  The  Addenda  embrace  generally  ahstracts  of  what 
was  thought  to  he  most  important  and  interesting  in  the  new  material. 
Those  parts  not  included  relate  largely  to  the  strictly  local  history  of 
the  Author's  own  land.  Owing,  however,  to  the  limits  to  which, 
the  volume  had  to  be  confined,  some  of  the  results  of  the  Author's 
later  researches  were  passed  by  with  regret.  Here  and  there  the 
references  to  the  later  German  literature  have  been  inserted,  but  the 
mass  of  these,  as  they  are  of  interest  chiefly  to  those  who  will  use  the 
original  text,  were  left  untouched. 

What  Dr.  Kurtz  has  said,  on  page  350,  Vol.  II.,  relating  to  the 
Lutheran  Church  of  the  United  States,  is  so  entirely  incorrect,  that 
the  whole  paragraph  has  been  cut  out  and  a  very  brief  statement 
of  the  present  condition  of  this  church  supplied  from  reliable  Amer- 
ican authorities.  Save  one  or  two  foot-notes,  easily  distinguished, 
nothing  has  been  attempted  beyond  the  limits  here  indicated. 

August  20th,  1876. 


EDITOR'S    PREFACE. 


The  author  of  the  following  work  was  born  Dec.  13,  1809,  at 
Montjoie,  in  the  district  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Rhenish  Prussia. 
In  early  life  he  contemplated  becoming  a  merchant ;  but  as  the 
desire  to  study  theology  soon  became  predominant,  he  entered 
(1839),  after  a  five  years'  course  at  the  Gymnasia  of  Dortmund 
and  Soest,  the  University  of  Halle.  Ullmann  and  Tholuck  were 
then  lecturing  there,  and  the  latter  especially  exerted  a  decidedly 
favourable  influence  upon  our  author's  theological  training.  He 
subsequently  completed  his  studies  at  Bonn,  and  then  went  as  a 
private  teacher  to  Courland.  He  would  soon,  however,  have 
returned  to  his  native  country,  but  for  an  appointment  in  1835 
as  chief  teacher  of  Religion  in  the  Gymnasium  at  Mitau.  Whilst 
occupying  this  post,  he  produced  several  works  which  laid  the 
basis  for  his  present  reputation  :  "  The  Mosaic  Sacrifice,"  Mitau 
1842;  "  The  Bible  and  Astronomy,"  Mitau  1842 -3d  ed.  Berlin 
1853  (transl.  by  T.  D.  Simonton,  and  publ.  by  Lindsay  &  Blakis- 
ton,  Philadelphia,  185V);  "Suggestions  in  vindication  and  proof 
of  the  Unity  of  the  Pentateuch,"  Konigsb.  1844 ;  "  The  Unity 
of  Genesis,"  Berlin  1846 ;  "  Symbolical  Signification  of  the 
Tabernacle,"  Leipsic  1851  ;  "  Text-book  of  Church  History," 
Mitau  1849,  3d  ed.  Mitau  1853,  4th  ed.  Mitau  and  Leipsic  1860; 
"Manr.il    of  Sacred   History,"    Konigsb.   1843,   6th  ed.    1853 

fix) 


X  EDITOR'S     PREFACE. 

(transl.  by  Chas.  W.  Schaeffer,  D.  D.,  publ.  by  Lindsay  &  Bla- 
kiston,  Philad.  1856);  "Biblical  History  illustrated,"  Berlin 
1847,  3d.  ed.  1853;  and  "Manual  of  Church  History,"  Mitau 
1852,  2d  ed.  1853. 

His  literary  labours  soon  gained  for  him  nattering  atten- 
tion ;  the  honorary  degree  of  Doctor  of  Theology  was  con 
ferred  upon  him,  and  in  1S50  he  was  called  to  the  euair  of  Church 
History  in  the  evangelical  University  of  Dorpat,  Livonia  (founded 
in  1G32  and  revived  in  1802),  which  he  continues  to  occupy.  He 
has  also  been  appointed  to  the  honorable  post  of  Counsellor  of 
State  to  the  Emperor. 

The  present  edition  of  the  "  Text-book  of  Church  History" 
is,  to  a  large  extent,  a  reprint  of  the  Edinburg  translation.  But 
as  that  translation,  avowedly,  tampered  with  the  original  work, 
care  has  been  taken,  in  this  edition,  to  make  the  rendering  con- 
form strictly  to  the  author's  sense.  This  proved  to  be  a  more 
serious  task  than  was  anticipated,  in  some  cases  requiring  an 
entire  reconstruction  of  the  plan  of  the  work,  and  in  others  the 
translation  of  whole  pages  of  matter  omitted  in  the  Edinburg 
issue.  The  number  of  pages  thus  added  amount  to  about  fifty, 
including  pp.  371-82,  387-99,  and  the  whole  of  the  section 
treating  upon  Hus.  The  verbal  alterations  necessary  are  too 
many  to  be  enumerated,  although  in  making  these  no  mere  pri- 
vate taste  was  indulged.  Wherever  the  translation  fairly  con- 
veyed the  author's  nense,  it  was  allowed  to  stand;  and  it  is  due 
to  the  Edinburg  edition  to  say,  that  this  was  very  largely  the 
case.  It  is  probable  that  no  book,  original  or  translated,  was 
ever  issued,  in  which  the  author,  or  editor,  did  not  see  room  for 
improvement,  But  the  verbal  changes  made  in  the  present  in- 
stance, were  required  in  justice  to  the  theological  stand-point  of 
Dr.  Kurtz.  Mr.  Erdesheim  (the  translator  of  the  Edinburg  edi- 
tion), by  omitting  a  qualifying  word,  or  substituting  one  of  a 
different  import,  has  kept  Dr.  Kurtz  from  saying,  in  many  in- 


EDITOB     S     PREFACE.  XI 

stances,  what  be  desired  to  say,  or  has  made  him  utter  something 
which  he  would  be  unwilling  to  endorse.  This  is  especially  true 
of  statements  relating  to  Predestinarianism,  the  Sacraments,  and 
the  Church.  As  an  illustration  of  the  injustice  thus  done  to  the 
author,  the  reader  is  referred  to  §  119,  6,  (2),  where,  in  reference 
to  John  Euchrath  of  Wesel,  Dr.  K.  says:  "In  opposition  to 
transubstantiation  he  advocated  the  doctrine  of  impanation." 
The  Edinburg  translation  has  it :  "  His  views  were  certainly  not 
Romish."  Indeed  it  became  very  evident,  upon  comparing  the 
Edinburg  issue  with  the  original,  that  the  alterations  were  de- 
signedly made,  for  the  purpose  of  adapting  a  Lutheran  work  to 
a  Puritan  market. 

This  is  not  only  doing  great  injustice  to  the  author,  but  to  the 
Church  at  large.  One  of  the  best  apologies  for  denomination- 
alism  is,  that  it  is  overruled  for  the  more  manifold  development 
of  the  excellencies  of  Christianity.  And  this  benefit,  so  far  as 
it  may  hold  in  fact,  must  exhibit  itself  no  less  in  the  literary 
than  other  labours  of  Christians  of  different  confessions.  Why 
then  should  not  a  Puritan  or  Presbyterian  be  allowed  to  speak 
or  write  as  a  Presbyterian,  an  Episcopalian  as  an  Episcopalian, 
a  Reformed  as  a  Reformed,  and  a  Lutheran  as  a  Lutheran? 
The  truth  is  not  all  on  one  side.  And  no  one  mind,  imbued 
with  true  moral  earnestness,  is  capable  at  once  of  appreciating 
and  presenting  fairly,  the  various  sides  of  truth.  Instead,  there- 
fore, of  distorting  a  work  like  the  present,  by  forcing  it  into  the 
pattern  of  a  foreign  mould,  it  should  be  permitted  to  set  forth 
facts  in  its  own  way.  Doubtless  Dr.  Kurtz  is  fallible,  and  will 
find  many  to  dissent  from  some  of  his  statements.  But  he  is  a 
responsible  man,  and  ready,  it  is  to  be  presumed,  to  make  cor- 
rections whenever  convicted  of  errors.  We  say  this  the  more 
unreservedly  for  not  being  of  the  same  Church  with  the  respected 
author. 

The  merits  of  this  work  which  the  reader  will  please  notice  is 


XU  EDITOR'S     PREFACE. 

the  author's  Text-book,  not  his  Manual  (the  latter  being  a  much 
larger  work)  of  Church  History,  are  so  obvious,  that  they  need 
not  be  pointed  out  in  detail.  It  combines  lucid  conciseness  with 
full  comprehensiveness  to  a  rare  degree.  And  although  it  can- 
not, of  course,  supply  the  place  of  larger  works  on  the  subject, 
already  issued,  or  in  course  of  publication,  it  will  tend  to  satisfy 
a  great  want  in  this  department  of  literature. 

It  is  proper  to  add,  that  whilst  the  Edinburg  translation  was 
made  from  the  third  edition  of  the  original  work,  the  edition 
now  offered  to  the  public  contains  all  the  improvements  of  the 
fourth  edition  of  the  original,  which  was  published  within  tha 
last  three  months. 

J.  H.  A.  BOMBERGER. 

Philadelphia,  July  16,  1860. 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION   TO   THE   HISTORY  OF   THE   CHRISTIAN 

CHURCH. 

I  1.  Idea  of  Church  History Page     '25 

§2.   Division  of  Church  History , 26 

1.  Different  Tendencies  apparent  in  Church  History.  2.  The 
Several  Branches  of  Church  History.  3.  Principal  Phases 
in  the  Historical  Development  of  the  Church. 

'i  3.   Sources  and  Auxiliaries  of  Church  History  32 

§4.  History  of  Church  History 33 

THE   PREPARATORY   HISTORY  OF   THE   CHRISTIAN 

CHURCH ; 

OR,  THE   WORLD   BEFORE   THE   COMING   OF   CHRIST   IN 
ITS    RELATION    TO    THE  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH. 

§5.  Survey  of  the  History  of  the  World 42 

\  6.  Primeval  Preparation  of  Salvation 42 

\  7.   Different  Purposes  which  Judaism  and  Heathenism  were  intended 

to  serve 43 

\  8.  Heathenism 45 

1.  Religious  Life  among  the  Heathen.  2.  Moral  Condition  of 
the  Heathen.  3.  Intellectual  Culture  of  the  Heathen. 
4.  Greek  Philosophy.     5.  Social  Condition. 

\  9.  Judaism 51 

1.  Judaism  under  Special  Divine  Discipline.  2.  Judaism  after 
the  Retirement  of  the  Spirit  of  Prophecy. 

J10.  The  Samaritans 5S 

2  (xiii) 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

§  11.   Points  of  contact  between  Judaism  and  Heathenism 54 

1.  Influence  of    Heathenism   on  Judaism;  2.  of  Judaism  on 
Heathenism. 
§12.   The  Fulness  of  Time 56 

HISTORY   OF   THE   PRIMITIVE   CHURCH. 

FOUNDATION  OF  THE  CHURCH   BY  CHRIST;    ITS    CONSTITUTION 

IN    THE    APOSTOLIC    AGE. 

(First  Century.) 

§  lo.    Characteristics  of  this  Primitive  History 57 

I.   THE   LIFE   OF  JESUS. 

§  14.  Jesus  Christ  the  Saviour  of  the  World 59 

II.   THE   APOSTOLIC  AGE. 

§  15.   Feast  of  Pentecost- — Activity  of  the  Apostles  before  the  calling 

of  Paul Gl 

§16.   Labours  of  the  Apostle  Paul 62 

§  17.    Labours  of  the  other  Apostles 64 

1.   Peter's  Bishopric  at  Rome.     2.   Two  or  Three  James's  ?    3. 
John's  Exile. 

\  18.   Constitution,  Life,  Discipline,  and  Worship  of  the  Church  66 

1.   The  Charismata.      2.   Bishops  and  Presbyters.       3.   Other 
Church  Offices.     4.   Life  and  Discipline.     5.   Worship. 

§  19.    Apostolic  Opposition  to  Sectarians  and  Heretics 71 

1.   The  Convention  of  the  Apostles.     2.   The  Basis  of  Apostolic 
Teaching. 


FIRST     SECTION. 

HISTORY   OF   THE  DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE    CHURCH   IN 
ITS   ANCIENT   AND   CLASSICAL   FORM. 

§  20.   Characvor  and  Boundaries  of  this  Phase  or  Development 79 

FIRST    PERIOD   OF    ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY    UNDER    THE 
ANCIENT  AND  CLASSICAL  FORM  OF  CULTUKE  (100-323). 

t.  DELATIONS   BETWKMN   HIE   CHURCH,  THE   SYNAGOGUE,  AND   HEATHENISM. 

§21.   Hostilities  and  Persecutions  by  the  Jews 82 

\  22.   Attempts  at  Restoration  and  Reaction  on  the  part  of  the  Syna- 
gogue and  the  Samaritans   8? 

1     Dositbcus.     2.  Simon  Magus.    3.    Menander. 


CONTENTS  XV 

§  23.  Persecution  of  Christians  in  the  Roman  Empiie 84 

1.  To  the  Time  of  Trajan.  2.  To  the  Time  of  Marcus  Aurelius. 
3.  To  the  Time  of  Septiniius  Severus.  4.  To  the  Time  of 
Decius.  5.  To  the  Time  of  Diocletian.  6.  Diocletian. 
7.   Constantine. 

§  24.    Intellectual  Reaction  on  the  part,  of  Heathenism 92 

1.   Apollonius  of  Tyana.     2.   Neo-Platonism.     3.   Lucian.     4. 
Celsus,  Porphyry,  Hierocles. 
§25.   Spread  of  Christianity . 94 

II.  DANGERS   ACCRUING   FROM   A  LEAVEN   OF  JUDAISM  AND   HEATHENISM 

REMAINING   IN   THE  CHURCH. 

§26.  Survey  95 

Gnosticism. 

§27.   Ebioni.sm  and  Ebionite  Gnosis 97 

1.  The  Nazarenes.  2.  The  Ebionites.  3.  The  Elkesaites.  4. 
The  Pseudo-Clementine  System. 

§28..  Christo-Gentile  Gnosticism 101 

1.  Cerinth.  2.  The  Gnosticism  of  Basilides.  3.  The  Gnos- 
ticism of  Valentine.  4.  The  Gnosticism  of  the  Ophites. 
5.  The  Gnosticism  of  Carpocrates.  6.  The  Antitactes. 
7.  Saturninus.  8.  Tatian.  9.  Bardesanes.  10.  Marcion. 
11.  Ilermogenes. 

§  29.   Manichseism t 108 

1.  Person  and  History  of  the  Founder.  2.  The  System  and 
Sect. 

III.  DEVELOPMENT   IN  THE   GOVERNMENT,   WORSHIP,   LIFE,   AND   DISCIPLINE 

OF  THE  CHURCH. 

§  30.   Internal  Organization  of  the  Church. ,. Ill 

1     Ordines   Msjores  et  Minores.      2.   Synods.      3.    Unity 
and  Catholicity  of  the  Church.     4.  The  Primacy  of  Rome. 

§31.   Celebration  of  Public  Worship .-., 116 

Disputes  about  the  Observance  of  Easter. 

§32.   The  Administration  of  Baptism 118 

1.  Catechumens.  2.  Discussion  about  the  Baptism  of  Heretics. 
3.   The  Dogma  concerning  Baptism. 

§  33.   The  Administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  , 121 

1.  The  Liturgy  of  the  Supper.  2.  The  "Disciplina  Arcani." 
3.  The  Dogma  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  4.  The  Sacrificial 
Theory. 

J  34.   Reading,  Sermon,  Prayer,  and  Singing 123 

1.  The  Doctrine  of  Inspiration.  2.  The  New  Testament  Canon. 
3.   Translations  of  the  Bible.     4.    Ilymnology. 


XVI  CONTENTS. 

jj  35.   Places  of  Public  Worship  and  Influence  of  Art 12fl 

§36.   Life,  Manners,  and  Discipline 121 

1.   The  Christian  Life.     2.   Ecclesiastical  Discipline.     3.   As- 
ceticism.    4.   Beginning  of  the  Worship  of  Martyrs. 

g  37.   The  Montanistic  Reformation  131 

1.  Phrygian  Montanism.     2.  Montanism  in  the  West.     3.  Doc- 
trine and  Practice. 

I  38.   Ecclesiastical  Schisms 13a 

1.  The  Schism  of  Hippolytus  at  Rome.  2.  Of  Felicissimus  at 
Carthage.  3.  Of  Novatian  at  Rome.  4.  Of  Meletius  in 
Egypt. 

IV.  DOCTRINAL  AND  APOLOGETIC  LABORS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

I  S9.  Theological  Schools  and  their  Representatives 135 

1.  The  Apostolic  Fathers.  2.  The  Apologetical  Writers  of  the 
Second  Century.  3.  The  School  of,  Asia  Minor.  4.  The 
School  of  Alexandria.  5.  The  School  of  North  Africa. 
6.  The  School  of  Antioch.  7.  Apocryphal  and  Pseudo- 
Epigraphic  Works. 

\  40.   Development  of  Doctrine  and  Dogmatic  Controversies 141 

1.  The  Trinitarian  Question.  2.  TheDynamistic  Monarchians. 
3.  Praxeas  and  Tertullian.  4.  Noetus,  Callistus,  and  Hip- 
polytus. 6.  Beryllus  and  Origen.  6.  Sabellius  and  the 
Two  Dyonisii.  7.  Paul  of  Samosata.  8.  The  Millennarian 
Controversy. 

§41.  Theological  Literature  147 

1.  Apologetics.  2.  Polemics.  3.  Dogmatics.  4.  Criticism  and 
Exegesis.  4.  Historical  Theology.    G.  Practical  Theology. 

SEOJND   PERIOD   OF   ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY   UNDER   THE 
ANCIENT   CLASSICAL    FORM    (323-692). 

I.   STATE  AND  CHUKCH. 

\  42.  Fall  of  Heathenism  in  the  Roman  Empire 151 

1.  Constantine  the  Great  and  his  Sons.     2.  Julian  the  Apos- 
tate.    3.  Final  Destruction  of  Heathenism.     4.  Resistance 
and  Apologies  of  the  Heathen. 
{  43    The  Christian  State  and  the  State  Church 156 

1.  The  Emperors.     2.  General  Synods.     3.  Ecclesiastical  Law. 


CONTENTS.  XV11 


II.   MONASTICISM,  1HE  CLERGY,  AND  HIERARCHY. 

2  44.  Monasticism 158 

1.  St.  Antonius.  2.  Nunneries.  3.  Monasticism  in  the  East. 
4.  The  Acoimetes  and  Stylites.  5.  Sectarian  and  Hereti- 
cal Monasticism. 

\  45.  The  Clergy 162 

1.  Training  of  the  Clergy.  2.  Canonical  Age.  3.  Ordination. 
4.  Injunction  of  Celibacy.     5.  Ecclesiastical  Functionaries. 

\  46.   The  Patriarchal  Office  and  the  Primacy  165 

1.  The  Rivalry  between  Rome  and  Byzantium.  2.  Pretensions 
of  Rome  to  the  Primacy. 

III.  THEOLOGICAL  SCIENCE  AND  ITS  LITERATURE. 

§47.  Theological  Schools  and  Tendencies 170 

1.  The  School  of  Antioch.  2.  Of  Edessa.  3.  Of  Alexandria. 
4.  New  Alexandrian  School.  5.  Theology  of  the  West 
during  the  Fourth  and  Fifth  Centuries.  6.  The  Theology 
of  the  Sixth  and  Seventh  Centuries. 

\  48.   Theological  Literature 181 

1.  Exegetical  Theology.  2.  Historical  Theology.  3.  Apolo- 
getics. 4.  Polemics.  5.  Dogmatics.  6.  Ethics  and  As- 
ceticism.    7.   Practical  Theology.     8.   Christian  Poetry. 

IV.  DOCTRINAL  CONTROVERSIES   AND   HERESIES. 

\  49.   General  Development  of  Doctrine 186 

I  50.   The  Trinitarian  Controversy  (318-381 ) 187 

1.  First  Victory  of  Homoousian  Principles  (318-325).  2.  As- 
cendancy of  Homoiousianism  (326-356).  3.  Homoiism 
(357-361).  4.  Final  Ascendancy  of  the  Nicene  Creed 
(361-381).  5.  The  Pneumatomachoi.  6.  Literature  of 
the  Controversy.     7.  Later  Development  of  Nicene  Views. 

I  51.  Origenistic  Controversies  (394-438) 194 

1.  The  Monks  of  the  Scetian  and  Nitrian  Desert.  2.  Contro- 
versy in  Palestine  and  Italy  (394-399).  3.  Controversy 
in  Alexandria  and  Constantinople  (399-438). 

\  52.   Discussions  about  the  Person  of  Christ  (428-680) 197 

1.  The  Apollinaristic  Controversy  (362-381).  2.  Antagonism 
between  the  Different  Theological  Schools  (381-428).  3. 
The  Nestorian  Controversy  (428-444).  4.  The  Monophy- 
site  Controversy — (A.)  Eutychianism  (444-451).  5  (B.) 
Imperial  Attempts  to  bring  about  a  Union  (451-519).  6. 
(C.)  The  Decrees  of  Justinian  I.  (527-553).  7.  (D.)  The 
Monophysite  Churches.  8.  The  Monothelete  Controversy 
(633-680). 

2* 


XV111  CONTENTS. 

I  53.  Controversies  connected  -with  the  Doctrine  of  Redemption  (112- 

529) 207 

1.  Preliminary  History.  2.  Doctrinal  Views  of  Augustine. 
3.  Pelagius  and  liis  System.  4.  The  Pelagian  Controversy 
(412-431).     5.  The  Semi-Pelagian  Controversy  (427-529). 

§  54.    Revival  of  former  Sects 214 

1.   JNIanichaeism.     2.  Priscillianism. 

V.   WORSHIP,   LIFE,   DISCIPLINE,   AND   MANNERS. 

§55.   Worship  in  general 216 

§  5G.   Times  of  Public  Worship  and  Festivals  217 

1.  The  Weekly  Cycle.  2.  Hora  and  Quatember.  3.  The  Cal- 
culation of  Easter.  4.  The  Easter  Cycle  of  Festivals.  5. 
The  Christmas  Cycle  of  Festivals.  6.  Festival  of  the  Trans- 
figuration.     7.   The  Ecclesiastical  Year. 

§57.   The  Worship  of  Saints,  of  Relics,  and  of  Images 221 

1.  Saints'  Days.  2.  The  Worship  of  Mary.  3.  The  Worship 
of  Angels.  4.  The  Worship  of  Images.  5.  The  Worship 
of  Relics.     G.   Pilgrimages. 

§  58.   Administration  of  the  Sacraments 226 

1.  Administration  of  Baptism.  2.  Doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per. 3.  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  4.  The  Dispensation  of 
the  Supper. 

§  59.   Administration  of  Public  Worship 230 

1.  Use  of  the  Scriptures.  2.  Hymnology.  3.  Psalmody  and 
Hymnody.     4.   The  Liturgy.     5.    Symbolical  Rites. 

§  60.   Places  of  Worship  and  Works  of  Art  236 

1.  Basilicas,  &c.  2.  Side  Buildings.  3.  Ecclesiastical  Furni- 
ture.    4.   The  Fine  Arts. 

§61.   Life,  Discipline,  and  Manners 239 

1.  Ecclesiastical  Discipline.  2.  Christian  Marriage.  3.  Sick- 
ness, Death,  and  Burial. 

g  62.    Heretical  Reformers 212 

§  63.   Schisms 213 

1.  Schisms  in  consequence  of  the  Arian  Controversy.  2.  The 
Donatist  Schism.      8.   The  Concilium  Quinisextum. 

VI.  THE   CHURCH   BEYOND   THE    BOUNDARIES  OF   THE   ROMAN   EMPIRE. 

I  64.   Christian  Missions  in  the  East 247 

1.  The  Abyssinian  Church.  2.  The  Persian  Church.  3.  The 
Armenian  Church  4.  The  Iberians,  Lazians,  and  Abas- 
gians  ;   the  East  Indies  and  Arabia. 


CONTENTS.  XIX 

§65.  The  Mohammedan  Counter-Missions 250 

1.   Fundamental  Idea  of  Islaraism.     2.   Service  performed  by 
Mohammedanism. 


THIRD   PERIOD   OF    ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY   IN   ITS   ANCIENT 
AND   CLASSICAL    FORM. 

(692-1453.) 

I.    MOVEMENTS  IN   THE   EASTERN  CHURCH,  IN   CONJUNCTION  WITH   SIMIIiAK 
DEVELOPMENTS  IN   THE   WESTERN   CHURCH. 

\  66.   Iconoclastic  Controversy  in  the  East  (726-842) 253 

1.  Leo  the  Isaurian.  2.  Constantinus  Copronymus.  3.  Irene 
4.   Theodora. 

\  67.    Schism  between  the  Greek  and  the  Roman  Church,  and  Attempts 

at  Union  (857-1453) 256 

1.  Commencement  of  the  Schism  (867).  2.  Leo  the  Philoso- 
pher and  Basiliusi  II.  3.  Completion  of  the  Schism  in 
1054.  4.  Attempts  at  Re-union.  5.  Andronicus  III.  and 
Johannes  V.  Paloeologus.     6.   Johannes  VII.  Palseologus. 

II.  INDEPENDENT  DEVELOPMENT   IN   THE   EASTERN   CHURCH. 

\  68.   Theological  Science  and  its  Literature 261 

1.  Revival  of  Classical  Studies.  2.  Aristotle  and  Plato.  3 
Scholasticism  and  Mysticism.  4.  Theological  Sciences 
5.   Distinguished  Theologians. 

$69.   Dogmatic  Controversies   (the  Hesychastic  Controversy) 268 

g  70.   Government,  Worship,  and  Manners 268 

1.  The  Arsenian  Schism.  2.  Public  Worship.  3.  Monasticism. 
4.   Reformatory  Efforts. 

\  71.   Gnostic  and  Manichman  Heretics 270 

1.  The  Paulicians.  2.  The  Children  of  the  Sun.  3.  The  Eu- 
chites  and  Bogomiles. 

I  72.  The  Orthodox  Slavonic-Greek  Churches 274 

1.  Greece.  2.  The  Chazars.  3.  The  Bulgarians.  4.  The 
Russians. 

\  73.   The  Heretical  Churches  of  the  East 27" 

1.  The  Nestorians.     2.  The  Monophysites.     3.  The  Maronites. 


XX  CO  NTE  NT8. 


SECOND    SECTION. 

HISTORY  OF   THE   CHURCH   IN   ITS   MEDIAEVAL   AND 
GERMANIC   FORM   OF   DEVELOPMENT. 

§  74.   Character  and  Extent  of  this  Phase  of  Development 284 

1.   Its  Character.     2.   Its  Periods. 

FIRST  PERIOD  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY  IN  ITS  MEDIEVAL 
AND    GERMANIC    FORM    OF    DEVELOPMENT. 

(Cent.  4-9.) 

I.    ESTABLISHMENT,   SPREAD,   AND   LIMITATIONS  OF  THE   GERMAN 

CHURCH. 

§  75.   Christianity  and  the  Germans 287 

1.  Predisposition.  2.  Profession  of  Christianity.  3.  Mode 
of  Conversion. 

§76.   Victory  of  Catholicism  over  Arianism 290 

1.  The  Goths  in  the  Countries  along  the  Danube.  2.  The  Visi- 
goths. 3.  The  Vandals.  4.  The  Suevi.  5.  The  Burgun- 
dians.  0.  The  Rugians  and  St.  Severinus.  7.  The  Ostro- 
goths.     8.  The  Langobards.     9.  The  Franks. 

§  77.  Victory  of  the  Romish  over  the  British  Confession 290 

1.  British  Confession.  2.  Ireland.  3.  The  Picts  and  Scots. 
4.  Romish  Mission  among  the  Anglo-Saxons.  5.  British 
Mission  among  the  Anglo-Saxons.  6.  Victory  of  the  Ro- 
mish over  the  British  Confession. 

\  78.   Conversion  of  Germany •■    302 

1.  South-Western  Germany.  2.  South-Eastern  Germany.  3. 
North  -  Western  Germany.  4.  St.  Boniface.  5.  The 
Saxons. 

§  79.   The  Slavonians  within  the  Boundaries  of  Germany 311 

1.  The  Moravian  Church.  2.  Introduction  of  Christianity  into 
Bohemia. 

\  80.   The  Scandinavian  Nations  313 

\  81.  Christianity  and  Islamism 316 


CONTENTS.  XXI 


IT.   INDEPENDENT  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  GERMANIC  CHURCH. 

\  82.   The  Papacy  and  the  Carolingians 313 

1.  Origin  of  the  States  of  the  Church.  2.  The  Carolingian 
Dynasty.  3.  The  Papacy  till  the  Time  of  Nicholas  I.  4. 
Nicholas  I.  and  Hadrian  II.  5.  John  VIII.  and  his  Suc- 
cessors. 

§  83,  The  Papacy  and  the  Metropolitan  Office  326 

§84.  State  of  the  Clergy 329 

1.  The  Higher  Clergy.  2.  The  Inferior  Clergy.  3.  Injunction 
of  Celibacy.     4.   The  Canonical  Life. 

§85.  Monasticism 333 

1.  Benedict  of  Nursia.  2.  Benedict  of  Aniane.  3.  Nunneries. 
4.  Large  Monasteries.  5.  Stylites,  Recluses,  and  An- 
chorites. 

§  86.  Ecclesiastical  Property 337 

Benefices  and  Secularization. 
§87.  Ecclesiastical  Legislation 839 

1.  Collections  of  Ecclesiastical  Law.  2.  The  Forged  Decretals 
of  Isidore. 

§  88.  State  of  Intelligence,  Ecclesiastical  Usages,  and  Discipline 342 

1.  Religious  Education  of  the  People.  2.  Popular  Christian 
Poetry.  3.  Social  State.  4.  Administration  of  Justice. 
5.   Ecclesiastical  Discipline  and  Penances. 

§89.   Public  Worship  and  the  Fine  Arts 348 

1.  Liturgy  and  Preaching.  2.  Church  Music.  3.  The  Sacri- 
fice of  the  Mass.  4.  The  Worship  of  Saints,  Relics,  Im- 
ages, and  Angels ;  Pilgrimages.  5.  Ecclesiastical  Seasons 
and  Places.     6.  The  Fine  Arts. 

§  90.  State  of  Science  and  of  Theological  Literature 353 

1.  Monastic  and  Cathedral  Schools.  2.  Celebrated  Theologians 
before  the  Time  of  the  Carolingians.  3.  During  the  Reign 
of  Charlemagne.  4.  Under  the  Reign  of  Louis  the  Pious. 
5.  During  the  Reign  of  Charles  the  Bald.  6.  Theological 
Sciences:  Exegesis.  7.  Systematic  Theology.  8.  Prac- 
tical Theology.     9.   Church  History. 

\  91.   Development  of  Doctrine  and  Dogmatic  Controversies 361 

1.   The  Adoptionist  Controversy.      2.   Controversy  about  the 
Procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit.     3.   Controversies  of  Pas- 
chasius  Radbertus.    4.  Controversy  about  Predestination. 
\  92.  Reformatory  Movements 367 

1.  Opposition  of  the  Carolingians  to  Image  Worship.  2.  Ago- 
bard  of  Lyons  and  Claudius  of  Turin. 


X^ll  CONTENTS. 

SECOND  PERIOD  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY  IN  ITS  MEDIAEVAL 
AND  GURMANIC  FORM  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 

(Cent.  10-13.) 

I.   SPREAD  OF   CHRISTIANITY. 

\  93.   Missionary  Operations  during  that  Period 370 

1.  The  Scandinavian  Mission.  2.  The  Slavonian  Magyar  Mis- 
sions. 3.  Missions  among  the  Fins  and  Letonians.  4. 
Missions  among  the  Mongols.  5.  Missions  in  Mohamme- 
dan Countries. 

I  94.  The  Crusades 382 

§95.   Islamism  and  the  Jews  in  Europe 38S 

1.  Islamism  in  Sicily.  2.  Islamism  in  Spain.  3.  The  Jews  in 
Europe. 

II.    HIERARCHY,   THE   CLERGY,   AND   MONASTICISM. 

\  96.   The  Papacy  and  the  Holy  Roman  German  Empire 389 

1.  The  Papacy  to  the  Death  of  Sylvester  II.  (904-1003).  2. 
To  the  Synod  of  Sutri.  3.  To  Gregory  VII.  (1046-1073). 
4.  Gregory  VII.  5.  To  the  Settlement  of  the  Dispute 
about  Investiture.  6.  To  Innocent  III.  ( 1 123-1198).  7. 
Innocent  III.  (1198-1216).  8.  To  Boniface  VIII.  (1216- 
1294). 

\  97.  The  Clergy 407 

1.  Political  Influence.     2.   The  Pataria. 

\  98.  The  Religious  Orders 410 

1.  Of  Clugny,  Camaldoli,  and  the  Vallambrosians.     2.   The 
Cistercians.   3.  New  Orders.  4.  The  Mendicant  Orders. 
h.  The   Beguins  and  Beghards.     6.   The  Knightly  Orders. 

§99.   Ecclesiastical  Jurisprudence 419 

III.   TIIEOI/XilCAL   SCIENCE   AND  CONTROVERSIES. 

I  100.   General  View  of  Scholasticism 420 

1.  Nurseries  of  Scholasticism.  2.  Metaphysical  Basis.  3.  Ob- 
ject and  Method  of  Scholastic  Theology. 

\  101.   The  Seculum  Obscurum  (Tenth  Century)  424 

jj  102.   Division  among  the  Dialecticians  (Eleventh  Century) 426 

1.  Authors.  2.  Eucharistic  Controversy.  2.  Controversies  of 
Anselm. 


CONTENTS  XX1LI 

\  103.  Separation  and  Re-union  of  Dialectics  and  Mysticism 430 

1.  The  Separation.  2.  Reconciliation.  3.  Renewed  Con- 
troversies. 

g  104.  Highest  Stage  of  Scholasticism  (Thirteenth  Century) 435 

1.  Celebrated  Scholastics.  2.  Raimundus  Lullus.  3.  Biblical 
and  Practical  Opposition.  4.  A  German  Mystic.  5.  His- 
torians. 

IV.   THE  CHURCH  AND   THE   PEOPLE. 

\  105.   Public  AVorship  and  the  Fine  Arts 439 

1.  The  Sacraments.  2.  New  Festivals.  3.  Worship  of  Images, 
Relics,  and  Saints.  4.  Hymnology.  5.  Ecclesiastical 
Music.  6.  Ecclesiastical  Architecture.  7.  The  Plastic 
Art  and  Painting. 

\  106.   Popular  Life  and  National  Literature 445 

1.  Popular  Life.     2.  Popular  Culture.     3.  National  Literature. 
£  107.  Ecclesiastical  Discipline  and  Indulgences 450 

V.  OPPOSITION   TO  THE   PREVAILING  SYSTEM     OF  ECCLESIASTICISM. 

\  108.  Active  Opposition  to  Prevailing  Ecclesiasticism 451 

1.  The  Cathari.  2.  Sect  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  3.  Revolutionary 
Reformers.  4.  Prophetic  and  Apocalyptic  Opposition. 
5.   The  Waldenses. 

\  109.   Reaction  in  the  Church  461 

1.   Crusade  against  the  Albigenses.     2.   The  Inquisition. 


THIRD  PERIOD  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY  IN  ITS  MEDIEVAL 
AND    GERMANIC    FORM    OF    DEVELOPMENT. 

(Cent.  14  and  15.) 

I.  THE   HIERARCHY,   THE   CLEKGY,   AND   MONASTICISM. 

{110.  The  Papacy 463 

1.  Boniface  VIII.  (1294-1303).  2.  The  Papacy  in  its  Baby- 
lonish Exile  (1309-1377).  3.  The  Papal  Schism  and  the 
Reforming  Councils  (1378-1443).  4.  The  Last  Popes  be- 
fore the  Reformation  (1443-1517). 

\  111.   The  Clergy.... 471 

jj  112.   The  Monastic  Orders 472 

1.  The  Benedictines  and  Olivetans.  2.  The  Dominicans.  8. 
New  Orders.  4.  Hermits.  5.  The  Brethren  of  the  Com- 
mon Life. 


XXIV  CONTENTS. 


II.    THE  CHURCH  AND  THE  PEOPLE. 


§  113.  Public  Worship  and  the  Fine  Arts 478 

1.  New  Festivals  in  Honour  of  the  Virgin.  2.  Preaching.  3. 
Catechization.  4.  Hymnology.  5.  Church  Music.  6. 
Architecture,  the  Plastic  Art,  and  Painting. 

§  114.   Popular  Life  and  National  Literature 482 

1.  Religious  Associations.  2.  The  Friends  of  God.  3.  The 
Brothers  and  Sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit.  4.  National 
Literature. 

§  115.   Ecclesiastical  Discipline 487 

1.  The  Inquisition.     2.  Procedure  against  Witches. 

III.  THEOLOGICAL  SCIENCE. 

§116.   Scholasticism  and  its  Opponents  490 

§  117.  German  Mysticism 49- 

IV.   REFORMATORY  MOVEMENTS. 

\  118.   The  Reformation  in  Head  and  Members 495 

1.  French  Reformers.  2.  German  Reformers.  3.  An  Italian 
Reformer. 

I  119.   Attempts  at  Evangelical  Reformation 499 

1.  Wycliffe  and  the  Wycliffites.  2.  Bohemian  Reformers  before 
Hus.  3.  Hus  and  Jerome  of  Prague.  4.  The  Husites. 
5.  The  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Brethren.  6.  Netherland 
Reformers.     7.   An  Italian  Reformer. 

J  120.   The  so-called  Revival  of  Learning 51C 

1.  The  Italian  Humanists.  2.  The  German  Humanists.  3. 
Erasmus.  4.  Humanism  in  England.  Scotland,  France, 
and  Spain.     5.  The  Study  of  the  Scriptures. 


INTRODUCTION" 


TO    THE 


HISTORY  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH. 


I  1.   IDEA  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

The  Christian  Church  is  that  Divine  institution  for  the  sal- 
vation of  man,  which  Jesus  Christ  has  founded  on  earth.  Its 
aim  is  to  have  the  salvation  wrought  out  by  Christ  communicated 
to,  and  freely  appropriated  by,  every  nation  and  every  individual. 
Outwardly,  the  Church  manifests  itself  in  the  religious  fellowship 
of  those  who,  having  become  partakers  of  this  salvation,  co- 
operate in  their  own  places,  and  according  to  the  measure  of 
their  gifts  and  calling,  towards  the  extension  and  development 
of  the  kingdom  of  God.  Christ  the  God-man,  who  is  exalted 
to  the  right  hand  of  power,  is  the  sole  Head  of  the  Church  ;  the 
Holy  Spirit,  who  is  sent  by  Christ  in  order  to  guide  the  Church 
to  its  goal  and  perfection,  is  its  Divine  Teacher;  —  the  Word 
and  the  Sacraments  are  the  ordinary  means  through  which  the 
Holy  Spirit  works  in  and  by  it.  As  the  Church  has  originated 
in  time,  and  has  passed  through  a  certain  development,  it  has 
also  a  History.  But  its  course  is  not  one  of  continual  progress. 
For,  side  by  side  with  the  holy  government  of  its  Divine  Head, 
and  the  sanctifying  influences  of  the  Paraclete,  we  also  descry 
in  its  administration  a  merely  human  agency.  From  the 'sinful- 
ness of  our  nature,  this  agency  may  prove  unholy  and  perverse, 
and  thus  resist,  instead  of  co-operating  ;  obstruct,  instead  of 
advancing  ;  disturb  the  progress  by  introducing  impure  elements, 
instead  of  preserving  it  in,  or  restoring  it  to,  its  purity.  But 
even  amidst  all  this  error  and  perverseness  attaching  to  human 
agency,  the  guidance  and  care  of  Christ  and  of  His  Spirit  have 
3  (  25  ) 


26  INTRODUCTION. 

manifested  themselves  in  this,  that  Divine  truth  has  not  heel 
suffered  to  perish  in  human  error,  Divine  power  through  luunar. 
weakness  and  rebelliousness,  or  the  Divine  salvation  by  man's 
iniquity.  Nay,  amid  all  hindrances,  the  Divine  has  developed 
and  progressed  ;  and  even  these  temporary  obstructions  have 
been  made  subservient  for  preparing,  procuring,  and  manifesting 
in  the  Church  the  complete  triumph  of  Divine  power  and  truth. 
From  these  remarks,  it  will  be  gathered  that  it  is  the  task  of 
Church  History  not  only  to  exl  ibit  proper  developments  in  the 
Church,  but  also  all  obstructions  and  aberrations,  —  at  least  so 
long  as  they  have  remained  in  some  relation  to  the  Church. 

£2.   DIVISION  OF   CHURCH   HISTORY. 

The  many  and  extensive  ramifications  of  Church  History  ren- 
der it  necessary  to  arrange  its  subject-matter,  both  as  to  length, — 
i.  e.,  into  definite  periods,  during  each  of  which  some  tendency, 
hitherto  influential  in  the  general  development,  reached  its  ter- 
mination, and  in  turn  gave  place  to  new  influences  which  com 
menced  to  affect  the  development,  or  to  give  it  a  new  direction  ; 
and  as  to  breadth,  —  i.  e.,  with  reference  to  the  various  ele- 
ments of  tendency  and  development,  which  made  their  appear- 
ance at  any  one  stage.     In  the  latter  respect  two  points  claim  our 
attention  :    1.  The  arrangement  according  to  national  churches, 
so  far  as  these   have   followed   an   independent  and  distinctive 
direction  ;  or  according  to  particular  churches,  which  may  partly 
have  owed  their  origin  to  some  division  in  the  Church  universal, 
occasioned  by  marked  differences,  in  doctrine,  worship,  or  con- 
stitution.—  2.   The  arrangement  according  to  the  grand  object 
towards  which  every  movement  recorded  in  ecclesiastical  history 
tends.     This  common  manifestation  of  ecclesiastical  life,  which 
appears  in  all   national  and  particular  churches,  has,  however1, 
assumed  in  different  churches  a  peculiar  and  distinctive  shape. 
The  idea  of  history,  and  especially  that  of  a  universal  history 
of  the  Church,  implies  that  it  must  mainly  be  arranged  according 
to.  periods.     But  the   question   as  to   which   of  the  other  two 
classifications  is  to  be    prominently  brought   forward,   depends 
partly  on  the  course  of  history  itself,  and   partly  on  the  plan  on 
which  it  has  been    constructed.      In    general,   the    arrangement 
according  to  national  churches  must  remain  subordinate,  at  least 
80  long  as  their  union  and  co-operation  1  as  not  been  interrupted, 


TENDENCIES     IN     CHURCH     HISTORY.  27 

either  by  following  entirely  different  tendencies,  or  through  a 
sundering  of  them  into  particular  churches. 

1.  Different  Tendencies  apparent  in  Church  History. — The  Christian 
Church  is  intended  to  embrace  all  nations  and  tongues.  Hence,  it 
must  always  be  its  aim  to  enlarge  its  domain  by  the  conversion  of  non- 
Christian  nations  and  individuals.  The  History  of  the  Extension 
and  Limitation  of  Christianity,  which  exhibits  either  the  progress 
or  the  various  obstructions  put  in  its  way,  must  therefore  form  an 
essential  part  of  Church  History.  Again,  though  the  Church  is  under 
the  invisible  guidance  and  the  unseen  care  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  as  a  visi- 
ble and  terrestrial  institution,  it  recpaires,  for  its  continuance  and  pros- 
perity, a  secure  outward  position,  and  a  stable  and  consistent  internal 
arrangement,  constitution,  and  order.  Hence,  Church  History  has  also 
to  chronicle  the  history  of  Ecclesiastical  Constitution,  both  in  refer- 
ence to  the  outward  position  of  the  Church  towards  the  State,  and  to 
its  internal  organization,  government,  discipline,  and  legislation.  The 
history  of  those  ecclesiastical  divisions  (schisms)  which  had  their  origin 
only  in  different  views  about  church  government,  and  especially  about 
the  administration  of  discipline,  belongs  to  this  branch  of  the  subject. 
—  Of  still  greater  importance  for  the  prosperous  progressof  the  church, 
was  it  to  develop  and  establish  the  doctrine  of  salvation.  The  Holy  Scrip- 
tures are,  indeed,  the  sole  source  and  rule  of  faith,  and  a  sufficient 
directory  in  all  that  concerns  the  knowledge  of  salvation.  But  the 
words  of  Scripture  are  spirit  and  life,  living  seed-corn  of  knowledge, 
which,  under  the  superintendence  of  the  Spirit,  who  sowed  it,  must 
unfold  into  a  glorious  harvest ;  that  so  the  fulness  of  truth  which  they 
contain  may  be  increasingly  understood,  and  become  adapted  to  all 
stages  and  forms  of  culture  —  to  faith,  science,  and  life.  It  is,  there- 
fore, also  the  task  of  Church  History  to  follow  the  Development  of 
Ecclesiastical  Doctrine  and  Science,  in  all  the  ways  and  by-ways 
(heresies)  over  which  it  has  passed. —  The  Church  also  requires  public 
worship,  as  the  necessary  expression  of  the  feelings  and  aspirations 
of  the  faithful  towards  their  Lord  and  God,  and  as  a  means  for  edifica- 
tion, instruction,  and  strength  to  the  congregation.  In  the  Word  and 
the  sacraments,  the  Church  indeed  received  from  its  Lord  the  immov- 
able ground-work  of  all  worship ;  still,  it  had  to  seek  out  and  to  adopt 
the  most  suitable  and  effective  form,  under  which  these  Divine  powers 
and  gifts  might  be  perfected  and  applied.  Hence  the  History  of 
Wouship  must  also  form  an  essential  element  in  Church  History. — 
Lastly,  the  Church  had  to  introduce  the  leaven  of  that  new  life,  of 
which  it  is  the  depositary,  into  practical  life,  and  into  the  manners  and 
customs  of  the  people.  This,  then,  implies  another  element  in  Church 
History,  —  that  of  Christian  life  among  the  people.  —  It  is  impossible 
to  determine  the  historical  succession  of  these  varied  manifestations 
of  the  life  of  the  Church,  according  to  abstract  and  logical  principles, 


28  INTRODUCTION. 

or  to  arrange  them  in  the  same  manner  at  all  periods.  It  will  there 
fore  be  necessary,  in  each  case,  to  adopt  a  division  which  at  everj 
period  will  first  present  those  elements  which  appeared  most  promi 
nently,  and  exercised  a  decisive  influence  upon  all  the  others. 

2.   The  several  Branches  of  Church  History.— The  above  branches  of 
Church  History  are  severally  of  such  importance,  that  they  have  fre- 
quently leen  treated  as  independent  sciences.     This  method  renders  it 
possible  to  enter  into  fuller  details,  and,  what  is  even  more  important, 
to  treat  each  science  according  to  its  own  peculiar  principles,  and  in 
the  most  satisfactory  manner. — The  history  of  the  spread  of,  or  of  the 
obstructions  to  Christianity,  is  then  viewed  as  the  History  of  Missions. 
That  of  ecclesiastical  government  (ecclesiastica  politia),  of  worship  and 
of  Christian   manners,   is  called  Ecclesiastical  Archceology —  a  name 
inaptly  chosen,  since  it  confines  the  range  of  inquiries  to  ancient  times, 
and  groups  together  heterogeneous  elements.    Let  us  hope  that  writers 
on  this  subject  will  in  future  separate  these  different  elements,  and 
follow  the  development  of  each  to  the  present  time,  treating  of  them 
as  of  the  history  of  Ecclesiastical  Constitution,  of  Christian  "Worship, 
and  of  Christian  Culture.     The  history  of  the  development  of  doctrines 
may  be  arranged  into — a)  the  History  of  Dogmas,  in  which  the  genetic 
development  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  is  traced  ;  b)  Symbolics, 
in  which  the  established  doctrinal  views  of  the  Church  universal,  and 
of  individual  churches,  as  laid  down  in  their  confessions  (or  symbols), 
are  presented  in  a  systematic  manner  (in  "  Comparative  Symbolics," 
these  confessions  are  critically  examined,  and  placed  side  by  side  with 
each  other) ;  c)   Patristics,  which  treats  of  the  subjective  development 
of  doctrine,  as  it  appears  in  the  teachings  of  the  most  eminent  eccle- 
siastical authorities  (the  Fathers  —  limiting  that  expression  chiefly  to 
the  first  six  or  eight  centuries  of  the  Church)  ;  lastly,  d)  the  History  of 
Theoloqi/  generally,  or  of  individual  branches  of  theological  science, 
which  details  the  scientific  treatment  of  theology,  or  of  its  individual 
branches,  in  their  historical  course  of  progress.      The  History  of  Theo- 
logical Literature  exhibits   and  criticises  the  literary  activity  of  the 
Church  generally;    Pairology,  that  of  the  Fathers.     Lastly,  the  science 
of  Ecclesiastical  Statistics  presents  a  general  view  of  the  results  of 
universal  Church  History  during  a  definite  period,  ami  describes  t ho 
state  of  the  Church  in  all  its  relations,  as  it  appeared  at  every  period 
of  its  history,  furnishing,  "as  it  were,  a  cross-section  of  history." 

Literature.     1.  History  of  Missions  :  Blumhardt,  allgemeine  Mis> 
sionsgeschichte  (Universal  History  of  Missions).  3  vols,  liasle  1828. — 

W.  Brou-ii.  Hist,  of  the  Propagation  of  Christ,  among  the  Heathen 
since  the  Reform.     3d  Ed.  18">4.  —  For  Protest.  Missions,  comp.  also  J". 

Wiggers,  Gesch.  d.  Evang.  Mission,  1847;  for  Rom.  Cath.  Miss,  the 
work  of  Henriori,  translat.  into  German  by  Wittmann.  Schaffh.  1847. 
3  vols. 

2.  History  of  the  Papacy:    Bower,  Hist,  of  the  Popes.     London 


LITERATURE.  29 

1749;  transl.  into  German,  and  contin.  by  Eambach.  10  vols.  Magd, 
and  Leipz.  1751.  —  Chr.  W.  Ft:  Walch,  Entw.  einer  vollst.  Gesch.  d. 
Papstth.  (Sketch  of  a  complete  history  of  the  Papacy).  Giitt.  1756; 
Spittler,  Gesch.  d.  Papstth.  ;  C.  J.  Weber,  Papstth.  u.  P'apste.  Stuttg. 
1836  :   Artaud  de  Montor,  Hist,  des  Papes.  Augsb.  1848. 

3.  History  of  Monastic  Orders  :  //.  Helyot,  Gesch.  aller  Kloster  u. 
Ritterorden.  Aus  d.  Franz.  (History  of  all  Monastic  and  Knight  Or- 
ders). Leipz.  1753.  8  vols.  —  (Mussou),  pragm.  Gesch.  d.  vornehmsten 
MiJnchsorder,  im  Ausz.  von  Crome  (pragm.  Hist,  of  the  Principal 
Monastic  Orders,  condensed  by  Crome).  Leipz.  1774.  10  vols. — J.  Fehr, 
Gesch.  d.  Miinchsorden.  Naeh  d.  Franz,  des  Baron  llenrion  (Par.  1835), 
(Hist,  of  the  Monastic  Orders,  after  the  French  of  Baron  Henrion). 
Tubing.  1845.  2  vols. 

4.  History  of  Councils  :  E.  Kicherii,  hist,  concill.  gener.  LI.  IV. 
Paris  1680.  3  Voll.  4. —  C.  J.  Hefele,  Conciliengesch.  nach  d  Q.uellen 
(Hist,  of  Councils,  from  the  original  sources).  7  Vols.  Freib.  1855. 
—  Chr.  W.  F.  Walch,  Entw.  einer  vollst.  Gesch.  d.  Kirchenversammll 
(Sketch  of  a  Complete  History  of  Ecclesiastical  Councils).  Leipz 
1759. 

5.  Ecclesiastical  Law:  /.  W.  Bickell,  Gesch.  d.  K.-R.  (Hist,  of 
Eccles.  Law,  continued  by  liostell),  fortgesetzt  v.  /.  W.  RSstdl.  2  vols, 
(incomplete).  Giessen  1843.  49.— Ferd.  Walter  (Rom.  Cath.),  Lehr- 
buch  d.  K.-R.  aller  christl.  Confessionen  (Manual  of  the  Eccles.  Law 
of  all  Christ.  Churches).  14th  ed.  Bonn.  1871.—  G.  Philipps,  K.-R. 
(Eccl.  Law).  5  vols.  Regensb.  1845.  —  Eichhorn,  Grunds.  d.  K.-R. 
(Principles  of  Eccl.  Law).  Gcittg.  1831.  2  vols.— A.  L.  Fielder,  Lehrb. 
d.  K.-R.  (Manual  of  Eccl.  Law).     7th  ed.  Leipz.  1871. 

6.  Archeology  :  by  Protestant  writers  :  Jos.  Bingham,  Antiquities 
of  the  Church,  10  vols. ;  Augusti,  Denkwiirdigk.  aus.  d.  chr.   Arch. 
(Memorabilia  in  Christ.  Archseol.).  12  vols.  Leipz.  1816;  Dessen  Hand? 
d.  christl.  Arch.   (Augusti's  Manual  of  Christ.  Arch.).  3  vols.  Leip: 
1836  ;  Rheinivald,  die  kirchl.  Arch.  (Eccles.  Arch.).  Berlin  1830 ;  Boh- 
mer,  die  chr.  kirchl.  Alterthumswissch.  (Chr.  Eccles.  Archaeol.).  2  vols. 
Bresl.  1836.  39  ;   Guericke,  Lehrb.  d.  chr.  kirchl.  Arch.  (Manual  of  Chr. 
eccl.  Arch.).  Leipz.  1859  ;   Siegel,  Haudbuch  d.  chr.  kirchl.  Alterthii- 
mer  in  alphab.  Ordnung  (Manual  of  Christ,  and  Eccles.  Antiq.  in  the' 
alphab.  order).  4  vols.  Leipz.  1836;   C.  Schbne,  Geschichtsforschung: 
liber  d.  kirchl.  Gebr'auche  (Histor.  Invest,  on  Eccles.  Usages).  3  vol 
Berlin,  1819  ;  Planck,  Gesch.  d.  chr.  kirchl.  Gesellschaftsverf.  (Hist,  oi 
the  Social  Constat,  of  the  Chr.  Church).  5  vols.  Hann.  1803  ;  —  by  Ro- 
man Catholic  writers  :   Mamachii  origines  et  antiq.  chr.  5  voll.  4.  Rom. 
1749  ;  Pdlicia,  de  chr.  eccl.  politia.  3  voll.  Neap.  1777,  newly  edited  by 
Rilfer,  Col.  1829 ;   Binferim,  Denkwiirdigk.  d.  chr.  kath.  K.   (Memora- 
bilia of  the  Roman  Cath.  Ch.).  17  vols.  Mayence  1825. 

7.  History  of  Dogmas:  Petavius  (Jesuit),  de  theologicis  dogmatt.  c. 
not.  Theoph.  Alethani  (J.  Clerici).  6  Voll.  fol.  Amst.  1700. — Manuals: 

3* 


30 


INTRODUCTION, 


by  Engelhardt  (2  vols.  Erlang.  1839) ;  Baumgarten-Crusius  (Compen- 
dium 2  vols.  Leipz.  1840.  46)  ;  W.  Munscher  (3d  ed.  by  Colin  and  New 
decker.  Cassel  1832)  ;  A'.  F.  Meier  (2d  ed.  by  G.  Baur,  Giess  sn  1854)  ; 
Fd.  Cf.r.  Baur  (3ded.  Leipz.  1867);  K.  11.  HagenbachZ.  A.  Leipz.  1867. 
(the  2d  ed.  translated  by  Buch.  Edinb.  T.  and  T.  Clark) ;  J.  C.  L.  Gie- 
seler  (Prelections.  Bonn  1855)  ;  Keander  (edited  by  Jacobi.  2  vols.  1857, 
transl.  by  J.  E.  Ryland).— Chr.  W.  F.  Walch,  vollst.  Historie  d.  Ketze- 
reien,  bis  zum  Bilderstreite  incl.  (Complete  Hist,  of  Heresies,  to  the 
Controversy  about  Images).  11  vols.  Leipz.  1762. 

8.  Symbolics:  Marheineke,  chr.  Symbolik.  Vol.  I.  Heidelb.  1810; 
Kbllner,  Symb.  aller  christ.  Confess.  (Symbolical  Books  of  all  Chr. 
Churches).  2  vols.  Leipz.  1846;  Winer,  comparative  Darstellung  d. 
Lehrbegriffe  d.  vcrschied.  chr.  Kirchenpart.  (Comparat.  View  of  the 
Dogmas  of  the  various  parties  in  the  Chr.  Ch.).  2d  ed.  Leipz.  1837; 
Gnericke,  allg.  chr.  Symbolik  (Universal  Chr.  Symb.).  3d  ed.  Leipz. 
1861  ;  Marheincke's  Vorless.  liber  die  Symbolik  (Prelections  on  Symb.). 
Berlin  1848;  A'.  Matthes,  compar.  Symbolik.  Leipz.  1854;  A.  II.  Baier, 
Symb.  Vol.  I.  Greifsw.  1854.  —  By  Roman  Catholic  writers;  /.  A. 
Mohler,  Symbolik.  7th  ed.  Mayence  1864 ;  Hilgers,  symb.  Theol.  Bonn 
1341  ;  —  against  Mohler:  Baur,  der  Gegens.  d.  Kath.  u.  Protestantis- 
ms (the  opposition  between  Roman,  and  Protest.).  2d  ed.  Tub.  1836; 
Nitzsch,  protest.  Beantw.  (Reply  of  Protest.).  Hamb.  1835.  Comp.  also: 
Thiersch,  Vorless.  liber"  Protestantism,  u.  Kath.  (Prelections  on  Protest, 
and  Roman.).  2  vols.  2d  ed.  1848. 

9.  Patrology  and  History  op  Literature:  E/lie.i  du  Pin,  nouv. 
biblioth.  des  auteurs  eccl.  47  voll.  Paris  1686  ;  II.  CeiUier,  hist,  des  au- 
teurs  nacres  et  eccl.  des  six  prem.  sieclcs.  Par.  1693.  16  Voll.  4 ;  J.  A. 
Mbhley,  Patrologie,  edited  by  Rheitmayer.  Vol.  I.  Regensb.  1839;  J. 
Fesslo,  Institt,  patrol.  Oenip.  1850.  2  T.  —  By  Protestant  Avriters:  W. 
Cave,  Scriptt.  eccles.  hist,  literaria.  2  Voll.  fol.  London  1688;  C.  Oudin, 
Commentarii  de  scriptoribus  ecclesiast.  Lips.  1722.  3  Voll.  fol. ;  J.  A. 
Fabrieii  Biblioth.  Grajca.  Hamb.  1705  ss.  14  XM.  4.,  nova  ed.  cur.  liar- 
less.  Hamb.  1790.  12  Voll.  4. ;  Ejusd.  Bibl.  media;  et  infimse  latinitatis 
aucta  a  /.  D.  Mansi  Pat.  1754.  0  Voll.  4. ;  Schonemann,  Biblioth.  patr. 
latin,  hist,  liter.  Lips.  1792.  2  vols. ;  Oelrichs,  Comment,  de  script 
eccles.  lat.  Lips.  1790:  /.  C.  F.  Bdhr,  Gesfch.  d.  rom.  biter.  (Hist,  of 
Roman  Liter.),  Suppl.  I.-III.  Karlsr.  1836-40. —  Gesch  d.  theol.  Win- 
senscli.  (Hist,  of  Theol.  Science) :  von  Fl'ugge  (3  vols.  Halle  1796,  to 
the  time  of  the  Reform.); — Stavdlin  (from  the  15th  cent.).  2  vols. Gott. 
1810;  — J.  G.  Walch.  Biblioth.  theol.  sel.  Jena?  1757.  4  Voll. 

10.  Lives  of  the  Saints:  L.  Surivs,Vit&  Ss.  Col.  1570.  6  Voll.  fol, 
Acta  Sanctorum,  Ant.  1643  etc.  56  Voll.  fol.  (begun  by  the  Jesuit  Bol- 
landus,  hence  known  by  the  name  of  Holland ists). —  Mabillon,  Acta  Ss. 
ordinis  s.  Benedict!.  Par.  1666.  9  Voll.  fol. — Butler,  Lives  of  'lie  Saints, 
New  ed    Dublin  1838. 


DIVISION     IN     CHURCH     HISTORY.  31 

3.  Principal  Phases  in  the  Historical  Development  of  the  Church.-— In 
the  history  of  civilization  we  meet  with  three  successive  forms  of  culture : 
the  Oriental,  the  Graeco-Roman,  and  the  Germanic.  The  kingdom  of 
God  was  to  penetrate,  and  unfold  itself,  in  each  of  these,  in  a  manner 
peculiar  to  each,  and  thus  attain  its  most  complete  development.  The 
earliest  Church  (the  Israelitish  theocracy)  represents  its  development 
in  the  Oriental  form  ;  the  ancient  Christian  Church  its  development  in 
the  Graeco-Roman  form ;  the  modern  Church  its  development  in  the 
Germanic  form.     The  Middle  Ages  exhibit  the  struggle  between  the 

O  CO 

superannuated  classic  form  of  culture,  and  the  modern  ;  whilst  the 
later  development  of  the  Church  received  its  main  impulse  from  the 
Germanic-Christian  culture,  which  was  matured  by  the  genial  influ- 
ences of  the  Reformation.  This  division  of  the  History  of  the  kingdom 
of  God  on  the  earth,  according  to  the  different  forms  of  civilization, 
seems  to  us  so  essential,  that  wo  derive  from  it  the  principle  of  our 
division  of  Church  History,  as  follows: 

I.  Antecedent  History  of  Christianity :  Preparation  for  it  in  the  He- 
brew oriental  form  of  culture ;  simultaneous  adaptation  of  the  univer- 
sal form,  for  its  manifestation  in  the  Grasco-Roman  form. 

II.  Primitive  History  of  Christianity :  The  perfect  exhibition  of  the 
plan  of  salvation  by  Christ  and  his  Apostles.  Conflict  between  the 
JeAvish  and  Greek  forms  of  culture  ;  victory  of  the  latter.  First  cen- 
tury (Apostolic  period). 

III.  History  of  the  Development  of  Christianity,  on  the  basis  of  its 
original  character. 

A.  In  tlie  Ancient  Classic  Form: 

First  Period,  from  a.  100-323,  or  to  the  final  victory  of  Christianity 
over  Grceco-Roman  heathenism. 

Second  Period,  from  323-692,  or  to  the  completion  of  the  doctrinal 
development  of  the  ancient  Church  (680)  and  the  alienation  between 
the  Oriental  and  Occidental  Churches  (692). 

Third  Period,  from  692-1453,  or  to  the  taking  of  Constantinonle. 
Decline  of  the  influence  of  the  ancient  classic  form  of  culture  on  the 
history  of  the  Church. 

B.  In  the  Germanic  Form.     1.  In  the  Middle  Ages: 

First  Period,  including  the  4th-9th  centuries,  or  from  the  founding 
of  the  Church  among  the  Germans  to  the  end  of  the  Carlovingian  period. 

Second  Period,  from  the  10th-13th  centuries,  to  Boniface  VIII.,  or 
the  age  of  the  papacy,  monasticism,  and  scholasticism. 

Third-  Period,  embracing  the  14th  and  15th  centuries,  to  the  Reform- 
ation ;  decline  of  the  factors  prominent  in  the  Middle  Ages ;  frequent 
reformatory  movements. 

2.  In  the  Modem  Germanic  Form : 

First  Period,  embracing  the  16th  century,  the  period  of  the  Reforma 
fcion. 

Second  Period,  the  17th  century,  the  period  of  orthodoxy. 


!>!i  INTRODUCTION. 

Third  Period,  the  18th  century,  the  age  of  deism,  naturalism,  ration- 
alism. 

Fourth  Period,  the  19th  century,  the  age  of  the  revival  of  a  Christian 
and  Church  life  (unionism,  confessionalism)  in  conflict  with  commu- 
nism, pantheism,  and  materialism. 

I  3.   SOURCES  AND  AUXILIARIES  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

1.  The  sources  of  Church  History  are  partly  primary  (origi- 
nal), such  as  monuments  and  original  documents,  —  partly 
secondary  (derived),  among  which  we  reckon  traditions,  and 
reported  researches  of  original  sources  which  have  since  been 
lost.  Monuments,  such  as  ecclesiastical  buildings,  pictures,  and 
inscriptions,  are  commonly  only  of  very  subordinate  use  in 
Church  History.  But  archives,  preserved  and  handed  down, 
are  of  the  very  greatest  importance.  To  this  class  belong  also 
the  acts  and  decrees  of  ecclesiastical  councils;  the  regesta  and 
official  decrees  of  the  Popes  (decretals,  briefs)  and  of  Bishops 
{pastoral  letters)  ;  the  laws  and  regesta  issuing  from  imperial 
chancellories,  so  far  as  these  refer  to  ecclesiastical  affairs  ;  the 
rules  of  monastic  orders,  liturgies,  confessions  of  faith,  letters 
of  personages  influential  in  church  or  state  ;  reports  of  eye-wit- 
nesses ;  sermons  and  doctrinal  treatises  of  acknowledged  theolo- 
gians, etc.  If  the  documents  in  existence  are  found  insufficient, 
we  must  have  recourse  to  earlier  or  later  traditions,  and  to  the 
historical  investigations  of  those  who  had  access  to  original 
documents  which  are  now  no  loii"-er  extant. 


'£>' 


a.  Collections  of  Councils:  /.  Harduin,  concill.  collectio  regia 
maxima.  Par.  1715.  12  vols,  folio. — J.  D.  Mansi,  concill.  nova  et  am- 
pliss.  coll.  31  vols.  fol.  Flor.  et  Venet.  1759  ss. 

b.  Acts  of  the  Popes:  Ph.  Jaff'e,  Regesta  pontiff.  Rom.  (to  the  year 
1198).  Berol.  1851.  4.— The  decretals  of  the  Popes  arc  collected  and 
treated  of  in  the  Corpus  jur.  Canon.,  od.  Bbhmer  (Hal.  1747.  2  vols.  4.) 
and  RicMer  (Lps.  1833  ss.  4). — L.  Cherubini,  bullarium  Hum.  Ed.  IV. 
Rom.  1672.  5  vols.  fol. —  C.  Cocqvelines,  bullarum,  priyileg.  ac  diplo- 
tnatum  ampliss.  collectio  Rom.  1739.  28  vols.  fol. —  Barberi,  bullar. 
Magn.  (1758-1830),  cont.  by  R.Segreius  (to  1846).  Rom.  L835-47.  14 
vols.  fol. 

c.  Rules  of  Monastic  Orders:  Luc.  Wolsttnii  codex  regularum 
monastic,  et  canonic.  I  vols.  4to.  Rom.  16G1,  auct.is  a  Mar.  Brockie.  (i 
rols.  fol.  Aug.  Vind.  17:".'.). 

d.  Liturgies:  J.  A.  Assemanni  Cud.  liturgicus  eccl.  univ.  13  vols.  4 
Rom.  1749. — II.  A.  Daniel,  cod.  lit.  eccl.  univ.  4  vols.  Lps.  1847-53.  8 


HISTORY     OF     CHURCH     HISTORY.  33 

c.  Confessions  or  Faith:  C.  W.  Fr.  Walch,  biblioth.  symbohca 
retus.  Lemg.  1770 ;  A.  Halm,  Biblioth.  der  Symb.  u.  Glaubensrcgeh? 
der  apost.  kath.  K.  (Library  of  the  Confessions  and  Rules  of  Faith  of 
the  Apostolic  Catholic  Church).  Bresl.  1842. 

f.  Acta  Martyroruji:  Th.  Ruinart,  Acta  primorum  Martyrum. 
New  edition  by  B.  Galium.  Aug.  Vind.  1802.  3  vols. — Surius  and  the 
Bollandists  ($  3,  10)  ;  St.  E.  Assemaiud,  Acta  Sanctorum  Mart.  Orient, 
et  Occid.  Rom.  1748.  2  vols.  fol. 

2.  Auxiliary  Sciences  of  Church  History. — Those  sciences  are  auxilia- 
ries of  Church  History  which  are  indispensable  in  order  properly  to 
understand,  critically  to  judge  of,  and  to  sift,  the  sources  of  ecclesias- 
tical history.  Among  them  we  reckon,  1)  Diplomatics,  which  teaches 
us  to  judge  of  the  genuineness,  the  completeness,  and  the  trustworthi- 
ness of  documents ;  2)  Philology,  which  enables  us  to  make  use  of 
sources  in  different  languages;  3)  Geography,  and  4)  Chronology, 
which  respectively  inform  us  about  the  scene,  and  the  succession  in 
time,  of  the  different  facts  narrated.  In  a  wider  sense,  we  may  also 
reckon  among  auxiliary  sciences,  general  history,  as  well  as  that  of 
jurisprudence,  of  civilization,  of  art,  of  literature,  of  philosophy,  and 
of  religion,  all  which  are  indispensable  on  account  of  their  manifold 
bearing  on  the  development  of  the  Church. 

a.  Diplomatics:  J.  Mabillon,  de  re  diplomatica.  Ed.  II.  Par.  1709. 
fol. 

b.  Philology:  C.  du  Fresne  (Dominus  du  Cange),  glossarium  ad 
scriptores  mediae  et  infmiae  latinitatis.  G  vols.  Par.  1733  ;  edid.  Hens- 
chel.  Par.  1840  ss.  7  vols.  4. — Du  Frdsne,  gloss,  ad  scriptores  med.  et 
infim.  graecitatis.  2  vols.  fol.  Lugd.  1G88  ;  J.  C.  Suiceri  thesaurus  eccle- 
siast.,  e  patribus  grsecis.  Ed.  2.  2  vols.  fol.  Amst.  1728. 

c.  Geography:  Car.  a  S.  Paulo,  Geogr.  s.,  cur.  /.  Clerici,  Amst. 
1703.  fol. ;  —  Nic.  Sansonis,  Atlas  ant.  sacer,  emend.  J.  Ctericus.  Amst. 
1705.  fol. ;  —  /.  E.  Th.  Wiltsch,  Handb.  d.  kirchl.  Geogr.  u.  Statistik 
(Manual  of  Ecclesiastical  Geography  and  Statistics).  2  vols.  Berlin 
1846 ;  the  same  author's,  Atlas  sacer  s.  ecclesiast.  Goth.  1843  ;  C.  F. 
Stdudlin,  kirchl.  Geogr.  u.  Statist.  (Ecclesiastical  Geography  and  Sta- 
tistics), 2  vols.  Tub.  1804. — Mich,  le  Quien,  Oriens  christianus  in  qua- 
tuor  patriarchatus  digestus.  Par.  1740.  3  vols.  fol. 

4.  Chronology:  Piper,  Kirchenrechnung  (Ecclesiastical Chronolcgy). 
Berlin  1841.  4. 

\  4.  HISTORY  OF   CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Comp.  C.  F.  Stdudlin,  Gesch.  u.  Lit.  d.  K.  G.  History  and  Litera- 
ture of  Church  History).  Hamburgh  1827.  F.  Chr.  Baur,  die  Epochen 
der  kirchl.  Geschichtschreibg.  (the  Periods  of  the  Literature  of  Church 
History).     TiU?   1852. 


34  INTRODUCTION. 

The  Gospels  and  the  book  of  Acts  furnish  us  with  an  account 
of  the  commencement  of  ecclesiastical  history.     Next  in  order  of 
time  comes  the  work  of  ffege&ippus,  a  native  of  Asia  Minor,  who, 
about  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  collected  the  various  tra- 
ditions of  apostolical  time.     Only  fragments  of  this  work  have 
been  preserved.     Eusebius,  Bishop  of  Csesarea,  claims  to  be  the 
Father  of  Church  history  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term.     Lead- 
ing men  in  the  Greek  Church  continued  his  work  in  the  5th  cent. 
At  first  the  Eastern  had,  in  this  branch  of  study,  the  advantage 
of  the  Western  Church,  which  only  furnished  translations,  or  at 
most  re-cast  the  material  furnished  by  the  Greeks,  instead  of  car- 
rying on  independent  investigations.     During  the  middle  ages 
the  Eastern  as  well  as  the  Western  Church  furnished  to  Church 
History  in  its  true  sense,  almost  nothing.     But  considering  the 
close  connection  between   church   and  state   in   the  Byzantine 
empire,  we  must  not  omit  to  notice  the  so-called   Scrip/ores 
histories  Byzanlince,  and  the  Latin  national   histories,  biogra- 
phies, annals,   and  chronicles,  as  important   for  the   student  of 
Church    History.       The    Reformation    first  called    forth    really 
critical  investigation,  and  opened  the  way  for  a  scientific  treat- 
ment of   Church   History.     In    carrying  on    their   great   work, 
the  Reformers  felt  the  need  of  reverting  to  those  times  when 
the  Church  appeared  in  its  purer  form.     To  investigate  and  to 
determine  such  questions,  it  was  necessary  to  study  ecclesiastical 
history  ;    while   the  very  attacks  of  their  enemies   obliged   the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  to  follow  them  into  these  investigations. 
Both  the   Lutheran  and  Catholic  Churches,  however,  contented 
themselves,  until  the  middle  of  the   lltli  century,  with  their  two 
great  works   of  the  period   of  the  Reformation.     Then,  how- 
ever, the  spirit  of  rivalry  was  aroused  in   the  pursuit  of  such 
studies,  and  during  the  17th  century  the  Catholic  Church   un- 
doubtedly bore  the  palm.     The  more  liberal  spirit  of  the  Gal- 
lican  Church  fostered  this  zeal,  especially  among  the  Maurines 
and  Oratorians  of  France.     The  Reformed  Church,   especially 
in  France  and  the  Netherlands,  did  not  keep  far  in  the  rear  of 
these   efforts.     In    the    18th    century    the    contributions   of    the 
Lutheran  Church  again  take  the  lead,  the  Reformed  following 
closely  after,  whilst  the  zeal  and  learning  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church   had    decidedly  declined.     But    as   rationalism    invaded 
the  sphere  of  theology,  so  pragmatism  invaded  that  of  Church 
History,  and  made  the  ideal  of  it  consist  in  regarding  all  events 


HISTORY     OF     CHURCH     HISTORY.  B5 

as  the  result  of  chance  and  passions,  of  arbitrariness  and  calcu 
lation.     No;  until  the  19th  century  was  this  conceited  and  dull 
spirit  of  pragmatism  overcome. 

1.  To  the  Reformation.  The  History  of  Eusebius  extends  to  the 
year  324.  It  was  continued  in  the  fifth  century  by  Philostorgius,  an 
Arian,  and  by  Socrates,  Sozomenus,  and  Theodoret,  Catholic  writers. 
Early  in  the  sixth  century  Iheodorus,  a  lector  of  Constantinople,  wrote 
an  abstract  of  Theodoret' s  work,  carried  down  to  his  own  times ;  this 
abstract  is,  unhappily,  all  that  remains.  These  works  were  followed 
in  the  sixth  century  by  Evagrivs.  In  the  Latin  Church,  Rufinus,  a 
presbyter  of  Aquileia,  translated  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Eusebius, 
and  brought  it  down  to  his  own  days  (to  395).  About  the  same  time, 
Sulpicius  Sevei'us,  a  presbyter  from  Gaul,  wrote  his  "  Historia  Sacra," 
in  two  books,  extending  from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  the  year  400. 
In  the  sixth  century,  Cassiodorus,  a  Roman  official  under  Theodoric, 
condensed  a  translation  of  the  Catholic  continuators  of  Eusebius,  which 
was  designed  to  supplement  the  work  of  Rufinus.  This  compilation, 
well  known  as  the  Historia  ecclesiastica  tripartita,  along  with  Rufinus, 
continued  the  common  text-book  in  use  up  to  the  time  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. Of  a  Syrian  Church  History  by  the  Monophysite  bishop,  John 
of  Ephesus,  in  the  sixth  century,  the  second  part,  containing  the  history 
of  his  own  times,  has  but  recently  become  known.  (Cf.  J.  P.  N.  Land, 
John  of  Eph.,  the  first  Syr.  Ch.  Historian.  Leyden  1857.)  Concern- 
ing other  contributions  of  the  ancient  Church  see  £  41,  5,  and  $  48,  2; 
for  the  mediseval  histories  of  the  Latins  \  90,  9,  of  the  Greeks  §  68,  4. 
Gregor ius,  Bishop  of  Tours,  furnished  a  most  valuable  contribution  to 
the  ecclesiastical  history  of  the  Franks  up  to  the  year  591,  and  the 
Venerable  Bede,  to  that  of  England  up  to  the  year  731.  The  Liber  Pon- 
tificalis,  by  the  Roman  librarian  Anastasius  (ob.  891)  furnishes  bio- 
graphies of  the  Popes.  The  work  of  Bishop  Adam  of  Bremen  (extend- 
ing to  the  yea«r  1076)  is  of  great  value  for  the  history  of  the  northern 
churches.  Among  writers  of  universal  Church  history  we  name  Hayrno 
of  Halberstadt  (c.  850),  who  however  only  extracted  from  Rufinus  and 
Casiodorus ;  the  Abbott  Odericus  Vitalis,  in  Normandy  (c.  1150)  ;  the 
Dominican  Bartholomew  of  Lucca  (c.  1300),  and  Archb.  Antoninus  of 
Florence,  in  the  15th  century.  Near  the  close  of  -the  15th  century  the 
spirit  of  historical  criticism  was  awakened,  through  the  influence  of 
humanism  (#  120).  Besides  the  numerous  Scriptores  hist.  Byzant.,  Nice- 
phorus  Callisti,  in  the  Greek  Church,  wrote  a  Church  history  proper  (i.i 
the  14t  i  i viiiury).  The  Melchite  Patr.  Eutychius  of  Alexandria  wrote, 
in  the  12th  century,  a  Ch.  hist,  in  Arabic,  full  of  fables,  and  of  value 
only  for  the  condition  of  the  Church  under  Mohammedan  rule. 

2.  The  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries.  As  early  as  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  Madgeburg  Centuria  (1559-74),  a  splendid 
work  on  ecclesiastical  history,  were  compiled  by  an  association  of  Lu 


86  INTRODUCTION 

theran  divines,  headed  by  Matthias  Flacius  Ittyricus,  a  clergyman  at 
Magdeburg.     It  consisted  of  13  folio  vols.,  of  -which  each  described  a 

century.  The  work  may  lie  described  as  the  result  of  unwearied  labor, 
and  as  bringing  forward  a  great  many  documents  till  then  unknown. 
The  Centuria  evoked  (in  L588)  the  Ecclesiastical  Annals  of  Ccesar  Ba- 
ronius  (12  vols,  folio,  extending  to  1108)  ;  a  production  specially  im- 
portant from  the  circumstance  that  it  brings  to  light  many  documents, 
which  have  since  then  remained  unknown.  The  author  was  rewarded 
with  a  cardinal's  hat,  and  had  almost  been  elevated  to  the  Chair  of 
St.  Peter.  Of  writers  on  general  Church  History  of  the  17th  cent,  in 
Catholic  France  were  Natalis  Alexander,  a  learned,  but  scholastic  and 
stiff  Dominican;  Seb.  le  Nain  tie  Tillemont,  a  conscientious  Jansenist 
author;  Claude  Fleury,  the  mild,  able,  but  somewhat  diffuse  confessor 
of  Louis  XV.;  and  the  eloquent  Bishop  Bossuet.  To  the  older  Reformed 
Church  we  are  indebted  for  many  excellent  works  on  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory. Theodore  Beza  comes  first  with  his  History  of  the  French  Re- 
formed Church.  Its  authors,  however,  attained  the  highest  reputation 
in  the  17th  century,  and  became  particularly  distinguished  by  their 
learned  special  investigations  (II.  $  40,  4)  ;  though  general  Ch.  hist,  also 
received  creditable  attention.  J.H.  Hottinger  combined  a  history  of  the 
Jews,  of  Heathenism,  and  of  Mohammedanism,  with  that  of  Christianity. 
Of  still  greater  importance  were  the  productions  of  Fr.  Spanheim,  in 
Leyden.  In  his  Histoire  de  I'Eglisc,  J.  Basnage  has  replied  to  Bossuet, 
while  the  Annates  of  Sam.  Busnage  were  directed  against  Baronius. 

3.  The  Eighteenth  Century. —  After  the  great  work  of  the  "  Magde- 
burg Centuria,"  the  study  of  ecclesiastical  history  was  for  a  time 
neglected  by  the  Lutheran  Church.  A  century  elapsed  before  G.  C'ah'xt 
(ob.  1G5G)  revived  the  study  of  this  science.  Strange  to  say,  it  was 
again  controversy  which  induced  theologians  to  return  to  the  subject. 
In  1699,  Gottfr.  Arnold,  a  learned  Pietist  and  Mystic,  composed  his 
"Impartial  History  of  the  Church  and  of  Heretics,"  — a  work  which 
throughout  breathes  a  party  spirit,  and  which  describes  genuine  Chris- 
tianity only  among  heretics  and  fanatics.  Still,  ii  gave  a  fresh  impulse 
to  historical  investigation.  Since  that  period,  men  like  Weismann  of 
Tubingen,  the  two  Wizlchs  {George  Walch,  the  father,  at  Jena,  and 
Francis  Walch,  the  son.  in  Gottingen),  J.  Lor.  r.  Mosheim,  Chancellor 
in  Gottingen  {ob.  1755),  and  Sigism.  J.  Baumgarten  of  Halle,  have 
furnished  aide  and  valuable  works  on  Church  History.  Among  these 
Mosheim  deserves  the  first  place,  both  on  account  of  his  acuteness,  of 
his  practical  sense,  of  bis  style,  and  of  his  pure  Latinity.  J.  Sal.  Semler 
of  Halle  {ob.  1791),  the  pupil  of  Baumgarten,  attempted  to  throw  doubt 
upon  almost  every  conclusion  in  historical  theology  at  which  the 
Church  had  arrived.  He  was  answered  by  J-  MattTi  w  Sckrockh,who  e 
work,  in    '■">  vols.,  bears  evidence  of  almost   incredible   labour  and  per- 

Sfivera although    it    is    necessarily  diffuse.     Chevalier    Splitter,   $> 

Win  ii   ell  ire  Minister  of  State,  next  furnished  a  clever  caricature  of 


HISTORY    OF    CHURC1E    HISTORY.  37 

Church  History.     He  was  followed  in  the  same  spirit  by  Hencke  of 
Helmst'adt,  who,  in  vigorous  language,  attempted  to  sketch  the  history 
of  the  Christian  Church  in  the  light  of  a  continuous  succession  of 
religious  aberrations.     6.  J.  Planck  of  Gottingen,  a,  representative  of 
the  unhealthy  supranaturalism  of  his  time,  wrote  a  number  of  eccle- 
siastical and  other  monographs,  which  display  considerable  research, 
but  are  tainted  with  the  spirit  of  his  school.  —  Theologians  of  the  Re- 
formed Church  also  compiled  valuable  treatises  on  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory.    Among  them  we  mention  those  of  J.  Clericus,  an  Arminian ;  of 
Alph.  Turretin,  of  Geneva;   of  Herm.  Venema,  of  Franeker ;    and  of 
Jablonsky,  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.     The  reforms  introduced  by  the 
Emperor  Joseph  II.  were  not  without  effect  on  the  study  of  ecclesias- 
tical history  among  the  members  of  the  German  branch  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.     Accordingly,  Casp.  Roylco  of  Prague,  and  Matthew 
Vannenmayer  of  Vienna,  wrote  in  a  liberal  spirit,  —  the  former  in  lan- 
guage almost  cynical,  the  latter  in  a  more  scientific  and  calm  tone. 

4.  The  Nineteenth  Century.  —  A  new  era  in  the  treatment  of  Church 
History  opened  with  Chr.  Schmidt  of  Giessen,  in  the  commencement 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  Instead  of  the  superficial  or  diffuse  enu- 
meration of  facts,  formerly  current,  he  insisted  on  a  thorough  study  of 
the  sources  and  an  objective  estimate  of  events.  But,  unfortunately, 
in  his  case,  the  independent  and  objective  treatment  merely  consisted 
in  want  of  sympathy  on  the  part  of  the  historian  with  the  subject  of 
his  investigations.  His  writings  were,  in  consequence,  cold,  unattrac- 
tive, and  almost  mechanical.  *[But  the  fundamental  principle  to  which 
he  called  attention  was  safe,  and,  if  rightly  applied,  calculated  to 
accomplish  the  object  in  view.]  He  was  followed  by  Gieseler  of  Gottin- 
gen (ob.  1854),  who  elevated  and  improved  this  principle;  and,  in  his 
History  of  the  Church,  has  left  a  perfect  storehouse  of  the  most  varied 
and  comprehensive  research.  The  text  itself  is  terse ;  but  the  notes 
by  which  it  is  accompanied  contain  an  exquisite  selection  from  the 
sources  from  which  he  had  drawn.  The  Manual  of  Engelhardt  of 
Erlangen  is  an  insipid  but  valuable  arrangement  of  the  subject, 
as  derived  from  the  sources;  that  of  A'.  Hase  of  Jena  is  distinguished 
by  its  vivid  sketches,  its  fresh  and  tasteful  style,  and  its  frequent  though 
often  enigmatical  allusions  to  the  sources  whence  his  material  had  been 
drawn.  In  the  prelections  of  Schleiermacher,  we  find,  indeed,  no  more 
than  the  information  ordinarily  conveyed,  but  the  leading  outlines  in 
the  development  of  the  Church  are  well  traced.  The  work  of  Niedncr 
claims  special  merit  from  the  industry  of  the  author,  who  furnishes 
much  more  than  the  common  staple  of  text-books.  The  book  affords 
evidence  of  most  laborious  study  of  the  sources,  and  of  discriminating 
tact ;  but  its  style  is  heavy,  and  somewhat  scholastic.  The  Manual  of 
Fricke  (unhappily  left  incomplete),  learned  but  stiff,  is  a  production  of 
the  same  school.  In  Gfrbrer's  work  on  Ecclesiastical  History,  Chris- 
4  *  Wanting  in  tbe  German. 


BS  INTRODUCTION. 

tianity  is  treated  as  the  natural  product  of  the  time  in  which  it  origv 
nated.  Clerical  selfishness,  political  calculations  and  intrigues,  appeal 
the  sole  principles  of  ecclesiastical  movements  which  this  author  can 
appreciate  or  discover.  Still,  the  work  is  of  importance;  and  those 
volumes  especially  which  detail  the  history  of  the  Middle  Ages  give 
evidence  of  original  study,  and  contain  much  fresh  information.  Occa- 
sionally the  writer  is  carried  away  by  his  ingenuity,  which  suggests 
combinations  where,  in  reality,  none  had  existed.  In  1853,  Gfrorer 
joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

Almost  at  the  same  time  with  Gieseler,  A.  Neander  commenced  his 
great  work  on  Church  History,  which  formed  a  new  phase    in   that 
branch  of  study.     Sharing   in   the  religious    awakening  which   took 
place  in  Germany  at  the  time  of  the  French  Wars,  and  deeply  imbued 
with    Schlciermacher's  theology  of  feeling,   he  assigned   to  personal 
piety  an  important  place  in  his  treatment  of  Church  History.     In  his 
view,  ecclesiastical  history  furnished  a  grand  commentary  on  the  para- 
ble of  the  leaven  which  was  destined  to  leaven  the  whole  lump.     The 
developments  of  the  inner  life  are  his  favourite  theme :  he  delights  in 
tracing  the  Christian  element  even  in  persons  and  parties  which  had 
formerly  been  overlooked  or  disowned ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
Church  and  churchliness  appear  to  him  generally  as  a  mere  ossifica- 
tion of  Christian  life,  and  a  crystallisation  of  Christian  dogma.     Simi- 
larly, he  overlooks  the  influence  exerted  by  political  causes,  nor  does 
he  pay  attention  to  the  aesthetic  and  artistic  bearings  of  history.     If 
his  treatment  of  the  subject  is  too  minute  and  monotonous,  the  reader 
is  compensated  by  fervour  and  the  continuous  evidence  of  familiarity 
with  the  sources.     Among  the  pupils  whom  this  jjreat  man  has  left, 
Jacobi  of  Halle,  and  Hagenbacli  of  Basle,  have  generally  adopted  his 
course,  but  avoided  his  errors.     The  Manual  of  Jacobi  (which  is  not 
yet  completed)  breathes  the  same  spirit  as  that  of  his  teacher.     Its 
tone  is  elevated  ;  nor  is  the  author  content  merely  to  imitate  Neander. 
The  prelections  of  Hagenbacli,  originally  delivered  to  an  educated  audi- 
ence, are  somewhat  diffuse,  but  clear  and  attractive.     They  breathe 
throughout  a  warm  Christian  spirit,  nor  is  the  judgment  of  the  lec- 
turer warped  by  narrow  sectarian  prejudices.      W.  Zimmermann,  real- 
izing the  necessity,  in  writing  Church  History,  of  going  back  to  the 
idea  of  life,  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Life  of  the  Church"  for  educated 
persons,  which,  notwithstanding  its  new  title,  pursued  the  old  track. 
What  in  the  work  of  Neander  had  been  wanting,  from  the  subjeotive- 
ness  of  his  "  pectoral"  piety,  Gltericke  of  Halle  has  attempted  to  supply, 
at  least  so  far  as  the  Lutheran  Church,  to  which  he  is  attached,  is  con- 
cerned.    But  in  more  respects  than  one  the  work  is  somewhat  one- 
sided.    Along  with  this  production  we  rank  the  excellent  Manual  of 
Bruno  Lindner  of  Leipsic.     The  author  belongs  to  the  same  ecclesias- 
tical party  as  Guericke ;  lie  traces  more  particularly  the  development 
of  dogmas;  and  also  takes  notice  of  the  operation  of  political  influences, 


HISTORY     OF     CHURCH     HIS  TORT.  39 

fts  from  time  to  time  they  were  brought  to  bear  on  the  history  of  the 
Church.  Dr.  Kurtz'  Manual  belongs  to  the  class  just  named,  but  aims 
at  furnishing  fuller  details,  and  more  copious  extracts  from  the  sources, 
than  the  works  of  Guericke  or  Lindner.  Students  of  Ecclesiastical 
History  are  also  under  manifold  obligations  to  the  conductors  of  the 
"  Zeitschrift  fur  historische  Theologie"  (Journal  of  Historical  Theo- 
logy), edited  since  1832  by  Illgen,  and  latterly  by  Niedner. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  latterly  displayed  fresli  activity  in 
prosecuting  the  study  of  Church  History.  A  succession  of  able  writers 
have  followed  the  noble  convert  (to  Popery),  Leopold,  Count  of  Stol- 
berg.  The  work  of  Katercamp  breathes  a  conciliatory  spirit,  and  is  at 
the  same  time  distinguished  by  elegance  of  composition.  A  new  era 
in  the  historical  investigations  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  com- 
menced with  Ad.  Miihler,  whose  labours  were  prematurely  arrested  by 
death  (in  1838).  The  school  which  he  inaugurated  is  decidedly  ultra- 
montane, but  combines  with  this  tendency  the  exhaustive  diligence 
which  characterises  Protestant  investigations.  Incited  by  the  example 
of  Mohler,  Dollinger  of  Munich,  Alzog  of  Hildesheim,  and  Rilter  of 
Breslau,  have  written  valuable  manuals. 

a.  J.  E.  Chr.  Schmidt,  Handb.  d.  chr.  K.  G.  (Manual  of  Eccl.  Hist.) 
fortgesetzt  v.  F.  W.  Rettberg.  7  vols.  Giess.  1800-34.— J.  C.  L.  Gieseler, 
Lehrb.  d.  K.  G.  (Manual  of  Ch.  Hist.)  Vols.  I.-V.  in  8  Parts  (the  first 
2  volumes,  forming  5  volumes  in  "  Clark's  series,"  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English).  Bonn  1824-40.  Vol.  IV.  Kirchen  Geschich.te  d. 
18ten  Jahrhunderts  (Eccl.  Hist,  of  the  18th  cent.),  Vol.  V.  Kirchen 
G.  d.  neuesten  Zeit  (Eccl.  Hist,  from  1814),  and  Vol.  VI.  Dogmen-Gesch, 
(History  of  Dogmas),  have,  after  the  author's  death,  been  edited  by  Dr. 
Redepenning  (Bonn  1855-57.—  J.  G.Y.Engclhardt,  Handb.  d.  K.  G.  5 
vols.  Erlangen  1832.—  K.  Ease,  K.  G.  9th  Ed.  Leipz.  1867.—  F.  Schlei- 
ermachcr,  Vorles.  u.  d.  K.  G.  (Lectures  on  Ch.  H.)  herausg.  von  Bonell. 
Berlin  1840.—  Chr.  W.  Niedner,  Gesch.  d.  chr.  K.  Berlin  1866.—  G.  A. 
Fricke,  Lehrb.  d.  K.  G.  Vol.  I.  (to  the  8th  cent.)  Leipz.  1850.—  A.  F. 
Gfrorer,  Gesch.  d.  chr.  K.  Stuttg.  1840  etc.  7  vols,  (to  the  year  1000.) 

b.  A.  Neander,  allg.  Gesch.  d.  chr.  K.  (General  Hist,  of  the  Chr.  Ch.). 

6  Sections  in  11  vols.  Hamb.  1854-58  (to  the  year  1416)  ;  3d  Ed.  in  2 
large  vols.  8vo.  Hamb.  1857.  (translated  and  published  by  Clark, 
Edinb.)— Ph.  Schaff,  History  of  the  Chr.  Ch.  a.  d.  1-311,  Scribner,  N. 
York,  1859.— J.  L.  Jacobi,  Lehrb.  d.  K.  G.  Vol.  I.  to  the  year  590.  Ber- 
lin 1850. —  K.  R.  Hagenbach,  Vorles.  ii.  d.  K.  G.  New  collected  edition  in 

7  volumes.  Leipz.  1868. —  jE?.  H.  F.  Guericke,  Handb.  d.  K.  G.  9  Ed. 
Leipz.  1866  3  vols. —  Br.  Lindner,  Lehrb.  d.  chr.  K.  G.  3  vols.  Leipz. 
1848  etc.—  /.  H.  Kurtz,  Handb.  d.  allgem.  K.  G.  I.  1.  2.  3.  II.  1.  (to 
the  time  of  the  Carolingians).  Mitau  1858  etc.—  G.  v.  Polenz,  Gesch. 
d.  franz.  Calvin  (Hist,  of  Fr.  Calvin).  Vol.  I.  (to  1500).  Gotha  1857. 

c.  Leap.  v.  Stolberg,  Gesch.  d.  Rel.  Jesu  Chr.  (Hist,  of  the  Rel.  of 
Jesus  Christ).  Vols.  1-15  (to  the  year  430),  fortges.  von  (continued  by) 


40  INTRODUCTION. 

F.  v.  Kerz,  Vols.  16-32  (to  the  year  1300).  Mayence  1824-51,  and  by 
Brischar.  Vol.  33  etc.  1851  etc.—  Th.  Katercamp,  Gesch.  d.  Rel.  bis  zur 
Sfciftung  d.  alls;.  K.  (Hist,  of  Rel.  to  the  found,  of  a  univers.  Ch.)  May- 
ence 1819, —  Kirchengesch.  5  vols,  (to  the  year  1153),  Mlinster  1823-34. 
—  J.  Ign.  Hitter,  Handb.  d.  K.  G.  0th  Ed.  Bonn  1802  2  vols.—  /. 
Alzog,  Universalgesch.  d.  chr.  K.  (Universal  Hist,  of  the  Chr.  Ch.)  Gth 
Ed.  Mayence  1872. 


THE  PREPARATORY  HISTORY 


TO    THE 


CHRISTIAN  CHURCH 


RELIGIOUS,  MORAL,  AND  INTELLECTUAL  STATE  OF  THE  WORLD 
BEFORE  THE  COMING  OF  CHRIST. 

Cojip.  1.  /.  /.  Ign.  Bollinger,  Heidenth.  u.  Judenth.,  Vorhalle  zur 
Gesch.  d.  Christenth.  Regensb.  1857. — J.  G.  A.  Lutterbeck,  die  neu- 
test.     Lehrbegriffe,  Bd.  I.  d.  vorchristl.  Entwickelung.  Mainz  1853. 

2.  J.  Jac.  Hess,  Gesch.  d.  Israel,  vor  d.  Zeiten  Jesu  (History  of  the 
Jews  before  the  time  of  Christ.)  12  volumes.  Zurich  1770-88. — J.  H. 
Kurtz,  Geschichte  d.  alten  Bundes  (Hist,  of  the  Old  Covenant — transl. 
into  Engl,  by  Eldersheim,  Edinb.,  T.  and  T.  Clark).  Vols.  I.  II.  2d 
ed.  Berlin  1853-58 ;  —  the  same  author's  Lehrb.  d.  heil.  Gesch. 
(Manual  of  Sacred  Hist.)  12th  ed.  Kunigsb.  1871.— {H  Ewald.  Gesch. 
d.  Volkes  Israel  bis  Christus  [Hist,  of  the  Jewish  Nation  to  the  Time 
of  Christ].  Gott.  1804  etc.  7  vols.) — Edersheim's  History  of  the  Jew- 
ish Nation.     2d  ed.  Edinb.  1857. 

3.  Herder,  Ideen  zur  Philos.  d.  Gesch.  d.  Menschh.  (Thoughts  on  the 
Philos.  of  the  Hist,  of  Man).— If.  Ritter,  Gesch.  d.  Philosophie.  2d  ed. 
Hamb.  1830  etc. — Meiners,  allgem.  Gesch.  d.  Religg.  (Universal  Hist. 
of  Religions).  1800.—  Creuzer,  Symbolik  u.  Mythologie.  3  ed.  1837 
etc.—  OtJ'r.  Mutter,  Prolegomena  zu  einer  wissenschaft.  Mythol.  (Pro- 
leg,  to  a  scientific  Myth.). — Stuhr,  allg.  Gesch.  d.  Religionsformen  d. 
heidn.  Volker  (Universal  Hist,  of  the  Forms  of  Relig.  among  Heathen 
Nations).  Berlin.  1830. — A.  Wuttke,  Gesch.  d.  Heidenthums  (Hist,  of 
Heathen.).  Vols.  I.  II.  Breslau  1852  etc.; — J.  Sepp,  das  Heidenth. 
u.  dess.  Bedeutung  fur  d.  Christenth.  (Heathen,  and  its  import,  for 
Christian.).  3  vols.  Regensb.  1853. —  Tholuck,  das  Wesen  u.  die  sittl. 
Einnusse  des  Heidenth.  (the  Character  and  Moral  Infl.  of  Heathen.)  ; 
in  Neander's  Memu-ials.     Vol.  I. —  Gruneisen,  d.  Sittliche  in  d.  bilder 

4  *  (  41  ) 


42  PREPARATORY     HISTORY. 

den  Kunst  boi  d.  Griechen  (the  Moral  Element  in  the  Fine  Arts  among 
the  Greeks).     Leipz.  1833. 

I  5.    SURVEY   OF   THE    HISTORY   OF   THE   WORLD. 

The  incarnation  of  God  in  Christ  for  the  salvation  of  the  human 
race,  which  had  become  subject  to  sin,  death,  and  eternal  misery, 
forms  the  central  point  in  the  history  and  development  of  man- 
kind. With  this  event  commences,  and  on  it  rests,  "  the  fulness 
of  time  "  (Gal.  iv.  4).  All  former  history  served  only  as  prepa- 
ration for  this  great  fact.  But  this  process  of  preparation  dates 
from  earliest  times,  and  appeared  under  the  twofold  form  of 
Heathenism  and  of  Judaism.  In  the  former,  the  development  was 
left  to  the  unaided  powers  and  capacities  of  man  ;  in  the  latter, 
it  was  influenced  and  directed  by  a  continuous  course  of  Divine 
co-operation.  These  two  series,  which  differ  not  only  in  the 
means  employed,  but  also  in  the  aim  and  goal  of  their  respective 
developments,  continued  side  by  side  with  each  other,  until  in 
the  fulness  of  time  they  merged  in  Christianity,  which  they  were 
mutually  to  serve  by  their  appropriate  fruits  and  results,  and 
respectively  peculiar  developments  ;  but  with  which,  also,  they 
would  enter  into  a  deadly  conflict,  by  their  ungodly  and  wicked 
fruits  and  results.  And  as,  on  the  one  hand,  Christianity  was 
thus  fitted  to  become  the  Religion  of  the  world,  so  by  its  conflict 
with  evil  it  would  be  strengthened  for  victory,  and  confirmed  in 
its  divine  powers. 

§6.   PRIMEVAL  PREPARATION  OF   SALVATION. 

When  man  came  from  the  creative  hand  of  God,  he  was  upright 
and  holy.  He  bore  the  Divine  image,  and  was  destined  for,  and 
capable  of,  a  free  development  by  which  to  attain  perfect  blessed- 
ness, glory,  and  communion  with  God.  But  instead  of  attaining 
that  destiny  by  an  act  of  free  choice,  he  fell  by  an  abuse  of  his 
freedom,  and  became  subject  to  sin,  death,  and  corruption, 
However,  man  was  still  capable  of  salvation  ;  and  immediately  after 
his  fall  the  eternal  purpose  of  grace  was  announced,  and  henceforth 
became  the  great  element  in  his  history.  This  deliverance  was  to 
appear  in  the  midst  of  the  human  race  itself  (by  the  seed  of  the 
woman,  Gen.  iii.  15),  and  thus  to  form  the  culminating  point  of 
a  development  carried  on  under  the  operation  of  God.  But  soon 
this  development  again  took  a  direction  so  perverse  and  godless, 


PURPOSES     OF    JUDAISM     AND     HEATHENISM.       43 

that  unless  it  had  been  broken  off  by  a  general  judgment  (that 
of  the  flood),  it  would  have  terminated,  not  in  salvation,  but  in 
absolute  destruction.  Only  one  man  (Noah)  was  preserved  amidst 
the  general  ruin,  and  now  formed  the  commencement  of  a-  new 
development  by  which  the  great  goal  was  again  to  be  sought. 
Sin  a  second  time  marred  this  work, — not,  indeed,  so  far  as  to 
render  a  second  general  judgment  necessary  in  order  to  preserve 
the  Divine  purpose  of  salvation,  yet  so  as  to  make  it  impossible 
that  this  development  should  become  the  medium  for  exhibiting 
the  counsel  of  sovereign  love.  Salvation  might  indeed  still  be 
prepared  in  and  by  it,  if  not  positively,  at  least  negatively.  But, 
in  order  positively  to  prepare  the  way  of  salvation,  for  the  third 
time  a  new  commencement  required  to  be  made. 

§7.   DIFFERENT   PURPOSES   WHICH   JUDAISM   AND   HEA- 
THENISM WERE  INTENDED  TO    SERVE. 

In  Abraham  and  in  his  seed  God  chose  and  created,  called  and 
trained  a  people,  in   and  by  which    salvation  —  in   its   positive 
aspect — was  to  be  prepared,  until,  when  fully  matured,  its  benefits 
might  be  shared  by  all  the  nations  of  the  earth.     This  new  de- 
velopment commenced    on   the   principle   of  strictest  exclusion, 
although  from  the  first  it  offered  the  prospect  of  finally  embracing 
all  nations.     Everything  connected  with  the  history  of  this  people 
bears  reference  to  the  coming  salvation.     Each  revelation  and 
dispensation,  all  discipline  and  punishment,  every  promise  and 
threatening;  their  constitution,  laws,  and  worship  ;  every  political, 
civil,  and  religious  institution  (so  far  as  they  were  legitimate  and 
proper),  —  all  tended  towards  this  goal.     Meantime  the  Lord 
allowed  the  other  nations  to  walk  in  their  own  ways  (Acts  xiv. 
16).     But,  while  leaving  them  to  themselves,  He  did  not  wholly 
forsake  them,  but  had  a  great  purpose  of  His  own  in  view,  to 
which  their  development  also  was  to  be  subservient.      Their  his- 
tory also  was  preparatory  for  salvation,  and  that  not  only  nega- 
tively, in  so  far  as  they  learned  to  long  for,  and  to  become  sus- 
ceptible of,  the  salvation  which  was  destined  to  be  "  of  the  Jews" 
(John  iv.  22),  but  positively  also,  in  so  far  as  they  were  rendered 
capable    of    offering    a    nuptial    gift    which    should   prove    of 
greatest  importance  for  the  spread  of  that  salvation.     In  this 
respect  pre-Christian  heathenism  is  not  without  its  Divine  sanc- 
tion. 


44  PREPARATORY     HIS  TO  it  Y. 

In  its  fundamental  principles,  heathenism  denies  Jie  existence  of  a 
living  and  personal  God,  despises  the  salvation  which  He  has  prepared, 
and  embodies  the  idea  that  man  is  both  able  and  obliged  to  deliver 
himself  by  his  own  strength  and  wisdom.  Hence  the  endeavour,  with 
the  means  at  man's  command,  to  attain  a  salvation  devised  by  man.  From 
the  sinfulness  and  impotence  of  human  nature,  such  endeavours  could 
only  lead  to  entire  and  felt  ruin.  Despite  increasing  worldly  culture 
and  political  power,  heathenism  increasingly  sank  from  its  height  of 
moral  and  religious  strength  and  dignity,  into  a  state  of  spiritual  decay 
and  moral  laxity  and  helplessness.  It  became  more  and  more  evident 
that  neither  nature  nor  art,  neither  worldly  culture  nor  wisdom,  neither 
oracles  nor  mysteries,  neither  philosophy  nor  theosophy,  neither  poli- 
tical institutions  nor  industry,  neither  sensual  indulgence  nor  luxury, 
could  satisfy  the  cravings  of  the  soul,  created  for  the  enjoyment  of  God, 
or  restore  to  man  that  inward  peace  which  he  had  lost.  Experience 
such  as  this  was  calculated  to  humble  the  pride  of  heathenism,  and  to 
awaken  in  nobler  spirits  a  sense  of  need — a  longing  and  a  susceptibility 
for  the  salvation  to  be  manifested  in  Christ.  Titus  Judaism  was  to  prepare 
salvation  for  mankind,  andheathenism  mankind  for  salvation.  But  the  latter 
has  also  yielded  not  merely  negative,  but  positive  results.  In  its  strug- 
gles after  light,  heathenism  called  every  natural  power  and  capacity 
of  man  into  requisition,  in  order  to  attain  the  highest  possible  develop- 
ment of  worldly  culture  and  power.  In  this  respect  great  results  were 
attained,  which  in  turn  became  the  property  of  Christianity,  and,  in 
its  hands,  the  form  and  the  means  by  which  its  world-wide  mission 
was  to  be  realised  and  executed.  In  one  sentence,  Judaism  litis  sup- 
plied to  the  Church  the.  substance,  the  Divine  reality;  heathenism,  the 
human  form,  and.  the  outward  means  for  developing  and  carrying  out  the 
great  work. 

It  must  not  be  imagined,  however,  that  these  results  of  the  develop- 
ment of  Judaism  and  of  heathenism  were  either  entirely  or  generally 
understood  and  applied,  since  human  liberty  might  resist,  and  shut 
itself  up  against  these  methods  which  the  Lord,  in  His  grace,  took  for 
training  mankind.  A  comparatively  small  portion  only  of  the  Jewish 
and  heathen  world,  elevated  above  the  generality,  and  feeling  their  need 
of  salvation,  from  the  first  accepted  the  offer  of  the  Gospel.  All  the 
rest  shut  their  minds  and  hearts  to  its  claims,  opposed  it  with  more  or 
less  pertinacity,  and  commenced  a  determined  contest  against  the 
Church,  as  soon  as  it  appeared  formally  constituted.  Judaism  opposed 
Christianity,  because  it  attached  exclusive  value  to  the  husk  in  which 
the  fruit  had  ripened  to  maturity,  while  it  rejected  the  fruit  itself — 
and,  because  Jewish  pride  and  exclnsiveness  could  not  brook  the  idea 
that  the  Gospel  should  place  the  Gentile  on  the  same  level  with  the- 
Jew.  Heathenism  opposed  the  Church  because  it  regarded  Divine  Wis- 
dom as  folly,  Divine  Power  as  deceit,  and  built  itself  up  in  the  pride 
of  its  human  wisdom,  in  the  fanaticism  of  its  unbelief  or  misbelief, 


HEATHENISM.  45 

and  in  the  selfishness  of  its  power  and  wealth.  This  decisive  contest, 
in  which  the  Church  was  to  display,  and  on  which  it  brought  to  bear, 
the  strength  and  the  resources  with  which  the  Lord  had  endowed  it, 
became  the  more  bloody  and  desperate,  as  the  Church  spread  and 
increased  despite  all  persecutions  and  oppressions,  and  as  both  Juda- 
ism and  heathenism  could  not  but  see  the  certain  approach  of  their 
final  doom. 

§8.   HEATHENISM. 

Full  of  native  vigor,  and  surrounded  by  a  nature  so  lavish  in 
her  gifts,  mankind  soon  denied  the  existence  of  a  living,  a  per- 
sonal, and  a  supra-mundane  God.  Nature,  with  her  inexhausti- 
ble fulness  of  life  and  of  enjoyments,  seemed  so  near,  and  so 
much  more  worthy  of  devotion  and  worship  than  this  Personal 
God,  in  His  supra-mundane  elevation.  Thus  originated  heathen- 
ism—  in  its  general  character,  a  state  of  absorption  in  the  great 
life  of  Nature,  a  deification,  or,  in  one  word,  the  worship  and 
service  of  Nature  (Rom.  i.  21,  ff.),  which  also  conditioned  the 
character  of  its  morality.  The  intellectual  culture  of  heathenism , 
especially  through  its  philosophy,  opened  the  way  for  the  inte'i- 
If.ctual  labors  of  the  Church.  The  political  state  of  heathenism, 
with  its  struggles  after  universal  dominion,  as  well  as  its 
industrial  activity,  likewise  proved  accessory  to  the  progress 
of  Christianity. 

1.  Tlie  Religious  Character  of  Heathenism.  —  Those  hidden  powers 
in  the  life  of  Nature,  and  of  the  soul,  were  not  viewed  abstractly,  but 
regarded  as  revelations  of  the  eternal  spirit  of  Nature.  Such  ideas 
were  further  developed  by  speculation  and  mysticism,  by  natural 
magic  and  by  divination,  and  applied  to  all  the  relations  of  human 
life.  Under  the  influence  of  certain  prominent  individuals,  or  of 
geographical  and  ethnographical  peculiarities,  the  various  systems 
of  the  worship  of  nature  arose  in  this  manner.  The  common  charac- 
teristics of  all  these  systems,  which,  indeed,  is  connected  with  the 
very  essence  of  heathenism,  consists  in  a  line  of  demarcation  between 
the  esoteric  religion  of  the  priests  and  the  exoteric  worship  of  the 
multitude.  The  former  may  be  characterized  as  a  speculative  and 
ideal  Pantheism ;  the  latter,  as  a  Polytheism  full  of  myths  and 
ceremonies. 

Let  it  not  be  supposed  that  heathenism  was  entirely  devoid  of  every 
element  of  truth.  Not  to  mention  these  remains  of  original  revela- 
tion in  heathenism  which,  with  various  aberrations  from  pristine  purity, 
lay  at  the  foundation  of,  or  were  incorporated  in,  its  systems,  thes« 


46  PREPARATORY     HISTORY. 

religions  of  nature  have,  in  their  unnaturally  early  development,  anti- 
cipated some  of  those  religious  truths  which,  in  the  arrangement  of 
Divine  revelation,  only  unfolded  gradually,  and  at  a  comparatively  late 
period.  At  the  same  time,  however,  they  have  perverted  and  distorted 
these  truths  into  falsehoods  and  caricatures.  Among  them  we  reckon, 
for  example,  the  pantheistic  theories  concerning  the  Trinity  and  the 
Incarnation,  the  dualistic  perversion  of  the  real  existence  of  evil, 
traced  back  to  an  uncreated  principle,  etc.  To  the  same  class  also 
belongs,  more  especially,  the  practice  of  offering  human  sacrifices, 
which  prevailed  under  every  form  of  the  worship  of  nature  —  a  dread- 
ful, in  some  sense  a  prophetic,  cry  for  help  on  the  part  of  man,  con- 
sciously forsaken  by  God,  and  which  could  only  on  Golgotha  be  resolved 
into  hymns  of  praise  and  of  thanksgiving. 

The  almost  incredible  deeds  of  self-devotion  and  renunciation,  such 
as  hecatombs,  sacrifices  of  children,  emasculation,  prostitution,  etc., 
attest  the  power  and  energy  with  which,  in  its  high-day,  the  worship 
of  nature  had  kept  hold  on  the  hearts  of  its  adherents,  and  show  the 
enthusiasm  which  it  had  called  forth.  Another  evidence  in  the  same 
direction  is  the  almost  irresistible  charm  which,  during  the  whole 
course  of  the  earlier  history  of  Israel,  heathenism  seems  to  have  had 
for  the  chosen  race.  Even  this  circumstance  proves  that  heathenism 
was  not  merely  a  lie  and  a  piece  of  imposition.  The  worship  of  nature 
could  not  have  wielded  such  power  if  this  lie  had  not  concealed  some 
elements  of  truth  ;  the  charm  which  it  exercised  lay  in  its  anticipations 
of  a  future  salvation,  however  Satan  might  have  distorted  them ;  while 
the  mysterious  manifestations  of  natural  magic,  and  of  the  power  of 
divination,  appeared  to  confirm  its  Divine  claim.  But  the  fate  reserved 
for  every  unnatural  and  premature  development  also  befell  the  worship 
of  nature.  The  remains  of  truth  were  swallowed  up  in  the  gigantic 
lie ;  the  powers  of  life  and  the  capacity  of  development,  which  had 
been  forced  on  beyond  their  real  strength,  were  soon  used  and  con- 
sumed ;  the  blossoms  fell  off  without  giving  place  to  fruit.  Mysteries 
and  oracles,  magic  and  divination,  became  either  empty  forms,  or  the 
means  of  gross  imposition  and  low  trickery.  Ultimately,  a  haruspex 
could  not  meet  his  fellow  without  laughing.  Among  some,  unbelief 
ridiculed  everything;  among  others,  misbelief  assumed  the  most  disso- 
lute or  extravagant  shapes  ;  while  an  unthinking  religious  eclecticism 
vainly  endeavoured  to  infuse  fresh  life  into  decrepid  and  dying  heathen- 
ism. Most  miserable  impotence  and  emptiness  —  such  was  the  final 
issuo  of  a  worship  of  nature,  once  so  vigorous  and  lively. 

2.  Moral  Condition  of  the  Heathen.  —  The  morals  of  a  people  always 
keep  pace  with  their  religion.  It  was  so  with  the  heathen  nations  also, 
whose  moral  life  was  earnest,  vigorous,  and  genuine,  or  weak,  defeetive, 
and  perverse  in  measure,  as  religious  earnestness  increased  or  de- 
creased. The  moral  defects  of  heathenism  sprang  from  its  religious 
deficiencies.     It  was  a  religion  adaptod  for  time,  not  for  eternity  ;  and 


HEATHENISM.  47 

the  gods  shared  all  those  failings  which  are  connected  with  our  piesent 
state  of  existence.  Thus  religion  lost  all  that  power  by  which  it  ele- 
vates man  above  the  defilements  connected  with  our  present  state 
Myths,  which  in  part  were  exceedingly  immoral  in  their  tendency, 
sanctified  or  excused — by  the  example  of  the  gods — even  gross  immo- 
rality. Voluptuousness,  which  symbolized  the  generating  power  in  the 
divine  life  of  nature,  was  not  unfrequently  made  the  centre  and  the 
climax  of  worshi').  Heathenism  wholly  ignored  the  great  truths  con- 
nected with  the  general  idea  of  humanity  ;  it  was  only  conversant  with 
those  connected  with  nationality,  and  the  excellencies  it  cultivated 
were  merely  civic  virtues.  Eastern  despotism,  as  well  as  Western 
conceit  and  pride  of  nationality,  slighted  the  common  rights  and  the 
dignity  of  man.  A  foreigner  or  a  slave  had  neither  position  nor 
claims.  As  the  value  of  an  individual  entirely  depended  on  his  politi- 
cal position,  the  place  belonging  to  woman  was  wholly  ignored  or  mis- 
understood. Generally  speaking,  she  was  regarded  only  as  the  hand- 
maid of  man ;  while,  in  the  East,  polygamy  degraded  her  to  the  lowest 
level.  Still,  notwithstanding  these  fundamental  and  great  defects,  in 
the  high-day  of  its  vigor,  heathenism  often  displayed  considerable 
moral  earnestness  and  energy,  at  least  in  those  departments  of  moral 
life  (such  as  in  the  state  and  in  civic  relations)  which  the  breath  of 
Pantheism  or  of  Polytheism  had  not  laid  desolate.  But  when  the 
ancestral  faith  had  become  empty  and  poAverless,  when  it  ceased  to 
animate  and  to  pervade  these  departments  of  life,  they  also  lost  the 
moral  dignity  formerly  attaching  to  them.  The  general  decadence 
reached  its  climax  during  the  degenerate  times  of  the  Roman  Empe- 
rors. When  the  Church  entered  on  its  career  of  spiritual  conquest,  it 
found  heathenism  in  a  state  of  indescribable  moral  degradation. 

3.  The  Intellectual  Culture  of  the  Heathen.  —  The  intellectual  culture 
of  heathendom  exercised  a  twofold  and  an  opposite  influence  upon  the 
Church.  Partly  heathen  science  and  art  prepared  the  way  for,  and 
formed  a  link  of  connection  with,  Christianity ;  partly,  it  obstructed 
its  progress,  and  facilitated  a  relapse  into  heathenism.  To  the  mental 
activity  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  mankind  and  the  Church  are 
indebted  for  general  culture  and  for  that  preparation  of  the  way  to 
which  we  have  already  adverted.  In  this  respect  we  would  specially 
point  to  the  philosophy,  the  poetry,  and  the  historical  productions  of 
these  nations.  The  ph'losophical  investigations  carried  on  in  the  East 
were  chiefly  of  a  theosophic  character,  and  for  the  purpose  of  develop- 
ing the  esoteric  worship  of  nature  into  the  various  speculative  religious 
systems.  Oriental  poetry  served  the  same  purpose  with  reference  to 
the  exoteric  religion  of  the  people.  Historical  works  —  in  the  proper 
sense  of  that  term — were  not  produced  in  the  East.  -The  mental  cul- 
ture of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  as  expressed  in  their  philosophical, 
poetic,  and  historical  writings,  prepared,  in  respect  both  of  form  and 
of  substance,  the  way  for  the  Christian  Church.     It  furnished  forms, 


48  PREPARATORY     HISTORY. 

which,  from  their  depth,  distinctness,  and  correctness,  their  ready 
adaptation  and  general  suitableness,  proved  most  fit  for  presenting  and 
developing  the  new  truths  which  were  to  issue  from  the  Holy  Land. 
It  also  produced  certain  ideas  and  views,  derived  from  a  profound  con- 
templation and  study  both  of  nature  and  of  mind,  of  history  and  of 
life,  which,  in  many  respects,  even  opened  the  way  and  prepared  a  soil 
for  the  great  realities  of  salvation.  —  On  the  other  hand  the  East,  not 
less  than  the  classical  West,  contributed  elements  of  culture  which 
were  to  prove  a  hindrance  to,  and  a  corruption  in,  the  Church.  The 
hostile  and  antichristian,  the  distinctively  heathenish  substance  of 
their  philosophy  and  theosophy,  as  well  as  their  study  of  mysteries, 
were  by  and  by  introduced  into  Christianity,  along  with  the  forms  of 
culture  under  which  these  hostile  elements  had  formerly  appeared. 
Had  such  attempts  against  the  purity  of  the  Church  proved  successful, 
it  would  have  become  essentially  Pagan.  The  mysterious  depths  of 
Christianity  attracted,  indeed,  heathenism;  but  then,  to  those  highly 
cultivated  Gentiles  who  boasted  in  the  conceit  of  their  sublime  wis- 
dom, the  Gospel  appeared  too  simple,  too  void  of  philosophy  and  specu- 
lation, to  meet  the  demands  of  the  age.  They  deemed  it  necessary 
to  enrich  it  with  the  accumulated  stores  of  eastern  and  western  wis- 
dom, that  so  it  might  indeed  lay  claim  to  be  an  absolute  and  perfect 
religion. 

Only  classical,  i.  e.,  Greek  and  Roman  culture,  directhj  prepared  the 
way  for  the  Church.  The  influences  of  Eastern  forms  of  culture  on  the 
history  of  the  kingdom  of  God  were  entirely  confined  to  Judaism.  The 
symbols  of  the  East  became  the  form  in  which  the  Divine  substance, 
communicated  by  Old  Testament  prophets,  appeared  and  developed. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  dialectics  of  classical  antiquity  furnished  an 
appropriate  medium  by  which  to  present  the  truths  of  Christian ity 
when  the  symbolic  covering  of  Judaism  had  been  laid  aside,  and  the 
truths  of  salvation  were  to  appear  in  their  pure  and  spiritual  character. 

4.  Greek  Philosophy.— -Our  remarks  about  the  form  and  the  substance 
of  heathen  culture,  and  their  preparatory  or  disturbing  influences  on 
Christianity  when  it  entered  on  its  world-mission,  apply  mure  particu- 
larly to  Greek  Philosophy.  However,  even  where  these  speculations 
prepared  the  way  for  the  truth,  we  must  distinguish  between  their 
merely  negative  tendency,  which  served  to  destroy  heathenism,  and  the 
positive,  in  so  far  as  both  in  substance  and  in  form  they  led  the  way 
towards  Christianity.  From  the  first  this  negative  tendency  appeared 
in  Grecian  philosophy.  It  undermined  the  popular  creed,  prepared  the 
downfall  of  idolatry,  and  led  to  the  self-despair  of  heathenism,  which 
pointed  to  Christianity  for  deliverance.  With  Socrates  {ob.  399  b.c.) 
commenced  the  positive  preparation  for  the  truth,  accomplished  by 
Greek  philosophy.  If,  in  deep  humility,  he  confessed  his  ignorance,  if 
he  based  aU   wisdom  on  "Know  Thyself,"  if  he  traced  his  deepest 


HEATHENISM.  49 

thoughts  and  motives  to  Divine  suggestions  (his  baipovtov),  if  he -wil- 
lingly surrendered  the  enjoyments  of  this  world,  and  expressed  a  con- 
fident hope  in  that  which  was  spiritual  and  eternal, — we  may  be  allowed 
to  regard  all  such  expressions  as,  in  a  certain  sonse,  the  faint  echoes, 
or,  rather,  as  the  prophetic  anticipations,  of  Christian  doctrine  and  life. 
The  speculations  of  Plato  even  more  closely  and  fully  approximated 
Christian  views.     That  philosopher  (ob.  348)  collected  the  scattered 
germs  of  his  great  predecessor's  teaching.     In  his  profound,  specula- 
tive, and  poetic  mind,  they  sprung  up  and  unfolded  to  a  new  mode  of 
contemplating  the  world,  which  came  nearer  that  of  Christianity  than 
any  other  system  outside  revelatiou.     The  philosophy  of  Plato  spake  of 
man  as  claiming  kindred  to  the  Deity,  and  led  him  beyond  what  is  seen 
and  sensuous  to  the  eternal  prototypes  of  the  beautiful,  the  true,  and 
the  good,  from  which  man  had  fallen ;  thus  awakening  in  him  a  deep 
longing  for  the  blessings  he  had  lost.     If  the  system  of  Aristotle  [ob. 
322)  was  farther  distant  from  Christianity  than  that  of  Plato,  he  ren- 
dered even  greater  service  by  presenting  his  views  in  a  form  of  which 
Christian  science  afterwards  made  so  large  use  in  its  inquiries  and  dog- 
matic statements.     These  two  thinkers  represent  the  climax  of  philo- 
sophic speculation  among  the  Greeks,  and  the  farthest  limits  within 
which  inquiries  like  theirs  could  prepare  the  way  for  the  Gospel.     As, 
consciously  or  unconsciously,  philosophy  had  formerly  contributed  to 
the  decay  of  popular  religion,  it  now  entered  on  a  process  of  self-de- 
struction, and  with  increasing  clearness  disclosed  the  utter  helplessness 
of  heathenism.     This  phase  appears  most  distinctly  in  the  three  forms 
of  philosophy  which,  at  the  time  when  the   Church  appeared  on  the 
stage  of  the  world,  claimed  the  most  numerous  adherents :  we  mean, 
Epicureanism,  Stoicism,  and  Skepticism.     In  the  philosophy  of  Epicu- 
rus {ob.  271),  pleasure  was  considered  the  highest  good.     The  world 
was  left  at  the  mercy  of  chance,  the  soul  was  represented  as  mortal, 
and  the  gods  as  enjoying  their  pleasures,  entirely  careless  of  this  world. 
In  opposition  to  Epicurean  Deism,  Stoicism  (of  which  Zeno,  ob.  2G0, 
was  the  founder)   propounded  a  hylozoistic  Pantheism,  in  which  the 
affairs  of  the  world  were  made  to  depend  on  the  unavoidable  neces- 
sities of  fate.    Meantime  the  world  was  hastening  towards  a  great  catas- 
trophe, from  the  flames  of  which  a  new  world  was  to  issue,  which,  in 
turn,  was  destined  to  describe  a  similar  cycle.     To  despise  pleasure 
and  pain,  and,  in  case  of  necessity,  to  put  an  end  to  an  existence  which 
hid  missed  its  aim — such  was  the  climax  of  wisdom.     The  sage,  who 
had  reached  this  elevation,  from  which  he  could  command  himself  and 
the  world,  had  become  his  own  god,  and  found  all  satisfaction  in  him- 
self.    Lastly,  Scepticism  (of  which  Arcesilaus,  ob.  240,  and  Carneades, 
ob.  128,  were  the  founders)   appeared  to  controvert  the  principles  of 
Stoicism.     Since  it  was  manifestly  impossible  to  arrive  at  truth,  this 
system  placed  the  sum  and  substance  of  theoretical  wisdom  in  refrain- 
5 


50  PREPARATORY     HISTORY. 

ing    (irto^jj)  from   every  conclusion  ;  and  that  of  practical  wisdom  in 
abstaining  from  all  passion,  and  from  every  strong  emotion. 

5.  Political  Condition  of  Heathen  Countries.  —  The  leading  tendency 
in  heathenism  —  to  procure  salvation  by  the  unaided  power  of  man  — 
implied  an  endeavour  to  combine  every  force  and  capacity  into  a  colossal 
unity  (Gen.  xi.  4,  G).  When  heathenism  had  renounced  allegiance  to 
the  personal  and  living  God,  and  rejected  His  method  of  salvation 
and  of  union,  it  was  impelled,  by  a  kind  of  inward  necessity,  to  con- 
centrate the  mental  and  physical  powers  of  mankind,  and  through  them 
all  powers  of  nature,  and  the  products  of  the  various  zones  and  coun- 
tries, and  to  subject  them  to  one  person,  that  so  this  person  might  be 
acknowledged  as  the  personal  and  visible  representative  of  the  Deity. 
This  felt  necessity  gave  rise  to,  even  as  its  perverseness  led  to  tlie  ruin  of, 
one  empire  after  the  other,  until,  in  the  Roman  Empire,  the  goal  was 
reached,  while,  at  the  same  time,  this  tendency  was  finally  arrested 
and  destroyed  by  the  spiritual  power  of  the  kingdom  of  God  (Dan.  ii. 
14;  vii.  13,24). 

This  aim  after  a  universal  empire  has,  as  all  the  tendencies  of  hea- 
thenism, its  twofold  aspect ;  and  we  must  distinguish  between  the  ways 
of  man  and  those  of  God,  between  the  ungodly  purposes  of  man  and 
the  happy  results  to  which,  in  the  Divine  government,  they  were  made 
subservient.  Although  Ave  only  refer  to  the  Roman  Empire,  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  all  the  great  monarchies  were  only  a  repetition 
and  a  more  vigorous  continuation  of  one  and  the  same  tendency  and 
endeavour.  Hence  our  remarks  about  Rome  equally  apply  to  other 
empires.  The  universal  domination  of  one  power  prepared  the  way 
for  the  Church,  in  so  far  as,  by  the  union  of  nations  into  one  empire, 
the  various  stages  and  elements  of  civilization,  which  otherwise  might 
have  remained  isolated,  weve  combined  into  a  more  universal  civiliza- 
tion, which  rendered  it  comparatively  easy  to  circulate  the  fresh  blood 
poured  by  the  Church  into  the  veins  of  nations.  This  union,  which 
was  first  brought  about  by  the  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great,  was 
completed  when  Rome  became  the  mistress  of  the  world.  Gradually 
the  Greek  language,  which,  when  the  Gospel  was  first  preached,  was 
understood  and  spoken  throughout  the  Roman  Empire,  obtained  uni- 
versal domination,  —  as  it  were  a  temporary  suspension  this  of  the 
judgment  by  which  languages  were  confounded,  and  which  attended 
the  rise  of  heathenism  (Gen.  xi.),  —  that  thus  the  return  to  God,  and 
the  reception  of  His  Gospel,  might  be  facilitated. 

Impelled  by  a  principle  similar  to  that  which,  in  the  state,  led  to 
attempts  after  concentration  of  power,  Industry  and  Commerce  sought 
to  grasp  all  wealth.  But  while,  for  very  different  purposes  than  those 
of  the  Gospel,  commerce  opened  ways  through  deserts  and  over  seas, 
and  joined  the  most  distant  countries  and  zones,  without  knowing  or 
willing  it,  in  the  arrangement  of  God  it  served  an  important  purpose 
for  the  diffusion  of  the  glad  tidings. 


JUDAISM  51 


I  9.   JUDAISM. 

Israel  was  jaade  tj  dwell  in  a  country  which,  like  its  people, 
occupied  a  central  and  yet  isolated  position  in  the  Old  World. 
There,  in  quiet  seclusion,  undisturbed  by  the  traffic  of  the  nations, 
should  it,  as  the  bearer  and  medium  of  the  revelation  of  God's 
grace  to  mankind,  abide  in  security  against  all  the  agitations  of 
heathen  conquest  and  oppression.  Too  often,  however,  did  Israel 
forget  its  proper  position  and  calling,  too  often  mix  in  with 
affairs  of  the  world  which  did  not  concern  it;  too  often  backslid 
from  God,  and  stoop  to  the  religion,  worship,  and  manners  of 
adjacent  heathen  tribes.  Hence  its  frequent  chastisements  under 
the  hard  yoke  of  Gentile  invaders.  But  the  holy  seed  which 
continued  faithful,  even  in  times  of  the  most  general  defection  ; 
and,  above  all,  the  patience  and  faithfulness  of  God,  did  not  suffer 
its  high  vocation  to  be  forfeited,  but  led  the  nation  to  a  glorious 
end,  notwithstanding  the  final  rejection  of  salvation  by  the  irre- 
ligious masses  of  the  people. 

1.  Judaism  under  Speciul  Divine  Tuition  and  Discipline.  —  Abraham 
was  chosen  and  called  alone  (Isa.  li.  2).     As  Creator,  God  called  the 
seed  of  promise  from  the  dead  body  of  Sarah ;  as  Saviour,  He  delivered 
the  chosen  race  from  the  oppressive  bondage  of  Egypt.     The  patri- 
archal family  was  constituted  in  the  Holy  Land  ;  while  in  order  that 
the  family  might,  unimpeded,  develop  into  a  great  nation,  it  had  to  go 
down  into  Egypt.     From  this  strange  land  Moses  brought  up  the  people, 
and  gave  them  a  theocratic  constitution,  laws,  and  worship,  to  serve  as 
the  means  by  which  they  were  to  fulfil  their  mission,  and  to  be  types 
of,  and  a  schoolmaster  unto,  future  perfectness  (Gal.  iii.  24  ;  Heb.  x.  1). 
The  Exodus  from  Egypt  constituted  the  birth  of  the  nation ;  by  the 
giving  of  the  law  on  Mount  Sinai,  Israel  was  set  apart  to  be  a  holy 
nation.     When,  under  the  leadership  of  Joshua,  the  Israelites  took 
possession  of  the  home  of  their  ancestors  —  a  country  adapted  for  the 
purposes  which  the  people  were  to  serve  —  the  last  condition  of  their 
independent  existence  was  fulfilled.     Under  the  fostering  care  of  a 
devout  priesthood,   the  purely   popular   institutions   of  the  theocracy 
should  now  have  borne  rich  fruit ;  but,  during  the  administration  of 
the  judges,  it  soon  appeared  that  these  appliances  were  insufficient, 
and  two  other  agencies  were  called  into  operation.     The  prophetical 
office  was  a  special  but  continuous  institution,  intended  to  serve  as  the 
mouth-piece  of  God,  and  to  act  as  the  conscience  of  the  commonwealth  ; 
while  the  royal  office  was  designed  to  afford  external  security,  and  to 
bestow  internal  peace  upon   the  theocracy.     Then  followed  the  con- 


32  PREPARATORY     HISTORY. 

quests  of  David,  which  gave  the  Jewish  commonwealth  a  becoming 
political  importance,  while  the  temple  of  Solomon  fully  developed  its 
typical  worship.  But,  despite  prophecy  and  royalty,  the  people  became 
increasingly  estranged  from  their  peculiar  destiny,  and  hence  un- 
able to  maintain  their  high  position.  The  division  of  the  kingdom, 
continued  internal  feuds,  improper  alliances,  growing  apostasy,  and 
conformity  to  idolatry,  brought  after  them  Divine  judgments,  in  conse. 
quencc  of  which  the  nation  became  subject  to  the  heathen.  These 
chastisements  remained  not  altogether  unimproved.  Cyrus  allowed  the 
return  of  the  captives,  and  their  reorganization  into  a  state  ;  and  pro- 
phets were  again  commissioned  to  direct  the  formation  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  community.  —  Amid  these  occurrences,  prophecy  served 
not  only  for  present  instruction,  reproof,  and  admonition,  but  kept 
before  the  public  mind  the  promise  of  a  coming  salvation,  thus  supply- 
ing comfort  and  hope  even  in  the  most  troublous  times.  The  happy 
periods,  when  David  had  conquered  and  Solomon  exercised  his  glorious 
sway  of  peace,  served  as  basis  for  depicting  the  future  transcendent 
glory  of  Messiah's  kingdom  ;  while  the  aberrations,  the  sufferings,  and 
the  humiliation  of  the  people,  during  the  period  of  their  decadence, 
led  those  who  cherished  such  hopes  to  look  for  a  Messiah  who  should 
suffer  for  the  sins  of  the  people,  and  take  upon  Himself  all  their 
miser}'.  And  when  prophecy  had  done  the  work  allotted,  it  ceased  — 
to  resume  and  complete  its  message  when  the  fulness  of  time  had 
come. 

2.  Judaism  after  the  Cessation  of  Special  Divine  Tuition.  —  The  period 
had  now  arrived  when  the  immediate  guidance  of  Divine  revelation 
was  to  be  withdrawn.  Furnished  with  the  results  and  experiences  of 
former  teaching,  followed  by  the  law  as  schoolmaster,  and  by  prophetic 
prediction  as  by  a  lamp,  the  chosen  race  was  now  to  give  evidence  of 
its  calling.  The  annihilation  with  which  the  fanaticism  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  threatened  the  Jewish  commonwealth  was  happily  averted, 
and  under  the  Maccabees  the  nation  once  more  obtained  political  inde- 
pendence. But,  amid  the  increasing  corruption  of  the  Maccabean 
rulers,  the  intrigues  of  Borne  again  deprived  the  country  of  this  boon. 
The  religious  persecutions  of  the  Syrians,  and,  after  them,  the  oppres- 
sion of  the  Romans,  transformed  the  national  feeling  of  attachment  to 
their  ancestral  religion  into  extreme  exclusivencss,  fanatical  hatred 
and  proud  contempt  of  everything  foreign,  and  changed  the  former 
longing  for  the  Messiah  to  merely  political,  extravagant,  and  carnal 
expectations.  True  piety  decayed  into  petty  legalism  and  ceremonial- 
ism, into  works  and  self-righteousness.  The  priests  and  scribes  were 
zealous  in  fostering  this  tendency,  by  increasing  external  ordinances 
and  perverting  the  sense  of  Scripture  ;  thus  rendering  the  mass  of  the 
people  only  more  insusceptible  to  the  spirituality  of  that  salvation, 
which  was  now  so  near  at  hand. 


THE     SAMARITANS.  53 

The  institution  of  synagogues  proved  of  great  importance  for  the 
development  of  Judaism  during  the  period  succeeding  the  return  from 
Babylon.  They  owed  their  origin  to  the  consciousness  that,  after  the 
cessation  of  prophecy,. it  was  a  most  necessary  duty,  not  only  to  con- 
tinue the  symbolical  services  of  the  temple,  but  also  to  seek  edification 
by  a  careful  study  of  the  truths  which  God  had  revealed  in  the  law  and 
by  the  prophets.  But  in  these  synagogues  the  tendency  to  enlarge  the 
Mosaic  law,  and  to  hedge  it  about  by  rabbinical  enactments,  the  aim 
after  an  external  legalism  and  work-righteousness,  national  pride  and 
carnal  anticipations  of  Messianic  times  were  nursed,  and  from  them 
they  spread  among  the  body  of  the  people.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
synagogues,  especially  those  out  of  Palestine  (among  the  Diaspora), 
proved,  from  their  missionary  influence,  of  great  use  to  the  Church. 
These  meetings,  in  which  the  Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament 
were,  every  Sabbath,  read  in  the  Greek  version  of  the  LXX.  and 
explained,  offered  to  the  heathen,  who  felt  their  need  of  salvation,  pre- 
cious opportunities  of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  revelation  and 
the  promises  of  God  under  the  Old  Covenant ;  while  to  the  first  mes- 
sengers of  the  Gospel  they  aflbrded  an  opportunity  of  announcing  the 
Gospel  to  numerous  assemblages,  composed  of  Jews  and  Gentiles.  The 
strict,  traditional,  legal,  and  carnal  direction  of  Judaism  after  the  exile 
developed  specially  in  the  sect  of  the  Pharisees.  To  them  the 
Sadducees  were  opposed,  who,  estranged  from  the  peculiar  genius 
of  the  people  and  hostile  to  traditionalism,  sympathized  with  the 
Romans  and  the  Herodians  —  in  theory  Rationalists,  in  practice 
Epicureans.  A  third  sect,  that  of  the  Essenes,  consisted  of  a  close 
association  of  men,  who  retired  from  the  world  in  order  to  carry  out 
the  original  idea  of  Moses  concerning  the  priesthood  (Ex.  xix.  5.  6), 
and  whose  direction  was  that  of  mysticism  and  ascetism.  As  each  of 
these  three  parties  (the  orthodox,  the  rationalistic,  and  the  mystical) 
represented  more  or  less  unhealthy  aberrations  from  genuine  Judaism, 
they  could  not  prepare  the  way  for  the  Church,  but  either  occupied  a 
position  of  antagonism,  or  else  sought  to  introduce  dangerous  corrup- 
tions (|  27).  But  with  all  these  perverse  and  growing  tendencies,  a 
holy  seed  of  genuine  spirituality  remained  in  obscurity  and  retirement 
(John  i.  47  ;  Luke  i.  G  ;  ii.  25,  38) — a  soil  this,  prepared  by  the  Lord 
for  receiving  the  salvation  offered  by  Christ. 

I  10.    THE  SAMARITANS. 

Comp.  Th.  Chr.  J.  Juynbol,  Coram,  in  hist,  genti  Samarit.  Lugd 
Bat.  1846,  4to. —  Jos.  Grimm,  die  Samariter  u.  ihre  Stellung  in  d.  Welt 
gesch.  Munch.  1854. 

The  Samaritans  originated  upon  the  fall  of  the  kingdom  of  Is- 
rael, from  a  mixture  of  Israelitish  and  heathen  elements.  After  the 
5* 


54  PREPARATORY    HISTORY. 

return  from  the  Babylonian  exile,  they  wished  to  amalgamate 
with  the  Jews ;  but  their  overtures  were  rejected  on  account  of 
the  heathen  defilements  which  the  Samaritans  had  contracted. 
The  reformatory  labours  carried  on  among  them  by  Uanasse,  a 
Jewish  refugee,  who  sought  to  purify  their  religion,  and  to  base 
it  on  the  Pentateuch  (of  which  the  text,  however,  was  in  some 
particulars  purposely  altered),  and  who  gave  them  a  temple  and 
worship  on  Mount  Gerizim,  only  served  to  increase  the  hatred  of 
the  Jews.  The  Samaritans  kept  by  the  Judaism  which  Manasse 
had  brought  among  them,  and  remained  equally  strangers  to  the 
developments  and  the  perversions  of  Rabbinism.  Their  Mes- 
sianic hopes  were  consequently  more  pure  and  their  exclusive- 
ness  less  violent.  These  circumstances  enabled  them  more 
impartially  to  examine  the  claims  of  Christianity ;  while  the 
hatred  and  contempt  with  which  Pharisaical  Judaism  treated 
them,  disposed  them  more  favourably  towards  the  Gospel, 
which  was  likewise  disowned  and  persecuted  by  the  synagogue 
(John  iv.  41;  Acts  viii.  5  etc.).  On  the  other  hand,  Chris- 
tianity also  suffered  from  the  attempts  at  change  and  reaction 
made  by  that  party,  in  the  spirit  of  the  heathen  principle  of 
syncretism,  which  was  inherent  to  Samaritanism  from  its  com- 
mencement (§  22). 

§  11.  POINTS  OP  CONTACT  BETWEEN  JUDAISM 
AND  HEATHENISM. 

The  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great  brought  the  various 
elements  of  civilization  in  the  ancient  world  into  contact  and 
connection.  The  Jews  (of  the  Diaspora)  who  lived  beyond  the 
limits  of  Palestine,  especially  those  who  resided  in  Egypt,  which 
.vas  really  the  focus  of  this  movement,  were  necessarily  affected 
by  the  influences  brought  to  bear  upon  them.  The  Jews  of 
Eastern  Asia  maintained  more  intimate  fellowship  with  the  ex- 
clusive Rabbinism  of  Palestine  ;  and  the  heathen  (Chaldaic-Per- 
sian)  elements  which  there  invaded  their  religious  views  and 
customs,  became,  mainly  through  the  Talmud,  the  common  pro- 
perty of  Judaism  as  it  existed  after  Christ. —  But  the  heathen, 
also,  contemptible  as  the  Jews  seemed  to  them,  having  be- 
come convinced  <>i'  the  profound  truths  of  the  Israelitish  sys- 
tem, and  of  the  emptiness  and  impotence  of  their  own  religion, 
yielded,  in  exceptional,  but  by  no  means  rare,  cases,  to  the  better 
influences  of  Judaism. 


JUDAISM     AND     HEATHENISM.  5J> 

1.  Influence  of  Heathenism  upon  Judaism. — This  operated  most  power- 
fully in  Egypt.  Thus  the  sect  of  the  Essenes,  which  had  found  its  waj 
thither,  underwent  various  modifications,  and,  under  the  name  of 
Therapeutce,  occupied  an  influential  position.  The  Jewish  Hellenism 
of  Alexandria  embodied  the  main  principles  of  this  party ;  enlarged, 
however,  by  elements  of  Grecian  culture,  and  reared  on  a  broader  V>asi3, 
chiefly  of  Platonic  philosophy.  Of  this  school  Arislobulus  (i^rjyrtatvc 
f/ji  Mcodue'coj  ypa<ptj;,  about  the  year  175),  the  author  of  "the  Book  of 
Wisdom,"  and  the  Alexandrian  Jew  Philo  (ob.  39,  a.  d.),  were  the 
principal  representatives.  His  Platouism  is  peculiarly  modified  by  Old 
Testament  elements,  and  by  Essene  and  therapeutic  views.  Hence  his 
speculations  have  served  as  the  ground-work  of  heathen  Neo-Platonism, 
of  the  Jewish  Cabbala,  of  Gnosticism,  and  even  of  the  philosophy  of 
some  of  the  Fathers.  He  taught  that  originally  all  nations  had  ob- 
tained some  knowledge  of  Divine  truth,  but  that  Moses  alone  had  been 
the  founder  of  true  philosophy;  that  the  legislation  and  teaching  of 
Mosaism  was  the  source  whence  Grecian  philosophy  and  Grecian  mys- 
teries had  drawn  their  inspiration.  The  deep  things  of  Scripture 
could  only  be  understood  by  means  of  allegorical  interpretation.  God 
was  to  6v,  and  matter  to  htj  ov ;  the  xoaftos  voiqros  was  an  intermediate 
world  (corresponding  to  Plato's  world  of  ideas),  and  consisted  of  innu- 
merable spirits  and  potencies  (angels  and  souls  of  men),  which,  viewed 
in  their  unity,  and  as  proceeding  from  the  Word  of  God  —  the  ftoyo; 
iv8ia,&t6$  which  from  all  eternity  had  been  in  God  —  had  in  creation 
come  forth  from  God  —  the  jioyoj  rtpofoptzd;  (thought  and  word).  The 
visible  world  was  an  imitation  of  the  xoofios  voytos, — imperfect,  however, 
on  account  of  the  physical  incapability  of  the  Hyle,  etc. 

2.  Influence  of  Judaism  upon  Heathenism.  —  Generally  speaking, 
heathen  nations  extended  toleration  to  Judaism.  Alexander  the  Great, 
the  Ptolemies,  and  in  part  the  Seleucidas  also,  accorded  them  the  free 
exercise  of  their  religion,  and  even  certain  privileges.  Rome  recog- 
nized Judaism  as  a  "  religio  licita."  Still  the  Jews  were,  for  the  most 
part,  despised  and  hated  by  the  heathen  (Tac.  calls  them,  "  despectis- 
sima pars  servientium,  —  teterrirna  gens")  ;  and  even  able  writers,  such 
a-s  Manetho,  Justin,  Tacitus,  etc.,  recited  the  most  absurd  fables  and 
odious  calumnies  against  them.  Flavins  Josephus,  the  Jewish  historian, 
endeavoured  to  dispel  the  prejudices  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  against 
his  people,  by  presenting  their  history  and  institutions  in  the  most 
favorable  light.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Greek  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament  (the  Septuagint),  and  the  great  number  of  synagogues 
which,  during  the  time  of  Roman  domination,  had  sprung  up  all  over 
the  world,  offered  the  heathen,  who  cared  for  it,  an  opportunity  of  be- 
coming personally  acquainted  with  the  peculiar  character  and  spirit 
of  Judaism.  Considering  the  decay  of  heathenism  at  the  time,  it  could 
scarcely  happen  otherwise  than  that  the  high  antiquity  of  Judaism, 
the  sublime  simplicity  of  its  creed,  the  solemn  import  of  its  rites,  and 


56  PREPARATORY     HISTORY 

its  Messianic  anticipations,  should  —  despite  the  common  contempt  for 
the  synagogue  —  have  attracted  many  of  the  better  and  expectant 
heathen,  whose  cravings  their  degraded  religion  no  longer  could  satisfy. 
Although  comparatively  few  joined  the  Jewish  nation  by  undergoing 
circumcision  and  becoming  proselytes  of  righteousness,  the  number  of 
those  who,  without  observing  the  whole  ceremonial  law,  became  prose- 
lytes  of  the  gate,  abstained  from  idolatry  and  served  Jehovah,  was  pro- 
portionally great.  These  adherents  consisted  of  high  and  low,  chiefly 
of  females  ;  and  among  them  Christianity  made  its  earliest  converts. 

I  12.   THE   FULNESS   OF   TIME. 

When  the  fulness  of  time  had  come,  the  dawn  of  a  new  era 
appeared  on  the  mountains  of  Judaea.  According  to  the  Divine 
purpose,  Judaism  and  heathenism  had  completed  that  cycle  of 
positive  and  negative  preparation  for  the  coming  salvation  of 
which  they  were  capable.  The  latter  had  now  become  perfectly 
conscious  of  its  entire  impotence  and  incompetency  for  satisfying 
the  religious  cravings  of  the  soul ;  and  where  not  sunk  into 
dreary  unbelief  or  wild  misbelief,  it  earnestly  longed  and  sought 
for  something  better.  Thus,  negatively,  the  way  was  prepared 
for  the  Church.  Heathenism  had  produced  great  and  imperish- 
able results  in  the  domains  of  science,  art,  and  of  human  culture 
generally.  However  impotent  it  proved  to  restore  to  man  the 
peace  he  had  lost,  and  for  which  he  sought,  it  could  furnish 
important  aid  to  the  true  salvation  which  the  Lord  had 
revealed.  In  this  respect,  heathenism  served  also  as  posi- 
tive preparation  for  the  Church.  Among  Jews  and  Gen- 
tiles there  was  a  general  presentiment  that  a  great  era  in 
history  was  at  hand.  A  deep-felt  sense  of  want  had  become 
almost  a  prophecy  of  the  approaching  provision.  All  who  were 
Israelites  indeed,  waited  for  the  promised  consolation  —  some 
even  in  the  hope  or  expectation  that  they  might  live  to  see  its 
ail  vent.  Among  the  heathen  also  the  long-cherished  hope  of  a 
return  of  the  Golden  Age  was  again  prominently  brought  for- 
ward, and  derived  fresh  support  and  a  new  object  from  what  had 
been  gathered  from  the  Holy  Scriptures,  or  learned  in  the  syna- 
gogues of  the  Jews.  Heathen  Polity  had  also  contributed  its 
quotum  of  preparation  for  the  Church.  One  empire  and  one 
language  combined  the  whole  world  —  universal  peace  prevailed, 
and  most  extensive  commerce  and  intercourse  facilitated  the 
rapid  spread  of  the  new  truths  brought  to  light  by  the  Gospel. 


HISTORY 

OP  *t  * 

THE    PRIMITIVE    CHURCH. 


FOUNDATION  OF  THE  CHURCH  BY  CHRIST;   ITS  CONSTITUTION 
IN  THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE. 

TO   ABOUT  THE   YEAR  100   A.  D. 

§  13.  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THIS  PRIMITIVE  HISTORY, 
AND  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  OTHER  PERIODS  OF  ECCLE- 
SIASTICAL  HISTORY. 

The  distinctive  peculiarities  of  the  Apostolic  Age  (the  first 
century)  are  our  warrant  for  presenting  it  as  an  independent  and 
separate  branch  of  General  Church  History.  The  difference 
between  the  history  of  the  primitive  and  that  of  the  ancient 
Church,  is  based  on  the  difference  between  Apostolicity  and 
Catholicity.  The  former  is  the  root,  the  latter  the  stem,  of  the 
Church.  The  position  and  the  qualifications  of  the  apostles 
were,  in  consequence  of  their  immediate  Divine  enlightenment 
and  assistance,  so  unique,  that  the  results  of  their  activity  became 
the  basis  of  all  future  development.  What  they  taught,  and 
what  they  instituted,  required  not  any  Divine  law  or  warrant 
other  than  itself.  Itself  was  the  Divine  law  and  warrant  for 
every  succeeding  development  or  institution.  Every  later  appear- 
ance in  the  Church  must  be  judged  by  the  model  of  apostolic 
teaching  or  practice,  not,  indeed,  as  if  it  had  been  quite  complete 
and  perfected,  exhausting  every  future  development ;  but  as 
being  the  sole  authentic  germs  and  commencement  of  the  Church. 
Hence,  in  all  later  developments  of  the  Church,  every  organic 

(57) 


58  THE    PRIMITIVE    CHURCH    (l  — 100  A.  D.)  . 

development  and  continuation  of  the  Apostolic  Church  —  not 
merely  what,  in  the  same  form,  had  existed  in  the  primitive 
Church — must  be  regarded  as  of  genuine  Christian  origin.  But 
this  remark  does  not  apply  to  the  Church  in  its  catholicity.  Its 
organs  neither  required  nor  enjoyed  immediate  Divine  enlighten- 
ment and  assistance.  It  was  their  mission  to  superintend  the 
natural  development  of  the  germs  which  the  Lord  had  already 
planted,  and  to  remove  all  spurious  plants  (sects  and  heretics). 
Both  the  parent  stem  and  the  wild  branches  laid,  indeed,  equal 
claim  to  genuineness,  on  account  of  real  or  supposed  connection 
with  the  root.  But  even  where  prejudice,  arbitrariness,  or  error 
disabled  or  prevented  from  distinguishing  between  the  genuine 
and  the  spurious,  the  Spirit  of  Christ  has  made  a  separation  in 
the  development  of  a  history  which  God  has  never  wholly  left 
to  its  own  course.  The  parent  stem  remained,  while,  sooner 
or  later,  the  wild  branches  or  the  spurious  plants  withered  and 
perished. 

I.    The  Life  of  Jesus. 

Comp.  J.  F.  Kleulcer,  menschl.  Versuch  iib.  den  Sohn  Gottes  und  d. 
Mcnschen  (Essay  on  the  Son  of  God  and  of  Man).  Brem.  1776.  The 
same  author's  bibl.  Sympathien,  od.  erlauternde  Bemerk.  lib.  d.  Berichte 
d.  Ev.  von  Jesu  Lehren  u.  Thaten  (Bibl.  Sympathies,  or  Explanatory 
Remarks  on  the  Account  of  the  Evang.  about  the  Teachings  and  Deeds 
of  Christ).  Schlesw.  1820. — J.  /.  Hess,  Leben  sp;eseh.  Jesu  (Biography 
of  Christ).  8th  ed.  Zurich  1822.  3  vols.— F.  V.  Eeinhard,  Yers.  iiber 
den  Plan,  den  d.  Stifter  d.  christl.  Rel.  zum  Besten  d.  Menschen  ent- 
warf  (Essay  on  the  Plan  which  the  Founder  of  Christianity  devised 
for  the  Welfare  of  Man).     5th  ed.  by  Eevbner.     Wittenb.  1830. 

K.  Ease,  Leben  Jesu  (Life  of  Jesus).  Leipz.  1829.  5th  ed.  1865.— 
D.  Fr.  Strauss,  d.  Leben  Jesu  krit,  bearb.  Tub.  1835.  2  vols.  4th  ed. 
1840. —  C.  H.  Weisse,  die  ev.  Gesch.  krit.  u.  philos.  bearb.  (Evangel. 
Hist,  treated  critically  and  philosophically).  Loipz.  1838.  2  vols. — 
A.  F.  Gfrorer,  Gesch.  d.  Urchristenthmus  (Hist,  of  Origin.  Christianity). 
Stuttg.  1838.  3  vols,  in  5  parts. —  C.  F.  v.  Amnion,  die  Gesch.  d.  Lebens 
Josu.  Leipz.  1842-47.  3  vols.  —  Br.  Bauer,  Kritik.  d.  evang.  Gesch. 
d.  Synopt.  (Grit,  of  the  Evang.  Hist,  of  the  Synopt.).  Leipz.  1841. 
3  vols. 

A.  Neandcr,  das  Leben  Jesu  (trans,  in  Bonn's  Series,  London  1852). — 
O.  Krabbe,  Vorlesungen  ii.  d.  Leben  Jesu.  Hamb.  1849. — J.  P.Lange, 
das  Leben  Jesu.  3  vols.  Heidelberg  1847.  —  A.  Tholuck,  d.  Glaub- 
ff'urdi^keit  d.  ev.  Gesch.   (the  Credibility  of  Gospel  Hist.).     2d  ed 


JESUS    CHRIST    THE    SAVIOUR    OF    THE    WORLD.       59 

Hamb.  1838. — J.  II.  A.  Ebrard,  wissensch.  Kritik  d.  ev.  Gescb.  (Scien- 
tific Crit.  of  Ev.  Hist.).  2d  ed.  Erlang.  1850.  —  E.  Wieseler,  chronol. 
Synopse  d.  4  Ev.  (Chronol.  Synopsis  of  the  Fonr  Gospels).  Hamb.  1843, 

I  14.  JESUS   CHRIST   THE    SAVIOUR  OF   THE   WORLD. 

"  When  the  fulness  of  time  was  come,  God  sent  forth  His  Son, 
made  of  a  woman,  made  under  the  law,  to  redeem  them  that  were 
under  the  law,  that  we  might  receive  the  adoption  of  sons"  (Gal. 
iv.  4,  5).  According  to  promise,  the  Son  of  David  was  born  at 
Bethlehem.  After  John  the  Baptist,  the  greatest  and  last  of  the 
Old  Testament  prophets,  had,  by  the  preaching  and  the  baptism 
of  repentance,  prepared  His  way,  Jesus  commenced,  when  about 
thirty  years  old,  that  glorious  work  in  which  He  fulfilled  the  law 
and  the  prophets.  Accompanied  by  twelve  chosen  disciples,  He 
passed  through  Palestine,  everywhere  proclaiming  the  kingdom  of 
God,  helping,  healing,  and  confirming  by  signs  and  miracles  both 
His  Divine  mission,  and  the  doctrine  about  His  person,  office,  and 
kingdom.  The  Pharisees  gainsayed  and  persecuted  Him  ;  the 
Sadducees  discarded  Him  ;  while  the  people  alternated  between 
hailing  and  rejecting  Him.  After  continuing  in  this  work  for 
three  years,  He  made  solemn  entrance  into  the  city  of  His  royal 
ancestors  amidst  the  acclamations  of  the  people.  But  many  days 
had  not  elapsed,  when  the  same  multitude,  disappointed  in  their 
hopes  of  a  political  and  temporal  Messiah,  cried  out,  "  Crucify 
Him,  crucify  Him  !  "  Thus,  according  to  the  good  pleasure  of 
the  Father,  He  died  on  the  cross,  a  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  the 
world.  By  His  suffering,  the  God-man  procured  a  righteous- 
ness of  infinite  and  eternal  value,  in  virtue  of  which,  whosoever 
in  faith  appropriates  it,  has  all  his  sins  forgiven,  and  is  justified 
before  God.  But  death  could  not  hold  the  Prince  of  life.  He 
burst  the  gates  of  Hades  and  the  bonds  of  the  grave,  and  on  the 
third  day  rose  with  glorified  body.  Thus  has  He  brought  life 
und  immortality  to  light,  that  we  also  might  in  Him  share  the 
same.  For  forty  days  He  still  continued  on  earth,  subject  to  the 
limitations  of  humanity.  He  promised  to  His  disciples  the  gift 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  set  them  apart  to  preach  the  Gospel  to 
all  nations.  Then  He  again  took  unto  Himself  His  Divine  form, 
which  He  had  put  off  in  His  incarnation,  ascended  into  heaven, 
where,  as  God-man,  He  now  sitteth  at  the  right  hand  of  power— 
the  Almighty  and  ever-present  Head  of  the  Church,  the  Lord  of 
all,  whether  in  heaven  or  on  earth,  and  who   at  the  completion 


'50  T  II  E     P  R  I  M  I  T  I  V  E     C  II  U  R  C  II     (l— 1 00  A.  D.)  . 

of  all  tliiiig-s,  shall  return  to  this  earth,  visibly,  and  in  His  own 
and  His  Father's  glory. 

1.  Despite  many  learned  and  ingenious  inquiries  into  the  subject,  it 
has  as  yet  been  impossible  exactly  to  fix  either  the  year  of  Christ's  birth, 
or  that  of  His  death.  In  the  Christian  era,  which  -was  proposed  by 
Vionysius  Exiyuvs  in  the  6th  cent.,  adopted  by  Beda  Venerabilis,  and 
introduced  into  common  use  by  Pepin  and  Charlemagne,  the  year  754 
alter  the  building  of  Home  is  assumed  as  the  starting-point.  But  this 
is  manifestly  erroneous,  as  Herod  the  Great  died  (750  or)  751  p.  U.  c. 
Sanclementius  (de  vulg.  sdvsd  emendatione,  Romas  1793)  on  historical 
grounds,  and  Fr.  Munter  (der  Stern  der  "Weisen — the  Star  of  the  Wise 
Men — Copenh.  1827)  on  astronomical  grounds,  fix  on  the  year  7  before 
our  era  as  that  of  Christ's  birth;  Wieseler  [id  supra)  on  the  year  4, 
Seyff'arth  (Chronol.  s.  Leipz.  184(1)  on  the  year  2,  Weigl  (theol.  chronol. 
Abhandl.  liber  d.  wahre  Geburts-  u.  Sterbejahr  J.  Chr.,  Sulzb.  1849) 
on  the  year  5,  before  the  present  era.  Many  of  the  Fathers,  appealing 
to  Isa.  lxi.  1,  2,  and  Luke  iv.  19,  supposed  that  Christ  had  only  taught 
during  one  year,  and  hence  that  (Luke  iii.  23)  He  was  crucified  in  the 
30th  \  car  of  His  life.  But  although  the  synoptic  Gospels  speak  of  only 
one  (the  last)  passover  during  the  ministry  of  Christ,  John  (ii.  13  ;  vi. 
4 ;  xxii.  23)  refers  to  three  such  feasts,  and  besides  (v.  1)  to  a  toprrj  Til>i- 
'lovba-iuiv. 

2.  Among  genuine  non-biblical  testimonies  about  Christ,  probably 
the  most  ancient  is  a  Syriac  letter  of  Mara,  addressed  to  his  son  Sera- 
pion  (see  Cure/on,  Spicil.  Syriacum.  Lond.  1855),  written  about  the  year 
73.  Mara,  a  man  thoroughly  versed  in  Greek  philosophy,  but  not  satis- 
fied with  the  consolations  it  offered,  writes  from  his  place  of  exile  a 
letter  of  comfort  and  instruction  to  his  son,  in  which  he  ranks  Christ 
along  with  Socrates  and  Pythagoras ;  he  honours  Him  as  a  wise  kino- ; 
he  charges  the  Jews  with  His  murder,  declares  that  thereby  they  had 
brought  upon  themselves  the  destruction  of  their  commonwealth,  but 
that  Christ  continued  to  live  in  the  new  law  which  He  had  given. 
From  the  same  period  dates  the  testimony  of  Josephus,  the  Jewish  his- 
torian. In  that  portion  of  the  passage  of  Josephus  which  is  undoubt- 
tedly  genuine,  Christ  is  extolled  as  having  wrought  miracles,  and  been 
;i  wise  teacher  of  truth;  His  death  on  the  cross  under  the  administra- 
tion of  Pilate,  and  the  foundation  of  the  Church,  are  also  mentioned. 
/•'.  //.  Schoedel,  (Vindiciae  Flavians,  Lps.  1840)   has  contended  for  the 

enuineness  of  the  whole  passage  in  Josephus.  The  following,  how- 
,er,  are  spurious  records  :  1)  the  Syriac  correspondence  between  Christ 
..ud  Abgarus,  King  of  Edessa,  in  which  the  hitler  entreats  the  Lord  to 
nine  and  heal  him,  while  Christ  replies  by  promising,  alter  His  ascen- 
sion, to  send  one  of  His  disciples  (the  genuineness  of  these  documents  has, 
however,  of  late  been  again  maintained  by  Rinck  in  HI  gen's  Journal 
for  L843,  and  )>\   Welti,  in  the  Tub.  Quarterly  for  1842);  2)  two  letters 


TENTECOST ACTIVITY  OF  APOSTLES.      61 

dddressed  by  Pilate  to  Tiberius;  3)  the  letter  of  Lentulus  (a  friend  of 
Pilate)  to  the  Roman  Senate,  giving  a  description  of  the  appearance  of 
Christ.  Since  the  fourth  century,  legends  also  circulated  about  a  statue 
of  Christ,  which  the  woman  who  had  been  cured  of  the  issue  of  blood 
had  erected  in  Paneas,  and  about  certain  miraculous  portraits  of  Jesua 
(such  as  that  in  the  napkin  of  Veronica,  perhaps  originally  =  vera  icon, 
tixuv).     For  other  legends  and  fables,  see  the  apocrypha  gospels. 

II.     The  Apostolic  Age. 

Comp.  A.  Neander,  History  of  the  Planting  of  the  Christian  Church 
(translated  by  J.  E.  Ryland,  Bonn's  Series).  2  vols.  1851.  —  /.  B. 
Trautmann,  die  ap.  K.  (the  Ap.  Ch.).  Leipz.  1848.—  M.  Baumgarten, 
transl.  by  Morrison  and  Meyer,  in  Clark's  For.  Theol.  Library.  3  vols. — 
/.  P.  Lange,  Gesch.  d.  K.  d.  ap.  Zeit.  (Hist,  of  the  Ch.  in  Ap.  Times) 
2  vols.  Braunschw.  1852.  —  Ph.  Schaff,  Hist,  of  the  Apostolic  Church. 
Scribner,  New  York,  1853.  —  H.  W.  J.  Thiersch,  d.  K.  im  ap.  Zeit. 
Frkf.  1852. —  G.  W.  Lechler,  d.  ap.  u.  nachap.  Zeitalter  (the  Apost.  and 
Post-Apost.  Age).  Stuttg.  1857.  4to. —  C.  Beuss,  Hist,  de  la  theologie 
au  siecle  ap.  Strassb.  1852. — H.  Ewald,  Gesch.  d.  apost.  Zeitalt.  bis  z 
Zerstor.  Jems.  Gottg.  1869.  —  K.  Wieseler,  Chronol.  d.  apost.  Zeitalt. 
Gcittg.  1848. 


"&■ 


I  15.  THE  FEAST  OF  PENTECOST— ACTIVITY  OF  THE  APOS- 
TLES BEFORE  THE  CALLING  OF  PAUL  (30-48  a.  d.). 

After  the  number  of  apostles  had  by  lot  been  again  made  up 
to  twelve,  the  Holy  Ghost  was  poured  out  upon  the  assembled 
disciples  who  had  waited  for  His  coming.  This  event,  which 
was  accompanied  by  miraculous  signs,  took  place  on  the  feast 
of  Pentecost  (anno  30),  ten  days  after  the  ascension  of  the  Lord. 
It  became  the  birth-day  of  the  Church,  whose  first  members  were 
now  gathered  in  large  numbers,  in  consequence  of  a  sermon  by 
Peter.  Through  the  exertions  of  the  apostles  (chiefly  of  Peter 
and  of  John),  which,  however,  at  first  were  confined  to  Jerusa- 
lem, the  Church  grew  daily.  But  when  a  violent  persecution, 
which  commenced  with  the  stoning  of  Stephen,  scattered  the 
faithful,  the  Gospel  was  carried  all  over  Palestine  to  Phoenicia 
and  Syria,  although  the  apostles  remained  in  the  Jewish  capital. 
The  preaching  of  Philip,  a  deacon,  was  specially  owned  in 
Samaria  (about  the  year  39  or  40).  Soon  afterwards  Peter 
visited  the  churches  in  Judaea ;  and  in  consequence  of  a  Divine 
command,  received  by  baptism  the  first  Gentiles  (the  family  of 
Cornelius)  into  the  Church.  At  the  same  time,  and  indepen- 
6 


62  THE    PRIMITIVE     CHURCH     (1—100  A.  D.). 

dently  of  this  event,  the  earnest  inquiries  of  many  Gentiles  in 
Antioch  led  to  the  formation  of  a  church  composed  of  Jews  and 
Gentiles.  Barnabas,  a  Levite,  and  a  man  strong  in  the  faith, 
was  despatched  from  Jerusalem  to  Antioch,  and  undertook  the 
care  of  this  community,  conjoining  in  this  work  with  his  own  the 
labours  of  Paul,  a  converted  Pharisee,  whom  some  years  before 
(about  40  A.  D. )  a  revelation  of  Christ,  on  the  way  to  Damascus, 
had  transformed  from  a  fanatical  persecutor  into  a  most  devoted 
Christian  and  preacher.  In  consequence  of  these  events,  the 
missionary  efforts  of  the  apostles  were  henceforth  divided  into 
purely  Jewish,  with  Jerusalem  as  the  centre  of  operations,  and 
into  mixed,  which  had  chiefly  the  Gentiles  for  their  object,  and 
issued  from  Antioch.  A  conference  of  the  apostles,  held  at 
Jerusalem  (Gal.  ii.  1-9),  formally  sanctioned  this  arrangement. 

$16.    LABOURS   OF   THE    APOSTLE   PAUL  (44-64  a. d.). 

Comp.  /.  T.  Hemsen,  der  Ap.  Paul.  Gtittg.  1830. —  C.  Schroder,  dcr 
Ap.  P.  Leipz.  1830. — Pale;/,  Horse  Paulinas,  in  his  collected  works,  and 
since  often  printed  separately. — Conybeare  and  Hoivson,  The  Life  and 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul.  2  vols.  2d  Ed.  1856.— (J7.  Chr.  Bain;  Paul.  d.  Ap. 
J.  Chr.  Ein  Beitrag  zu  einer  krit.  Gesch.  d.  Urchristth. — Paul  the  ap. 
of  J.  Chr.     A  Contrib.  to  a  crit.  Hist,  of'orig.  Chr.  Tlibg.  1845.) 

Having  been  specially  separated  by  the  Holy  Ghost  for  the 
work,  and  set  apart  by  the  Church  by  the  laying  on  of  hands, 
Paul  and  Barnabas  left  Antioch  in  the  year  45,  to  make  their 
first  missionary  tour  to  Asia  Minor.  The  Lord,  by  signs  and 
wonders,  gave  testimony  to  their  preaching;  and,  notwithstand- 
ing the  contradiction  and  persecution  of  hostile  Jews,  they 
founded  at  Antioch  (in  Pisidia),  at  Iconium,  Lystra,  and  Derbe, 
mixed  churches,  consisting  chiefly  of  Gentile  Christians  ;  preach- 
ing also  in  many  other  places.  Not  long  afterwards,  Paul 
undertook  a  second  missionary  journey  (50-54).  On  this  occa- 
sion Barnabas  had  separated  from  Paul,  because  he  would  take 
with  him  John  Mark,  his  nephew,  who  on  the  first  missionary 
tour  had  left  the  work.  In  company  with  his  nephew,  Barnabas 
now  went  to  Cyprus,  his  own  country;  but  no  record  of  the  suc- 
cess of  this  mission  has  been  left.  Accompanied  by  Silas,  by 
Luke,  and  afterwards  also  by  Timothy,  Paul  meantime  passed 
again  through  Asia  Minor,  and  was  about  to  return  to  Antioch, 
when  a  call  from  the  Lord,  in  a  night-vision,  induced   him  tc 


LABOURS  OF  THE  APOSTLE  PAUL.        63 

land  on  the  shores  of  Europe.  Here  he  founded  Christian  com- 
munities at  Philippi,  at  Thessalonica,  Berea,  Athens,  and  Co- 
rinth ;  and  then  returned  to  Syria  through  Asia  Minor,  touch- 
ing at  Ephesus  by  the  way.  During  his  stay  at  Jerusalem  the 
conference  with  Peter,  James,  and  John,  to  which  Gal.  ii.  refers 
took  place  (fourteen  years  after  Paul's  conversion),  and  sood 
afterwards,  in  Antioch,  the  conflict  with  Peter,  alluded  to  in  the 
same  passage.  In  the  year  54,  he  undertook,  in  company  with 
Luke,  Titus,  and  Timothy,  his  third  missionary  expedition 
(54-58).  This  time,  Ephesus,  where  a  numerous  congregation 
was  gathered,  became  the  centre  of  his  operations.  An  extraor- 
dinary success  attended  his  labours,  and  the  very  existence  of 
heathenism  in  Asia  Minor  seemed  threatened.  Driven  from 
Ephesus  in  consequence  of  a  tumult,  Paul  travelled  through 
Macedonia,  penetrated  as  far  as  Illyricum,  then  visited  the 
churches  in  Greece,  and  returned  to  Jerusalem  to  fulfil  a  vow. 
In  the  Jewish  capital  his  life  was  only  preserved  through  the 
interference  of  the  Roman  tribune,  who  took  him  prisoner,  and 
sent  him  to  Caesarea.  An  appeal  to  the  Emperor,  to  which  as 
Roman  citizen  he  was  entitled,  led  to  his  departure  to  Rome  (in 
the  year  60).  where  for  some  years  he  continued  a  prisoner  in  his 
own  house,  being  still  allowed  to  preach.  The  further  course 
of  his  life  and  activity  is  involved  in  some  uncertainty.  Proba- 
bly his  imprisonment  became  more  severe,  either  in  consequence 
of  increasing  enmity  on  the  part  of  the  Emperor  or  of  his  favour- 
ites towards  Christianity,  or  on  account  of  the  importunities  of 
hostile  Jews.  In  the  year  64  he  was  beheaded,  under  the  reign 
of  Nero. 

1.  The  very  common  opinion,  first  mooted  by  Eusebius,  that  about 
the  year  64  Paul  had  been  set  at  liberty,  and  undertaken  a  fourth  mis- 
sionary tour,  in  which  he  had  penetrated  as  far  as  Spain,  that  thence 
he  had  a  second  time  been  sent  prisoner  to  Rome,  and  been  beheaded  in 
that  city  about  the  year  67,  owes  its  origin  to  manifest  chronological 
mistakes.  It  has  of  late  been  again  advocated  (by  Neander,  Guericke. 
Credner,  Gieseler,  Huther,  AYiesinger,  etc.),  from  the  erroneous  suppo- 
sition that  some  events  noticed  in  the  letters  of  Paul  could  not  have 
occurred  during  the  period  preceding  the  (supposed  first)  imprison- 
ment of  Paul  at  Rome.  What  is  regarded  as  a  testimony  of  Clement 
to  the  journey  of  the  apostle  into  Spain  (irti  tb  tep^a  rrj;  Svatio;  ij£u,v)  is 
by  no  means  conclusive,  even  irrespective  of  the  dubious  particle  fai. 
The  Muvatori  Canon  refers  indeed  to  a  journey  into  Spain,  but  only  as 


64  THE     PRIMITIVE     CHURCH     (l— 100     A.  D.). 

an  unsupported  legend  (Rom.  xv.  24),  on  -which  the  book  of  Acts  is 
silent.     Comp.  especially  Wieseler,  ut  supra,  p.  521  etc. 

I  17.    LABOURS  OF   THE   OTHER   APOSTLES    (AFTER   THE 

YEAR  48). 

We  only  possess  authentic  data  about  the  labours  of  the  most 
prominent  among  the  apostles.     At  an  early  period  (about  the 
year  44),  James  the  Elder,  the  brother  of  John,  suffered  martyr- 
dom at  Jerusalem.      During   that  persecution  Peter  was  obliged 
for  a  time  to  leave  Jerusalem.     By  inclination  and  calling  he 
acted   as   apostle   to   the   circumcision    (Gal.   ii.    7-9).     In   the 
course  of  Ids  labours,  which  were  shared  by  Mark,  he  penetrated, 
according  to  1  Pet.  v.  13,  as  far  as  Babylon.     That  he  had  also 
labored  in  Asia  Minor  and  in  Greece  is  doubtful.     That  he  was 
crucified  under  the  reign  of  Nero  at  Rome,  A.  D.  64,  the  same 
year  when  Paul  was  beheaded,  may  well  be  questioned,  and 
the  legend  that  for  25  years  before  his  death  he  wTas  Bishop 
of  Rome  is  a  certain  fable.     Indeed  it  is  by  no  means  clear 
that  Peter  was  ever    in  Rome  —  Philip  spent   the  last  years 
of  his  life  at  Hierapolis  in   Phrygia.     John  betook  himself  to 
Ephesus.     Ancient    legends  declare  that   Thomas  preached  in 
Parthia,  Bartholomew  in  India,  and  that  John  Mark  founded 
the  church  at  Alexandria. — After  the  time  of  the  apostolic  con- 
ference, James  the  Just,  the  brother  of  the  Lord,  seems  to  have 
presided  over  the  church  at  Jerusalem,   having  been   specially 
commissioned  to  labour  amongst  the  Jews.     In   Gal.  ii.  9  Paul 
speaks  of  him,  of  Peter  and  of  John,  as  being  regarded  "pillars" 
of  the   Church.     He  does  not  appear  ever  to  have  left  Jerusa- 
lem.    Soon  after  the   imprisonment  of  Paul  he  was   killed  by 
fanatical  Jews  (64).     After  the  martyrdom  of  Paul,  John,  who 
among  the  twelve  disciples  approximated  most  closely  the  mental 
direction   of  Paul,  occupied  the  former  field   of  labour  of  that 
apostle  in  Asia  Minor.     He  took  up  his  abode  at  Ephesus,  a 
city  which,  at  that  period,  was  the  focus  and  centre  of  ecclesias- 
tical movements.     Even  during  the  time  of  Paul,  the  antagon- 
isms peculiar  to  the  apostolic  age — that  of  Literalism,  Pharisee- 
ism,  and   Legal   Righteousness,  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the 
other,  that  of  Antinomianism,  Idealism,   and    Gnosticism — had 
appeared,  and  rapidly  developed  almost  into  antichristian  ten- 
dencies.    Circumstances  like  these  rendered  the  presence  of  an 


LABOURS     0  I1     THE     OTHER     APOSTLES.  65 

apostle,  who  was  a  pillar  of  the  Church,  all  the  more  requisite 
in  a  city  which  otherwise  also  was  so  important.  Of  all  the 
apostles  none  was  so  eminently  adapted  and  qualified  for  such  a 
post  as  John,  who  combined  the  most  ready  charity  and  mild- 
ness with  the  most  strict  and  unbending  earnestness,  and  whose 
spiritual  tendency  embodied  in  their  purest  and  highest  aspects 
the  truths  lying  at  the  foundation  of  these  antagonisms.  Ban- 
ished by  Domitian  to  Patmos,  an  island  in  the  iEgean  Sea,  he 
returned  again  to  "Ephesus,  where  he  laboured  for  other  thirty 
years  (to  his  death  under  Trajan),  his  ministrations  being  greatly 
blessed  to  the  church  of  Asia  Minor. 

1.  The  legend  about  Peter's  bishoprick  at  Borne  (according  to  Euse- 
bius,  from  the  year  42-07),  is  derived  from  the  heretical,  pseudo-epi- 
graphic  Clementines  and  Recognitions,— an  authority  entirely  untrust- 
worthy (v.  §  27,  4).  The  silence  both  of  the  letter  to  the  Romans  (58) 
and  of  Acts  xxviii.  prove  that  Peter  could  not  have  labored  in  Rome  he- 
fore  A.  D.  GO,  when  Paul  arrived  ihere  as  a  prisoner.1  Comp.  Wieseler 
ut  supra,  p.  522  etc. 

2.  The  question,  whether  the  New  Testament  refers  to  two  or  to 
three  James'  —  i.  e.,  whether  the  apostle  James  the  Less,  the  son  of 
Alpheus  and  cousin  of  Jesus,  was  the  same  as  James  the.  Just,  the  bro- 
ther of  the  Lord  and  president  of  the  church  of  Jerusalem,  or  not — is 
one  of  the  most  difficult  problems  in  New  Test.  History.  The  strongest 
argument  in  favour  of  their  identity  is  derived  from  Gal.  i.  19,  where 
James  the  brother  of  the  Lord  is  called  an  apostle  (comp.,  however, 
Acts  xiv.  14;  Ileb.  iii.  1).  But,  on  the  whole,  the  balance  of  evidence 
is  against  this  supposition.  In  John  vii.  the  brethren  of  Jesus  are 
represented  as  still  unbelieving  at  a  time  when  James  the  son  of 
Alpheus  was  already  one  of  the  apostles;  according  to  Matt,  xxviii. 
19,  none  of  the  twelve  could  be  permanent  Bishop  of  Jerusalem  ;  Hege- 
sippus  represents  James  the  Just  as  fista  r^v  aTtoatoTi^v  the  president 
of  the  church  at  Jerusalem,  and  he  speaks  of  7tax%ol  'Iaxw3oi  (which,  at 
any  rate,  implies  more  than  two).  The  older  Fathers  regarded  the 
"  brothers  and  sisters"  of  the  Lord  as  the  children  of  Joseph  by  a 
former  marriage  (a  view  which  leaves  untouched  the  delicate  question 
as  to  the  interpretation  of  Matt.  i.  25).  Jerome  and  Chrysostom  are 
the  first  of  the  Fathers  to  identify  James  the  son  of  Alpheus  with. 
James  the  Just. — Regarding  the  death  of  James  the  Just  ancient  testi- 
monies do  not  fully  agree.  According  to  Hegesippus  the  Jews  asked 
him,  at  the  feast  of  the  Passover,  to  bear  witness  against  Christ,  from 
the  pinnacle  of  the  temple.  But  James  earnestly  testified  in  favour  of 
Christ,  and  for  this  was  cast  down,  stoned,  and  whilst  praying  for  his 
enemies,  was  killed  by  a  blow  from  the  club  of  a  tanner.  Clem.  Alex- 
ander corroborates  this  account.     Josephus  simply  reports  that   after 

6* 


66 


THE    PRIMITIVE    CHURCH     (l_100  A.  D.) . 


the  removal  of  Festus,  and  before  the  arrival  of  Albinus  (anno  64),  the 
cruel  high-priest  Ananus  procured  a  hasty  condemnation  of  James,  and 
of  others  to  whom  he  bore  enmity,  and  had  caused  the  apostle  —  rov 
iSffopoi'  'I^aov  tov  Xtyofievov  Xpwroi)  —  to  be  stoned. 

3.  Irenseus,  Eusebius,  and  Jerome  speak  of  the  banishment  of  John 
as  having  taken  place  under  the  reign  of  Donation;  only  obscure  or 
later  evidence  (the  superscription  in  the  Syr.  Book  of  Revel,  and 
Theophylact)  is  in  favour  of  placing  it  in  the  time  of  Nero.  Tertullian 
records  a  legend,  according  to  which  he  had,  at  the  time  of  Nero,  been 
put  into  a  cask  of  boiling  oil ;  and  Augustin  relates  that  he  had  drained 
a  poisoned  cup  without  deriving  harm  from  it.  These  are  manifestly 
apocryphal  stories ;  but  the  narrative  of  Clement  Alex,  about  the 
tender  care  with  which  the  aged  apostle  had  watched  over  a  youth  who 
had  fearfully  gone  astray,  appears  to  be  authentic.  The  same  remark 
applies  to  the  account  of  Jerome,  according  to  whom,  when  too  old  to 
walk,  John  had  caused  himself  to  be  carried  to  the  meetings  of  the 
Christians,  and  ever  repeated  to  them  only  this  admonition,  "  Little 
children,  love  one  another;"  and  to  the  statement  of  Irenams,  that 
when,  on  one  occasion,  he  happened  to  meet  with  Cerinthus,  the 
heretic,  in  a  bath,  the  apostle  immediately  left  the  place  so  as  to  avoid 
even  outward  communion  with  him. 

i  18.  CONSTITUTION,  LIFE,  DISCIPLINE,  AND  WORSHIP  OF 

THE   CHURCH. 

Cf.  K.  Lechler,  die  N.  T.  Lehre  von  h.  Amte  Stuttg.  1857. 

The  institution  of  a  special  human  priesthood,  characteristic 
of  Old  Testament  times,  had  now  merged  in  the  One  only  and 
Eternal  Mediatorship  of  the  God-man ;  at  the  same  time,  the 
Gospel  distinctly  laid  down  the  principle,  that  all  Christians 
formed  part  of  the  Universal  Priesthood  (Heb.  iv.  16;  1  Pet. 
ii.  9  ;  Rev.  i.  6).  Connected  together  into  an  organism  under 
Christ,  as  its  only  Head,  the  Church  was  to  edify  itself  and  to 
grow  by  the  co-operation  of  all  its  members,  according  to  their 
respective  calling,  gifts,  and  position  (Eph.  i.  22  etc.  ;  1  Cor. 
xii.  12  etc.).  The  natural  talents  and  the  inward  calling  in 
apostolic  times  were  in  special  cases  quickened  and  enlarged 
by  the  extraordinary  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (the  Cha- 
rismata). Willi  the  natural  exception  of  females  (1  Cor. 
xiv.  34;  1  Tim.  ii.  12),  every  Christian  was  allowed  to  teach 
and  to  exhort  in  the  Church.  But  from  the  commencement 
regularly  appointed  officials  were  set  apart,  in  order  that  this 
nrocess  of  contributing  to  the  edification  of  the  Church,  on  the 


CHURCH     CONSTITUTION,    LIFE,    ETC.  67 

part  of  all  its  members,  might  not  degenerate  into  arbitrariness, 
presumption,  and  anarchy,  and  that,  amidst  the  changes  of  time, 
the  government  and  edification  of  the  Church  might  continue 
uninterrupted.  On  them  the  preservation  of  order,  the  pre- 
vention of  abuses,  the  direction  of  public  worship,  the  preaching 
of  the  word,  the  dispensation  of  the  sacraments,  the  cure  of 
souls,  the  exercise  of  discipline,  and  the  outward  representation 
of  the  Church,  devolved  as  their  peculiar  and  fixed  calling.  The 
need  of  such  an  order  of  men  must  have  been  all  the  more  felt, 
when  the  extraordinary  qualifications  of  charismata  gradually 
ceased.  It  became  now  more  than  ever  necessary,  by  means  of 
a  regular  outward  call,  to  assign  proper  limits,  and  to  give  a 
settled  character  to  the  inward  call.  So  long  as  the  apostles 
laboured  in  the  churches  which  they  had  founded,  the  duty  of 
teaching  and  of  governing  devolved  upon  them. 

1.  Tlie  Charismata. —  According  to  1  Cor.  xii.  8  etc.,  28  etc.,  the 
special  and  extraordinary  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  Apostolic 
Church  were  of  twofold  character,  as  they  manifested  themselves  either 
in  word  or  in  deed.  The  first  were  in  part  temporary,  such  as  the  gifts 
of  speaking  in  tongues  and  of  prophecy;  and  again,  supplementary  to 
these,  the  gift  of  interpreting  tongues  and  trying  the  spirits.  And  in 
part  they  were  lasting,  such  as  the  gift  of  teaching  —  i.  e.,  either  the 
speculative  gift  of  wisdom  and  of  knowledge  (Gnosis),  or  the  practical 
and  didactic  gift  of  faith  (Pistis).  Of  the  second  class  of  charismata 
strictly  practical  were  the  gift  of  directing  and  administering  the  affairs 
of  a  church,  and  the  gifts  of  performing  miracles  and  of  healing 
the  sick. 

2.  Bishops  and  Presbyters.  —  To  aid  them  in  their  work,  or  to  supply 
their  places  in  their  absence  (Acts  14 :  23),  the  apostles  ordained  rulers 
in  every  church,  who  bore  the  common  name  of  Elders  (rtpfaj3urspot) 
from  their  dignity,  and  of  Bishops  ((7tCaxortot)  from  the  nature  of  their 
office. 

That  originally  the  Ttptofivrtpoi  were  the  same  as  the  tnCaxortot,,  we 
gather  with  absolute  certainty  from  the  statements  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  of  Clement,  of  Rome,  a  disciple  of  the  apostles  (see  his  First 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  chaps,  xlii.  xliv.  lvii.).  1)  The  presbyters 
are  expressly  called  irtloxortoL —  comp.  Acts  xx.  17  with  ver.  28,  and 
Tit.  i.  5  with  ver.  7.  —  2)  The  office  of  presbyter  is  described  as  next 
to  and  highest  after  that  of  apostle  (Acts  xv.  6,  22).  Similarly,  the 
elders  are  represented  as  those  to  whom  alone  the  rule,  the  teachine. 
and  the  care  of  the  Church  is  entrusted  (1  Tim.  v.  17  ;  1  Pet.  v.  1  etc.) : 
on  account  of  whi.h  the  apostles  designate  themselves  also  as  cv/utpe* 


68  THE     PRIMITIVE     CHURCH     (l  — 100    A.  D.) 

Svrfpoi  (1  Pet.  v.  1,  2,  and  3  John  1).  — 3)  The  various  offices  of  the 
Church  are  summed  up  under  the  expression  ittCaxortot  xal  Stdxoiot 
(Phil.  i.  1;  Clem.  Rom.  1.  c.  ch.  xlii.  comp.  1  Tim.  iii.  1,  8).  — 4)  In 
the  above  quoted  passages  of  the  N.  T.  and  of  Clement  we  read  of 
many  bishops  in  one  and  the  same  church.  In  the  face  .of  such  indu- 
bitable evidence,  it  is  difficult  to  account  for  the  pertinacity  with  which 
Romish  and  Anglican  theologians  insist  that  these  two  offices  had  from 
the  first  been  different  in  name  and  functions;  while  the  allegation  of 
some,  that  although,  originally,  the  two  designations  had  been  identical, 
the  offices  themselves  were  distinct,  seems  little  better  than  arbitrary 
and  absurd.  Even  Jerome,  Augustin,  Urban  II.  (a.  1091),  and  Petrus 
Lombardus  admit  that  originally  the  two  had  been  identical.  It  was 
reserved  for  the  Council  of  Trent  to  convert  this  truth  into  a  heresy. 

3.   Other  Church   Offices.— (Comp.  R.  Iiothe,  die  Anfange  d.  christl. 
Kirche  und  ihrer  Verfass.  (Commenc.  of  the  Chr.  Ch.  and  of  its  Consti- 
tut,).  Wittemb.  1837.  Vol.  I.— J.  W.  Bickell,  Gesch.  d.  Kirch enrechtes 
(Hist,  of  Eccl.  Law).  Frankf.  1849.  I.  2,  p.  62  etc.)— Conjoined  with,  but 
subordinate  to,  the  office  of  presbyter  or  bishop,  of  which  the  apostles 
themselves  for  so  considerable  time  discharged  the  duties  at  Jerusalem, 
was  the  office  of  Beacon.     It  was  first  instituted  by  the  apostles,  with  con- 
sent of  the  people,  for  the  purpose  of  caring  for  the  poor  and  the  sick  at 
Jerusalem  (Acts  vi.).  Thence  it  spread  to  most  other  Christian  communi- 
ties; the  number  of  deacons  being  always  seven,  until  the  original  func- 
tions of  the  office  were  enlarged,  and  the  deacons  called  to  assist  in  the 
cure  of  souls  and  in  preaching  the  word.  Functions  corresponding  to  those 
of  the  deacons  —  but  only  so  far  as  the  original  design  of  the  diaconate 
was  concerned  (according  to  1  Cor.  xiv.  34,  and  1  Tim.  ii.  12)— devolved 
on  the  Deaconesses  (Rom.  xvi.  1),  who  took  charge  of  Christian  females. 
From  1  Tim.  v.  9  we  gather  that,  commonly,  only  widows  above  the 
age  of  sixty  were  admitted  to  this  office.     The  presbyters  and  deacons 
were  set  apart  by  the  laying  on  of  the  hands  of  the  apostles,  or  of 
their  delegates  (Acts  vi.  6;   1  Tim.  iv.  14  etc.).     Individual  churches 
were  also  in  the  habit  of  employing  special  evangelists,  whose  duty  it 
was  to  travel  about  in  order  to  preach   to  the  heathen  (Eph.  iv.  11  ; 
Acts  xxi.  8).     When,  one  after  another,  the  apostles,  who  even  when 
absent,  were  regarded   as  concentrating  in  themselves  the  supreme 
guidance  of  the  churches,  were  called  to  their  rest,  gradually  and 
almost  necessarily  one  of  the  elders  obtained  prominence  over  the  rest, 
though  at  first  only  as  the  primus  inter  pares,  and  with  it  the  distinctive 
title  of  Bishop,  in  contradistinction  to  the  other  presbyters.     The  rela- 
tion of  James  to  the  church  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.  13;  xxi.  18),  and 
the  full  powers  which  Paul  claimed  for  his  assistants  (Timothy,  Titus, 
and  others)   in  individual  churches,  may  have  served  as  a  commence 
nient  and  a  type  of  the  later  Episcopate  (Cf.  \  30). 


CHURCH     CONSTITUTION,    LIFE,    ETC.  69 

4.   Christian  Life,  and  Ecclesiastical  Discipline.  —  (Comp.  G.  Arnold, 
erste  Liebe,  d.   i.  wahre  Abbildung  d.  ersten  Christen.  (First  Love, 
i.   e.,   Faithful   Portraiture   of  the  first   Christians)    Frkft,    169(3.— In 
accordance  with  the  command  of  the  Lord  (John  xiii.  34,  35),  brotherly 
love,  in  opposition  to  the  selfishness  of  the  natural  heart,  became  the 
principle  of  the  new  Christian  life.     In  the  church  at  Jerusalem,  the 
power  of  first  love,  stimulated  by  the  expectation  of  a  speedy  return 
of  the  Lord,  manifested  itself  in  a  voluntary  community  of  goods  —  an 
experiment  this,  which,  without  denying  its  internal  value,  was  soon 
found  to  be  impracticable,  and  hence  neither  repeated  nor  even  pro- 
longed.    But  the  more  wealthy  Gentile  Christian  churches  continued 
to  show  their  brotherly  affection  by  making  collections  for  the  poor 
saints  at  Jerusalem,  whom  providential  dispensations  (such  as  famine) 
rendered  still  more  dependent.  —  According  to  the  direction  of  the 
apostle  in  Gal.  iii.  28,  the  threefold  evil  under  which  the  old  world 
laboured  —  contempt  of  foreign  nationalities,  degradation  of  woman,  and 
slavery  —  was  removed  by  a  gradual  and  internal  renovation  of  the 
world,  carried  on  without  any  violent  infringement  of  existing  rights. 
At  the  same  time,  a  deep  consciousness  of  the  fellowship  subsisting 
between  the  members  of  the  Church  in  their  subordination  to  the  One 
Head  in  heaven,  pervaded  and  sanctified  all  the  relationships  of  life. — 
However,  even   in  apostolic  times  pristine  Christian  purity  and  sim- 
plicity occasionally  gave  place  to  other  feelings.    In  the  Mother  Church, 
hypocrisy  (Acts  v.)  and  dissension  (Acts  vi.)  appeared  at  a  very  early 
period.    But  the  former  was  visited  by  a  dreadful  judgment ;  the  latter 
removed  by  charity  and  mutual  forbearance.    Among  the  more  wealthy 
Gentile  Christian  churches  (such  as  in  Corinth  and  Thessalonica)  the 
spirit  of  the  world  manifested  its  presence  by  luxuriousness,  selfish- 
ness, pride,  etc. ;  but  it  was  broken  or  removed,  partly  in  consequence 
of  the  admonitions  and  the  discipline  of  the  apostles,  and  partly  in 
consequence  of  the  early  persecutions  which  sifted  and  purified  the 
churches.     Any  member  who  had  caused  public  scandal  by  a  gross 
violation  of  pure  doctrine  or  of  Christian  duty,  and  who  persisted  in 
his  sin  despite  the  admonitions  of  pastors  and  elders,  was  expelled 
from  the  Church.     But  if  sufficient  proof  of  genuine  repentance  had 
been  given,  the  offending  brother  was  gladly  welcomed  back.     The 
account  about  the  incestuous  person  at  Corinth  affords  an  example 
of  the  apostolic  arrangements  in  this  respect  (1  Cor.  v.  1  etc. ;  2  Cor. 
ii.  5  etc. ;  comp.  also  1  Tim.  i.  19,   20 ;  Gal.  i.  8,  9  ;  1  John  ii.   19 
etc.).    Cf.  I  36. 

5.  Christian  Worship. —  (Comp.  Hi.  Harnach,  der  chr.  Gemeinde- 
Ejottesd.  im  apost.  u.  altkath.  Zeitalter  (Chr.  Congregat.  Worship  in  the 
Apost.  and  Anc.  Cath.  Ch.).Erl.  1854.— Th.  Kliefoth,  Liturg.  Abhandl. 
IV.  A.  u.  d.  T. :  Die  urspr.  Gottesdienstordn.  &c,  I.  p.  175,  &c,  2 
A.ufl.  Schwerin.   ]Q58). — Even  in   Jerusalem,  where   Christians   con 


70  THE    PRIMITIVE    CHURCH    (l— 100  A. T).). 

tinued  their  attendance  on  the  temple,  the  religious  wants  of  the  Church 
rendered  distinctively  Christian  and  common  worship  necessary.  But 
as  Jewish  worship  was  twofold  in  its  character,  consisting  of  instruc 
tion  and  edification  by  the  word  in  the  synagogues,  and  of  the  typical 
and  sacramental  service  of  symbols  in  the  temple,  so,  in  the  Church 
also,  Christian  worship  was,  from  the  first,  either  homiletico-didaciic, 
or  else  eucharistico-sacramental.  (Cf.  I  33.)  The  former,  like  the 
service  of  the  synagogue,  was  not  only  intended  for  the  edification  of 
the  congregation,  but  for  missionary  purposes,  on  which  ground  non- 
Christians  also  were  allowed  and  invited  to  attend.  At  first  the  church 
at  Jerusalem  held  these  [morning]  services  in  the  halls  of  the  temple, 
where  the  people  were  wont  to  assemble  for  prayer  (Acts  iii.  11)  ; 
afterwards,  in  private  houses.  They  consisted  of  reading  certain 
passages  and  sections  from  the  Old  Testament  —  at  a  later  period,  also 
apostolic  letters  and  portions  from  the  Gospels  —  of  addresses  for  the 
purposes  of  instruction  and  exhortation,  of  prayer  and  of  singing  of 
psalms.  The  sacramental  portion  of  public  worship  took  place  within 
the  circle  of  the  Church  alone.  The  main  part  and  object  of  these 
(evening)  services  was  to  celebrate  the  Lord's  Supper,  which,  after  the 
model  of  the  institution,  was  accompanied  by  prayer  and  the  singing 
of  hymns,  and  taken  along  with  a  common  meal,  called  the  ayun*],  to 
denote  that  its  purpose  was  the  expression  of  brotherly  love.  The  ele- 
ments were  set  apart  for  sacramental  purposes  by  prayer,  in  which 
thanks  and  praise  were  offered  up  (tixapCotia,  1  Cor.  xi.  24;  or  sv%oyCa, 
1  Cor.  x.  16).  This  prayer  was  probably  followed  by  the  "holy  kiss" 
[ty&qpn  Syiov,  Rom.  xvi.  16  ;  1  Cor.  xvi.  20).  In  public  worship,  besides 
the  psalms,  distinctly  Christian  hymns  and  doxologies  were  probably 
in  use  even  in  apostolic  times  (Eph.  v.  19  ;  Col.  iii.  16),  of  which  Eph. 
ii.  14,  1  Tim.  iii.  16,  2  Tim.  ii.  11-13,  possibly  contain  specimens  and 
fragments.  See  also  1  Tim.  iii.  1,  16  ;  James  i.  17  ;  Rev.  i.  4  etc.  ;  iv. 
11 ;  v.  9  etc. ;  xi.  15  etc. ;  xv.  3  etc.  ;  xxi.  1  etc.  ;  xxii.  10  etc.  At  first, 
both  the  homiletic  and  eucharistic  services  took  place  daily  (Acts  ii.  4, 
6).  But  even  in  apostolic  times,  besides  the  Sabbath — among  Gentile 
Christians  instead  of  it  —  the  Lord's  Day  was  observed  as  a  day  of 
special  solemnity,  being  that  of  Christ's  resurrection  (John  xx.  26 ; 
Acts  xx.  7  ;  1  Cor.  xvi.  2 ;  Rev.  i.  10).  But  we  cannot  discover  that 
any  other  feast  days  had  been  observed  at  that  period.  Equally  im- 
possible is  it  strictly  to  demonstrate  that  infant  baptism  had  been 
practised  by  the  apostles,  although  this  is  probable  (Acts  ii.  39;  xvi 
33  ;  1  Cor.  vii.  14).  Baptism  was  administered  by  complete  immersion, 
in  the  name  of  Christ,  or  else  of  the  Triune  God  (Matt,  xxviii.  19). 
The  charisma  of  healing  the  sick  was  applied  along  with  prayer  and 
anointing  with  oil  (James  v.  14,  15).  The  practice  of  confessing  sins 
one  to  another,  and  praying  for  each  other,  was  recommended  without 
having,  however,  any  necessary  connection  with  public  worship  (James 
v.  16).  The  Holy  Ghost  (as  a  charisma),  and  ordination  (Acts  vi.  6; 
xiii.  3  ;  1  Tim.  iv.  14),  were  imparted  by  prayer  and  laying  on  of  hands. 


APOSTOLIC    OPPOSITION    TO    SECTARIANS,    ETC.       71 

I  19.   APOSTOLIC   OPPOSITION   TO   SECTARIANS   AND 

HERETICS. 

Comp.  Thiersch,  Versuch  zur  Herstell.  d.  Hist.  Standp.  fur.  d.  Kri 
tik  d.  Nel.  Schriften.  Erlg.  1845.—  W.  Mangold,  d.  Irrlehre  d.  Pastoral 
briefe.  Marb.  1856. 

From  the  first,  when,  by  the  preaching  of  the  apostles,  Chris- 
tianity entered  on  its  mission  of  conquering  the  world,  the  intel- 
lectual powers  of  the  old  world  occupied  one  of  three  relations 
with  reference  to  the  Gospel.  Either  their  representatives  en- 
tirely gave  themselves  up  to  the  truth,  or  they  prepared  as 
enemies  to  resist  it,  or  they  admitted  certain  of  the  elements  of 
Christianity,  retaining,  however,  along  with  these,  their  old  and 
unchristian  views.  This  combination  and  commingling  of  hete- 
rogeneous elements  gave  rise  to  many  heresies.  —  The  first 
enemy  which  appeared,  even  in  the  midst  of  the  Christian  camp 
itself,  was  the  well-known  pharisaical  Judaism,  with  its  tradi- 
tionary ossification  of  doctrine,  its  righteousness  of  dead  works, 
its  narrow-minded  pride  of  nationality,  and  its  carnal  and  per- 
verted views  about  the  Messiah.  It  was  the  shibboleth  of  that 
party,  that  the  Gentiles  should  be  constrained  to  observe  the 
ceremonial  law  (of  the  Sabbath,  of  meats,  of  circumcision),  as 
being  the  necessary  condition  of  salvatiou.  This  tendency  had 
first  appeared  in  the  Church  at  Jerusalem,  where,  however,  the 
resolutions  agreed  to  at  the  conference  of  the  apostles  con- 
demned the  peculiarities  of  the  party.  Still  it  continued  to 
follow  Paul  in  his  missionary  labours,  attacking  him  with  the 
weapons  of  malice,  enmity  and  calumny.  To  his  contest  with 
these  sectaries  we  owe  the  most  precious  of  his  Epistles  (espe. 
cially  those  addressed  to  the  Romans,  the  Galatians,  and  the 
Corinthians).  Traces  of  Sadducean  and  sceptical  opposition 
may  perhaps  be  discovered  in  the  objections  to  the  doctrine  of 
the  resurrection  to  which  Paul  replies  in  1  Cor.  xv.  On  the 
other  haiid,  Grecian  Philosophy  also,  at  an  early  period,  mingled 
itself  with  Christianity.  Apollos,  a  Jew  from  Alexandria,  who 
had  received  a  philosophical  training,  viewed  Christianity  mainly 
in  its  speculative  aspect  and  in  this  manner  eloquently  and  suc- 
cessfully expounded  its  doctrines  at  Corinth'.  Paul  did  not 
oppose  this  method  of  presenting  the  Gospel.  He  rather  left  it 
to  the  judgment  of  history  (1  Cor.  iii.  11-14)  ;  but  he  warned 


72  THE     PRIMITIVE     CHURCH     (l— 100    A.  D.). 

against  laying  excessive  value  on  human  wisdom  (1  Cor.  ii.  1-10). 
Still,  among  some  of  the  lovers  of  philosophy  at  Corinth,  the 
simple  and  positive  preaching  of  Paul  in  consequence  declined 
in   authority,    although   this   result  had   not   been   intended    by 
A])ollos.     This  circumstance  was  perhaps  the  first  occasion  of 
the  split  in  the  church  at  Corinth,  where  four  parties  appeared 
under  different  names  (1   Cor.  i.).     The   Judaising    Christians 
appealed  to   the   authority  of  the   Apostle  Peter  (ol  rov  Kj^a), 
while  the   Gentile    Christians  called  themselves  either  the   fol- 
lowers of  Apollos  or  of  Paul,  or  refusing  to  own  the  authority 
of  any  apostle,  assumed  the  boastful  designation  of  ol  rov  Xptatov. 
This  split  was  effectually  opposed  by  Paul  in  his  two  Epistles  to 
the  Corinthians. — Much  more  dangerous  than  the  heretical  ten- 
dencies to  which  we  have  above  adverted  was  a  kind  of  Jewish- 
Gentile  Gnosis,  which  began  to  intrude  into  Christianity  during 
the  latter  years  of  Paul's  labours,  being  probably  imported  by  the 
Essenes  and  Therapeutic,  who  had  formed  a  connecting  medium 
between  the  synagogue  and  the  heathen.     Asia  Minor  was  the 
principal  focus  of  this  ^euSgWioj  y^rn?.      To  it  Paul  first  directed 
attention  in  his  farewell  address  at  Miletus  (Acts  xx.  29,  30). 
Afterwards  he  expressly  opposed  it  in  the  Epistles  to  the  Ephe- 
sians  and  to  the  Colossians,  and  especially  in  his  pastoral  letters, 
even  as  Peter  combated  it  in  his  First  Epistle.      Still  it  assumed 
many  and  varied  forms.     It  appeared  in  the  shape  of  Oriental 
Theosophy,    Magic    and    Theurgy,    in    voluntary    ascetism   with 
reference  to  meats  and  marriage,  in  fancied  mysteries  about  the 
nature  and  subordination  of  heavenly  powers  and  spirits,  and  in 
the  transformation  of  certain  doctrines  of  Christianity  (such  as 
that  of  the  resurrection,   2   Tim.  ii.  18)   into   a  mere   idealism. 
These  seeds  of  evil  had  already  borne  abundant  fruit,  when  John 
came  to  take  up  his  residence  in  Asia  Minor.      Accordingly,  in 
his  First  Epistle  the  apostle  opposed  the  growing  heresy,  and 
more  especially  that  form  of  Gnosis  in  which,  under  the  garb  of 
docetic  views,  the   incarnation   of  God   in    Christ   was   denied. 
The   Second  Epistle  of  Peter  and  the  Epistle  of  Jude  are  more 
particularly  directed  against  the  antinomian  excesses  of  Gnosti- 
cism— its  unbounded  immorality,  and  its  infamous  licentiousness 
under  guise  of  magical  and  theurgic  services. — According  to  the 
statement  of  the* Fathers,  the  Nicolaitans  of  the  Book  of  Reve- 
lation (Rev.  ii.  6,  15;  were  a  distinct  sect,  which  originated  with 
Nicoln.ua  the  deacon  (Acts  vi.  5),  who  taught  that  it  was  lawful 


APOSTOLIC    OPPOSITION    TO    SECTARIANS,    ETC.       73 

to  yield  to  the  lusts  of  the  flesh,  since  this  could  not  affect  the 
spirit.  Traces  of  an  antinotnian  and  Gnostic  sect  of  Nicolaitans 
are  found  so  late  as  the  second  century. 

1.  The  Apostolic.  Conference.  —  The  Lord  had  commanded  His  dis- 
ciples to  preach  the  Gospel  to  all  nations  (Matt,  xxviii.  19).  They 
could  not,  therefore,  doubt  that  the  whole  Gentile  world  was  destined 
to  become  the  inheritance  of  the  Church.  But,  apparently  following 
the  Old  Testament  statements  about  the  eternal  obligation  of  the  law 
of  Moses,  and  as  yet  unable  fully  to  understand  the  utterance  of  the 
Lord  (Matt.  v.  17  etc.),  they  deemed  it  necessary  by  circumcision  to 
make  the  Gentiles  Jews  before  admitting  them  into  the  kingdom  of 
Christ.  The  views  of  Stephen,  who  was  a  Hellenist,  seem,  however,  to 
have  been  more  liberal  (Acts  vi.  14).  Philip,  also  a  Grecian,  preached 
among  the  Samaritans,  and  the  apostles  owned  and  completed  his 
labours  through  Peter  and  John  (Acts  viii.  14  etc).  Still,  a  direct 
revelation  was  necessary  before  Peter  could  feel  convinced  that  a 
Gentile  who  felt  his  need  of  salvation  could  as  such  enter  the  kingdom 
of  God  (Acts  x.).  Even  this  revelation,  however,  exercised  no  deci- 
sive influence  on  the  common  mode  of  carrying  on  missionary  op- 
erations. Grecian  Jews  in  Antioch  were  again  the  first  to  take  the 
bold  step  of  addressing  themselves  directly  to  the  work  among  the 
Gentiles  (Acts  xi.  19).  To  watch  the  movement  in  that  city,  the 
apostles  commissioned  Barnabas,  who  at  once  entered  into  it  with 
all  his  soul,  and  conjoined  with  himself  Paul,  who  was  to  prove  a 
still  more  eminent  labourer.  After  the  success  of  their  first  missionary 
tour  had  proved  their  calling  as  apostles  of  the  Gentiles,  and  the  Divine 
sanction  to  their  work,  Jewish-Christian  zealots  raised  discussions  at 
Antioch,  which  issued  in  a  journey  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  to  Jerusalem, 
for  the  purpose  of  having  the  disputed  questions  settled  (about  the  year 
50).  At  a  meeting  of  the  apostles  in  that  city,  Peter  and  James  the  Just 
carried  the  resolution,  that  converted  Gentiles  should,  from  a  legard  to 
relations  then  existing  (Acts  xv.  20),  submit  to  certain  legal  restric- 
tions, analogous  to  those  to  which  proselytes  of  the  gate  had  hitherto 
been  subject.  A  private  conference  between  the  two  apostles  of 
Antioch,  and  Peter,  James,  and  John,  led  to  their  mutual  recognition 
of  one  another  as  respectively  the  apostles  of  the  Gentiles  and  of  the 
Jews  (Gal.  ii.  1-10).  Still,  during  his  stay  at  Antioch,  Peter  was 
guilty  of  a  practical  inconsistency  in  weakly  yielding  to  the  fanaticism 
of  some  Jewish  Christians,  for  which  he  was  sharply  reproved  by  Paul 
(Gal.  ii.  11-14.)  But  the  conclusions  at  which  the  meeting  of  apostles 
had  arrived  did  not  put  a  stop  to  this  controversy,  and  the  understand- 
ing that  mutual  toleration  should  be  extended  was  sadly  traversed,  at 
least  by  one  of  the  parties.  During  the  whole  course  of  his  labours, 
Paid  had  continually  to  contend  with  sectarian  Jewish  converts,  who 
tried  their  utmost  to  undermine  his  apostolic  authority,  and  to  introduce 
7 


74  THE     PRIMITIVE     CHURCH     (1— 100    A.  D.). 

elements  of  discord  into  the  churches  which  he  planted. — James  ill*. 
Just  remained  till  his  death  the  representative  of  the  sound  Judseo- 
Christian  direction,  whose  adherents,  from  hahit  and  personal  liking, 
continued  to  observe  the  ceremonial  law,  but  in  nowise  made  salvation 
dependent  on  such  conformity.  —  The  destruction  of  the  temple,  and 
with  it  the  cessation  of  Jewish  Avorship,  prepared  the  way  for  a  gradual 
termination  of  the  Jewish  Christian,  which  henceforth  merged  in  the 
Gentile  Christian  Church.  To  this  result  contributed  also  the  laboura 
of  the  Apostle  John  in  Asia  Minor, — a  man  whose  every  action  seemed 
influenced  by  the  love  of  Christ,  and  breathed  the  spirit  of  conciliation. 
The  remainder  of  the  party,  who,  despite  the  change  to  which  we  have 
adverted,  continued  their  former  principles  and  practices,  assumed  more 
and  more  the  character  of  a  sect,  and  in  part  became  decidedly  heretical. 
(cf§27.) 

2.  The  Basis  of Apostolic  Teaching, — (Comp.  Luttcrbeck,  Lechler,  Reuss 
ut  supra,  and  the  Sketches  of  the  Teaching  of  Paul  by  Usteri  (5th  ed. 
Zurich  1834)  and  by  Ddhne  (Halle  1835),— of  that  of  John,  by  From- 
mann  (Leipz.  1839),  Kostlin  (Berl.  1843),  and  Hilgenfeld  (Halle  1849 
—and  of  that  of  Peter,  by  B.  Weiss  (Berl.  1855).     See  also  II.  Messner, 
die  Lehre  d.  Apostel.  (the  Teaching  of  the  Ap.)  Leipz.  185G.) — It  was 
soon  felt  necessary  to  write  down  the  apostolic  and  authentic  accounts 
of  the  life  of  the  Saviour,  in  order  to  give  them  a  stable  form.     If  in 
this  manner  the  Gospels  were  compiled,  the  continuous  intercourse 
between  the  missionary  apostles  and  the  churches  which  they  had 
founded,  or  else  the  exercise  of  their  general  authority,  led  to  the  com- 
position of  the  Apostolic  Epistles.     At  an   early  period  the  mutual 
exchange  of  apostolic  communications  (Col.  iv.  16)  formed  the  commence- 
ment of  a  collection  and  diffusion  of  the  New  Testament  writings  ;  and, 
accordingly,  Peter  could  assume  (2  Pet.  iii.  15,  1G)  that  the  contents 
of  the  epistles  of  Paul  were  commonly  known.     There  was  not  at  the 
time  any  creed  to  serve  as  a  generally  authentic  test  of  orthodoxy, 
although  a  commencement  had  already  been  made  in  the  profession  of 
faith  exacted  from  converts  at  their  baptism  (on  the  basis  of  Matt. 
xxviii.  19).     In  the  age  succeeding  that  of  the  apostles,  this  profession 
was  enlarged  into  what  is  known  as  the  Apostolic   Creed.     Already 
Paul  had  intimated  that  justification  by  faith  alone  (Gal.  i.  8,  9)  was 
one  of  the  indispensable  tests  of  a  genuine  Christian  profession,  while 
John  had  asserted  the  same  with  reference  to  the  incarnation  of  God  in 
Christ  (1  John  iv.  3).     In  the  three  principal  apostles  appeared  the 
threefold    fundamental    tendency    of  Christian    doctrine    in    apostolic 
times.     Paul  represented  the  pneumatico-theological  direction;  John, 
the  religious  and  idealistic;  and  Peter  (as  also,  in  the  main,  James  the 
Just),  the  practical  and  ethical.     The  views  of  John  brought  out  pro- 
minently and  most  emphatically  the  Divine  aspect  of  the  appearance 
of  Christ  (John  i.  14) ;  those  of  Peter,  its  human  aspect,  as  the  ideal 
of  holy  walk  and  conversation  (1  Pet.  ii.  21) ;  and  those  of  Paul,  being 


APOSTOLIC    OPPOSITION    TO    SECTARIANS,   ETC.      75 

more  comprehensive  than  the  others,  the  fulness  in  the  God-Man  (Col. 
ii.  9 ;  2  Cor.  v.  19).  Faith  was  the  central  and  moving  point  in  the 
teaching  of  Paul,  love  in  that  of  John,  and  hope  in  that  of  Peter.  But 
•while  we  admit  this  diversity,  springing  from  the  natural  bias  of  dif- 
ferent minds,  and  sanctified  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  it  were  quite  erro- 
neous to  regard  it  either  as  implying  an  exclusive  and  one-sided  pecu- 
liarity, or  diversity.  On  the  contrary,  each  of  these  directions  admits 
of  and  presupposes  the  others  as  complementary  to  it.  More  especially 
do  the  teaching  of  John  and  of  Peter  fit  into  that  of  Paul,  which  waa 
the  most  fully  developed  and  comprehensive  of  all. 


FIRST     SECTION 


HISTORY  OF  THE  DEVELOPMENT 

OF    THE 

CHURCH  IN  ITS  ANCIENT  CLASSICAL  CULTURE. 

77 


SOUECES. 


Sources:  1.  Church  Fathers  :  Maxima  BibliotJieca  Patrum  et  ant. 
Scriptt.  ecclest.  Lugd.  1677.  27  voll.  fol. —  A.  Gallandi,  Biblioth.  vett. 
Patr.  et  ant.  Scriptt.  ecclest.  Yenet.  1765.  14  voll.  fol. —  /.  P.  Migne, 
Patrologia?  cursus  completus,  s.  Biblioth.  universalis  ss.  Pp.  et  Scr. 
ecclest.  Series  II. :  Eccl.  Lat.  Par.  1844,  etc.  217  vols.  (Of  the  Greek 
series  104  vols,  have  appeared.) — J.  E.  GraLc,  Spicilegium  ss.  P.  et 
Ilasrett.  Sec.  I.  II.  Oxon.  1698.  2  voll.  —  M.  J.  Routh,  Reliquia?  ss. 
1814.     4  voll. 

2.  Byzantine  Writers  (from  500 — 1500):  Hist.  Byzantinse  Scr. 
Par.  1645.  42  voll.  fol.  (Ven.  1729.  22  voll.  fol.)  —  Niebuhr,  corpus 
Scr.  hist.  Byz.     Bonn.  1828,  48  vols. 

3.  On  Eastern  Antiquity:  Jos.  Sim.  Assemanus,  Bibl.  Orientalis 
Clementino-Vaticana.     Rom.  1719.     3  voll.  fol. 

4.  Treatises  on  these  Subjects  :  TiUemont,  memoires  pour  servir  a 
1'hist.  ecclest.  des  six  prem.  siecles.  Par.  1693.  16  voll.  4to.  —  J.  F. 
Damberger,  synchr.  Gesch.  d.  K.  u.  d.  W.  im  Mittelalt.  (Synchron.  Hist, 
of  the  Ch.  and  the  World  in  the  Middle  Ages).     Regensb.  1850. 

£20.    CHARACTER  AND   LIMITS   OF   THIS   PHASE   OF 

DEVELOPMENT. 

The  universalistic  spirit  of  Christianity  had,  even  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Apostolic  Age,  broken  through  the  narrow 
boundaries  of  Judaism  ;  while  towards  the  close  of  that  period, 
what  at  first  had  been  a  natural  antagonism  between  Jewish  and 
Gentile  Christianity  had  been  wholly  removed.  The  Divine  truths 
of  salvation  had  been  stripped  of  the  Jewish  envelope  in  which  the 
kernel  had  attained  its  full  maturity.  These  truths  were  now 
committed  to  the  Roman  and  Grecian  world  for  their  reception, 
that  by  means  of  those  elements  of  culture  which  had  there 
sprung  up,  they  might  be  fully  unfolded  and  applied.  Hence 
the  leading  characteristics  of  this  period  in  Church  History  are 
both  negative :  in  so  far  as  the  spirit  of  Christianity  was  to  over- 
come the  ungodly  heathenism  of  the  old  world — and  positive :  in  so 

(79) 


80  CHARACTER,    ETC.,    OF     THIS     fHASE. 

far  as  Christianity  was  now  to  develop  under  the  form  of  Grveco- 
Roman  culture.  This  development  issued  in  a  transition  from 
apostolicity  to  that  genuine  and  pure  catholicity,  which  was  to 
serve  as  the  common  basis  for  all  later  Christian  churches.  Such, 
then,  was  the  task  performed  by  the  old  Church  of  the  Graeco- 
Byzantine  world  ;  not,  however,  without  exhibiting  in  the  result 
a  mixture  of  false  ingredients,  derived  from  the  substitution  of 
unevangelical  for  genuine  evangelical  catholicity.  Thenceforth 
the  Germanic-Sclavonic  races  became  the  centre  of  gravitation 
for  the  movements  of  the  Church.  The  Roman  Church  preserved 
and  increased  her  authority  by  making  common  cause  with  those 
races  whose  training  she  had  undertaken,  while  the  Byzantine 
Church,  left  to  internal  decay,  and  exposed  to  Mohammedan 
oppression,  rapidly  declined. 

The  history  of  this  phase  in  the  development  of  the  Church  may  be 
arranged  under  three  periods.  The  first  of  these  reaches  to  the  time 
of  Constantine  the  Great,  under  whom  Christianity  and  the  Church 
obtained  final  victory  over  heathenism  (323)  ;  the  second  extends  to  the 
close  of  the  grand  development  of  doctrine  which  the  Church  was  to 
attain  under  the  ancient  classical  form  of  culture,  i.  e.,  to  the  close  of 
the  Monotheletic  controversy  by  the  6th  oecumenical  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople (680).  But  as  the  concilium  quinisextum  (692)  was  in  reality 
only  a  completion  of  the  former  two  oecumenical  Councils  —  so  far  as 
the  constitution  and  worship  of  the  Church  were  concerned  —  and  as 
there  the  great  split  between  the  East  and  the  West  may  be  said  to 
have  commenced,  we  prefer  closing  our  second  period  with  the  year  692. 
The  difference  obtaining  between  these  two  periods  appears  most  dis- 
tinctly in  the  outward  position  of  the  Church.  Before  the  time  of 
Constantine,  the  Church  lived  and  grew  in  strength,  despite  the  oppres- 
sion of  a  heathen  government.  If  its  outward  existence  was  continually 
threatened  by  an  almost  unbroken  succession  of  bloody  persecutions, 
the  Divine  power  which  sustained  and  gave  it  the  prospect  of  ultimate 
victory,  only  appealed  the  more  gloriously  under  these  difficulties. 
Under  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  state  became  Christian,  and  the 
Church  enjoyed  all  those  advantages  and  that  fostering  care  which 
earthly  protection  can  afford.  But  with  worldly  glory  came  a  worldly 
spirit;  the  state  also  speedily  transformed  its  protection  of,  into  auto- 
cratic domination  over,  the  Church.  In  respect  of  the  internal,  and 
especially  of  the  dogmatic  development  of  the  Church,  also,  these  two 
periods  materially  differ.  So  long  as  the  Church  was  engaged  in  the 
process  of  appropriating  the  forms  of  ancient  heathenism,  while  setting 
aside  its  atheism  and  falsehoods,  the  latter  too  frequently  made  them- 
selves felt  by  the  introduction  of  dangerous  admixtures  of  error  with 
Christian  truth.     Judaism  also,  whose  narrow  bonds  had  so  lately  been 


CHARACTER,  ETC.,  OF  THIS  PHASE.       81 

cast  off,  threatened  similar  dangers.  Hence,  during  the  first  period, 
the  Church  -was  chiefly  engaged  in  eliminating  antichristian  elements, 
whether  Jewish  or  heathen.  But  during  the  second  period,  when  the 
power  of  heathenism  was  broken,  the  Church  was  free  to  devote  its 
entire  energies  to  the  development  of  distinctively  Christian  dogmas, 
and  to  the  establishment  of  catholic  doctrine  in  its  fullest  and  most  com- 
prehensive aspects,  in  opposition  to  the  limitations  and  mistakes  of 
heretics.  —  This  great  work  exhausted  the  capabilities  of  the  ancient 
Greek  and  Roman  world.  The  measure  of  development  which  it  was 
capable  of  giving  to  the  Church  was  full :  henceforth  the  future  of  the 
Church  lay  with  the  Saxon  and  Sclavonic  races.  While  the  Byzantine 
empire,  and  with  it  the  glory  of  the  ancient  Eastern  Church,  was 
exposed  to  Mohammedanism,  a  new  empire,  gifted  with  the  full  vigour 
of  youth,  sprang  up  in  the  West,  and  became  the  medium  of  a  new 
phase  of  development  in  the  history  of  the  Church.  While  thus  in  the 
West  the  Church  reached  another  height  of  development,  in  the  East 
it  sunk  under  outward  pressure  and  internal  decay.  The  split  between  the 
East  and  the  West,  which  had  commenced  in  a  former  period,  became 
complete,  and  effectually  prevented  an  accession  of  fresh  political  or 
ecclesiastical  influences  which  might,  perhaps,  have  been  derived  from 
the  West.  The  fall  of  the  Eastern  empire  removed  the  last  prop  of  its 
splendour  and  activity.  With  this  event  closed  the  outward  history  of 
the  Church  under  the  ancient  classical  form  of  culture  (1453).  What  of 
the  Eastern  Church  still  remained,  was,  under  the  pressure  of  Turkish 
djmination,  incapable  of  real  history. 


FIRST    PERIOD 

OF 

ECCLESIASTICAL     HISTORY 

UNDER  THE  ANCIENT  CLASSICAL  FORM  OF  CULTURE. 

TO  THE  YEAR  323. 

Comp.  L.  Moshemius,  Commentarii  de  reb.  Christianorum  ante  Con- 
stant. M.  Hclmst.  1753.  4.  —  A.  Sckwegler,  d.  nachapost.  Zeitalt.  (the 
Post-Apost.  Age).  2  vols.  Tub.  1846.— ' F.  Chr.  Baur,  d.  Christth.  u.  d. 
chr.  K.  d.  3  erst,  Jahrh.  (Christ,  and  the  Chr.  Ch.  of  the  first  3  Cent,) 
Tub.  1832.  — .4.  Riischl,  die  Entsteh.  d.  altkath.  K.  (the  Rise  of  the 
Anc.  Cath.  Ch.)  Bonn  1870.  Cave,  Primit.  Christ,  and  Lives  of  the 
Fathers ;  Burton's  Lect.  upon  the  Eccl.  Hist,  of  the  First  Three  Cent. ; 
Kaye,  Eccl.  Hist,  of  the  Second  and  Third  Cent.;  Jeremie,  Hist,  of 
the  Chr.  Ch. ;  Maurice,  Lect.  on  Eccl.  Hist. ;  Ph.  Schaff,  Hist,  of  the 
Chr.  Ch. 

I.  RELATIONS  OF  JUDAISM  AND  HEATHENISM  TO  THE  CHURCH. 

I  21.   HOSTILITY  AND  PERSECUTIONS  BY   THE  JEWS. 

Even  in  apostolic  times  the  Synagogue  was  violently  opposed 
to  Christianity.  To  the  Pharisees  and  to  the  mass  of  the  people, 
who  cherished  expectations  of  a  political  Messiah,  a  Saviour 
who  had  been  crucified  by  the  Gentiles  could  only  prove  a  rock 
of  offence  (1  Cor.  i.  23).  The  position  of  equality  assigned  to 
the  Samaritans,  and  ultimately  even  to  the  heathen,  most  deeply 
wounded  their  national  pride,  while  at  the  same  time  the  Gospel 
tried  and  rejected  their  work- righteousness  and  hypocrisy.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  emphasis  which  Christianity  laid  on  the 
doctrine  of  the  resurrection  excited  the  bitterest  opposition  of 
the  Sadducees  (Acts  iv.  2  ;  xxiii.  6).  The  same  spirit  prevailed 
generally  among  the  Jews  "of  the  dispersion."  The  men  of 
Berea  are  expressly  mentioned  as  forming  an  exception  to  this 
state  of  feeling  (Acts  xvii.  11).  —  At  last,  the  fearful  judgment 
of   God   burst    over   the   covenant-people   and  the   Holy   City 

(82) 


RESTORATION     AND     REACTION.  83 

(70  A.  D.)-  In  obedience  to  the  prophetic  warning  of  the  Lord 
(Matt.  xxiv.  16),  the  Christians  withdrew,  and  found  a  secure 
retreat  in  the  little  town  of  Pella,  on  the  other  side  Jordan.  But 
when  Bar  Cochba  (the  Son  of  a  Star,  called  so  in  allusion  to 
Num.  xxiv.  17),  the  false  Messiah,  incited  the  Jews  of  Palestine 
to  a  general  rebellion  against  the  Romans  (132),  the  Christians, 
who  refused  to  take  part  in  this  rising,  or  to  acknowledge  the 
claims  of  the  impostor,  underwent  a  bloody  persecution.  In 
135  Bar  Cochba  fell;  and  Hadrian  founded,  on  the  ruins  of 
Jerusalem,  JSlia  Capitolina,  a  Roman  colony,  to  which  the  Jews 
were  forbidden  all  access  on  pain  of  death.  From  that  time  they 
were  deprived  of  the  power  and  opportunities  of  directly  perse- 
cuting Christians.  However,  they  shared  in,  and  even  excited 
the  heathen  to,  persecutions  of  the  Church. —  In  their  schools — . 
of  which  that  of  Tiberias  was  the  principal  —  abominable  calum- 
nies about  Christ  and  Christians  circulated,  and  thence  spread 
among  the  heathen  (Celsus,  see  §  24,  4). 

§22.  ATTEMPTS  AT  RESTORATION  AND  REACTION  ON 
THE  PART  OF  THE  SYNAGOGUE  AND  OF  THE  SAMA- 
RITANS. 

In  proportion  as  the  fall  of  their  commonwealth  had  rendered 
the  Jews  impotent,  their  opposition  to  the  Gospel  increased. 
They  now  sought  safety  against  the  advances  of  Christianity  in 
fettering  all  inquiry  by  traditionary  interpretations  and  human 
ordinances.  This  mental  direction  was  fostered  by  the  schools 
of  Tiberias  and  Babylon.  The  Talmud,  of  which  the  first  por- 
tion was  compiled  at  that  period,  represents  the  antichristian 
tendency  of  Judaism,  after  it  had  fallen  from  its  highest  stage 
of  development  and  become  ossified  as  Traditionalism.  —  Some 
of  the  followers  of  John  (Acts  xviii.  24,  etc.)  also  opposed 
Christianity,  and,  under  the  name  of  Semerobaptists,  formed  a 
separate  sect.  The  so-called  Sabseans  or  Mandeans  in  Persia 
to-day,  or  disciples  of  John  (compare  §  27,  3)  are  probably  the 
successors  of  that  sect,  which  in  course  of  time  had  admitted 
Gnostic  elements.  —  While  the  first  labours  of  the  apostles  were 
crowned  with  such  eminent  success,  the  Samaritans  endeavoured 
to  outstrip  Christianity  by  introducing  new  forms  of  religion. 
Dositheus,  Simon  Magus,  and  Menander,  whom  the  Fathers 
designate  as  Heresiarchs,  disguised    their  Samaritan  Judaism 


84  SECTION    I.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (100— 323  A.  Ii.). 

under  heathen  and  theosophic  Gnosticism  and  goetic  impostures, 
while  each  of  them  claimed  to  be  the  Messiah. 

1.  Dositheus  pretended  to  be  the  Messiah  promised  in  Deut.  xviii. 
18.  He  insisted  on  most  rigorous  Sabbath-observance,  and  is  said  to 
have  at  last  miserably  perished  in  a  cave,  in  consequence  of  boastful 
achievements  in  fasting. 

2.  Simon  Magus  came  from  Gitton,  in  Samaria.  He  gave  himself 
out  to  be  the  SiW,uts  ?ov  £aou  jy  KaXovpevri  jwya'juf,— was  baptized  by 
Philip,  and  solemnly  warned  and  reproved  by  Peter,  from  whom  he 
wished  to  purchase  the  power  of  giving  the  Holy  Ghost.  Afterwards 
he  purchased,  in  a  brothel  at  Tyre,  Helena,  a  slave,  to  whom  he  assigned 
the  part  of  the  'Ewoia.  who  had  created  the  world.  In  order  to  deliver 
her  (who  was  held  captive  by  the  lower  angels),  and  with  her  the  world, 
held  in  bondage  by  these  angels,  he,  the  Supreme  God,  had  come  into 
the  world  in  the  form  of  a  man,  but  without  being  really  a  man.  He 
had,  in  appearance,  suffered  in  Judea,  and  manifested  himself  to  the 
Jews  as  the  Son,  to  the  Samaritans  as  the  Father,  and  to  the  Gentiles 
as  the  Holy  Ghost.  According  to  his  teaching,  salvation  only  depended 
on  acknowledging  him  and  his  Helena  as  supreme  gods:  only  his 
mercy,  not  good  works,  could  save  a  man.  The  law  had  originated 
with  the  fallen  angels,  and  was  introduced  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
reducing  men  to  bondage.  The  followers  of  Simon  developed  the 
Gnostic  system  of  their  master,  and  gave  themselves  up  to  the  utmost 
licentiousness.  Irenaeus  speaks  of  Simon  as  the  "magister  ac  progeni- 
tor omnium  hicreticorum,"  —  and,  in  point  of  fact,  his  views  embody 
the  fundamental  ideas  of  every  later  form  of  Gnosticism.  Justin  Mar- 
tyr even  imagined  that  he  had  seen  at  Rome  a  statue,  bearing  the 
inscription  :  "  Simoni  sancto  deo" — a  mistake  this,  explained  by  the 
excavation  of  a  statue  dedicated  to  the  Sabinian  god  Semo  Sancus. 
Of  his  discussion  with  Peter  at  Rome,  we  read  only  in  the  Clemen- 
tines ;  of  his  projected  ascension  to  heaven,  in  which  he  perished  in 
the  sea,  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions. 

3.  Menander  was  at  first  a  disciple  of  Simon,  but  afterwards  pre- 
ferred himself  also  to  play  the  part  of  a  Messiah.  However,  he 
remained  sufficiently  modest  not  to  claim  the  honours  of  supreme  deity, 
and  only  pretended  that  he  was  the  Saviour  whom  God  had  sent.  He 
taught  that  whosoever  received  his  baptism  should  neither  grow  old 
nor  die. 

§23.   PERSECUTION   OF   CHRISTIANS   IN   THE   ROMAN 

EMPIRE. 

Comp.  An.  Schmidt,  Geshichte  d.  Penk- und  Glaubensfreih.  in  den 
ersten  Jahrh.  der  Kaiserherrschaft  (Hist,  of  Intell  and  Relig.  Liberty 
during  the  First  Cent,  of  the  Emp.).  Berl.  1847. — Fr.  M'dnter,  die  Chris- 


PERSECUTION     OP     CHRISTIANS.  85 

tin  im  heidnischen  Hause  vor  den  Zeiten  Konst.  (The  Chr.  Female  in 
the  Heath.  Family  before  the  time  of  Const.)  Copenh.  1828. — II.  G. 
Tzschirner,  der  Fall  des  Heidenthums  (The  Fall  of  Heathenism),  edit, 
by  Niedner.  Vol.  I.  Leipz.  1829.  —  H.  Kritzler,  die  Heldenzeiten  dea 
Ohristenth.  I.  Der  Kampf  mit  d.  Heidenth.  (The  Heroic  Ages  of 
Christ.     I.  The  Struggle  with  Heathen.)  Leipz.  185G. 

A  law  of  twelve  tables  had  already  interdicted  throughout 
the  Roman  empire,  the  exercise  of  foreign  rites  of  worship 
(religiones  peregrinse,  collegia  illicita).  As  religion  was  en- 
tirely an  institution  of  the  state,  and  most  intimately  per- 
vaded all  public  and  civic  relations,  to  endan-ger  the  religion  of 
the  state  was  to  endanger  the  state  itself.  Bat  from  political 
considerations,  vanquished  nations  were  allowed  to  retain  their 
ancient  peculiar  rites.  This  concession  extended  not  to  the 
Church,  as  distinct  from  the  Synagogue.  Christianity  had 
openly  avowed  its  mission  to  set  aside  all  other  religions,  and  its 
rapid  march  of  progress  sufficiently  showed  that  this  was  not  an 
empty  boast.  The  intimate  connection  subsisting  between  Chris- 
tians, their  closed  meetings,  which  during  times  of  persecution 
were  held  in  secret,  awakened  and  strengthened  the  suspicion 
that  they  were  dangerous  to  the  state.  Their  aversion  to  public 
and  military  service,  mixed  up  as  it  was  with  heathen  ceremo- 
nies ;  their  refusal  to  offer  incense  to  the  statues  of  the  empe- 
rors ;  the  constancy  of  their  faith,  which  equally  resisted  violence 
and  persuasions  ;  their  retirement  from  the  world,  etc.,  were 
regarded  by  the  state  as  indifference  or  hostility  to  the  common 
weal,  as  hopeless  stubbornness,  as  disobedience,  rebellion,  and 
high  treason.  The  heathen,  moreover,  saw  in  the  Christians  dar- 
ing enemies  and  despisers  of  their  gods ;  and  a  religion  which 
wanted  temples,  altars,  and  sacrifices,  seemed  to  them  no  better 
than  sheer  atheism.  The  most  shameful  calumnies  —  such  as 
that,  in  their  assemblies,  they  practised  abominable  vices  (concu- 
bitus  Oedipodei),  slaughtered  infants  and  ate  human  flesh  (epuloe 
Thyestese) —  were  industriously  spread  and  readily  believed. 
Besides,  the  most  absurd  stories,  such  as  that  they  worshipped 
the  head  of  an  ass  (Deus  Onochoetes),  circulated  about  them. 
Every  public  calamity  was  imputed  to  the  Christians,  as  being  a 
manifestation  of  the  displeasure  of  the  gods  whom  they  despised  : 
"  Non  pluit  Deus,  due  ad  Christianos  ! "  The  heathen  priests, 
conjurers,  and  traffickers  in  idols,  were  also  ever  ready,  for  the 
sake  of  their  own  sordid  interests,  to  excite  the  passions  of  the 
8 


86  SECTION     I. FIRST     PERIOD    (100—323  A.  D.). 

populace.  Even  Tacitus  speaks  of  the  Christians  as  "odium 
generis  humani,"  and  "per  flagitia  invisos;"  and  Pliny  the 
Younger,  who  knew  so  much  that  reflected  credit  on  them,  de- 
cries their  religion  as  a  "  pertinacia  et  iuflexibilis  obstinatio," 
and  as  a  "  superstitio  prava  et  immodica, "  Under  such  circum- 
stances, we  can  scarcely  wonder  that  for  three  centuries  popular 
fury  spent  itself  in  a  series  of  almost  continual  persecutions. 

1.  There  may  have  been  some  historical  foundation  for  the  legend 
(however  absurd  at  first  sight  it  may  appear),  that  Tiberius  (14-37 
a.  d.),  moved  by  the  report  of  Pilate,  had  made  a  proposal  to  the 
senate  to  elevate  Christ  among  the  Roman  deities,  and  when  baffled  in 
this,  had  threatened  with  punishment  those  who  accused  the  Chris- 
tians. At  least,  there  is  nothing  in  the  character  of  Tiberius  to  render 
such  a  circumstance  incredible. — At  first  the  Christians  were  simply 
regarded  as  Jews;  and  therefore  a  number  of  them  (Acts  xviii.  2) 
were  expelled  from  Rome  when,  in  consequence  of  a  tumult,  the  Empe- 
ror Claudius  (41-54)  banished  the  JeAvs  from  the  capital.  Much  more 
serious  were  the  persecutions  of  Christians  (a.  d.  64)  which  took  place 
under  Nero  (54-G8),  on  the  occasion  of  a  great  fire  which  lasted  for 
nine  days,  and  which  was  commonly  imputed  to  incendiarism  on  the 
part  of  the  Emperor  himself.  Nero  threw  the  whole  blame  on  the 
hated  Christians,  and  visited  them  with  exquisite  tortures.  They  were 
sewn  into  skins  of  wild  beasts,  and  thrown  to  the  dogs  to  be  torn  in 
pieces ;  they  were  covered  with  wax  and  pitch,  nailed  to  sharp  j>oles, 
and  set  on  fire  to  illuminate  the  imperial  gardens  at  night.  The  per- 
secution was  not  confined  to  Rome,  and  lasted  to  the  end  of  Nero's 
reign.  Peter  and  Paul  obtained  at  that  time  the  martyr's  crown. 
Among  the  Christians  the  legend  spread  that  Nero  had  retired  to  the 
banks  of  the  Euphrates,  whence  he  would  return  as  Antichrist. 

In  consequence  of  the  suspiciousness  and  avarice  of  Domitian 
(81-9G),  individual  Christians  had  their  property  confiscated  or  were 
exiled.  That  monarch  put  a  political  interpretation  on  the  kingdom 
of  Christ,  and  accordingly  summoned  before  him  two  relatives  of  Jesus 
from  Palestine  ;  but  the  marks  of  hard  labour  on  their  hands  soon  con- 
vinced him  that  there  was  no  cause  for  his  apprehensions.  The  humane 
Emperor  Nerva  (9G-98)  recalled  the  exiles,  and  refused  to  listen  to 
accusations  against  Christians  as  such.  Still  Christianity  remained  a 
"  religio  illicita." 

2.  Under  the  reign  of  Trajan  (98-117)  commenced  a  new  stage  in 
the  persecution  of  Christians.  He  renewed  the  former  interdict  against 
secret  associations  (the  "  Heteriaj"),  which  was  soon  applied  to  those 
[>f  Christians.  In  accordance  with  this  laAA',  Pliny  the  Younger,  when 
Governor  of  Bithynia,  punished  with  death  those  who  were  accused  as 
Christians  and  persisted  in  their  profession.     But,  partly  staggfred  by 


PERSECUTION     OF     CHRISTIANS.  87 

the  great  number  of  persons  accused,  who  belonged  to  every  rank  and 
age,  and  to  both  sexes — partly  convinced  by  strict  judicial  investiga- 
tion that  the  tendency  of  Christianity  was  morally  pure  and  politically 
harmless,  and  that,  as  it  appeared  to  him,  Christians  could  only  be 
charged  with  unyielding  superstitiousness,  the  Governor  applied  for 
fresh  instructions  to  the  Emperor.  Trajan  approved  both  of  his  con- 
duct and  his  proposals ;  and  accordingly  commanded  that  Christians 
should  not  be  sought  out,  that  no  notice  should  be  taken  of  anonymous 
accusations,  but  that  if  parties  were  formally  accused  and  found 
guilty,  they  should  be  put  to  death  if  they  obstinately  refused  to  sacri- 
fice to  the  gods.  This  persecution  extended  as  far  as  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine. There  Si/meon,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  the  successor  of  James  and 
a  relative  of  the  Lord,  after  cruel  scourging,  died  a  martyr's  death  on 
the  cross,  at  the  advanced  age  of  120  years  (107).  Ignatius  also,  the 
excellent  Bishop  of  Antioch,  after  an  audience  with  the  Emperor,  was 
by  his  command  sent  in  chains  to  Rome,  and  there  torn  by  wild  beasts 
(115). — Under  the  reign  of  Hadrian  (117-198),  the  people  were  wont, 
on  occasions  of  heathen  festivals,  loudly  to  call  for  the  execution  of 
Christians.  On  the  representation  of  Serenius  Granianus,  Hadrian 
addressed  a  rescript  to  Minucius  Fundanus  (the  successor  in  office  of 
Serenius),  forbidding  such  irregular  proceedings.  But  the  legal  pro- 
secution for  the  profession  of  the  Gospel  continued  as  before.  The 
legend — dating  from  the  fourth  century— that  Hadrian  had  intended 
to  build  a  temple  to  Christ,  is  destitute  of  all  historical  foundation. 
His  dislike  to  Christianity  and  Christians  appears  even  from  the  cir- 
cumstance that  he  erected  a  temple  to  Venus  on  the  spot  where  Christ 
had  been  crucified,  and  a  statue  of  Jupiter  over  the  rock  where  He  had 
been  buried,  for  the  purpose  of  desecrating  these  localities. — Under 
the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius  (138-161),  the  populace,  excited  in  con- 
sequence of  a  number  of  public  calamities,  renewed  its  tumults  against 
the  Christians,  from  which,  however,  that  mild  Emperor  sought  to 
protect  them.  But  the  rescript  "  ad  commune  Asia;,"  which  bears  the 
name  of  Antoninus,  is  in  all  probability  spurious  and  of  Christian 
authorship. 

3.  Under  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius  (161-180)  the  persecutions 
took  a  fresh  turn.  That  Emperor,  who  otherwise  was  one  of  the  noblest 
among  the  heathen,  in  the  pride  of  his  Stoic  philosophy,  looked  with 
contempt  on  the  enthusiasm  of  Christians.  On  this  ground  he  gave 
full  scope  to  the  outbursts  of  popular  fury,  and  introduced  a  system  of 
espionage  and  of  tortures  in  order  to  oblige  Christians  to  recant.  The 
result  proved  a  great  triumph  to  Christian  heroism.  We  possess  de- 
tailed accounts  about  the  persecution  at  Smyrna  (167),  and  those  at 
Lugdunum  and  Vienna  in  Gaul  (177).  At  Smyrna,  the  aged  bishop 
Polycarp  died  on  the  stake,  because  he  would  not  consent  to  curse  that 
Lord  whom  for  eighty-six  years  he  had  served.  "With  his  latest  breath 
he  offered  thanks  for  having  been  deemed  worthy  of  the  martyr's  crown. 


88  SECTION     I.  —  FIRST    PERIOD     (100— 323  A.  D.). 

More  general  and  bloody  than  that  of  Smyrna  were  the  persecutions  at 
Lugdunum  and  at  Vienna.  Bishop  Pothinus,  a  man  ninety  years  of 
age,  died  in  a  loathsome  prison  in  consequence  of  the  sufferings  to 
which  he  had  been  subjected.  Blandina,  a  delicate  female  slave,  was 
scourged  in  the  most  dreadful  manner,  roasted  on  a  red-hot  iron  chair, 
thrown  to  the  wild  beasts,  and  then  executed.  But  under  all  sufferings 
she  continued  her  confession  :  "  I  am  a  Christian,  and  there  are  no  evil 
practices  among  us."  Ponticus,  a  lad  fifteen  years  of  age,  showed 
similar  constancy  under  like  tortures.  The  dead  bodies  of  the  martyrs 
lay  in  heaps  on  the  streets,  till  they  were  cast  into  the  flames,  and  their 
ashes  thrown  into  the  Rhone. 

The  legend  about  the  legio  fulminatrix  —  to  the  effect  that,  in  the 
war  with  the  Marcomanni  (174),  rain  and  lightning  had  been  sent  in 
answer  to  the  prayers  of  the  Christian  soldiers  of  that  legion,  whereby 
Marcus  Aurelius  had  been  delivered  from  imminent  danger,  and  that 
in  consequence  the  Emperor  had  issued  an  edict  to  punish  all  who 
accused  the  Christians  —  rests  on  some  historical  foundation,  at  least 
so  far  as  the  first  part  of  it  is  concerned.  However,  the  heathen  traced 
this  miracle  to  their  prayers,  addressed  to  Jupiter  Pluvius.  —  Several 
of  the  succeeding  emperors  were  favourable  to  the  Christians ;  more 
especially  did  Commodus,  the  son  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  show  considera- 
ble favour  for  them,  being  influenced  by  the  representations  of  Marcia, 
his  concubine. 

4.  Septimius  Severus  (193-211),  whom  Proculus,  a  Christian  slave, 
had  healed  from  dangerous  illness  by  anointing  him  with  oil  (James 
v.  14),  was  at  first  friendly  to  Christians.  But  political  suspicions  or 
the  extravagances  of  Montanism  changed  this  disposition.  He  forbade 
conversion  to  Christianity  (203)  ;  and  in  Egypt  and  North  Africa  per- 
secution again  raged.  In  Alexandria,  Leonidas,  the  father  of  Origen, 
was  beheaded.  Potamicena,  a  virgin  equally  distinguished  for  moral 
purity  and  for  beauty,  suffered  the  most  exquisite  tortures,  and  was 
then  to  be  given  up  to  the  gladiators  for  the  vilest  purposes.  The 
latter  indignity  she  knew  to  avert;  but  she  and  her  mother  Marcella 
were  slowly  immersed  into  boiling  pitch.  Basilides,  the  soldier  who 
had  been  commissioned  to  lead  her  to  martyrdom,  himself  became  a 
Christian,  and  was  beheaded  on  the  day  following.  Not  less  searching 
and  cruel  was  the  persecution  at  Carthage.  Perpetua,  a  lady  of  noble 
descent,  and  only  twenty-two  years  old,  with  a  babe  in  her  arms,  re- 
mained  steadfast,  despite  the  entreaties  of  her  father,  imprisonment,  and 
tortures.  She  was  gored  by  a  wild  cow,  and  finally  despatched  by  the 
dagger  of  a  gladiator.  Felicitas,  a  slave,  who  in  prison  had  become  a 
mother,  displayed  equal  constancy  in  suffering.  In  his  mad  attempts 
at  combining  all  creeds,  IIeliogabalus  (218-222)  desired  to  amalgamate 
Christianity  also  with  the  others  —  a  piece  of  folly  which,  however, 
secured  a  season  of  quietness  and  toleration.  The  eclecticism  of 
Alexander  Severus  (222-235)  was  of  a  much  more  elevated  character. 


PERSECUTION     OF     CHRISTIANS.  89 

He  placed  in  his  lararium  a  bust  of  Christ,  by  the  side  of  those  of 
Abraham,  of  Orpheus,  and  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana,  and  displayed 
kindly  feelings  towards  the  Christians.  His  noble  mother,  Julia 
Mammcea,  at  the  same  time,  protected  and  encouraged  the  investiga- 
tions of  Origen.  Severus  caused  the  saying  of  Christ  recorded  in  Luke 
vi.  31  to  be  engraven  on  the  walls  of  his  palace.  Maximinus,  the 
Thracian,  (235-238),  the  murderer  of  that  Emperor,  showed  himself 
hostile  to  Christians,  if  only  to  oppose  the  conduct  of  his  predecessor, 
and  accordingly  gave  full  scope  to  popular  fury,  which  had  again  been 
excited  by  earthquakes.  Under  the  reign  of  Gordianus  the  Christians 
enjoyed  peace  ;  and  Philip  the  Arabian  (244-249)  favoured  them  in  so 
open  and  prominent  a  manner,  that  he  has  even  been  regarded  as  a 
Christian. 

5.  But  with  the  accession  of  Decius  (249-251)  commenced  a  fresh, 
and  indeed  the  first  general  persecution,  surpassing  in  extent,  com- 
bination, continuance,  and  severity,  all  that  had  preceded  it.  In  other 
respects  Decius  was  an  able  monarch,  who  combined  the  ancient 
Roman  earnestness  with  firmness  and  energy  of  purpose.  But  this 
very  circumstance  induced  him  to  resolve  on  wholly  exterminating 
Christianity,  as  a  religion  equally  hostile  to  the  commonwealth  and  to 
the  gods.  Every  conceivable  means  —  confiscation,  banishment,  ex- 
quisite tortures,  and  death  —  were  employed  to  induce  Christians  to 
apostatise.  In  too  many  cases  these  measures  proved  successful,  the 
more  so  as  the  long  period  of  peace  had  led  to  a  false  security.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  longing  after  the  martyr's  crown  led  many  of  their  own 
accord  to  rush  into  prison  or  to  the  scaffold.  Those  who  recanted 
[lapsi)  were  either,  1.  tlmrificati  or  sacrificati,  who,  in  order  to  pre- 
serve their  lives,  had  sacrificed  to  the  gods ;  or,  2.  libellatici,  who,  with- 
out having  actually  sacrificed,  had  bribed  the  magistrates  to  give  them 
a  certificate  of  having  done  so ;  or,  3.  acta  facientes,  who  made  false 
depositions  in  reference  to  their  Christianity.  Again,  those  who  openly 
confessed  Christ,  even  amidst  tortures,  but  escaped  with  their  lives, 
were  called  confessors  (confessores) ;  while  the  name  of  martyrs  was 
given  to  those  who  for  their  profession  had  suffered  death.  —  The  per- 
secution continued  under  the  reign  of  Gallus  (251—253),  being 
stimulated  by  famine  and  pestilences,  although  often  arrested  by 
political  troubles.  Valerianus  (253-260)  had  originally  been  friendly 
to  the  Christians,  but  the  influence  of  Marcianus,  his  favourite,  changed 
him  into  a  persecutor  (from  the  year  257).  At  first  the  clergy  were 
banished,  and  meetings  interdicted.  When  these  measures  failed, 
Christianity  was  made  a  capital  crime.  At  that  time  Cyprian  of  Car- 
thage, and  Sixtus  II,  Bishop  of  Rome,  obtained  the  martyr's  crown 
The  latter  was  soon  followed  by  Laurentius,  a  deacon,  who  proved  a 
hero  even  among  Christian  martyrs.  When  the  Governor  demanded 
from  him  the  treasures  of  the  church,  he  brought  forward  the  sick,  the 
poor,  and  the  orphans  of  the  congregation.  He  was  roasted  alive  on  a 
8* 


90  SECTION    I.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (100— 323  A.  D.)  . 

red-hot  brander.  But  Gallienus  (200-268),  the  son  of  Valerian,  on 
his  accession,  put  an  end  to  the  persecution,  and  at  last  accorded  to  the 
Church  a  legal  standing  and  free  exercise  of  religion.  Still,  Aurei.ian, 
shortly  before  his  assassination,  (270-275)  issued  a  fresh  edict  of  per- 
secution, -which,  however,  was  not  carried  into  execution.  After  that 
the  Christians  enjoyed  more  than  forty  years  of  repose. 

0.  In  284  Diocletian  and  Maxiniianus  Herculius  became  joint  Em- 
perors.    In  292  the  two  Cajsars,  Galerius  and  Constant  his  Chlorvs  (in 
the  West),  were  associated  -with  them.     Diocletian  was  an  excellent 
monarch  ;    but  being  zealously  attached  to  the  old  faith,   he   hated 
Christianity  as  introducing  an  element  of  disturbance.     Still  the  edict 
of  toleration  issued  by  Gallienus,  political  considerations  in  regard  to 
the  large  number  of  Christians  throughout  the  empire,  and  a  certain 
amount  of  natural  kindness,  for  some  time  retarded  decisive  measures. 
At  last  the  continued  urgency  of  his  son-in-law  and  colleague,  Galerius, 
led  to  the  most  terrible  of  all  persecutions.     As  early  as  the  year  298, 
Galerius  commanded  that  all  soldiers  in  his  army  should  take  part  in 
the  sacrifices,  —  a  measure  by  which  he  obliged  all  Christians  to  leave 
the  ranks.     At  a  meeting  between  the  two  monarchs,  at  Nicomedia  in 
Bithynia  (303),  he  prevailed  on  the  Emperor  to  disregard  what  had 
formerly  been  the  causes  of  his  toleration.     An  imperial  ordinance  to 
pull  down  the  splendid  church  at  Nicomedia  was  the  signal  for  the 
persecution.     Soon  afterwards  an  edict  was  affixed  which  forbade  all 
Christian  meetings,  and  ordered  that  the  churches  should  be  pulled 
down,  the  sacred  writings  destroyed,  and  all  Christians  deprived  of 
their  offices  and  civil  rights.     A  Christian  who  tore  down  this  edict 
was  executed.     A  fire  broke  out  in  the  imperial  palace,  when  Galerius 
immediately  accused  the  Christians  of  incendiarism.     The  persecution 
which  now  commenced   extended   over  the  whole  empire,   with  the 
exception  of  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain,  where  the  protection  of  Con- 
stantius  Chlorns  shielded  the  Church.     Whatever  tortures  or  modes  of 
death  ingenuity  could  devise  were  put  in  requisition.     When,  in  305, 
Diocletian  and   Maximianus  abdicated,  Maximinvs,  the  colleague  of 
Galerius,  proved  quite  as   bitter  an  enemy  as  his  predecessors,  and 
raised  anew  the  storm  of  persecution.     In  the  year  308  Galerius  even 
caused  all  articles  of  food  or  drink,  sold  in  the  market,  to  be  moistened 
or  mixed  with  sacrificial  water  or  wine.    At  last,  when  a  fearful  disease 
brought  Galerius  to  a  different  state  of  mind,   he  ordered  in  311   a 
cessation  of  this  persecution,  and  in  return  demanded  the  prayers  of 
the  Church  for  the  Emperor  and  the  empire.    During  those  eight  years 
of  unceasing  and  unprecedented  persecution,  Christians  had  given  the 
brightest  proofs  of  moral  heroism,   and  of  enthusiastic  readiness  to 
suffer  as  martyrs.     In  proportion,   the   number   of  lapsi  was   much 
smaller   than   it  had   been   during  the  Decian   persecution.     But  the 
command  to  give  up  the  sacred  writings  had   originated  a  neAV  kind 
of  recantation.     Those   who   had   complied  with   this   demand   were 


PERSECUTION    OF    CHRISTIANS.  91 

called  traditores.  Some,  instead  of  delivering  the  sacred,  handed  in 
heretical  writings,  on  pretence  that  they  were  the  sacred  books.  But 
the  spiritual  earnestness  of  that  period  was  such,  that  these  parties 
were  ranked  with  the  ordinary  traditores,  and,  like  them,  were  excom- 
municated.2 

7.  The  fanaticism  of  Maximums,  who  ruled  in  Asia,  was  not  checked 
by  the  edict  of  toleration  which  Galerius  had  granted.     He  gladly 
acceded  to  the  request  of  certain  cities  to  be  allowed  to  expel  the 
Christians,  and  on  memorial  tablets  of  brass  recorded  his  praise  of 
those  measures.    He  interdicted  the  building  of  churches,  and  punished 
confessors  by  the  loss  of  property  and  by  defamation  —  occasionally 
also  with  chastisement  or  death ;    and  officially  circulated  the  most 
abominable  calumnies  about  Christians.     In  innumerable  copies,  he 
diffused   the   "  acta  Pilati,"   a  malicious   libel,   of  spurious    heathen 
authorship,  introducing  it  even  in  schools  as  an  exercise  in  reading. 
But  fear  of  his  colleague  obliged  him  to  adopt  more  moderate  measures. 
In  Britain,  Gaul,  and  Spain  ruled,  from  306,  Constantine,  the  son  and 
successor  of  Constantius  Chlorus,  who,  with  the  Neo-Platonic  eclecti- 
cism of  his  father,  had  also  inherited  his  mild  disposition  towards 
Christians.     In  Italy,   Maxentius,  a  savage  and  bigoted  heathen,  of 
obscure  origin,  had  in  30G  seized  the  reins  of  government.     He  also, 
from  political  motives,  for  some  time  extended  toleration  to  the  Chris- 
tians ;  but  antagonism  to  Constantine,  who  was  friendly  to  them,  ulti- 
mately induced  him  to  make  common  cause  with  the  heathen  party. 
The  usurper  was  utterly  defeated  in  a  campaign  in  312,  during  which 
Constantine,  as  he  maintained,  was  vouchsafed  a  heavenly  vision.     In 
the  same  year,  this  monarch,   and  his  brother-in-law  Licinius,  who 
ruled  over  the  east  of  Europe  (Illyricum),  issued  an  edict  which  gave 
liberty  to  all  forms  of  worship.     In  a  second  edict,  dated  from  Milan 
in    313,    Constantine    expressly   allowed   conversion    to    Christianity. 
Maximums  was  under  the  necessity  of  giving   his   assent  to   these 
measures,  and  died  in  the  same  year.     But  gradually  the  friendly 
relations  between  Licinius  and  Constantine  gave  jdace,  first  to  coolness, 
and  then  to  hostility.     The  former  threw  himself  into  the  arms  of  the 
heathen  party  ;   the  latter  adopted  the  cause  of  Christianity.     Thus 
the  war  between  these  two  monarchs,  which  broke  out  in  323,  became 
also  a  struggle  for  life  or  death  between  heathenism  and  Christianity. 
Licinius  was  vanquished,  and  Constantine  became  master  of  the  whole 
empire.—  The  incident  in  the  campaign  against  Maxentius,  to  which 
we  have  above  referred,  is  differently  related  even  by  cotemporary 
writers.     According  to  Eusebius,  whose  account  is  derived  from  depo- 
sition on  oath  by  the  Emperor,  Constantine  having  sought  the  aid  of  a 
higher  power,  had  at  mid-day  seen  in  the  heavens  a  luminous  cross, 
with  the  superscription :  Tout"  vixa.     Afterwards,  in  a  dream,  Christ 
had  commanded  him  to  make  the  cross  his  banner.     In  remembrance 
of  this  miraculous  vision,  he  caused  the  splendid  banner  of  the  cross — 
the  Labdrum —  to  be  made.    (Cf   $42.) 


92  SECTION     I.  —  FIRST     PERIOD     (100-323  A.  D.). 

g  24.  INTELLECTUAL  REACTION   OF   HEATHENISM. 

Comp.  K.  Vogt,  Neoplatonismus  und  Christenthum  (Neo-Plat.  and 
Christ,).  I-  Berlin  1836.  TzscJiimer,  d.  Fall  d.  Heidenth.  Lpz.  1829.— 
G.  H.  von  Senden,  Gesch.  d.  Apolog.  2  Bde.  Stuttg.  1846. 

For  a  long  time  the  more  intelligent  adherents  of  heathenism 
had  felt  that  if  their  system  was  to  continue,  it  must  undergo 
thorough  reform  and  reconstruction.    This  was  attempted  during 
the  Augustan  age  by  introducing  a  Neo-Pythagoreanism,  propped 
up  by  Theurgy  and  Magic.     The  principal  representative  of  this 
direction   was   Apollonius  of  Tyana   (ob.  96).     In   the   second 
century  an  attempt  was  made  to  revive  the  secret  rites  of  the 
ancient  mysteries   of  the  Dea  Syra,  and  of  Mythras.     But  all 
this  proved  insufficient.     It  was  felt  necessary  to  produce  a  form 
of  heathenism  which  should  meet  the  great  religious  wants  as 
fully  as  Christianity  had  done,  by  its  supranaturalism,  its  mono- 
theism, and  its  universalism,  and  which,  at  the  same  time,  should 
be  free  from  the  absurdities  and  incongruities  that  hitherto  had 
attached   to   the    popular  creeds.     This   task  was,  in  the  com- 
mencement of  the  third  century,  undertaken  by  the  Neo-Pla- 
tonists.     But  they  had  as  little  power  as  heathen   polemics,  to 
stay  the  triumphant  progress  of   Christianity.     When  heathen 
authors    (Tacitus,   Pliny,   Marcus  Aurelius,  comp.   §  23)  make 
passing  mention  of  Christians  or  of  Christianity,  they  employ 
the    most    opprobrious    or    contemptuous    terms;     Lucian    of 
Samosata  simply  ridicules  it  as  a  piece  of  absurdity  (de  vita 
Peregrini).     The    first   heathen    who    expressly    wrote    against 
Christianity  was  Celsus,  in  the  second  century.      With  consider- 
able ingenuity,  and  still  greater  hostility,  he  attempted  to  show- 
that  the  religion  of  Christians  was  the  climax  of  absurdity.    The 
controversial  writings  of  Porphyry,  the  Neo-Platonist  (ob.  304), 
are  more  elevated  and  becoming  in  their  tone.     A  much  inferior 
position  to  that  of  either  of  these  writers  must  be  assigned  to 
Hierocles,  Governor  of  Bithynia,  who,  in  his  official  capacity, 
took  part  in  the  persecution  under  Galerius.  — These  attacks  were 
either  expressly  or  incidentally  met  in  the  writings  of  the  most 
prominent  Christian  teachers.     They  rebutted  the  calumnies  and 
charges   of  the   heathen;   demanded   that  Christians  should  be 
treated  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  laws;  they  defended 
Christianity  by  proving  its  internal  truth,  by  showing  how  it 
was  confirmed    by   the   walk    and    conversation    of    Christians. 


INTELLECTUAL    REACTION    OF    HEATHENISM.  93 

authenticated  by  miracles  and  prophecies,  and  by  its  accordance 
with  the  statements  and  anticipations  of  the  greatest  philoso- 
phers, the  sources  of  whose  wisdom  they  in  part  even  traced, 
directly  or  indirectly,  to  the  Old  Testament;  and  they  endea- 
voured to  demonstrate  that  the  heathen  deities  had  no  claim 
upon  worship,  and  that  heathenism  was  a  moral  and  religious 
perversion.     (Comp.  §  41,  1.) 

1.  Even  Lucian  and  Apuleius  speak  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana  as 
only  a  renowned  Goet  and  Magician.  But,  at  the  commencement  of 
the  third  century,  Philoslrahts,  senior,  excogitated  a  biography  of 
Apellonius,  in  which  he  appears  as  a  religious  reformer  and  worker  of 
miracles, — in  short,  as  a  heathen  imitation  of  Christ.  (Comp.  F.  Chr. 
Baur,  Apoll.  von  Tyana  und  Christus.  Tub.  1832.) 

2.  It  was  the  purpose  of  Neo-Platonism,  by  combining  what  waa 
most  elevated  and  best  in  exoteric  and  esoteric  religion,  in  the  philosophy 
and  theosophy  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  of  the  East  and  of  the 
West,  to  exhibit  a  universal  religion,  in  which  faith  and  knowledge, 
philosophy  and  theology,  theory  and  practice,  should  be  perfectly 
reconciled  and  combined,  and  in  which  all  religious  wants  should  be 
met  with  so  much  fulness,  that,  in  comparison,  Christianity  itself 
should  appear  but  one-sided,  poor,  and  defective.  The  noblest  spirits 
in  the  heathen  world,  which  was  fast  sinking  into  decay,  took  part  in 
this  movement.  The  devout  and  thoughtful  Plutarch  of  Chseronea 
(ob.  120)  may  be  regarded  as  the  precursor  of  this  party.  But,  properly 
speaking,  Ammonius  Saccas  (ob.  243)  was  the  founder  of  the  Neo- 
Platonic  school,  which  was  further  developed  especially  by  Plotinus 
(ob.  270),  by  Porphyrins  (ob.  304),  and  by  Jamblichus  (ob.  333). 

3.  According  to  Lucian,  Peregrinus,  a  Cynic,  who  had  first  been 
guilty  of  the  lowest  crimes,  afterwards  became  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent men  among  Christians ;  having  been  again  excluded  by  them  be- 
cause he  had  partaken  of  some  forbidden  meat,  he  had  ended  his  days 
by  throwing  himself  into  the  flames  during  the  Olympic  games.  In 
the  person  of  this  Cynic,  Lucian  ridicules  the  foolish  hope  of  immor- 
tality of  Christians,  their  readiness  to  become  martyrs,  their  silly  ex- 
pectation of  retribution  in  another  world,  the  simplicity  of  their  bro- 
therly love,  in  which  only  impostors  could  rejoice  as  most  useful  to 
them,  their  credulity,  their  love  of  miracles,  and  their  sombre  antagon- 
ism to  the  world  and  its  pleasures.  From  the  life  of  the  Apostle  Paul, 
and  from  the  martyrdom  of  Polycarp  and  of  Ignatius,  he  borrowed  the 
traits  of  the  caricature  which  he  drew.  (Comp.  A.  Planck  in  the  "theol. 
Studien  u.  Krit."  fw  1851.  IV.) 

4.  The  fcoyoj  aXr^trn  of  Celsus  is  in  great  part  preserved  in  the  reply 
by  Origen.  That  writer  introduces  first  a  Jew,  who  disputes  the 
accounts  furnished  in  the  Gospels ;  then  a  heathen  philosopher,  who 


94  SECTION    I.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (100—323  A.  D.). 

shows  the  absurdity  both  of  Judaism  and  of  Christianity.  Origen 
identifies  the  writer  as  Celsus  the  Epicurean,  about  the  year  150 ;  but 
from  his  own  remarks,  he  appears  rather  to  have  been  an  eclectic  phi- 
losopher. His  polemics  are  acute  but  superficial,  sarcastic  but  disho- 
nest. According  to  him,  Christ  was  a  common  Goet.  —  Porphyry 
wrote  fifteen  books  xata  Xptof  taruJi'.  He  was  desirous  of  proving  that 
there  were  contradictions  in  the  Bible,  ransacked  the  dispute  between 
Paul  and  Peter  in  Gal.  ii.,  declared  that  the  prophecy  of  Daniel  was  a 
"vaticinium  post  eventum,"  and  challenged  the  allegorical  interpreta- 
tions of  Christians.  He  was  also  the  author  of  a  system  of  heathen 
(Neo-Platon.)  theology  (ex  -tiiv  Xoyiuv  $c.a.oao<j>i<'a).  Of  both  works  only 
fragments  have  been  preserved. — Hierocles  (2  books  of  Xoyot  (j>aax?j- 
^t is)  only  reproduced  shameless  falsehoods  about  Christ  and  Christians, 
and  placed  Jesus  far  below  Apollonius  of  Tyana. 

§25.   SPREAD   OF   CHRISTIANITY. 

Amid  the  many  persecutions  through  which  the  Church  had 
to  pass  during  this  period,  the  Gospel  rapidly  spread  through- 
out the  whole  Roman  empire,  and  even  beyond  its  limits.  So 
early  as  170,  Abgar  Bar  Manu,  a  Christian  prince,  reigned  at 
Edessa,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Osrhoene,  in  Mesopota- 
mia. At  the  same  period  Christianity  had  found  a  lodgment  in 
Persia,  Media,  Bactria,  and  Parlhia.  In  the  third  century  it 
had  spread  to  Armenia.  The  Apostle  Thomas  is  said  to  have 
carried  the  Gospel  to  India.  In  Arabia,  Paul  had  laboured 
(Gal.  i.  17).  In  the  third  century  Origen  was  called  to 
that  country  by  a  syyoi^wvos  -rrj  'Apa^toj,  who  wished  to  be  in- 
structed in  Christianity.  On  another  occasion  he  went  thither 
in  order  to  settle  an  ecclesiastical  dispute  (§  40,  5).  From 
Alexandria  (§  17)  the  Gospel  also  spread  to  other  countries  of 
Africa — to  Cyrene,  and  among  the  Copts  (the  aboriginal  Egyp- 
tians). The  Church  of  Proconsular  Africa,  especially  that  of 
Carthage,  its  capital,  was  in  a  vigorous,  thriving  state,  and  kept 
up  close  communication  with  Rome.  In  the  third  century  Mau- 
ritania and  Numidia  numbered  so  many  Christian  communities 
that  Cyprian  could  collect  at  Carthage  a  synod  of  eighty-seven 
bishops.  Rome  remained  the  central  point  for  the  Church  in 
Europe.  Colonies  and  teachers  from  Asia  Minor  formed  in 
Gaul  a  number  of  flourishing  churches  (such  as  those  of  Lugdu- 
nura,  Vienna,  etc.).  At  a  later  period  seven  missionaries  from 
Italy  arrived  in  Gaul.  Among  them,  St.  Dionysius  founded  the 
Church  at  Paris,      Among  the  Roman  colonies  in  the  countries 


SURVEY.  95 

of  the  Rhine  and  of  the  Danube,  flourishing  churches  existed  so 
early  as  in  the  third  century. 

The  insufficiency  and  the  decay  of  heathenism  were  the  negative, 
the  Divine  power  of  the  Gospel  the  positive,  means  by  which  the  Gos 
pel  spread  with  such  astonishing  rapidity.  This  Divine  power  mani 
fested  itself  in  the  zeal  and  self-denial  of  Christian  teachers  and  mis- 
sionaries, in  the  saintly  walk  and  conversation  of  Christians,  in  the 
depth  of  their  brotherly  love,  in  the  unshaken  steadfastness  and  confi- 
dence of  their  faith, — above  all,  in  the  joyousness  with  which  they  met 
martyrdom  under  the  most  exquisite  tortures.  The  blood  of  martyrs 
was  the  seed  of  the  Church  ;  and  not  unfrequently  did  it  happen  that 
the  executioners  of  Christian  martyrs  immediately  followed  them  in 
similarly  suffering  for  the  Gospel.*  [In  special  instances,  miracles  and 
signs  —  the  echoes  of  the  apostolic  age  —  may  have  led  to  analogous 
results.  This  is  borne  out  by  the  evidence  of  men  such  as  Justin 
Martyr,  Tertullian,  and  Origen,  who  in  confirmation  appeal  to  heathen 
eye-witnesses.] 


II.   DANGERS   ACCRUING  FROM   A  LEAVEN   OF  JUDAISM  AND 
HEATHENISM  REMAINING  IN  THE  CHURCH. 

?26.   SURVEY. 

Of  almost  greater  danger  to  the  Church  than  even  the  direct 
hostility  and  persecution  of  Jews  and  pagans,  were  certain 
Jewish  and  heathen  elements  imported  into  the  Christian  com- 
munity. The  unspiritual,  unbending,  and  narrow  formalism  of 
the  one,  and  the  ungodly,  antichristian  tendency  of  the  other, 
not  only  reappeared,  but  claimed  equal  standing  with  what 
really  and  distinctively  was  Christian.  The  attempt  to  force 
Christianity  into  the  narrow-minded  particularism  of  the  Syna- 
gogue produced  Ebionism ;  the  desire  to  amalgamate  Grecian 
and  Oriental  theosophy  with  Christianity  introduced  Gnosti- 
cism. These  two  directions  were  also  combined  into  a  Gnostic 
Ebionism,— a  system  for  which  the  doctrines  of  the  Essenes 
served  as  point  of  transition  and  connecting  link. — The  Church 
had  to  put  forth  all  its  energies  in  order  to  defend  itself  against 
this  dangerous  admixture  of  other  creeds,  and  to  clear  its  soil 
from  weeds  which  spread  so  rapidly.  What  of  antichristian 
Judaism  had   intruded  was   speedily  overcome  and   cast  out. 

*  Omitted  in  the  7th  Ed. 


96  SECTION    I.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (100—323  A.  D.). 

But  much  more  difficult  was  the  contest  with  Gnosticism  ;  and 
although  the  Church  ultimately  succeeded  in  uprooting  on  its 
own  soil  these  weeds,  many  of  their  seeds  were  for  centuries 
secretly  preserved,  and  sometimes  of  a  sudden  sprung  up  into 
fresh  crops.  However,  these  contests  also  brought  blessings  to 
the  Church ;  from  them  it  issued  with  views  more  enlarged 
and  liberal,  with  the  deep  conviction  that  scientific  culture  was 
necessary  for  its  theology,  and  prepared  by  victory  for  new 
struggles. 

Gnosticism  must  ultimately  be  traced  to  a  peculiar  and  powerful 
tendency  inherent  in  many  minds  during  the  first  centuries.  A  deep 
conviction  that  the  old  world  had  run  its  course,  and  was  no  longer 
able  to  resist  the  dissolution  which  threatened  it,  pervaded  the  age. 
It  also  impelled  many,  by  a  syncretism  the  boldest  and  grandest  that 
history  has  recorded — we  mean,  by  the  amalgamation  of  the  various 
elements  of  culture,  which  hitherto  had  been  isolated  and  heteroge- 
neous—  to  make  a  last  attempt  at  renovating  what  had  become  anti- 
quated. While  under  one  aspect  this  tendency  was  intended  to  oppose 
Christianity  (by  Neo-Platonism),  under  another  the  Church  itself  was 
drawn  into  the  vortex,  and  by  an  amalgamation  of  Oriental  theosophy, 
of  Grecian  theosophy,  and  of  Christian  ideas,  a  widely  ramified  system 
of  most  extravagant  religious  philosophy  came  forth  from  the  crucible 
of  this  peculiar  kind  of  speculation.  This  system  bore  the  general 
name  of  Gnosticism.  Various  sects  of  Gnostics  viewed  the  Scriptures 
in  a  different  manner.  Some,  by  means  of  allegorical  interpretations, 
sought  to  base  their  system  on  the  Bible.  Others  preferred  to  decry 
the  apostles  as  having  falsified  the  original  Gnostic  teaching  of  Christ, 
to  attempt  recasting  the  apostolic  writings  in  accordance  with  their 
own  views,  or  by  Gnostic  spurious  writings  to  make  up  a  Bible  after 
their  own  fashion.  The  teaching  of  primitive  sages,  handed  down  by 
tradition  as  secret  doctrine,  they  placed  above  Sacred  Writ. —  Gnostic 
specnlation  busied  itself  with  such  questions  as  the  origin  of  the  world 
and  of  evil,  or  the  purpose,  means,  and  goal  of  the  development  of  the 
world.  To  solve  these  problems  the  Gnostics  borrowed  from  heathen- 
ism its  theory  about  the  origin  of  the  world,  and  from  Christianity  the 
idea  of  redemption.  All  Gnostic  systems  are  based  on  a  kind  of  Dual- 
ism of  God  and  of  matter  (vlr/).  But  with  the  Platonists,  some 
regarded  matter  as  unreal  (having  no  real  existence)  and  without  form 
(=  jujj  ov),  hence  as  not  directly  hostile  and  opposed  to  the  Deity; 
while  others,  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  the  Parsees,  supposed  it 
to  be  animated  and  ruled  by  an  evil  principle,  and  hence  to  be  directly 
opposed  and  hostile  to  the  Good  Deity.  The  theogonic  and  cosmogonic 
process  was  explained  on  the  principle  of  an  emanation  [rtpofio'Kr,),  by 
which  from  the  hidden  God  a  long  series  of  Divine  formations  (aiuvt$) 


EBIONISM     AND     EBIONITE     GNOSIS.  97 

had  emanated,  whose  indwelling  Divine  potency  diminished  in  mea- 
sure as  they  removed  from  the  original  Divine  Source.     These  iEons 
are  represented  as  being  the  media  of  the  creation,  development,  and 
redemption  of  the  world.     The  original  matter  from  which  the  world 
was  created  consisted  of  a  mixture  of  elements,  derived  partly  from 
the    kingdom    of    light    (the    ffltjjpw/*a),    and    partly    from    the    Hyle 
(varipTjfia,   ^ii-w/to).      This    mixture   was    differently   represented    as 
brought  about  by  nature,  chance  or  contest.     The  world  was  created 
by   one    of   the    lowest    and   weakest    ^Eons,   called   the   dq/iwvpyoc. 
Creation  is  the  preparation  and  the  commencement  of  redemption. 
But  as  the  Demiurgos  cannot  and  will  not  accomplish  the  latter,  one 
of  the  highest  JEans  appears  in  the  fulness  of  time  as  Redeemer,  in 
order  to  accomplish  the  deliverance  of  the  captive  elements  of  light  by 
the  imparting  of  yrwffty.     As  matter  is  in  itself  evil,  the  {pneumatic) 
Saviour  had  only  an  apparent  body,  or  else  at  baptism  descended  into 
the  psychical  Messiah,  whom  the  Demiurgos  had  sent.     The  death  on 
the  cross  was  either  only  an  optical  delusion,  or  the  heavenly  Christ 
had  left  the  man  Jesus  and  returned  to  the  Pleroma,  or  else  He  had 
given  His  form  to  another  person  (Simon  of  Cyrene),  so  that  the  latter 
was  crucified  instead  of  Jesus  (Docetism).  According  as  the  pleromaticor 
the  hylic  element  prevails,  the  souls  of  men  are  naturally  either  pneu- 
matic, and  in  that  case  capable  of  yvZ>ai<;;  psychic,  when  they  cannot 
attain  beyond  matii  ;  or  hylic, — the  latter  class  comprising  the  great 
mass  of  men  who,  left  in  hopeless  subjection  to  the  powers  of  Satan, 
only  follow  their  own  lusts.     Redemption  consists  in  overcoming  and 
eliminating  matter,  and  is  accomplished  through  knowledge  (yvtimc) 
and  asceticism.     It  is  not  an  ethical  but  a  chemical  process.     As  it 
was  believed  that  matter  was  the  seat  of  evil,  sanetifieation  was  sought 
physically  rather  than  ethically,  and  thought  to  consist  in  resisting 
matter  and  abstaining  from  material  enjoyments.     Hence  originally 
the  system  implied  an  exceedingly  strict  code  of  morals,  but,  in  point 
of  fact,  frequently  became    the  very  opposite,  and  degenerated  into 
Antinomianism  and  Libertinism.     This  is  partly  explained  from  the 
low  views  entertained  by  some  about  the  law  of  the  Demiurgos,  and 
partly  by  the  ease  of  passing  from  one  extreme  to  another. 

§27.   EBIONISM   AND   EBIONITE   GNOSIS. 

Comp.  Gieseler,  Nazaraer  und  Ebioniten,  in  the  kirchl.  hist.  Arch  IV. 
2  :  Credner,  Essaer  und  Ebioniten,  in  Winer's  Zeitschr.  I.  2. — A.  Schlie- 
maim,  die  Clementinen  u.  der  Ebionitismus.  Hamb.  1841 ;  A.  Hilgenfeld, 
d.  clement.  Recognita  u.  Homilien.  Jen.  1848  ;  G.  Dhlhorn,  d.  Homilien 
u.  Recogn.  d.  Clemens  Rom.  Gottg.  1854;  —  also,  Hilgenfeld,  das  Ur- 
christenthum  (Orig.  Christian.).  Jena  1855  ;  and  the  same  author's 
Jlidische  Apokalyptik.  Jena  1857.  —  D.  Chwolsohn,  die  Ssabier  u.  d. 
Ssabismus.  St.  Petersb.  1856,  2  Bde. 
9 


98  SECTION    I. —  FIRST    PERIOD    (100  —  023  A.  D.). 

Those  Jewish  Christians  who,  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem,  continued  in   ecclesiastical   separation    from    the   Gentile 
brethren,  either  formed  a  separate  sect  or  fell  into  open  heresy. 
Both    parties,   though   the   distinction   between   them  was   not 
unobserved,  were  called  by  Origen  and  Eusebius  by  the  common 
name  of  Ebionites.     Jerome,  on  the  contrary,  distinguishes  them 
by  the  different  names,  Nazarenes  and  Ebionites.     In  the  sect 
of  the  Elkesaites  or  Sampseans  we  perceive  that  Gnostic  elements 
had  found  their  way  among  the  Ebionites  also,  probably  from 
their  connection  with  the  Essenes      In   the   system  embodied 
in  the  Pseudo-Clementines,  this  Ebionite  Gnosis  was  extended 
and  developed.     It  now  assumed  an  attitude  of  direct  antag- 
onism to  Gentile  Gnosticism  and  to  Gentile  Catholicism,  laying 
claim  to  represent  genuine  ancient  Judaism,  which  was  said  to 
be  quite  the  same  as  genuine  Christianity. 

1.  The  Nazarenes — a  name  by  which  the  Jews  had  originally  desig- 
nated all  Christians  (Acts  xxiv.  5)  —  held  themselves  bound  still  to 
observe  the  ceremonial  law,  without,  however,  disputing  the  salvation 
of  Gentile-Christians  who  abstained  from  its  injunctions.  They  believed 
in  the  Divinity  of  Christ's  nature,  acknowledged  Paul  as  being  a  true 
apostle,  and  rejected  the  ordinances  of  the  Rabbins,  but  cherished  a 
carnal  kind  of  Chiliasm  (i.  e.,  they  expected  a  thousand  years'  reign  of 
Christ  on  earth,  after  a  fashion  similar  to  that  which  formed  the  main 
features  of  Jewish  ideas  of  the  Messiah).  The  so-called  Gospel  of  the 
Hebrews,  an  Aramaic  recension  of  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  served  as 
the  basis  of  their  views. 

2.  The  Ebionites  deemed  observance  of  the  ceremonial  law  indis- 
pensably necessary  for  salvation.  They  regarded,  indeed,  Christ  as  the 
Messiah,  but  held  Him  to  have  been  only  a  man  (the  son  of  Joseph) 
whom,  at  His  baptism,  God  had  endowed  with  divine  powers. 
His  messianic  activity  they  limited  to  His  teaching,  by  which  He  had 
enlarged  and  perfected  the  law,  adding  to  it  new  and  more  strict  com- 
mandments. The  death  of  Christ  was  an  offence  to  them,  under  which 
they  consoled  themselves  with  the  promise  of  His  return,  when  they 
expected  that  a  terrestrial  kingdom  should  be  set  up.  — -  The  Apostlo 
Paul,  in  their  opinion,  was  a  heretic,  and  deserved  obloquy.  They  also 
had  a  gospel  of  their  own. 

3.  The  Fathers  derived  the  designation  Elkesaites  from  Elxai,  the 
founder  of  that  sect, — a  name  which,  according  to  their  interpretation, 

meant  ivra/xi^  xixa^v^^iivr;   ('DD    /'fl)- 


EBIONISM    AND    EBIONITE    GNOSIS.  99 

Their  doctrines  were  a  mixture  of  Essene,  Jewish,  heathen-naturalis- 
tic, and  especially  astrologico-magical,  and  Christian  elements.  The 
law — especially  that  of  the  Sabbath  and  of  circumcision  —  was 
held  to  be  binding ;  but  they  rejected  sacrifices.  They  practised  fre- 
quent ablutions,  both  for  the  forgiveness  of  sins  and  for  the  cure  of  dis- 
eases. In  the  Lord's  Supper  bread  and  salt  were  used.  The  use  of 
flesh  was  forbidden  ;  but  marriage  was  allowed.  Christ  was  regarded 
as  being  the  Son  of  God  by  the  Virgin.  Next  to  Him  they  placed  the 
Uitvua,  aytov,  in  the  form  of  a  female  figure.  The  Elkesaites  inhabited 
the  eastern  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea.  According  to  Epiphanius,  they 
were  the  same  as  the  Sampseans  =  'HuaxoL  —  More  recent  investiga- 
tions (Chwolsohn,  I.e.)  render  it  probable  that  they  are  identical  with 
the  Zabians  or  Mandceans  of  the  present  day.  Mediaeval  Arabic  wri- 
ters call  these  Zabians  (from  tf2)S  =  .TDD<  0««st§eM»,  to  wash) 
Mogtasilah,  i.  e.,  those  who  wash  themselves.  They  mention  Elchasaich 
as  their  founder,  who  taught  two  principles  (the  male  and  female). 
The  earlier  view  of  the  original  identity  of  the  Zabians  with  the  ancient 
Hemerobaptists  and  Disciples  of  John,  may  still  be  retained  (§22)  ;  for 
the  latter  may  easily  have  laid  the  basis  for  the  formation  of  the  sect  of 
Elkesaites,  and  have  perpetuated  their  Gnostic  dualistic elements  through 
Elkesai. 

4.  The  Pseudo-Clementine  System  originated  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  second  century.  It  was  derived  from  a  didactic  work  of  fiction 
which,  however,  claims  to  be  regarded  as  a  true  story.  Clemens  Ro- 
manus,  a  noble  Roman,  philosophically  educated,  had,  from  a  desire 
after  information,  travelled  to  the  East,  where  he  met  with  Peter,  and 
became  the  companion  of  his  missionary  journeys.  The  peculiar  doc- 
trinal views  of  the  work  are  gathered  from  the  sermons  and  the  discus- 
sions of  Peter;  the  historical  romance  is  elaborated  in  the  scenes  of 
recognition  and  conversion  of  the  father,  the  mother,  and  the  brothers 
of  Clement.  Peter  is  brought  forward  as  the  representative  of  what  is 
alleged  to  have  been  genuine  and  original  Christianity ;  Simon  Magus, 
his  antagonist,  represents  every  form  of  supposed  spurious  Christianity, 
from  his  own  teaching  and  that  of  his  adherents  (§  22,  2)  to  that  of  the 
Apostle  Paul,  according  to  whom  the  law  was  abolished  in  Christ,  and 
that  of  Marcion,  according  to  whom  the  Creator  of  the  world  was  not 
the  Supreme  God  (§28,10).  The  alleged  motive  for  the  composition 
of  the  book  is  this,  that  Peter,  the  founder  and  first  bishop  of  the  Church 
at  Rome,  had,  shortly  before  his  death,  appointed  Clement  his  successor, 
and  enjoined  him  to  intimate  this  to  James  in  Jerusalem,  as  the  head 
of  the  Church,  so  as  to  obtain  his  acknowledgment.  —  The  Pseudo- 
Clementine  romance  is  preserved  in  various  modifications.  The  two 
oldest  forms  of  it  are  —  1)  the  Homilia?  XX.  dementis  (the  first  com- 
plete ed.  by  M.  Dressel.  Gottg.  1853),  in  Greek ;  and  2)  the  Recogni- 
tiones  Clementis,  in  a  Latin  translation  by  Rufinus,  in  which  the  histo- 
rical and  romantic  element  is  further  carried  out,  while  the  doctrinal 


100  SECTION     I.  —  FIRST     PERIOD     (100-323^.1).). 

part  is  Jess  full  and  somewhat  expurgated.     Schliemann  regarded  the 
llecognitiones  as  a  later  revisal  of  the  Homilies;   Hilgenfeld  supposes 
the  relations  exactly  reversed  ;    XJlhorn  modifies  the  statement  of  Schlie- 
mann,  and  supposes  that  the  Homilies  themselves  were  recast  after 
some  original  work,  and  that  both  the  latter  and  the  Homilies  had  been 
used  in  the  composition  of  the  Recognitiones.  —  The  System  of  the  Cle- 
mentine Hum  Hies  is  based  on  Stoic  Pantheism  combined  with  Jewish 
Theism,  and  proceeds  on  the  supposition  that  genuine  Christianity  was 
exactly  identical  with  genuine  Judaism.     The  author  discovers  some 
elements  of  truth  and  others  of  error  in  all  the  principal  modifications 
of  Christian,  of  Jewish,  and  of  heretical  religion.     He  controverts  the 
popular  belief  and  the  philosophy  of  the  heathen,  the  sacrificial  worship 
of  the  Jews,  the  Chilia-sm  of  the  Ebionites,  the  ecstatic  prophetism  of 
the  Montanists,   the  hypostatic  Trinitarianism  of  the  Catholics,  the 
Demiurgos,   the  Docetisin,   and  the  Antinomianism  of  the  Gnostics. 
From  the  Ebionite  system  he  adopts  his  idea  of  the  identity  of  Judaism 
with  Christianity  ;  with  the  Essenes,  he  agrees  in  insisting  on  absti- 
nence from   meats,  frequent   fasts,   ablutions,  and  voluntary  poverty 
(but  he  recommends  early  marriages)  ;  with  the  Catholics,  as  to  the 
r<eessity  of  baptism  for  the  forgiveness  of  sins,  etc.     According  to  this 
writer,  God  is  pure  existence  (dj/arfaucis),  originally  a  unity  of  body  and 
soul.     He  reveals  Himself  as  the  Living  One  by  expansion  and  con- 
traction (extaais  and  ovatoXri,  of  which  we  have  a  representation  in  the 
heart  of  man).     By  this    process  the  world  was  created,   when  the 
llvevi-ia  (oo$U)  and  the  a^a  {vXr^)  were  separated  and  placed  in  antago- 
nism.     Thus   the  Monas   became  a  Dyas,  forming  the  first  Si/zijf/ia 
(union)  of  antagonisms,  which  was  followed  by  others,  consisting  of  the 
Divine   and   the   non-Divine    (in  nature:    heaven  and  earth,  day  and 
night,  light  and  darkness,  life  and  death,  etc. ;  among  men:  Adam  and 
Eve,  and  after  that,  in  inverse  order,  Cain  and  Abel,  Ishmael  and  Isaac, 
Esau  and  Jacob).     Satan  had  originated  from  an  ungodly  mixture  of 
the  four  elements.     Adam  was  the  primal  prophet  who  had  already 
possessed  perfect  and  absolute  truth.     In  order  to  stem  the  giwving 
corruption,   Adam   appeared   under  different   names   and  forms,   but 
always  bringing  one  and  the   same  truth.     Thus   he   reappeared  in 
Abel,  in  Enoch,  in  Noah,  in  Abraham,  in  Isaac,  in  Jacob,  in  Moses, 
and  at  last  in  Christ.     But  along  with  these  revelations  prophets  of 
falsehood  also  came.     Thus  John  the  Bajrfist  was  the  counterpart  of 
Christ,   Simon  Magus  (the  disciple  of  John)   that  of  Peter.     In  holy 
Scripture,  also  Divine  is  to  be  distinguished  from  diabolic  prophecy. 
Allegorical  interpretations  are  to  be  rejected. 


GENTILE    GNOSTICISM.  ]01 


2  28.    GENTILE    GNOSTICISM. 

Comp.  Massuet,  diss,  praevise  in  edit.  Irenaei.— A.  Neander,  genet. 
Entw.  d.  vornehmst.  gnost.  Syst.  (Genet.  Develop,  of  the  Princ.  Syst. 
of  Gnost.).  Berl.  1818.— F.  Chr.  Baur,  d.  chr.  Gnosis  in  ihr.  geseh. 
Enhv.  (Chr.  Gnost,  in  its  Histor.  Develop.).  Tubg.  1835.— J.  Matter,  krit. 
Gesch.  d.  Gnosticismus.  Aus  d.  Franz.  (Crit,  Hist,  of  Gnost.  from  the 
French  of  J.  M.,  by)  von  Oh.  II.  Bonier.  2  vols.  Heilbr.  1833.—/.  J. 
Schmidt,  Etudes  sur  Irenee  et  les  Gnostiques,  Brux.  185G. 

The  many  and  diverse  systems  of  Gentile-Christian  Gnosticism 
may  all  be  arranged  under  two  great  classes,  according  as  notions 
derived  from  Grecian  philosophy —  more  especially  from  Pla- 
tonism  and  the  study  of  the  mysteries  —  or  Dnalistic  and  Parsee 
views  prevailed  in  them.  This  arrangement  almost  coincides 
with  that  of  the  more  prominent  representatives  of  that  class  of 
heretics  into  Egyptian  and  Syrian  Gnostics.  However,  it  is 
impossible  to  keep  them  always  quite  separate,  since  the  various 
forms  of  Gnosticism  closely  approximate  and  frequently  merge 
into  each  other,  and  since,  during  their  development,  these  here- 
sies did  not  remain  stationary.  Gnosticism  reached  its  highest 
point  during  the  first  half  of  the  second  century,  especially 
during  the  age  of  Hadrian.  In  apostolic  times  (§19),  those 
Jewish,  heathen,  and  Christian  Gnostics  elements— which  at  the 
commencement  of  the  second  century  appeared  separated, 
attracted  or  repelled  each  other,  developed  and  assumed  form — 
had  been  a  "  rudis  indigestaque  moles."  Even  in  the  system  of 
Gerinthus,  who,  as  it  were,  stands  on  the  boundary-line  between 
these  two  ages,  Gentile  and  Ebionite  Gnosis  are  mixed  up.  But, 
not  many  years  afterwards,  Alexandrian  Gnosticism  was  fully 
developed  by  Basilides,  whose  system  is  moulded  after  the  doc- 
trines of  Stoicism,  and  by  Valentine,  who  adopted  the  views  of 
the  Platonists.  Another  class  of  Egyptian  Gnostics  based  their 
systems  rather  on  Grecian  and  Egyptian  mysteries  than  on 
Greek  philosophy,  and  mixed  the  fables  of  heathen  mythology 
with  the  facts  of  Scripture  history.  Among  such  attempts  we 
class  the  various  systems  of  the  Ophites,  which  already  show  a 
certain  hostility  to  Judaism,  and  a  tendency  towards  Antino- 
mianism.  These  tendencies  increased  and  attained  their  climax 
m  Garpocrates,  who  placed  Christianity  on  exactly  the  same 
level  with  heathenism.  —  Of  Syrian  Gnostics,  Salurninus  is  the 
9* 


102         SECTION    I.  —  FIRST    P  E  R  I  O  D    (lOO— 323  A.  D.)  . 

most  prominent;  next  to  him  Taiian,  whose  system,  however, 
has  even  more  of  asceticism  about  it,  The  Gnosticism  of  Bar- 
desanes,  although  he  was  both  a  Syrian  and  a  Dualist,  approxi- 
mated that  of  Valentine  ;  in  life  and  doctrine  he  accommodated 
himself  to  the  views  of  the  Catholics.  The  Gnosticism  of  31ar- 
cion  belongs  also  to  the  Syrian  school.  Setting  aside  the 
principles  of  emanation,  of  secret  doctrine,  and  of  allegorical 
interpretation,  and  laying  greater  stress  on  Pistis  than  on  Gnosis, 
Marcion  approximated  more  closely  to  orthodox  views  than  any 
other  heretical  teacher  had  done;  while,  by  his  rejection  of  the 
Old  Testament,  and  fanatical  hatred  to  Jewish  Christianity,  he 
at  the  same  time  occupied  a  position  of  greater  antagonism  to 
the  Church  than  others.  The  direct  opposite  of  his  system  was 
that  of  the  Pseudoclement  (§  27,  4).  Lastly,  independent  of  all 
these  modifications  of  Gnosticism,  3Ianichcei>-m  —  a  combination 
of  Parseeism,  of  Buddhism,  and  of  Christianity  (§21))  —  made 
its  appearance  during  the  third  century. 

1.  CERiNTiirs  was  a  junior  coteraporary  of  the  Apostle  John  in  Asia 
Minor.  lie  was  the  first  to  propound  the  peculiar  Gnostic  dogma  of 
the  Dcmiurr/os,  who,  as  Creator  of  the  world,  is  represented  as  sub- 
servient to  the  Supreme  God,  without,  however,  knowing  Him.  Jesus 
also,  who  Avas  the  son  of  Joseph  and  of  Mary,  knew  Him  not,  until  at 
baptism  the  uvu>  Xpmroj  descended  upon  him.  Before  the  crucifixion, 
•which  is  regarded  as  merely  a  human  calamity,  without  any  bearing 
upon  salvation,  he  again  left  the  man  Jesus.  Cains  of  Home,  who 
ascribed  to  Cerinthus  the  authorship  of  the  book  of  Revelation,  charges 
him  also  with  carnally  chiliastic  views. 

2.  The  Gnosticism  of  Basilidcs. — Basilides  (BarnwdSrjg)  was  a  teacher 
at  Alexandria  about  the  year  130.  It  is  the  characteristic  and  funda- 
mental idea  of  his  system,  that  every  development  of  God  and  of  the 
world  was  brought  about  by  an  influence  from  beneath  upwards — not, 
as  in  the  theory  of  emanation,  from  above  downwards.  His  system 
commences  with  pure  non-existence.  'Hv  on  %v  oihiv.  Hence,  the 
principle  from  which  everything  originates  is  6  ova  ijv  de6s,  —  which 
from  out  of  itself  (ff  ovk  ovtcjv)  brings  Chaos  into  being.  This  Chaos, 
though  itself  ovx  w,  is  yet  the  rfarirtspiu'a  rov  xovnov.  Thence  two  son- 
ships  {vvotrjtti),  of  which  the  one  was  already  weaker  than  the  other, 
ascended  to  the  blessed  place  of  not-being  (non-existence  —  rot 
t>rt{pxo5,uia)  ;  while  a  third,  which  still  required  purification,  had  to 
remain  behind  in  the  rtaiartfp.uia.  The  latter,  then,  is  the  object  of 
redemption.  Next,  the  great  Archon  ascended  from  Chaos  to  the  very 
boundary  of  the  blessed  place,  of  which  he  knew  nothing,  and  founded 
there  the  Ogdoas;  after  him  came  a  second  Archon,  who  founded  the 


GENTILE    GNOSTICISM.  103 

HeMomas  (the  planet-sky).  He  reigned  over  the  terrestrial  world 
until  Moses  revealed  the  name  of  the  great  Archon.  Only  Jesus,  the 
first-born  of  the  third  sonship,  that  had  remained  behind,  obtained  and 
spread  the  knowledge  of  the  highest  God  and  His  kingdom.  The 
sufferings  of  Christ  were  necessary  for  His  own  salvation,  t.  e.,  that 
He  might  be  purified  from  the  elements  of  the  Psyche  and  of  the  Hyle. 
Then  He  ascended  to  the  highest  God,  whither,  gradually,  all  other 
pneumatic  natures  are  to  follow  Him.  Ultimately,  God  pours  out 
(jreat  ignorance  over  all  stages  of  existence,  that  their  blessedness  may 
11  :*  be  disturbed  by  their  knowledge  of  still  higher  bliss.  Such,  accord- 
ing to  Clemens  Alexandrinus  and  Hippolytus,  are  the  fundamental 
ideas  of  the  system  of  Basilides.  IrencBUS  and  Epiphanius  attach  that 
name,  however,  to  a  totally  different  system  —  doubtless  describing  the 
later  sect  of  the  so-called  Pseudo-Basilidiaxs.  In  their  system,  the 
great  Archon  alone  is  represented  as  the  highest  God,  the  "  pater 
innatus."  But  between  the  great  Archon  and  the  Archon  of  the  Heb- 
domas  not  less  than  3G5  spiritual  spheres  (=  'A8pa|as,  'Aj5paffa£)  inter- 
vene. Since  the  oiix  uv  ^soj  and  the  itavortipplo.  had  been  discarded,  it 
became  necessary  to  adopt  certain  dualistic,  emanatistic,  and  docetic 
views,  such  as  that  beneath  the  Pleroma  lay  an  eternal  Hyle,  which 
attracted  some  particles  of  light  and  fixed  them  down  in  matter,  etc. 
The  Pseudo-Basilidians  fell  into  Antinomianism  and  Libertinism. 
Basilides  himself  left  twenty-four  books  iZijyytixd,  and  his  son  Isidore 
a  work  entitled  r^ixa.  —  (Comp.  G.  Ulilhovn,  das  basilid.  System. Gb'ttg. 
1855.  Also,  A.  Hilgenfeld,  Die  Jl'id.  Apokalyptik.  App.  pp.  289,  etc. 
Jena  1857). 

3.  The  Gnosticism  of  Valentine.  —  Vahntinus,  a  teacher  in  Alex- 
andria and  at  Rorne  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  was  of  all 
Gnostics  the  most  deep,  ingenious,  and  imaginative,  and  his  system  is 
equally  remarkable  for  its  speculation  and  its  poetry.  Its  fundamental 
idea  is,  that,  according  to  a  law  inherent  in  the  Divine  Being,  the 
iEons  emanated  in  pairs,  and  with  the  difference  of  sexes.  Every  such 
holy  marriage  of  iEons  he  designates  a  Syzxjgia.  Connected  with  this 
is  another  peculiar  view,  according  to  which  the  three  catastrophes  of 
terrestrial  history  (creation,  the  fall,  and  redemption)  had  already 
occurred  in  archetype  in  the  history  of  the  development  of  the  Pleroma. 
On  this  basis  he  reared  a  grand  and  most  poetic  Epos,  consisting  of  a 
partly  Christian  and  partly  mythological  theogony  and  cosmogony. 
From  the  Bu^oj  (or  AitoTtdtup)  and  his  'Kvvola.  (or  2ty/j)  emanated  fifteen 
pairs  of  ^Eons,  which,  with  the  Father  of  all,  formed  the  Pleroma. 
2  :><j>(,a,  the  last  and  lowest  of  these  iEons,  impelled  by  a  burning  desire, 
forsakes  her  husband  in  order  to  throw  herself  into  the  Bythos,  for  the 
purpose  of  embracing  the  Great  Father  himself.  She  is  indeed  pre- 
vented from  carrying  this  into  execution  —  but  a  rupture  has  taken 
place  in  the  Pleroma.  Disorder  and  passion  (her  irti^u^uij)  is 
eliminated   and  driven  forth  from  the   Pleroma.     This,   then,   is  an 


104  SECTION     I.  —  FIRST     PERIOD    (100—325  /v.  D.). 

abortion,  an  tx-(pu>fta,  which  still  possesses,  however,  an  iEonic  nature 
(xcirto  2o<|)ttt).  To  redeem  and  to  living  her  back  into  the  Pleroma  — 
such  is  the  object  of  the  development  of  the  world.  For  the  purpose 
of  providing  a  Saviour  and  future  husband  for  her,  all  the  iEons  com- 
bine in  emanating  a  new  iEonic  Being,  glorious  above  all  measure — - 
the  2trrp,  or  heavenly  Jems.  Meantime,  the  xd?u>  So^Ja,  which  is  ahc 
called  'A^ou^ii^,  gives  birth  to  the  various  grades  of  life  in  the  Cosmos. 
All  hylic  natures  are  under  the  government  of  Satan,  all  psychical 
under  that  of  the  Demiurgos,  while  she  herself  directs  those  that  are 
pneumatic.  To  his  chosen  people,  the  Jews,  the  Demiurgos  sends  a 
Messiah,  the  xutu>  zpintos,  on  whom  at  baptism  the  cu/co  2wr rtp  descends. 
The  Demiurgos  is  astonished,  but  submits  to  the  will  of  the  higher 
deities.  The  Pneumatics  are  led  to  perfectness  by  yvw<wj,the  Psychical 
by  rtiatii.  Ultimately,  Achamoth  returns  with  the  Pneumatics  to  the 
Pleroma,  where  she  is  united  to  the  Soter,  and  the  Pneumatics  to  the 
angels  of  the  Soter.  The  Demiurgos  and  his  pious  ones  occupy  the 
rcirfos  xrfi  {iino-tr^os ;  but  from  the  depths  of  Hyle  bursts  forth  a  fire  which 
consumes  them  and  itself. — Among  the  numerous  disciples  of  Valentine 
we  mention  Hcracleon,  the  first  commentator  of  the  Gospel  according 
to  John. 

4.  In  its  original  form,  the  Gnosticism  of  the  Ophites  consisted  of 
a  phantastic  combination  of  Grecian  mythology  and  biblical  history, 
both  being  mystically  interpreted,  just  as  the  heathen  mysteries  had 
been  by  philosophers.     Under  all  the  modifications  of  this  system,  a 

prominent  part  was  assigned  to  the  Serpent  y>$i<;,  J*'n,3)>  either  as 

T    T 

being  the  evil  principle,  or  else  as  the  Agathodaemon.  This  is  explained 
from  the  circumstance  that,  both  in  Egyptian  worship,  in  the  Grecian 
mysteries,  and  in  biblical  history,  the  serpent  was  prominently  brought 
forward.  Ilippolytus  describes,  under  the  name  of  Naassexes,  one  of 
the  earliest  forms  of  Ophite  Gnosticism,  of  which  the  system  is  com- 
paratively simple.  In  it  the  serpent  was  the  Agathodaemon.  More 
fully  developed  than  this  was  the  system  of  the  Gnostic  Jtjstinus,  who 
adopted  the  whole  Grecian  mythology.  He  regarded  the  Nachash  as 
an  evil  demon.  The  Peratics,  a,  party  of  which  Euphrates  and  Cheibes 
were  the  founders,  taught  that  it  was  necessary  to  leave  Egypt  (which 
was  a  representation  of  the  body),  to  pass  (rtfpur)  through  the  Red  Sea 
(the  things  that  pass  away)  into  the  wilderness,  where,  indeed,  the 
gods  of  destruction  (represented  by  the  fiery  serpents  which  destroyed 
the  Jews)  awaited  us,  but  where  also  Christ  the  Saviour  (represented 
by  tlio  serpent  which  Moses  had  lifted  up)  brought  Balvation  and 
deliverance.  The  Sethians  maintained  that  originally  there  had  been 
two  races  of  men  —  one  psychical,  at  the  head  of  which  stood  Abel,  the 
other  hylic,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Cain.  But  with  Sct/i  commenced 
a  third  race,  that  of  the  Pneumatics  or  Gnostics.  The  Hylics  had 
DCrishcd  in  tlm  Flood,  but  returned  in  the  descendants  of  Hani.     At 


GENTILE     GNOSTICISM.  105 

last  Seth  appeared  a  second  time  in  Christ.     In  direct  opposition  to 
this  sect,  the  Cainites  declared  that  all  those  persons  who  in  the  Old 
Testament  had  heen  described  as  ungodly,  were  genuine  Pneumatics 
and  martyrs  of  truth.     The  first  who  distinguished   himself  in   the 
contest  with  the  God  of  the  Jews,  was  Cain;  the  last,  who  brought 
this  contest  to  a  victorious  termination,  by  bringing,   in  his  deeper 
wisdom,  the  psychical  Messiah  to  the  cross,  and  thus  destroying  the 
kingdom  of  the  God  of  the  JeAvs,  was  Judas  Iscariot.     Their  Antino- 
mianism  led  to  the  most  shameless  excesses. —  The  Ophites,  whom 
Irenaeus  and  Epiphanius  describe,  seem  to  have  indulged  in  abstruse 
transformations  of  the  biblical  history  in  Gen.  i.  —  iii.,  and  to  have 
derived  their  views  originally  from  the  system  of  Valentine.     Accord- 
ing to  them,  the  Sophia-Achamoth  precipitated  herself  into   Chaos, 
where  she  gave  birth  to  Juldabaoth,  the  Creator  of  the  world,  who  in 
turn  renounced  allegiance  to  his  mother.     But  the  star-spirits  which 
he    had    created,  and    Orphiomorpho.i,    or     Satan,   overcame    him    in 
turn.     From  a    feeling  of  jealousy,  Juldabaoth  had  interdicted  man 
from  the  tree  of  knowledge  ;  but  the  serpent  Achamoth  persuaded  him 
to  disobey,  and  thus  procured  him  liberty  and  knowledge.   Jaldabaoth 
selected  the  Jews  as  his  favourite  people,  sent  prophets  to  them,  and 
at  last  a  Messiah,  who  was  to  obtain   for  them  dominion   over  the 
Gentiles.     On  him  the  Ano-Christ  descended,  but  the  wicked  Jalda- 
baoth now  caused  his  own  Messiah  to  be  crucified.     Before  that,  how- 
ever, the   heavenly  Christ  had   already  forsaken   that   Messiah,  and, 
invisible  to  Jaldabaoth,  sat  down  at  the  right  hand  of  the  latter ;  thus 
withdrawing  from  him  any  elements  of  light  which  he  still  retained, 
etc.  —  The  book  Pistis  Sophia  (ed.  Schwartze  et  Petermann,  coptice  et 
hit.  Berol.  1851)  is  one  of  the  latest  and  best  productions  of  Ophite 
Gnosticism,  strongly  tinged,  however,  with  the  views  of  Valentine. 

5.     The   Gnosticism    of  Carpocrates. —  The  opposition    to    Judaism, 

which  had  so  distinctly  appeared  among  the  Cainites  and  the  Ophites, 

developed,  in  the  system  of  Carpocraies  and  his  adherents,  into  open 

and   pantheistic   heathenism.     They  regarded  Christ  in  exactly  the 

same  light  as  they  did  Pythagoras,  Plato,  and   Aristotle.     Genuine 

Christianity  they  held  to  be  equivalent  with  philosophical  heathenism; 

all  popular  creeds,  especially  that  of  the  Jews,  had  originated  with 

demons  (the  dyy&oi  xoa/xorcoioi).     True  religion  consisted  in  return  to 

the  lost  unity  with  the  "  one  and  all,"  attained  theoretically  by  Gnosis, 

and  practically  by  transgressing  the  law  of  the  Demiurgos.     In  this 

respect  Christ  had  distinguished  Himself  before  all  others.     In  their 

temples  they  paid  divine  homage  to  pictures  of  Christ  and  of  heathen 

philosophers,  which  they  placed  by  the  side  of  each  other.     The  Car- 

pocratians  built  in  Cephalonia  a  temple  to  Epiphanes,  the  son  of  Car- 

pocrates,  a  youth  of  great  talent,  but  wholly  steeped  in  vice,  who  died 

in  the  17th  year  of  his  age.  —  At  the  close  of  their  agapes  they  had 

"  concubitus  promiscuos." 


106  SECTION    I.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (100—323  A.  D.). 

G.  The  Antitoctes.  —  Almost  all  the  Alexandrian  Gnostics  ulti 
mately  landed  in  Antinomianism  and  gross  immorality,  on  the  prin- 
ciple that  he  who  was  perfect  must  he  able  to  bid  defiance  to  the  law, 
(di-nraoofo^at),  and  that  in  order  to  break  the  power  of  Ilyle,  it  was 
necessary  to  weaken  and  to  mortify  the  flesh  (napa^a^at  rf  oapxt)  by 
carnal  indulgences.  Among  them  we  reckon,  besides  the  Nicolaituus 
(§19,  1)  and  the  Simonians  (§22,  2),  the  Pseudo-Basilidians,  the 
Carpocratians,  the  Cainites,  and  also  the  Prodicians,  who,  as  the  sons 
of  the  king,  deemed  themselves  above  the  law,  which  had  been  given 
to  servants. 

7.  The  first  in  the  series  of  Syrian  Gnostics  was  Saturninus,  whe 
lived  at  the  time  of  Hadrian.  According  to  him,  the  spiritual  world 
of  the  kingdom  of  light  had  gradually  emanated  from  the  £s  6j  d'yriou-roj. 
The  lowest  stage  was  occupied  by  the  seven  planet-spirits  (dyyt^ot 
xoa^oxpa'Topff),  presided  over  by  the  God  of  the  Jews.  But  from  all 
eternity  Satan,  the  ruler  of  Ilyle,  had  been  most  violently  opposed  to 
the  kingdom  of  light.  The  seven  planet-spirits  intended  to  found  an 
empire  independent  of  the  Pleroma,  and  for  that  purpose  made  an  in- 
cursion into  the  kingdom  of  Ilyle,  and  partly  gained  possession  of  it. 
This  they  fashioned  into  the  sensuous  world,  and  created  man,  its 
guardian,  after  a  luminous  image  sent  by  the  good  God,  of  which  they 
had  perceived  the  reflection.  But  they  were  unable  to  give  man  an 
upright  posture.  On  this  the  supreme  God  took  pity  on  the  wretched 
creation  of  their  hands.  He  imparted  to  man  a  spark  of  light  (arcu^p), 
by  which  he  was  filled  with  pneumatic  life  and  enabled  to  stand  up- 
right. But  by  means  of  a  hylic  race,  which  Satan  created,  he  opposed 
the  pneumatic  race,  and  continually  persecuted  it  by  his  demons.  The 
God  of  the  Jews  therefore  resolved  to  redeem  the  persecuted  by  a  Mes- 
siah, and  He  raised  up  prophets  to  announce  His  coining.  But  Satan 
also  sent  prophets.  At  last  the  good  God  sent  the  JEon  Not>s  to  this 
earth,  arrayed  not  in  a  real,  but  in  what  seemed  a  body,  that  as  our^p 
he  might  teach  the  Pneumatics,  not  only  to  protect  themselves  by 
means  of  Gnosis  and  asceticism  (abstinence  from  marriage  and  meats) 
from  the  attacks  of  Satan,  but  thereby  also  to  withdraw  themselves 
from  the  dominion  of  the  God  of  the  Jews  and  of  His  star-spirits,  and 
to  purify  themselves  from  all  communion  with  matter,  in  order  to  rise 
to  the  kingdom  of  light. 


'&'- 


8.  Tatian  [oh.  about  174)  came  from  Assyria,  and  was  a  rhetori- 
cian at  Rome,  where,  through  the  influence  of  Justin  Martyr,  he  be- 
came a  convert  to  Christianity.  But  at  a  later  period  he  adopted 
Gnostic  views,  which  he  zealously  spread  both  in  his  writings  and  his 
teaching.  He  interdicted  marriage  as  a  service  of  Satan,  and  also  the 
use  of  intoxicating  liquors.  On  account  of  their  rigid  abstinence  his 
adherents  were  called  'Eyxpatitan,  and  also  'T8portapa<jT,di'ai, 
Aquarii,  because  in  the  Lord's  Supper  they  used  water  instead  of  wine 


GENTILE    GNOSTICISM.  1 07 

9.  Bardesanes,  from  Edossa  (about  the  year  170),  was  a  very 
learned  man,  and  an  able  religious  poet,  In  his  sermons  he  did  not 
oppose  the  teaching  of  the  Church,  but  by  his  hymns  diffused  his 
Gnostic  views.  The  same  remark  applies  to  Harmonius,  his  son,  who 
also  was  a  poet.  A  Syriac  copy  of  Bardesanes'  work  rtspt  Et^ap^'i^j 
has  been  recently  discovered.  It  refutes  the  delusions  of  Chaldee 
astrology,  but  is  itself  pervaded  by  the  views  of  Zoroaster.  His  view 
of  the  world  was  likewise  greatly  modified  by  Greek  philosophy.  He 
holds  to  three  distinct  principles  of  all  being:  the  <J»vatj,  or  laws  of 
nature,  the  Eipapfitvy,  or  blind  fate,  and  the  God  of  Christianity,  who 
executed  the  plan  of  Redemption. 

10.  Marcion,  a  native  of  Sinope  and  the  son  of  a  bishop,  was  a  man 
of  energetic  but  pugnacious  disposition.     Being  excommunicated  by 
his  father  on  account  of  his  pride,  he  betook  himself  to  Rome,  where 
Cerdo,  a  Syrian  Gnostic,   imbued  him  with  his   own  peculiar  views 
(about  150).     The  absolute  and  irreconcilable  antagonism  between  jus- 
tice and  mercy,  between  law  and  gospel,  between  Judaism  and  Chris- 
tianity, formed  the  fundamental  idea  of  his  system.     Hence,  besides 
the  two  principles  of  Syrian  Gnosticism  —  the  good  and  the  evil  God  — 
he  introduced  a  third,  the  just  God,  who  was  the  Creator  of  the  world 
and  the  Lawgiver.     To  the  latter  Judaism  was  subject,  as  heathenism 
to  the  evil  God.     At  last  the  good  God,  who  hitherto  had  been  wholly 
unknown,  in  free  grace  resolved  on  delivering  man  from  the  dominion 
of  both  these  deities.     For  this  purpose  he  sent  his  Logos  (who,  how- 
ever, differed  from  him  only  modaliter  not  personaliier)   into  the  world 
in  what  appeared  to  be  a  body.     Byway  of  accommodation,  this  Loizvs 
gave  Himself  out  to  be  the  Messiah  promised  by  the  God  of  the  Jews  . 
He  announced  forgiveness  of  sins  by  free  grace,  and  to  all  who  be- 
lieved imparted  the  powers  of  a  Divine  life.     The  Demiurgos,  indig- 
nant at  this,  put  Him  to  the  cross  (to  apparent  death),  when  He  went 
to  preach  in  Hades  to  those  of  the  heathen  who  are  susceptible  of  the 
Gospel,  next  cast  the  Demiurgos  into  Hades,  and  called  the  Apostle 
Paul  to  be  the  teacher  of  believers.  —  In  a  work  —  the  Antitheses  —  he 
endeavoured  to  show  that  the  antagonism  between  the  Old  and  the 
New  Testament  was  irreconcilable.     Of  all  the  apostles  he  only  recog- 
nized the  authority  of  Paul ;  the  rest,  he  thought,  had  relapsed  into 
Judaism.     But  he  also  rejected  the  pastoral  letters  (of  Paul)  and  that 
to  the  Hebrews,  and  acknowledged  only  ten  of  the  epistles  of  Paul  and 
a  mutilated  edition  of  the  Gospel  according  to  Luke.     He  disapproved 
of  all  pomp  and  ceremonies  in  public  worship,  to  which  he  also  ad- 
mitted catechumens  and  heathen.     Strict  asceticism,  the  use  of  only 
bo  much  nourishment  as  was  absolutely  necessary,  and  abstinence  from 
marriage,  were  incumbent  on  the  "  Electi."     The  moral  earnestness 
and  the  practical  tendency  of  his  teaching  gathered  around  him  many 
adherents,  and  this  sect  continued  much  longer  than  other  Gnostics. 


108  SECTION     I.. —  FIRS1     PERIOD    (100—323  A.  D.). 

To  his  query,  "whether  he  knew  him,"  Polycarp,  who  met  him  ia 
Rome,  replied:    'Ejuyrwcrxw  tbv  Ttputoroxov  tov  1a.to.va.. 

11.  Hermogenes,  a  painter  in  North  Africa  (about  the  end  of  tha 
second  century),  equally  rejected  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  creation  and 
the  Gnostic  theory  of  emanation,  since  both  made  God  the  author  of 
sin.  He  therefore  assumed  an  eternal  chaos,  in  the  resistance  of 
which  against  the  creative  and  formative  agency  of  God  all  that  was 
evil  and  deformed  had  its  origin.    His  views  were  refuted  by  Tertullian. 

I  29.   MANICILEISM. 

Comp.  Beausdbre,  hist.  crit.  de  Manichcisme.  Amst.  1734. — F.  Clir. 
Bavr,  d.  manich.  Religionssyst.  Tlibg.  1831. — I.E.  Colditz,  d.  Entsteh. 
d.  manich.  Religionsystems,  Leipz.  1838. — D.  Cliwolsolin,  die  Ssabieru. 
d.  Ssabismus.  St.  Petersb.  1856,  2  Bde. 

Independent  of  Christian  Gnosticism,  which  developed  in  the 
Roman  empire  during  the  second  century,  and  more  or  less  under 
the  influence  of  Grecian  forms  of  culture,  and  yet  possibly  con- 
nected with  Elkesaism  (§  21,  3),  Manichceism  sprung  up  in  the 
Persian  empire  towards  the  end  of  the  third  century.  In  many 
respects  its  principles  and  tendencies  coincided  with  those  of 
Gnosticism,  especially  with  that  form  of  it  which  the  Syrian 
Gnostics  had  adopted.  But  Manichceism  differed  from  Gnosti- 
cism chiefly  in  employing  Christian  ideas  and  notions  merely  as 
a  gloss  for  heathen  theosophy,  in  bearing  no  reference  whatever 
to  Judaism,  in  prominently  bringing  forward,  instead  of  Pla- 
tonic views,  Persian  Dualism,  and  combining  it  with  Buddhist 
ideas.  From  the  first,  also,  it  laid  claim  not  merely  to  the  title 
of  an  esoteric  religion  destined  for  a  few  choice  spirits,  but  to 
form  a  church  of  its  own,  with  a  regular  constitution  and  an 
organized  worship, — an  attempt  which,  as  the  result  proved,  was 
not  wholly  unsuccessful. 

1.  Concerning  the  person  and  history  of  the  founder  of  the  sect,  the 
accounts  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  Fathers  often  vary  from  those  of  Per- 
sian writers.  The  former  are  all  derived  from  the  reports  of  a  discus- 
sion which  Bishop  Archelaus  of  Cascar  had  with  Manes  or  Manichceus, 
and  which  still  exist  in  a  corrupt  Latin  translation.3  In  them  the 
origin  of  Manichseism  is  traced  to  Scythianus,  a  Saracen  merchant,  an 
extensive  traveller,  who  lived  at  the  time  of  the  apostles.  A  pupil  of 
his,  T(  •ebinthus,  who  also  called  himself  Buddas,  wrote  by  his  direc- 
tion foir  books — of  which,  after  his  death.  Eubricus,  a  liberated  slave, 
sbtainel  possession.     E.  adopted  the  doctrine  of  the  books,  carried  it 


MANICH^EISM.  109 

out  more  fully,  in  Persia  became  the  founder  of  a  new  religion,  and 
called  himself  Manes.  He  was  even  admitted  to  the  royal  court, 
but  failing  in  an  attempt  to  restore  a  sick  prince,  the  jealousy  of  the 
Magi  caused  his  downfall.  But  he  escaped  from  prison,  and  found  a 
place  of  concealment  in  an  old  castle  Arabion,  in  Mesopotamia. 
Meanwhile  he  had  become  acquainted  with  the  sacred  writings  of  the 
Christians,  and  derived  from  them  many  additions  to  his  system. 
Then  he  showed  great  energy  in  spreading  his  views,  sending  letters 
and  messengers,  especially  among  Christians.  This  led  to  the  above- 
named  debate  with  Archelaus,  in  which  he  was  completely  refuted. 
Soon  afterwards  he  was  seized  by  command  of  the  King  of  Persia, 
flayed  alive  (277),  and  his  stuffed  skin  was  set  up  as  a  warning  to 
others.  —  Later  Persian  accounts  are  much  more  credible  [Herbelot 
orient.,  Biblioth.  s.  v.  Mani,  and  Silv.  de  Saey  Memoires,  etc.,  Par.  1794). 
According  to  these,  Mani,  the  founder  of  this  religion,  had  sprung 
from  one  of  the  families  of  the  Persian  Magi.  Although  professing 
Christianity,  and  invested  with  the  office  of  presbyter,  he  continued  to 
cherish  his  early  Parsee  views.  Amid  the  religious  movements  which, 
after  the  overthrow  of  the  Parthian  Arsacidae  and  the  accession  of  the 
Sassinidce  (227),  had  the  revival  of  the  ancient  national  faith  for  their 
aim,  he  conceived  the  idea  of  founding  a  new  and  universal  religion, 
by  combining  Christianity  with  Parseeism.  Accordingly,  in  270, 
under  the  reign  of  Shapur  I.  (Sapores),  he  came  forward  as  reformer 
and  founder  of  a  new  party,  claiming  to  be  the  Paraclete  promised  by 
Christ  (John  xvi.  13  etc.).  Excommunicated  by  the  Christians  and 
persecuted  by  the  Magi,  he  had  to  flee,  and  travelled  through  India  as 
far  as  China,  all  the  time  gathering  fresh  materials  for  his  religious 
system.  After  that  he  lived  for  a  period  in  a  cave  in  Turkistan,  where 
he  composed  a  work,  full  of  gorgeous  imagery,  intended  to  express  in 
symbols  his  doctrine  (the  "  Ertenki  Mani,"  the  Gospel  of  his  adhe- 
rents). He  then  returned  to  Persia.  The  new  king,  Horrmtz,  pro- 
tected him  ;  but  Behram  (Varanes),  his  successor,  obliged  him  to  dis- 
cuss his  system  with  the  Magi,  declared  them  victorious,  and  caused 
Mani  to  be  flayed  alive  (277).  Soon  after  the  founder's  death  the 
sect  spread  throughout  the  Roman  empire.  On  account  of  its  origin 
among  the  hostile  Persians,  Diocletian  persecuted  the  party  ;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  opposition  of  the  Catholic  state-church  of  the 
Roman  Empire  secured  for  it,  at  a  later  period,  protection  in  Persia. 
By  secret  tradition  the  sect  seems  to  have  continued  to  the  middle 
ages,  when  it  frequently  reappeared. 

2.  The  ancient  Persian  Dualism  formed  the  fundamental  idea  in  the 
system  of  Mani.  The  good  God  and  his  twelve  iEons  (Ormuzd  and 
his  Amshaspands  and  Izeds)  were  from  all  eternity  opposed  by  Satan 
and  his  demons  (Ahriman  and  the  Dews).  Attracted  by  the  beauty 
ff  the  kingdom  of  light,  Satan  made  an  inroad  upon  it.  God  ap- 
pointed an  iEon    ("the  mother  yf  life")  to  be  the   guardian  of  the 

10 


110    SECTION  I. — FIRST  PERIOD  (100—323  X   D.). 

boundaries  of  the  kingdom  of  light.  This  JEon  gave  bhth  to  the  ideal 
man,  who,  together  with  the  five  pure  elements  (fire,  light,  etc.), 
entered  into  the  contest,  but  succumbed  and  became  a  prisoner.  God 
now  sends  another  iEon,  "the  living  Spirit,"  to  assist  him  ;  but  he 
arrives  too  late,  as  the  powers  of  darkness  have  already  swallowed 
up  a  portion  of  his  luminous  essence  (the  soul  of  the  world,  or  the 
"Jesus  patibilis"  ).  The  ideal  man,  so  far  as  preserved,  i.e.,  Christ 
(or  the  "Jesus  impatibilis"  ),  is  now  transported  to  the  Sun.  From 
the  mixture  above  mentioned  God  had  caused  the  visible  world  to  be 
formed  by  the  "  living  Spirit,"  in  order  that  the  captive  particles  of 
light  might  gradually  regain  strength  and  freedom.  Besidqs  "the 
soul  of  light,"  every  man  has  also  an  evil  soul.  The  former  is  to 
gain  victory  and  dominion  over  the  latter  by  appropriating  the 
elements  of  light  scattered  in  nature,  and  principally  in  plants.  This 
process  of  purification  is  superintended  by  the  ideal  man  Chriat,  who 
resides  in  the  Sun,  and  by  the  living  Spirit,  who  resides  in  ether.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Demons  attempt,  by  means  of  the  false  religions 
of  Judaism  and  heathenism,  to  bind  souls  more  closely  to  the  king- 
dom of  darkness.  At  last  Christ  Himself  descends  from  the  Sun  in 
what  appears  to  be  a  body,  in  order,  by  His  teaching,  to  give  liberty 
to  the  "  souls  of  light."  But  the  apostles  misunderstood  and  falsified 
His  doctrine ;  Mani,  the  promised  Paraclete  (not  the  Holy  Ghost)  is  to 
restore  it  to  purity.  As  such,  he  was  the  head  of  the  Church.  Under 
him  were  twelve  apostles  (magistri)  and  seventy-two  bishops,  besides 
presbyters,  deacons,  and  evangelists.  The  community  consisted  of 
catechumens  (auditores)  and  the  elect  (or  perfect).  The  latter  were 
to  practise  the  strictest  ascetism,  to  abstain  from  flesh,  from  eggs, 
milk,  wine,  etc.,  and  had  to  remain  unmarried  (Signaculum  oris, 
manuum  et  sinus).  Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper — the  former  with 
oil,  the  latter  without  wine — formed  part  of  the  secret  worship  of  the 
perfect.  Oil  and  bread  were  regarded  as  those  pure  products  of  the 
soul  of  the  world,  which,  in  vegetable  life,  struggled  after  freedom 
(or  the  "Jesus  patibilis").  Their  principal  festival  was  the  anni- 
versary of  the  martyrdom  of  Mani,  when  they  bowed  in  worship 
before  a  splendid  pulpit,  the  symbol  of  their  divine  teacher. — (Cf  %  54, 
1.2;  8  71;  §108,1.) 


INTERNAL    ORGANIZATION    OF    THE    CHURCH.       Ill 


III.  DEVELOPMENT  IN  THE  GOVERNMENT,  WORSHIP,  LIFE,  AND 
DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

^30.   INTERNAL  ORGANIZATION  OF   THE   CHURCH. 

Comp.  Ziegler,  Yers.  e.  pragm.  Goseh.  d.  kirchl.  Verfassungsfornien 
in  den  6  ersten  Jahrhh.  (Pragm.  Hist,  of  the  Forms  of  Eocles.  Con- 
etit.  during  the  First  6  Cent.).  Leipz.  1798.—  J.  W.Bichell,  Gesch.  d. 
Kirchenrechts  (Hist,  of  Ch.  Law).  I.  II.  Frkf.  1849.—  R.  Rothe,  d. 
Anf  ange  d.  chr.  K.  u.  ihrer  Verf.  (Early  Hist,  of  the  Chr.  Ch.  and  of 
its  Const.).  I.  Wittb.  1837.—  W.  Palmer,  Treat,  on  the  Ch.  of  Christ, 
Oxf.  1838. — J.  Kaye,  Some  Ace.  of  the  Ext.  Disc,  of  the  Ch.  of  Christ. 
London  1855. 

During  the  second  century  the  Episcopate  (§  18,  2)  became 
more  and  more  a  settled  institution  in  the  Church,  till  gradually 
the  bishop  was  regarded  as  the  superior  of  the  presbyter. 
Among  those  who  prepared  the  way  for  this  result,  Ignatius  of 
Antioch  {oh.  115)  is  the  best  known.  In  every  bishop  he  sees 
Christ,  while  in  his  opinion  the  college  of  presbyters  represents 
the  apostles.  But  the  later  idea  of  an  apostolic  succession  of 
bishops,  which  we  find  in  the  writings  of  Cyprian,  appears  not 
to  have  occurred  to  Ignatius.  —  The  hierarchical  tendency, 
inherent  in  the  system  of  Episcopacy,  was  fostered  and  nourished 
by  the  idea  of  a  special  priesthood  as  of  Divine  institution.  Old 
Testament  views  were  transferred  to  the  New  Testament  Presi- 
dents of  churches.  The  distinction  between  the  "ordo"  or 
x^t)o?,  and  the  "  plebs  "  or  %o.6<;  (xoixoi,'),  once  introduced,  soon 
led  to  priestly  claims  of  pre-eminence.  As  the  congregations 
became  larger,  the  functions,  rights,  and  duties  of  the  existing 
spiritual  offices  were  more  accurately  determined,  and  new  offices 
instituted  for  those  on  whom  the  more  humble  work  devolved. 
Thus  the  clergy  were  arranged  into  "  ordinea  majores  "  and 
"minores."  The  rural  congregations  which  had  been  founded 
by  the  labours  of  Christians  in  neighbouring  cities  were  provided 
with  presbyters  from  these  cities  (the  Paruchi).  It'  they  increased 
in  numbers  and  influence,  they  chose  a  bishop  of  their  own  (*wp-- 
rti^ortoc.).  Where,  in  large  cities,  one  church  was  not  sufficient, 
affiliated  churches  were  founded.  Thus  the  bishop  had  gradu- 
ally a  diocese  assigned  to  him.  As  the  bishops  of  towns  took 
precedence  of  those  in  rural  districts,  so  naturally  the  metro- 


112  SECTION     I. — FIRST    PERIOD    (100—323  A.  D.). 

politans,  or  bishops  of  capital  cities,  over  those  of  provincia1 
towns.  But  the  title  Metropolitan  occurs  for  the  first  time  in 
the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Nice  (325).  In  the  common  con- 
sultations which  took  place  in  the  various  capitals  (the  Pro- 
vincial Synods)  —  which  at  first  only  took  place  when  occasion 
required,  but  afterwards  became  a  regular  institution  —  the 
metropolitan  presided.  Again,  among  the  metropolitans,  those 
who  presided  over  churches,  which  apostles  had  founded  (sedes 
apostoli'cce),  especially  those  of  Rome,  Antioch,  Jerusalem,  Alex- 
andria, Ephesus,  and  Corinth,  claimed  pre-eminence.  The  idea 
of  the  unity  and  catholicity  of  the  Church  was  maintained  and 
carried  out  with  increasing  firmness,  and  became  associated  with 
that  of  the  centering  of  that  unity  in  the  Apostle  Peter,  from  a 
misapplication  of  Matth.  1G  :  18,  19.  Koine,  as  the  metropolis 
of  the  world,  where  Peter  and  Paul  had  suffered  martyrdom, 
claimed  to  be  the  cathedra  Petri,  and  transferred  the  idea  of  a 
sole  ecclesiastical  representation  to  its  bishops,  as  the  successors 
of  Peter.  —  The  love  of  the  brethren  towards  one  another  led  to 
a  closer  connection  of  the  churches,  which  was  preserved  by 
mutual  communications.  Christians  on  a  journey,  furnished  with 
a  certificate  and  letter  of  commendation  from  their  respective 
bishops  (epistola?  formats?,  ypdufxata  ti-cvH^fxtra),  were  sure  of 
fraternal  hospitality.  —  At  first  the  congregations  retained  a 
voice  in  the  choice  of  the  clergy,  the  decision  being  frequently 
left  to  confessors.  — (Cf.   §  45  etc.) 

1.  The  "  Ordines  Majores"  were  composed  of  the  bishops,  presby- 
ters, and  deacons.  As  chief  ruler,  the  Bishop  had  supreme  direction 
of  all  affairs  connected  with  his  church  or  diocese.  His  exclusive 
privilege  it  was  to  ordain  presbyters  and  deacons,  to  confirm  those  who 
had  been  baptized,  to  absolve  the  penitent,  commonly  also  to  consecrate 
the  communion  elements,  and,  at  a  later  period,  to  vote  in  synods.  The 
Presbvters  were  now  only  regarded  as  the  advisers  and  assistants  of 
the  bishop.  They  took  part  in  the  direction  of  congregational  affairs, 
in  the  dispensation  of  the  sacraments,  in  preaching,  and  in  the  cure 
of  souls,  but  only  by  special  commission,  or  with  the  express  sanction 
of  the  bishop.  At  a  later  period,  when  the  requirement  of  churches 
demanded  it,  and  the  authority  of  bishops  was  sufficiently  recognized 
not  to  require  such  safeguards,  presbyters  were  entrusted  with  the 
entire  and  independent  cure  of  souls,  with  preaching,  and  (at  least  in 
part)  with  the  dispensation  of  the  sacraments.  —  The  reverse  of  all 
this  took  place  with  regard  to  the  official  position  of  the  Deacons 
(Levitaj).     Their  authority  grew  as  the  duties  originally  assigned  to 


INTERNAL    ORGANIZATION    OF    THE    CHURCH.        113 

them  -were  enlarged.     From  having  at  first  only  to  take  charge  elf  the 
poor,  they  gradually  came  to  take  part  in  public  worship  and  in  the 
direction  of  the  congregation.     When  commissioned  by  the  bishop, 
they  baptized,  they  prepared  the  communion  elements,  they  distributed 
the  cup,  carried,  after  the  close  of  public  worship,  to  the  sick  or  to 
prisoners  the  Lord's   Supper,  announced  the  commencement  of  the 
several  parts  of  public  worship,  conducted  the  prayers  of  the  church, 
read  the  Gospel,  and  preserved  order  during  worship.     Frequently 
they  were  also  commissioned   to  preach.     They   commonly   stood   in 
more  intimate  personal  relation  with  the  bishop  than  did  the  presby- 
ters;  they  were  his  intimate  associates,  accompanied  him  on  his  jour- 
neys,  and  frequently  acted  as  his  delegates  and   representatives  at 
councils.  —  Among   the   "  Ordines    mixores"   the   office   of  Lectores, 
avar/v^ntM,   was  the  oldest.     According  to   Cyprian,   confessors  were 
chosen  in  preference  for  this  purpose.     At  a  later  period,  the  office  of 
lector  was  commonly  the  first  step  in  clerical  promotion.     The  lectores 
read  the  larger  sections  from  the  Bible,  and  were  the  custodians  of  the 
sacred  "  codices."     An  office  introduced  at  a  period  subsequent  to  this 
was  that  of  Sv.bdiacnni,  vnohidxovoi,  who,  as  assistants  of  the  deacons, 
filled  the  first  rank  in  the  Ordines  minores,  and  hence  (unlike  the 
others)  were  also  ordained  by  imposition  of  hands.     For  the  purpose 
of  conducting  the  service  of  praise,  the  office  of  Canlores  (-^axrou,')  was 
instituted  towards  the  close  of  the  third  century.    The  Acolythi  accom- 
panied the  bishop  to  wait  on  him.    The  Exorcists  took  spiritual  charge 
of  those  who  were  possessed  (ivipyovnevot.,  Sa^uoi-t^ufiot),  over  whom 
they  made  the  prescribed  prayers  and  uttered  formulae  of  exorcism. 
As  the  latter  also  took  place  in  baptism,  their  official  duties  brought 
them  likewise  into  connection  with  the  catechumens.    The  lowest  rank 
was  occupied   by  the    Ostiarii  or  Ja?iitores  (^pupot,   nvxapol). —  The 
larger  churches  employed  special  Catechists  for  the  instruction  of 
catechumens  (doctores  audientium)  ;  and,  where  requisite,  as  in  those 
churches  of  North  Africa  in  which  the  Punic  language  was  used, 
IIermeneutve,  whose  duty  it  was  to  translate  the  portions  of  Scripture 
that  were  read.  —  It  was  the  duty  of  the  Deaconesses    (commonly 
widows  or  females  advanced  in  life)  to  take  charge  of  poor  and  sick 
females,  to  give  advice  to  the  inexperienced  of  their  sex,  and  to  take 
the  oversight   of  female  catechumens.     They  were  not  regarded   as 
belonging  to  the  clergy. —  The  clergy  were  ordaixed  by  the  imposition 
of  hands.     Those  who  had  only  lately  or  during  dangerous  sickness 
been  baptized  [Neophyti,  Clinici),  those  who  had  been  excommunicated 
or  had  mutilated  themselves,  were  not  admitted  to  orders. 

2.  So  early  as  the  assembly  of  the  apostles  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.) 

was    to  be    found    the    type  of   synodal    advice  and   legislation.      But 

a    similar    institution     had    prevailed    among    the    heathen.      Under 

Human     domination,     the     ancient     politico-religious      alliances      in 

10  * 


114  SECTION     I. FIRST    PERIOD    (100—323    A.  D._). 

Greece  and  Asia  Minor  had  indeed  lost  their  political  importance  ;  but 
their  meetings  (xouai  owobot,  concilia)  continued,  as  before,  in  the 
capitals  of  provinces,  and  under  the  presidency  of  the  Roman  governors. 
Even  the  similarity  of  the  name  seems  to  indicate  that  these  meetings 
were  not  without  influence  on  the  later  institution  of  ecclesiastical 
synods.  From  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  times,  the*  could  not 
take  place  before  the  latter  half  of  the  second  century.  Tht  Christians, 
who  frequently  could  only  hold  their  worship  secretly  and  at  night, 
were  of  course  prevented  from  planning  any  such  stated  meetings  for 
deliberation  at  a  period  earlier  than  the  time  of  Commodus.  But  when 
a  season  of  rest  was  granted  them,  during  which  their  ecclesiastical 
arrangements  could  be  made  more  freely  and  openly,  these  meetings 
of  synods  were  instituted.  The  montanistic  movements  in  Asia  Minor 
(|  37),  and  soon  afterwards  the  disputes  about  the  celebration  of  Easter 
(§32),  gave  the  first  occasions  for  these  deliberations.  At  the  com- 
mencement of  the  third  century,  the  Provincial  Synods  had  already 
become  a  regular  and  continuous  institution.  At  the  time  of  Cyprian, 
not  only  bishops,  but  presbyters  and  deacons  also  took  part  in  the 
synods,  and  the  people  were  at  least  allowed  to  be  present.  Moreover 
no  resolution  was  to  be  arrived  at  without  the  knowledge,  and,  in  a 
certain  sense,  the  consent,  of  the  congregation.  Since  the  Council  of 
Nice  (325),  bishops  alone  were  allowed  to  vote,  and  the  presence  of  the 
laity  was  more  and  more  discouraged.  The  resolutions  of  a  Synod  were 
communicated  to  congregations  at  a  distance  in  Synodal  Letters 
(Epislolce  Synodicas),  and,  so  early  as  the  third  century,  they  were 
(according  to  Acts  xv.  28)  ascribed  to  the  immediate  direction  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  — (Cf.  2  43,2.) 

3.  The  Unity  and  Catholicity  of  the  Church.  —  (Comp.  A.  Mohler,  die 
Einheit  d.  K.  (The  Unity  of  the  Church).  2d  ed.  Tiibg.  1843.  —  J.  E. 
Slither,  Cjprian's  Lehre  von  d.  Einheit  d.  K.  (The  Doctr.  of  Cypr.  as 
to  the  Unity  of  the  Church).  Hamb.  1839.— Jul.  Kostlin.  die  kath. 
Auffass.  v.  d.  K.  in  ihrer  ersten  Ausbild.  (The  Cath.  View  of  the  Ch. 
in  its  Early  Arrangm.).  In  the  "  deutsche  Zeitschr.  fur  chr.  Wissen." 
for  1855.  No.  33  eic.  —  J.L.Jacobi,  die  kirchl.  Lehre  v.  d.  Tradit,  (The 
Doctr.  of  the  Church  Concerning  Trad.).  I.  Berl.  1847.— J.  H.  Friedlicb 
(Rom.  Cath.),  Schrift,  Tradit.  u.  kirchl.  Schriftausleg.  nach  den 
Zeugniss.  d.  erst,  5  Jahrh.  (Script.,  Trad,  and  Eccles.  Interpret,  of 
Script,  according  to  the  Testim.  of  the  First  Five  Cent.).  Breslau  1854.) 
— The  mission  of  Christianity  —  to  become  the  religion  of  the  world, 
to  take  possession  of  all  nationalities  and  all  languages,  to  pervade 
them  by  one  spirit,  and  to  unite  them  under  one  Head  in  heaven, 
implied  that  the  Church  was  to  be  one  and  universal  (catholic).  An 
outward  bond  of  connection  was  to  express  the  inward  unity  of  the 
Spirit.  But  the  desire  to  form  and  consolidate  a  united  and  catholic 
Church  might  readily  lead  into  error  and  dangers  Not  heresy  only, 
and  immorality  or  apostasy,  but  every  difference  iu  outward  form,  con- 


INTERNAL    ORGANIZATION    OF    THE    CHURCH.      115 

stitution,  and  worthip,  was  regarded  as   a  separation   from  the   one 
catholic  Church  (the  body  of  Christ),  and  from  communion  with  Christ, 
and  hence  as  implying  the  forfeiture  of  the  hope  of  salvation.  —  This 
■view  became  more  prevalent  in  the  second  century,  in  proportion  as 
the  unity  of  the  Church  was  endangered  by  heresies,  by  sects,  and 
divisions.     It  was   finally  established,  and,  as   it  were,  obtained   its 
"magna   charta"    in  the   Church   by  the   treatise   of  Cyprian,   "  de 
Unitate  Ecclesise."     In    the    position    of  ruler   over    a   congregation, 
assigned  to  the  bishop  as  Christ's  representative,  Ignatius  of  Antioch 
finds  a  guarantee  for  the  preservation  of  the  unity  and  catholicity  of 
the  Church.     According  to  Cyprian,  the  unity  of  the  Church  took  its 
rise  from  the  Apostolate,  and  is  based  on  the  Episcopate.     The  promise 
of  Christ  (Matt.  xvi.  18)  was  given  to  Peter  as  the  representative,  not 
as  the  chief,  of  the  apostles  (John  xx.  21).     Through  ordination,  the 
apostolic  office,  with  the  promise  attaching  to  it,  had  passed  from  the 
apostles  to  bishops.     By  their  monarchical  office  the  latter  represented, 
in    individual    communities,    and    by    their    co-operation    throughout 
Christendom,  the  unity  of  the  Church  (Episcopatus  unus  est.  cujus  a 
singulis  in  solidum  pars  tenetur).     As  formerly  the  apostles,  so  now 
the  bishops,  are  on  a  footing  of  perfect  equality  ;  each  of  them  is  a  suc- 
cessor of  Peter,  and  an  heir  of  the  promise  given  indeed  to  Peter  first, 
but  given  to  him  for  all  the  others.     He  who  renounces  the  bishop 
separates  from  the  Church,  and  :  Habere  non  potest  Deum  patrem,  qui 
ecclesiam  non  habet  matrem.     Extra  ecclesiam  nulla  spcs  salutis.    The 
largest  view  taken  of  the  promise  in  Matt,  xvi  18  is  that  by  Origen: 
Uitpa,  yap  rtaj  o   Xpwroi;  fxa^rr^.     At%fxtai  tip  Xlitpto  xai  rtai'-ri  Utrpw. 
Besides  the  writings  of  the  apostles,  tradition,  as  preserved  in  the  so- 
called  Apostolical  Churches,  served  as  the  rule  and  test  of  catholicity 
in  government,  worship,  and    doctrine.     Indeed,  since    the    apostolic 
writings  were  as  yet  neither  generally  diffused  nor  acknowledged,  this 
tradition  was,  previously  to  and  for  the  purpose  of  the  settlement  of  the 
.New  Testament  canon,  even  placed  above  the  writings  of  the  apostles. 
The  common  consciousness  of  the  churches,  based  upon  Scripture  and 
tradition,    presented    the    fundamental    truths    of    Christianity    as    a 
"  Regidafidei,"  which  was  to  form  the  standard  for  the  development, 
the  acceptance  or  the  rejection,  of  any  doctrine.     Thus  the  profession 
made  at  baptism,  or  the  Symbolum,  was  gradually  enlarged  into  the 
Symbolum  apostolicum  in  its  present  form. 

4.  The  Primacy  of  Rome.  —  (Comp.  Tli.  Katercamp,  ii.  d.  Primat  d. 
Ap.  Petrus  und  s.  Nachfolger  (The  Primacy  of  Peter  and  of  his  Suc- 
cess.). Miinst.  1820. — Rothcnsee,  d.  Primat  d.  Papstes  in  alien  chr. 
Jahrh.  (The  Primacy  of  the  Pope  during  all  Chr.  Ages).  3  vols.  May. 
183G.— F,  P.  Kenrik,  The  Primacy  of  the  Apost,  See  vindic.  4th.  ed. 
N.York  1855. — Against  the  Primacy:  D.  Biondel,  traite  hist,  de  la 
Primaute.  Geuevi    1G41.  fol. —  CI.  Salmasius,  de  primatu  Papae.  Lugd. 


116  SECTION    I.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (100—323   A.  D.). 

16  (5. —  Ellendorf  (a  Rom.  Cath.  lawyer),  der  Primat  d.  rom.  P.  Darmst. 
1841.— J.  A'.  Riddle,  The  Hist,  of  the  Papacy.  Lond.  185G,  2  vols.— Th. 
Greenwood,   Cathedra  Petri.  Lond.  1856.)  — The    claim  of  the  See  of 
Rome  to  the  Primacy  over  the  whol-e  Church  is  based  on  the  view  that 
the  promise  in  Matt.  xvi.  18  applied  solely  and  exclusively  to  Peter,  as 
chief  of  the  apostles  and  head  of  the  Church,  and  on  the  assumption 
that  the  Bishop  of  Rome  is  the  successor  of  this  prince  of  apostles,  and 
hen;e  the  lawful  and  sole  heir  of  all  his  prerogatives.     Although  the 
fable  about  Peter's  episcopate  at  Rome  was  originally  derived  from  the 
heretical,    pseudo-Clementine    writings    (§27,  4)  —  a   very    suspicious 
authority  —  it  was  the  more  readily  credited,  as,  considering  the  very 
different  interpretation  put  at  that  time  on  Matt,  xvi.  18,  the  inferences 
afterwards  to  be  made  from  it  could  scarcely  be  foreseen.     During  the 
whole  of  this  period  neither  did  the  Roman  bishop  nor  any  other  person 
think  of  setting  up  any  such  claim.     The  only  admission  made,  was 
that  Rome  was  the  chief  among  the  apostolic  communities,  that  there 
apostolic  tradition  had  been  preserved  in    greatest    purity,  and    that 
hence   the   bishops   of  Rome   were    entitled  to  be  specially   heard   on 
questions  which,  for  decision,  were  to  be  submitted  to  all  the  bishops. 
In  the  meantime,  the  bishops  of  Rome  rested  content  with,  and  sought 
to  make  the  most  of,   such    admissions.     Nor  does    even    the   much- 
vaunted  statement  of  Irenceus  (3,  3)  go  further  than  this:    Ad  hanc 
enim  (sc.  ccolesiam  Rom.)  a  gloriosissimis  duobus  App.  Petro  et  Paulo 
fundatam  propter  potiorem  principalitatem  necesse  estomnem  convcnire 
ecclesiam,  h.  e.  cos  qui  sunt  undique  fideles,  in  qua  semper  ab  his,  qui 
sunt  undique,  conservata  est  ea  qure  est  ab  Apostolis  traditio.     Still, 
the   opposition   of  Asia   Minor  to   the    Roman    observance  of  Easter 
(3  31,  1),  and  that  of  Cyprian  about  the  baptizing  of  heretics  ($  32,  2), 
proves  that  even  the  tradition  of  Rome  was  not  regarded  as  absolutely 
and  unconditionally  binding.  —  (Cf.  \  4G.) 

§31.   CELEBRATION  OF   PUBLIC  WORSHIP. 

See  II.  All,  der  chr.  Cultus.  Bd.  II.  Das  Kirchenjahr  mit  s.  Festen  u. 
die  Fastendisciplin.  Berl.  1858. 

So  early  as  the  commencement  of  the  second  century  the 
Lord's  day  was  generally  observed.  Being  a  day  of  joy,  the 
attitude  in  prayer  was  that  of  standing  (and  not,  as  on  other 
days,  kneeling);  and  fasting  was  likewise  interdicted.  Among 
the  other  days  of  the  week,  Wednesday  and  Friday  were,  in 
remembrance  of  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  observed  in  public  wor- 
ship as  davs  of  vigil  (dies  stationum,  in  accordance  with  the 
idea  of  a  militia  Christiana).  Being  regarded  as  days  of  humi- 
liation and  reper'.ance,  they  formed  a  kind  of  complement  and, 


CELEBRATION     OF     PUBLIC     WORSHIP.  117 

at  the  same  time,  of  contrast  to  the  Lord's  day.  Thus  in  the 
cycle  of  the  week,  the  idea  of  Christian  feast  days  found  a 
certain  expression,  afterward  much  more  fully  developed 
in  the  cycle  of  the  year.  Soon  afterwards  distinctively 
Christian  festivals  were  introduced  among  the  Gentile  Chris- 
tians after  the  analogy  of  the  feasts  observed  by  the  Jews  and 
the  Jewish  Christians,  although  in  the  case  of  the  latter  these 
feasts  had  been  modified  to  bear  a  Christian  aspect.  The  Pas- 
chal or  Easter  festival  was  regarded  in  a  more  comprehensive 
mariner,  and  divided  into  a  rfua^a  araupwsiuoj/  and  avaatdai^ov . 
But  so  deep  and  overpowering  were  the  effects  of  this  remem- 
brance of  Christ's  sufferings,  that  it  was  felt  insufficient  to  ob- 
serve only  one  day  (that  of  His  death).  By  and  by  it  was 
therefore  preceded  by  a  season  devoted  to  mourning,  repentance, 
and  fasting.  After  remaining  for  some  time  unsettled,  it  was 
gradually  fixed  as  of  forty  days'  duration,  and  became  the  Quad- 
ragesima (tcjaapaxc^tTj)  of  the  Christian  calendar.  The  solemni- 
ties of  Quadragesima  closed  with  those  of  the  Great  Week,  while 
the  Easter  vigil  (jtavvvzis)  formed  a  transition  to  the  festival  of 
the  Resurrection.  Easter  was  followed  by  the  Feast  of  Pente- 
cost, in  remembrance  of  the  origin  of  the  Church.  The  fifty 
days  intervening  between  these  two  festivals  (quinquagesima) 
were  regarded  as  a  season  of  joy,  when  the  communion  was 
daily  celebrated,  fasting  was  interdicted,  and  the  attitude  in 
prayer  was  standing,  not  kneeling.  Special  solemnities  distin- 
guished the  fortieth  day,  being  that  of  the  Ascension.  In  the 
East  the  Festival  of  Epiphany  was  introduced.  It  took  place 
on  the  6th  of  January,  in  celebration  of  the  baptism  of  Christ 
when  He  had  manifested  Himself  as  the  Messiah.  But  at  that 
period  we  do  not  yet  find  any  trace  of  an  observance  of  Christ- 
mas day. — (Cf.  §  56.) 

1.  Disputes  about  the  Observance  of  Easter. — (Cojip.  K.  L.  Weitzel, 
d.  Gesch.  d.  Passahfeier  d.  3  erst.  Jahrh.  [Hist,  of  Easter-observ. 
during  the  First  3  Cent,]  Pforzh.  1848.-67.  E.  Steitz  in  the  Studd.  u. 
Kritt.  1850,  IV.). — During  the  second  century  Easter  was  celebrated 
on  three  different  principles.  The  Jud ceo- Christian  Ebionites  ($  27,  2) 
observed  the  Paschal  Supper  on  the  14th  of  Nisan  (=  jj  id',  i.  e.,  =  14), 
and  considered  that  in  this  respect  an  exact  adherence  to  Old  Testa- 
ment customs  was  of  chief  importance,  especially  since  Christ,  who  had 
died  on  the  15th,  had  on  the  14th  kept  the  Paschal  Supper  with  Hia 
disciples.  The  Jewish  Christians  who  were  connected  with  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  whose  practice  was  adopted  in  Asia  Minor  generally, 


118  SECTION    I.  —  FIRST   PERIOD    (100— 3JJ3  A.  D.). 

celebrated  Easter  at  exactly  the  same  time  as  the  Jews  ;  but  they  put 
a  Christian  interpretation  upon  the  feast,  omitted  the  Paschal  Supper, 
and  declared  that  the  remembrance  of  the  death  of  Christ  was  the 
point  of  chief  importance.     In  their  opinion,  Christ  had  died  on  the 
14th  Nisan ;  so  that,  in  the  strict  sense,  He  had  not  celebrated  the  real 
Paschal  Supper  in  the  last  year  of  His  life.     Hence  they  obsei-ved  on 
the  14th  Nisan  their  rtarr^a  otavpuatpov,  and  on  the  lGth  the  rtoo^a 
aiatsraaifxov.     The  fast  before  Easter  closed  at  the  moment  when  Christ 
was  supposed  to  have  expired  (at  3  o'clock  in  the  afternoon),  and  was 
followed  by  an  agape  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  instead  of  the  Jewish 
Paschal  Supper. — Different  from  these  two  Judaising  observances  was 
that  in  use  among  the  Gentile  Christians  of  the  West,  which,  both  in 
substance  and  in  form,  had  no  connection  with  the  Jewish  Paschal 
feast.     In  order  not  to  destroy  the  harmony  with  the  observance  of  the 
day  of  the  resurrection  on  the  Lord's  day,  it  was  resolved  to  retain  not 
only  the  annual  return  of  the  i8',  but  also  to  celebrate  it  on  the  same 
days  of  the  week.     Hence,  when  the  iS'  did  not  happen  on  Friday,  the 
rtdaxa,  orcu'|jiocn,uoi/  was  always  celebrated  on  the  first  Friday  after  the 
tb',  and  the  rtao^a  aiasraat^oi/  on  the  Lord's  day  following.     Besides, 
the  Western  churches  observed  the  anniversary  of  Christ's  death  as  a 
day  of  mourning,  and  the  fast  before  Easter  only  terminated  with  an 
agape  and  the  Lord's  Supper  on  the  day  of  the  resurrection.     For  a 
considerable  period  these  different  customs  of  observing  Easter  con- 
tinued without  calling  forth  any  controversy.     The  subject  was  first 
discussed  during  the  stay  of  Polycarp,   Bishop  of  Smyrna,  at  Rome 
(1G0).     Anicetus,  Bishop  of  Rome,  supported  his  mode  of  celebrating 
Easter  by  the  tradition  of  the  Roman  Church,  while  Polycarp  appealed 
to  the  circumstance  that  he  had  sat  down  at  a  Paschal  feast  with  the 
Apostle  John  himself.     Although  au  agreement  was  not  arrived  at, 
yet  to  give  evidence  of  their  entire  ecclesiastical  fellowship,  Anicetus 
allowed  Polycarp  to  administer  the  Lord's  Supper  in  his  church.     But 
in  the  year  196  the  discussion  broke  out  afresh  between  Polyerates, 
Bishop  of  Ephesus,  and  Victor,  Bishop  of  Borne.     The  latter  went  so 
far  as  to  wish  for  a  cessation  of  ecclesiastical   communion  with   the 
churches  of  Asia  Minor.     But  this  step  was   generally  disapproved. 
Especially  did  Irenceus,  in  namo  of  the  Gallican  bishops,  pronounce  in 
this  respect  against  Victor.     The  general  Council  of  Nice  (325)  decided 
in  favour  of  the  Roman  observance,  which,  after  that  period,  became 
that  in  common  practice  (§  56,  3). 

§32.   THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF   BAPTISM. 

Comp.  ./.  W.  F.  Hbfling,  das  Sacr.  d.  Taufe  (The  Sacr.  of  Bapt,).  2 
vols.  Erlg.  1846. 

From  the  commencement  baptism  was  regarded  as  necessary 
in  order  to  have  part  in  the  salvation  of  Christ,  and  as  the  con- 


THE    ADMINISTRATION    OF    BAPTISM.  119 

d;tion  for  being  received  into  the  fellowship  of  the  Church. 
The  Fathers  uniformly  connected  baptism  and  regeneration. 
Hence,  in  theory,  the  Baptism  of  Infants  was  generally  recog- 
nized, although  it  was  not  universally  introduced.  Tertullian 
alone  decidedly  opposed  it.  All  grown-up  persons  who  wished 
for  baptism  were  called  Catechumens  (audientes),  and  as  such 
had  to  undergo  a  preparatory  training  under  a  Christian  teacher. 
Some,  however,  voluntarily  and  purposely  deferred  their  baptism 
to  the  hour  of  death,  in  order  that  by  baptism,  all  the  sins  of 
their  lives  might  be  certainly  removed.  After  having  received 
instruction  by  the  catechist,  the  catechumens  were  to  prepare 
for  baptism  by  prayer  and  fasting  ;  they  had  solemnly  to  renounce 
the  devil  and  all  his  works  (abrenuntiare  diabolo  et  porapaj  et 
angelis  ejus),  and  to  make  a  confession  of  their  faith  before 
undergoing  the  sacred  rite.  In  the  third  century,  exorcism,  or 
setting  free  from  the  power  of  the  devil,  was  added,  with  a  spe- 
cial formula  hitherto  in  use  only  in  the  case  of  those  possessed 
by  evil  spirits.  Baptism  was  performed  by  thrice  immersing, 
during  which  the  formula  of  baptism  was  pronounced  ;  sprink- 
ling was  only  common  in  case  of  the  sick  (baptismus  clinico- 
rum)  ;  the  water  of  baptism  was  set  apart  for  the  sacred  rite. 
Immersion  was  followed  by  anointing  (*puj,ua),  as  the  symbol  of 
spiritual  priesthood,  and  by  laying  on  of  hands,  according  to 
Acts  viii.  26  etc.  Soon  afterwards  immersion  came  to  be 
regarded  as  the  negative  part  of  baptism  (the  putting  away  of 
sin),  and  anointing  and  imposition  of  hands  as  its  positive  coun- 
terpart (the  communication  of  the  Spirit).  In  the  East,  presby- 
ters and  deacons  were  allowed  to  administer  both  baptism  and 
the  chrisma.  In  the  West,  it  was  thought  that  Acts  viii.  indi- 
cated that  bishops  alone  had  the  right  of  the  laying  on  of  hands. 
Hence,  when  the  bishop  himself  had  not  administered  baptism, 
the  imposition  of  hands  and  the  chrisma  were  afterwards  im- 
parted by  him,  by  way  of  confirmation  (confirmatio,  consigna- 
tion The  usual  seasons  of  baptism  were  Easter,  especially  the 
Sabbath  of  the  Great  Week  (baptism  into  the  death  of  Christ. 
Rom.  vi.  3),  and  Pentecost  ;  in  the  East,  also  the  Feast  of  the 
Epiphany.  ]STo  importance  was  attached  to  the  place  where 
baptism  was  administered.  Soon  sjionsors  (axaSo^ot)  were  intro- 
duced at  the  baptism  of  children,  their  duty  being  to  make  a 
confession  of  faith  in  room  ar.d  in  name  of  the  infant.  Cf.§58, 1. 


120  SECTION    I.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (100—323  A.  D.)  . 

1.  The  gradation  among  catechumens,  according  to  which  each  class 
bad  special  privileges,  commenced  about  the  middle  of  the  second 
century.  Its  first  traces  are  found  in  the  writings  of  Terlullian.  He 
distinguishes  between  novitioli  and  edocti  or  aquam  adituri.  Only  the 
latter  were  allowed  to  take  part  in  the  homiletic  portion  of  public  wor- 
ship. Origen  also  speaks  of  two  classes  of  catechumens,  and  the  Apos- 
tolical Constitutions  of  three ;  1.  Audientes,  axpou/s.£voi,\xho  were  allowed 
and  bound  to  attend  the  sermon  ;  2.  Genuflectentes,  yovvxUvovtst,  who 
were  also  allowed  to  kneel  at,  and  take  part  in  the  first  portions  of  the 
prayers  of  the  Church ;  and,  3.  Competentes,  ^wft^o^srot,  who,  having 
finished  their  period  of  instruction,  looked  forward  to  baptism.  The 
time  of  probation  was  fixed  at  between  two  and  three  years. 

2.  Controversy  about  the  Baptism  of  Heretics.  —  From  the  close  of 
the  third  century,  it  was  a  subject  of  controversy  whether  a  baptism 
administered  by  heretics  was  valid  or  not.  The  churches  of  Asia 
Minor  and  of  Africa  answered  this  question  in  the  negative  ;  while 
Rome  received,  without  rebaptizing  them,  such  heretics  as  had  been 
baptized  in  the  name  of  Christ,  or  of  the  Holy  Trinity.  In  the  middle 
of  the  third  century,  this  subject  excited  violent  discussion.  Stephen, 
Bishop  of  Rome,  refused  to  tolerate  any  other  practice  than  that  of 
Rome,  and  renounced  ecclesiastical  fellowship  with  the  churches  of 
Asia  Minor  (253).  The  opposite  view  was  zealously  defended  by 
Cyprian  of  Carthage,  whose  ideal  of  one  church,  in  which  alone  there 
was  salvation,  seemed  endangered  by  the  practice  of  Rome.  It  was 
also  advocated  by  Firmilian  ofCcesarea,  in  Cappadocia.  Three  synods 
held  at  Carthage— the  last  and  most  influential  in  the  year  256— pro- 
nounced decidedly  in  favour  of  this  view.  By  friendly  suggestions, 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria  endeavoured  to  lead  Stephen  to  more  concilia- 
tory views.  The  Valerian  persecution,  which  soon  afterwards  broke 
out,  proved  a  greater  inducement  to  harmony  and  peace  than  any 
friendly  counsels.  Thus  the  dispute  remained  unsettled.  But  gradu- 
ally the  Romish  practice  came  more  generally  into  use,  and  was  at  last 
confirmed  by  the  first  General  Council  of  Nice. 

3.  The  Dogma  concerning  Baptism.  —  Barnabas  says:  avafiaivoiitv 
xaprtofopoivtss  iv  f>j  xapSJa—  Hernias :  ascendunt  vita?  assignati ;  Justin 
regards  the  water  of  baptism  as  a  i'Swp  tiji  ^i,  i%  ol  avaytwr^pi*  ; 
according  to  Ire  mens  it  effects  a  'ivu>oi$  rtpo?  a^^apSKw  ;  Terlullian  says: 
supervenit  spiritus  de  coelis, — caro  spiritualiter  mundatur ;  Cyprian 
speaks  of  an  unda  genitalis,  a  nativitas  secunda  in  novum  hominem; 
Firmilian  says:  nativitas,  quae  est  in  baptismo,  filios  Dei  genera t ; 
Origen  calls  baptism  ^apf-a^drcoi*  $elua>  apxyv  xal  7iriyr{v.— Of  the  baptism 
of  blood  in  martyrdom,  Terlullian  says:  lavacrum  non  acceptum  repra> 
eentat  et  perditum  reddit.  Hernias  and  Clemens  Alex,  suppose  that 
oious  heathens  and  Jews  had  preaching  and  baptism  in  Hades. 


ADMINISTRATION    OF    THE     LORD'S    SUPPER.    121 


\  33.    THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  LORD'S  SUPPER. 

Comp.  F.  Brenner  (Rom.  Cath.),  Verricht.  u.  Ausspend.  d.  Euchar 
von  Christus  bis  auf  unsere  Zeit.  (Adniinistr.  of  the  Euchar.  from  the 
Time  of  Chr.  to  our  Days).  Bamb.  1824.-7%,  Harnack  n.  Kliefoth,  11. 
cc.  in  |  18,  5. — R.  Rothe,  de  disciplina  arcani.  Heidelb.  1831. — /.  TV. 
F.  Hojling,  d.  Lehre  d.  alt.  K.  vom  Opfer  (The  Teach,  of  the  Old  Ch. 
abt.  the  Sacr.).  Erlg.  1851.— Ph.  Marheineke,  ss.  Pp.  de  praesentia  Chr. 
in  Coena  Dom.  sententia  triplex.  Heidelb.  1811.  4.  In  answer  to  this, 
/.  Do/linger  (Rom.  Cath.)  die  Lehre  v.  d.  Euch.  in  d.  3  ersten  Jahrh 
(The  Doctr.  of  the  Euch.  in  the  Three  First  Cent.)  May.  1826. — Rinck, 
Lehrbegr.  vom  h.  Abdm.  in  d.  erst.  Jahrh.  (Doctr.  of  the  L.  Supper  in 
the  First  Cent.),  in  the  "hist,  theol.  Zeitschr."  for  1853.  III.— Ebrard, 
d.  Dogma  v.  h.  Abdm.  2  vols.  Frkf.  1845.— Ka/mfs,  d.  Lehre  v.  Abdm. 
Lpz.  1851.— L.  J.  Riiekerf,  d.  Abcndm.  Lpz.  1856. 

At   first   the   Lord's   Supper  was   always   connected  with    an 
agape  (§  18,  5).     But  when  Trajan   published    a   stringent  edict 
against  Hetasria  (§  23,  2),  the  Christians  intermitted  the  agapes, 
of  which  the  prohibition   was  implied  in  the  above  edict,  and 
connected  the  observance  of  the  Lord's  Supper  with  the  ordinary 
homiletie  public  worship  on  the  Lord's  day.     This  continued  the 
practice   even    after   the   celebration    of   the    agape   was   again 
resumed.      In  connection  with   the  arrangement  about  the  cate- 
chumens, public  worship  was  divided  into  a  missa  catechumen- 
orum   and  a  missa  fidelium.     From  the  latter,  all  who  had  not 
been  baptized,  who  were  under  discipline,  or  were  possessed  by 
an  unclean  spirit,  were  excluded.      This  gave  rise  to  the  view, 
that  a  mystery  attached  to  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
{disciplina  arcani).    The  circumstance  that  originally  the  agape 
and  the   Lord's   Supper   were   celebrated   together,    led   to°the 
custom   of  making  voluntary  offerings   (oblationes)  for  the  pur- 
pose  of  procuring  the  provisions  requisite  for  the  agape—  The 
bread  used  in  the  sacrament  was  the  same  as  that  in  common 
use,  hence  leavened  (>o^6s  dEproj)  ;   the  wine  also  was,  as  in  com- 
mon use,  mixed  with  water  (*Pa>a),  which  Cyprian  regarded  as 
symbolical   of  the   union    of  Christ  with   the    Church.     In    the 
African  and  Eastern  Churches,  John  vi.  53  was  interpreted  as 
applying  to  the  communion  of  children,  who  (of  course,  after 
baptism)    were   admitted   to   this   ordinance.     As   early   as   the 
third  century  simple  forms  expanded   into   an   elaborate  sacra- 
mental liturgy,  which  has  remained  the  basis  of  all  later  oro- 
11  l 


1^2  SECTION     I.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (100— 323  A.  D.J. 

ductions  of  this  kind.  At  the  close  of  public  worship  thf 
deacons  carried  the  consecrated  elements  to  the  sick  and  to  the 
prisoners  of  the  congregation.  In  same  places,  part  of  the  con- 
secrated bread  was  carried  home  and  partaken  in  the  family  at 
morning  prayers,  in  order  thus  to  set  apai't  for  God  a  new  day. 
Confession,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term,  did  not  precede  the 
communion.  The  discipline  exercised  by  the  Church,  and  the 
liturgical  arrangements  in  use  at  the  time,  were  such,  that  special 
confession  seemed  not  requisite.  —  (§  58,  4.) 

1.  At  the  time  of  Justin  Martyr,  the  Sacramental  Liturgy  was  still 
very  simple.  The  common  prayer  -which  closed  the  public  worship 
was  followed  by  a  fraternal  kiss  ;  after  that  the  elements  were  brought 
to  the  bishop,  who  set  them  apart  in  a  prayer  of  thanksgiving  and 
praise  (ivxapia-tU).  The  people  responded  by  an  Amen,  and  the 
presbyters  or  deacons  carried  to  all  present  the  consecrated  elements. 
From  the  above  prayer  the  whole  service  obtained  the  name  of  the 
Eucharist,  evidently  because  it  was  held  that,  by  the  consecration 
prayer,  the  common  became  sacramental  bread  —  the  body  and  blood 
of  the  Lord.  The  liturgy  in  the  eighth  book  of  the  Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions, -which  may  be  regarded  as  the  type  of  public  worship  at  the  close 
of  the  third  century,  is  much  more  complete.  There  the  missa  cate- 
cJiumenorum  included  prayer,  praise,  reading  of  the  Bible,  and  the 
sermon  ($  34).  At  the  close  of  the  sermon,  catechumens,  penitents, 
and  those  who  were  possessed,  were  successively  dismissed.  The  missa 
fidelhim  then  commenced  with  a  general  intercessory  prayer.  After 
this  followed  various  collects  and  responses,  then  the  fraternal  kiss,  a 
warning  against  unworthy  communicating,  the  preparation  of  the 
elements,  the  sign  of  the  cross,  the  consecration  prayer,  the  words  of 
the  institution,  the  elevation  of  the  consecrated  elements  —  all  being 
accompanied  by  suitable  prayers,  hymns,  doxologies,  and  responses. 
The  bishop  or  presbyter  gave  the  bread  witli  the  words,  "EH/xa  "Xptatol; 
the  deacon  the  cup,  with  the  words,  Al,ua  Xpicrrov,  itot^piov  ^(ojjf.  At 
the  close,  the  congregation,  on  their  knees,  received  the  benediction  of 
the  bishop,  and  the  deacon  dismissed  them  with  the  words,  'Arto^via^t 
iv  siprvvj.—  (Cf.  |  59,  4.) 

2.  The  Diciplina  Arcani.— Neither  in  Justin  Martyr  nor  in  Irenasus 
do  we  find  any  trace  of  the  view  that  the  sacramental  portions  of 
public  worship  (among  which  the  rites  of  the  Lord's  Supper  with  their 
prayers  and  hymns,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  administration  of  baptism, 
the  symbolum,  the  chrisma,  and  the  ordination  of  priests,  were  in- 
cluded) were  regarded  as  mysteries  [iivatx^  XcwptJa,  ttXtt^),  to  be 
carefully  kept  from  all  unbaptized  persons,  and  only  made  known  to 
members  of  the  Church  (ovpfivo-tati) .  Justin,  in  his  apology,  addressed 
specially  to  the  heathen,  even  described  in  detail  the  rites  observed  in 


READING,    SERMON,    PRAYER    AND    PRAISE.         123 

the  Lord's  Supper.  The  view  to  which  we  referred  originated  at  the 
time  of  Terfc'illian  (170-180),  and  was  specially  due  to  the  institution 
of  the  catechumenate,  and  the  division  of  public  worship  to  which 
it  led,  from  the  second  part  of  which  all  unbaptized  persons  were 
excluded. 

3.  The  Dogma  of  the  Lord's  Supper. — This  doctrine  was  not  clearly 
developed,  although  it  was  generally  realized  that  the  Lord's  Supper 
was  a  most  holy  mystery,  and  indispensable  food  of  eternal  life,  that 
the  body  and  blood  of  the  Lord  were  mystically  connected  with  the 
bread  and  wine,  and  that  thus  those  who  in  faith  partook  of  this  meat 
enjoyed  essential  communion  with  Christ.  On  this  supposition  alone 
can  we  account  for  the  reproach  of  the  heathen,  who  spoke  of  the 
sacrament  as  feasts  of  Thyestes.  ($  23).  Ignatius  calls  the  Lord's 
Supper  a  q>df,/j.axov  d^aracaaj,*  and  admits  fv^uptaruxi'  adpxa  iliai,  tov 
otor^poj ;  Justin  says:  odpxa  xai  alpa  iSi&d%$vpiev  that.  According  to 
Irenceus,  it  is  not  "  communis  panis,  sed  eucharistia  ex  duabus  rebus 
constans,  terrena  et  coelesti ;"  and  in  consequence  of  partaking  it,  our 
bodies  are  "jam  non  corruptibilia,  spem  resurrectionis  habentia." 
Tertullian  and  Cyprian  also  adopt  similar  views,  while  at  the  same 
time  they  represent,  in  some  passages,  the  Lord's  Supper  rather  as  a 
symbol.  The  spiritualistic  Alexandrians,  Clement  and  Origen,  consider 
that  it  is  the  object  of  the  Lord's  Supper  that  the  soul  should  be  fed  by 
the  Divine  Word.  — (Cf.  §  58,  2.) 

4.  T7ie  Sacrificial  Theory.  — When  once  the  idea  of  a  priesthood 
{I  30)  had  gained  a  footing,  the  cognate  notion  of  sacrifice  could  not 
for  any  time  be  kept  out.  The  Lord's  Supper  offered  several  points 
of  connection  for  this  view.  First,  the  consecrating  prayer,  which 
was  regarded  of  such  importance  as  to  give  its  name  to  the  whole 
service  (tv^apuma),  might  be  regarded  as  a  spiritual  sacrifice;  next, 
names  derived  from  terms  applied  to  sacrificial  worship  were  given 
to  those  offerings  which  the  congregation  made  for  the  Lord's 
Supper  (irpoctyopai,  oblationes.)  And  as  the  congregation  offered  its 
gifts  for  the  Lord's  Supper,  so  the  priest  offered  them  again  in  the 
Lord's  Supper ;  and  to  this  act  also  the  terms  rtpoer<f>fps w,  dvaqspuv, 
were  applied.  Ultimately,  as  the  prayer,  so  the  Lord's  Supper  itself, 
was  designated  as  $vola,  sacrificium,  although  at  first  only  in  a  figura- 
tive sense.— (Cf.  §58,  2.) 

§  34.  READING,  SERMON,  PRAYER  AND  SINGING. 

Comp.  Chr.  W.  F.  Walch,  krit.  Unters.  vom  Gebrauch  d.  h.  Schr.  in 
d.  4  erst.  Jahrh.  (Crit.  Inq.  into  the  Use  of  the  Script,  during  the 
First  Four  Cent.).  Lpz.  1779. — T.  G.  Hegelmaier,  Gesch.  d.  Bibelverbots 
(Hist,  of  the  Prohibition  of  the  Bible).  Ulm.  1783.  —  E.  Leopold,  d. 
Predigtamt  im  Urchristenth.  (The  office  of  Preach,  in  the  First  Ages.) 

*  The  CUp  a  vorfifjiov  d$  'ivtaoiv  tov  a'luaro;  XP. 


124  SECTION    I.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (100—323  A.  D.). 

Lttneb.  1846.  —  M.  Gerbert,  de  cantu  et  musica  a  prima  eccl.  fetate 
Bamb.  1774.  2  Voll.  4. — L.  Bachegger,  de  Orig.  s.  Poeseos.  Frib.  1827 
• — A*.  Bvhl,  der  Kirchenges.  in  der  griech.  .K.  bis  auf  Chrysost.  (Ch 
Music  in  the  Gr.  Ch.  to  the  Time  of  Chrys.),   in  the  "hist,  theol. 
Zeitschr."  for  1848.  II. 

Following  the  arrangement  in  the  Jewish  synagogue,  the 
reading  of  the  Scriptvres  (avdyvuats,  lectio),  formed  the  funda- 
mental part  on  every  occasion  of  public  worship.  The  person 
officiating  was  left  free  to  select  any  portions  of  the  Bible.  In 
general,  this  duty  was  assigned  to  special  readers,  although,  by 
way  of  distinction,  the  gospels  were  frequently  read  by  the 
deacons,  the  congregation  standing  as  a  mark  of  their  respect. — 
Besides  the  canonical  writings  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
other  edifying  works,  such  as  the  productions  of  the  apostolic 
Fathers  (especially  the  Shepherd  of  Hennas  and  the  Letter  of 
Clement),  the  Acts  of  Martyrs,  and  certain  apocryphal  works, 
were  also  read  in  some  congregations.  After  reading,  the 
bishop,  or  by  his  order  the  presbyter,  the  deacon,  and  occasion- 
ally the  catechist  (Origen),  delivered  an  expository  and  practical 
discourse  (o^iju'a,  xo'yoj,  sermo,  tractatus).  In  the  Greek  Church 
this  speedily  assumed  the  form  of  an  artificial  and  rhetorical 
composition.  The  Word  of  God  having  thus  been  read  and 
explained,  the  congregation  responded  in  prayers,  which  either 
the  bishop  or  the  deacon  conducted,  at  first  ex  tempore,  but  at  a 
comparatively  early  period  according  to  a  fixed  liturgy.  At 
short  intervals  the  congregation  responded  to  each  prayer  by 
Ki5pt*  iJu'j7<jov.  In  the  third  century,  when  the  forms  of  public 
worship  became  more  composite,  suitable  prayers  were  introduced 
at  various  stages  of  the  service,  designed  respectively  for  cate- 
chumens, for  those  who  were  possessed,  and  for  those  under 
discipline.  These  were  followed  by  a  general  prayer  of  the 
church  for  all  classes  of  men,  for  all  states  and  requirements  in 
the  congregation,  and  lastly  by  the  prayers  which  introduced  the 
celebration  of  the  Eucharist.  Singing  of  Psalms  and  Hymns 
had  been  in  use  since  apostolic  times  (§  18,  5). — After  the 
second  century,  this  part  of  worship  was  enlarged  and  developed. 

1.  The  Doctrine  of  Inspiration.  —  At  first  theologians  (following 
Philo)  regarded  the  prophetic  inspiration  of  the  sacred  writers  as 
something  merely  passive,  as  an  \xataan;.  Atltcnagoras  compared  the 
bouI  of  the  prophet  to  a  flute,  Justin  Martyr  to  a  lyre,  touched  by  the 
Holy  Spirit  as  by  the  plectrum.    But  the  pretensions  of  the  Montanistio 


READING,    SERMON,    PRAYER    AND    PRAISE. 


125 


prophets  brought  this  view  into  discredit.  Some  of  the  writers  of  the 
Alexandrian  school  held  that,  in  a  certain  sense,  the  Holy  Spirit  had 
also  influenced  the  choicest  minds  in  the  heathen  world.  This  theory 
led  to  a  lower  view  of  inspiration  generally.  Origen,  especially,  was 
wont  to  teach  a  certain  gradation  in  the  inspiration  of  the  Bible, 
according  as  human  individuality  appeared  more  or  less  prominently 
in  the  sacred  writings. 

2.  Marcion  was  the  first  to  collect  a  New  Testament  Canox,  about 
the  year  150  (g  28,  10).  The  list  known  by  the  name  of  Muratori's 
Canon  dates  from  about  twenty  years  later.  It  consists  of  a  fragment 
found  by  Muratori,  containing  an  index  of  the  sacred  writings  received 
in  the  Roman  Church.  Irenreus,  Tertullian,  Clemens  Alexandrinus, 
Origen,  and  Eusebins,  are  our  principal  authorities  for  a  still  later 
period.  From  the  time  of  Irenceus  and  the  Muratori  fragment,  the 
Four  Gospels,  the  Book  of  Acts,  the  thirteen  Epistles  of  Paul,  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (which,  however,  in  the  West  was  not  regarded 
as  of  Pauline  authorship),  the  First  Epistles  of  Peter  and  of  John, 
and  the  Book  of  Revelation,  were  universally  recognized  as  canonical. 
Hence  Ensebius  designates  them  ofioxoyovixiva..  Opinions  differed  about 
the  Epistle  of  James,  the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter,  the  Second  and 
Third  Epistles  of  John,  and  that  of  Jude  (arr^yo/ufra).  A  third  class 
of  writings,  which  laid  no  claim  to  canonicity,  Eusebius  designates  as 
v6$u  (the  Epistle  of  Barnabas,  the  Shepherd  of  Hernias,  the  "Acta 
Pauli,"  etc.).  — (Cf.  £  59,  1.) 

3.  Translations  of  the  Bible.  —  As  Hebrew  was  almost  entirely 
unknown,  even  the  learned  perused  the  Old  Testament  only  in  the 
translation  of  the  LXX.  In  the  second  century,  several  Latin  transla- 
tions circulated,  among  which  the  Itala  was  that  most  in  repute. 
Since  the  second  century,  a  Syriac  translation  also  existed.  It  was 
called  the  Peshito,  i.  e.,  plana,  simplex,  as  it  gave  the  words  of  the 
original  literally  and  without  circumscription. —  (Cf.  #59,  1.) 

4.  Hymnology,  — "When  Pliny  ($23,  2)  referred  to  the  practice 
"  carmen  Christo  quasi  Deo  dicere  secum  invi^em,"  he  must  have 
alluded  to  special  hymns,  with  hypophonic  responses  on  the  part  of 
the  congregation.  Tertullian  and  Origen  bear  frequent  testimony  to 
the  existence  of  numerous  hymns  adapted  for  public  and  family  worship 
The  Gnostics  (Bardesanes  and  Harmonius)  seem  for  a  time  to  have  been 
more  distinguished  than  the  Catholics  in  the  composition  of  hymns, 
and  thereby  to  have  stimulated  the  latter  to  greater  zeal.  Among 
Catholic  hymn  writers,  Athenogenes,  a  martyr,  and  Nepos,  an  Egyptian 
bishop,  are  mentioned.  A  hymn  »j  So-r^ja,  by  Clemens  Alex.,  has 
been  handed  down.  Socrates  ascribes  to  Ignatius,  Bishop  of  Antioch, 
the  introduction  of  antiphonies  (between  different  choirs  in  the  con- 
gregation).    However,  the  statement  of  Theodoret,  that  about  the  year 

11* 


126  SECTION    I.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (100--323  A.  D.). 

250  Flavian  and  Diodor,  two  monks  of  Antioch,  had  imported  this  form 
of  worship  from  the  national  Syrian  into  the  Grasco-Syrian  Church, 
appears  to  us  moi-e  trustworthy.  —  (Cf.  §  59,  2.) 

I  35.  PLACES  OF  PUBLIC  WORSHIP  AND  INFLUENCE  OF  ART. 

Comp.  G.  Kinkel,  Gesch.  d.  hild.  Kiinste  (Hist,  of  Art).  I.  Bonn 
1S45. —  Ch.  F.  Bellermann,  die  alt.  chr.  Begr'abnissst'at.  (The  Anc. 
Chr.  Places  of  Sepult,).  Hamb.  1839.— .P.  Miinter,  Sinnbild.  u.  Kunst- 
vorstell.  d.  alt.  Christen.  (Emblems  and  Artist.  Ideas  of  the  Anc. 
Christ,).  Altona  1825. — F.  Piper,  Mythol.  u.  Symbol,  der  chr.  Kunst, 
(Mythol.  and  Symb.  of  Chr.  Art).  Weim.  1847. 

The  first  unequivocal  mention  of  buildings  specially  designed 
for  public  worship  occurs  in  the  writings  of  Tertullian  fat  the 
close  of  the  second  century").  At  the  time  of  Diocletian,  a 
splendid  church  stood  close  by  the  imperial  residence  in  the  city 
of  Nicomedia,  and  proudly  overshadowed  it  (§  23,  6).  At  the 
commencement  of  the  fourth  century,  Rome  numbered  more  than 
forty  churches.  We  are,  however,  entirely  ignorant  of  the  form 
and  arrangement  of  these  churches.  But  the  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions already  enjoin  that  they  should  be  oblong-,  and  so 
placed  as  to  point  to  the  east.  Tertullian  and  Cyprian  men- 
tion an  altar  for  the  preparation  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  a 
desk  for  reading.  During  the  times  of  persecution  Christian 
worship  required,  of  course,  to  be  held  in  secret  —  in  caves,  in 
deserts,  in  places  of  sepulture,  and  in  catacombs.  But  even  at 
other  times  the  Christians  liked  to  celebrate  worship  in  places 
where  believers  were  buried  (cemeterirs)  and  in  catacombs,  in 
order  to  manifest  that  communion  in  Christ  continued  beyond 
death  and  the  grave.  —  (Cf.  §  36,  1,  4j. 

The  Arts.  —  The  early  Christians  inherited  from  Judaism  a  dislike 
to  the  arts.  This  feeling  was  not  a  little  increased  by  their  antagonism 
to  the  artistic  worship  of  heathenism,  by  a  spirit  of  outward  separation 
from  the  world,  which  was  called  forth  and  fostered  during  the 
early  persecutions,  and  by  a  one-sided  interpretation  of  the  statement 
of  Christ  concerning  the  worship  of  God  in  spirit  and  in  truth.  But, 
considering  the  artistic  taste  of  the  Greeks,  this  aversion  could  not  last. 
How  strong  the  reaction  had  become,  even  at  the  time  of  Tertullian, 
may  be  gathered  from  his  violent  opposition.  The  first  distinctively 
Christian  works  of  art  consisted  of  emblems,  used,  however,  only  in 
domestic  and  private  life,  on  the  walls  of  dwellings,  cups,  rings,  etc.; 
next  the  catacombs  were  adorned;  and,  lastly,  in  the  fourth  century, 
the  churches.     The  emblems  most  in  use  were  the  monogram  of  the 


LIFE,     MANNERS,     AND    DISCIPLINE.  127 

name   Christ,  consisting  of  an  intertwining  of  the  letters  X  and  P. 
Frequently  the  letter  P  terminated  in  an  anchor,  and  the  letter  X  was 
surrounded  hy  the  letters  a  and  <o  (Rev.  i.  8).     A  symbol  much  in  use 
was  that  of  a  fish,  of  which  the  name,  t*^i>j,  served  as  an  anagram 
{'Irja.  Xp.  ©soij  Tioj  Sut'sjp),  and  which  at  the  same  time  reminded  of 
the  water  of  life  and  of  the  water  of  baptism.     Besides,  we  also  meet 
with  the  representation  of  a  ship,  of  a  dove,  of  an  anchor  (Heb.  vi.  19), 
of  a  fisherman  (Matt.  iv.  19),  of  a  crown  (Rev.  ii.  10),  of  a  vine  (John 
xv.),  of  a  palm-tree  (Rev.  vii.  9),  of  a  cock  (John  xviii.  27),  of  a  phoenix 
(as  symbol  of  the  resurrection),  of  a  hart  (Ps.  xlii.  1),  of  a  lamb  (John 
i.  29),  of  a  shepherd  who  carries  on  his  shoulder  the  lost  sheep  that  had 
been  found  (Luke  xv.),  etc.  — Ry  and  by  these  symbols  led  to  the  use 
of  types.     Old  Testament  histories  were  now  depicted  :  from  that  it  re- 
quired only  another  step  to  delineate  New  Testament  events.  —  So  late 
as  the  year  305,  the  Synod  of  Illiberis  (Elvira)  interdicted  the  use  of 
pictures  in  churches.  —  During  this  period,  only  Gnostics  (the  Carpo- 
cratians)  and  heathens   (as  in  the.  Lararium  of  Alexander   Severus, 
§  23,  4)  made  use  of   images   of  Christ.     From   Isaiah   liii.  2,  3,  the 
Catholics  inferred  that  the  outward  appearance  of  the  Saviour  had  been 
the  opposite  of  attractive.  —  (Cf.  §57,  4;  60,  4.) 

§36.   LIFE,   MANNERS,    AND  DISCIPLINE. 

Co.mp.  G.  Arnold,  erste  Liebe,  d.  i.  wahre  Abbild.  d.  ersten  Christen 
(First  Love,  i.  e.,  Faithful  Portrait,  of  the  First  Chr.).  Frkf.  1696.  — 
C.  Schmidt,  essai  hist,  sur  la  societe  dans  le  monde  Rom.  et  sur  sa  trans- 
form, par  le  christianisme.  Strassb.  1853.  —  J.  A.  and  Aug.  Theiner, 
die  Einfuhrung  der  erzwungenen  Ehelosigkeit  bei  d.  chr.  Geistl.  (In- 
trod.  of  the  Oblig.  to  Celibacy  among  the  Chr.  Clergy).  2  vols.  Altenb. 
1828. 

Where,  as  in  the  persecutions  of  that  period,  the  chaff  is  so 
thoroughly  separated  from  the  wheat,  the  Divine  power  of  the 
Gospel  and  the  rules  laid  down  by  strict  ecclesiastical  discipline 
would  of  necessity  produce  a  degree  of  purity,  of  moral  earnest- 
ness, and  of  self-denial,  such  as  never  before  had  been  seen  in  the 
world.  But  what  attracted  most  admiration  among  the  heathen, 
who  were  so  much  accustomed  to  mere  selfishness,  was  the 
brotherly  love  practised  (§  60,  2),  the  care  taken  of  the  poor  and 
tick,  the  ready  and  large-hearted  hospitality,  the  sanctity  of  the 
marriage  relation,  and  the  joy  with  which  martyrdom  was  borne. 
Marriages  with  Jews,  heathens,  and  heretics,  were  disapproved 
of;  commonly  also  second  marriage  after  the  death  of  a  first 
husband.  Christians  avoided  taking  part  in  public  amusements, 
dances,  and  spectacles,  as  being  "pompa  diaboli."    According  to 


128  SECTION    I.  —  FIRrfT    PERIOD    (100—323  A.  D.J. 

Eph.  vi.    10  etc.,  they  regarded  the  Christian  life  as  a  militia 
Christi.     But  since  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  as  in  out- 
ward constitution  and  worship,  so  in  the  ethical  views  concerning 
the  Christian  life,  the  depth,  liberty,  and  simplicity  of  apostolic 
times   gave   place    to    a    pseudo-catholic   externalism    and   bondage. 
Ecclesiastical    teachers  still  insisted,  indeed,   on   the  necessity  of  a 
state  of  mind  corresponding  to  the  outward  works  done.     But 
already  this   outward  conformity  was   over-estimated,  and   thus 
gradually  the  way  was  prepared  for  xvork-holiness  and  the  opus 
operalum  (i.  e.,  attaching  merit  to  a  work  in  and  by  itself).   This 
tendency  appears  very  prominently  so  early  as  in  the   case  of 
Cyprian  (de  opere  et  eleemosynis).4    With  this  the  Alexandrian 
theologians   also  combined   a  theoretical   distinction  between  a 
higher  and  lower  morality,  of  which  the  former  was  to  be  sought 
by  the  Christian  sage  (o  yvioo*ix6$),  while  an  ordinary  Christian 
might  rest  satisfied  with  the  latter.     This  laid  the  foundation  for 
all  the  later  aberrations  of  asceticism.  —  (Cf.  §  61.) 


1.  The  Christian  Life.  —  The  spirit  of  Christianity  also  pervaded 
domestic  and  civil  life.  It  manifested  itself  in  family  worship,  in  the 
celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  the  family  ($33),  in  making  the  sign 
of  the  cross  before  undertaking  or  doing  anything,  and  in  adorning  the 
dwellings  and  furniture  with  certain  symbols  (§  35,  note).  The  rites 
of  marriage  were  consecrated  by  the  Church,  but,  as  yet,  the  validity 
of  a  union  was  not  considered  as  depending  on  this.  The  wearing  of 
garlands  and  of  veils  by  brides  was  disapproved,  as  being  heathen  sym- 
bols ;  but  the  custom  of  using  a  marriage  ring  was  early  in  use,  and 
was  viewed  as  a  Christian  symbol.  The  practice  of  the  heathen  to 
burn  the  dead  bodies  reminded  of  hell-fire  ;  the  Christians,  therefore, 
preferred  the  Jewish  practice  of  burial,  appealing  to  1  Cor.  xv.  Chris- 
tian families  observed  the  anniversaries  of  the  death  of  their  departed 
members  with  prayer  and  oblations,  in  token  of  their  continued  com- 
munion with  them  ($  61,  3). 

2.  Ecclesiastical  Discipline. — (For  the  literature  see  %  61,  1.)  Here- 
ties,  apostates,  and  pertinacious  transgressors,  were,  according  to  apos- 
tolic injunction,  excluded  from  the  communion  of  the  Church  {excom- 

•municatio),  and  only  restored  after  having  given  sufficient  proof  of  their 
penitence.  From  the  great  number  of  those  who,  during  the  Decian 
persecution,  made  recantation,  it  became  necessary  to  fix  a  certain  rule 
of  procedure  in  such  cases,  which  remained  in  force  till  the  fifth 
century.  Penitents  had  to  pass  through  four  stages  of  discipline,  of 
which  each  lasted,  according  to  circumstances,  one  or  more  years.  In 
the  first  (the  rtpoWavtnj),  the  penitents,  arrayed  in  the  garb  of  mourn- 
ing, stood  by  the  church-door,  entreating  the  clergy  and  congregation 


LIFE,    MANNERS,    AND     DISCIPLINE.  129 

to  receive  them  again  ;  in  the  second  (the  dxpoowi?),  penitents  were 
allowed  to  be  present,  although  in  a  separate  place,  during  the  reading 
of  the  Scriptures  and  the  sermon.  In  the  third  (vrtd;tT<o<Hs),  they  were 
also  allowed  to  be  present,  and  to  kneel  at  prayer ;  while  in  the  fourth 
(cvotaois),  they  might  again  join  in  all  the  parts  of  public  worship,  with 
the  exception  of  the  communion,  which,  however,  they  might  witness, 
standing.  After  that,  they  made  a  public  confession  of  their  sins 
(ilo^oxdy^ms),  and  received  absolution  and  the  fraternal  kiss  (pax, 
reconciliatio).  This  administration  of  discipline  was  onlj-  shortened  or 
rendered  milder  "  in  periculo  mortis."  But  this  extreme  strictness  in 
dealing  with  penitents  also  led  to  the  opposite  extreme  of  excessive 
laxity.  Confessors,  especially,  frequently  abused  their  privilege  of 
procuring  the  restoration  of  penitents  by  means  of  what  were  called 
recommendatory  letters  (libelli  pads),  a  practice  which  tended  seriously 
to  injure  the  administration  of  discipline.  On  the  other  hand,  some 
went  so  far  as  to  deny  that  the  Church  had  the  right  of  absolving  and 
restoring  those  who  had  been  guilty  of  mortal  sin  (1  John  v.  16),  such 
as  theft,  murder,  adultery,  or  apostasy.  But  these  extreme  views  did 
not  mislead  the  Church. 

3.  Asceticism.  —  The  asceticism  (eyxpartCa,  continentia)  of  the  hea- 
then and  of  the  Jews  (the  Pythagoreans,  the  Essenes,  the  Therapeutre) 
was  either  the  result  of  dualistic  views,  or  the  manifestation  of  a  false 
spiritualism.  In  opposition  to  this  tendency,  Christianity  propounded 
it  as  a  principle:  Hukto.  v/xd>v  intw  (1  Cor.  iii.  21;  vi.  12).  At  the 
same  time  it  also  admitted,  that  from  the  disposition,  the  requirements, 
or  circumstances  of  an  individual,  a  sober  asceticism  was  warrantable, 
and  might  even  prove  relatively  useful  (Matt.  xix.  12;  1  Cor.  vii.  5,  7). 
But  the  Gospel  neither  insisted  on  it,  nor  ascribed  to  it  any  merit. 
Views  such  as  these  prevailed  so  late  as  the  second  century  (they 
occur,  for  example,  in  Ignatius).  But  after  the  middle  of  that  century, 
a  much  greater  value  was  attached  to  asceticism.  It  was  regarded  as 
a  higher  stage  of  morality,  and  as  assuring  superior  merit. —  The 
exercise  of  the  spiritual  life  in  prayer  and  meditation  was  its  positive 
manifestation.  Negatively,  asceticism  appeared  in  frequent  and 
protracted  fasts  and  in  celibacy,  or  at  least  abstinence  from  conjugal 
intercourse  (after  1  Cor.  vii.  ;  Matt.  xix.  12).  Most  of  them,  also, 
voluntarily  relinquished  their  worldly  possessions,  in  application  of 
Luke  xviii.  24.  After  the  middle  of  the  second  century  their  num- 
ber rapidly  increased,  till  they  formed  a  distinct  class  in  the  commu- 
nity. But  as  yet  they  were  not  bound  by  irrevocable  vows  tc 
continue  this  manner  of  life. —  The  idea  that  the  call  to  asceticism 
devolved  more  especially  on  the  clergy,  resulted  from  their  desig- 
nation as  the  KTifjpoc  Qeov.  So  early  as  the  second  century,  a 
second  marriage  on  the  part  of  clergymen  was  held  to  be 
unlawful     (on     the    ground    of    1     Tim.     iii.    2)  ;    while    in     the 


130  SECTION    I.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (100— 323  A.  D.). 

third,  it  was  considered  their  duty,  after  ordination,  to  abstain  from 
conjugal  intercourse.  The  attempt  to  make  this  obligatory  was  first 
made  in  the  year  305,  at  the  Council  of  Elvira,  but  proved  unsuccess- 
ful.— The  shameful  practice,  on  the  part  of  certain  ascetics  and  clerics, 
of  taking  to  themselves  (perhaps  in  misinterpretation  of  1  Cor.  ix.  5) 
religious  females  as  sorores  (aSB%<pal),  seems  to  have  originated  in  the 
second  century.  The  idea  was,  that  being  joined  to  them  in  spiritual 
love,  they  were  unitedly  to  defy  the  temptations  of  the  flesh.  In  the 
middle  of  the  third  century  this  practice  was  widely  spread.  Cyprian 
frequently  inveighs  against  it.  The  abuse  went  so  far,  that  these  so- 
called  "  sorores"  slept  in  the  same  bed  with  the  ascetics,  and  indulged 
in  the  most  tender  embraces.  To  prove  the  purity  of  their  relation- 
ship, they  were  wont  to  appeal  to  the  testimony  of  midwives.  So  far 
as  we  can  gather,  Paul  of  Samosata,  in  Antioch,  was  the  first  bishop 
to  encourage  this  practice  by  his  own  example.  In  the  popular  par- 
lance of  Antioch,  this  more  than  doubtful  relationship  went  by  the  name 
of  ywalxts  cwtiadxToi  (subintroductce,  agapetae,  extraneas).  At 
last  bishops  and  councils  passed  strict  injunctions  against  it. — During 
the  Decian  persecution  some  Egyptian  Christians  had  fled  into  the 
wilderness,  where  avoiding,  on  principle,  all  intercourse  with  their 
fellow-men,  they  led  a  life  of  strict  asceticism.  These  were  the  first 
Anchorites.  One  of  them,  Paul  of  Thebes,  lived  almost  ninety  years 
in  the  wilderness.  His  existence  had  been  forgotten  by  his  cotem- 
poraries,  when,  in  340,  S.  Antonius  discovered  his  remains,  from  which 
life  had  but  lately  departed.  His  body  was  found  in  the  attitude  of 
prayer.     (H*)- 

4.  The  Beginning  of  Martyr-Worship. — Martyrdom  was  early  lauded 
as  a  lavacrum  sanguinis  in  which  sin  was  washed  away,  an  ample  sub- 
stitute for  baptism.  The  anniversaries  of  the  death  of  martyrs,  desig- 
nated birthdays  to  a  higher  life  (yivfeMa,  natalitia  martyrum)  were 
observed  with  prayers,  oblations,  and  the  Lord's  Supper  at  their  graves, 
in  token  of  continued  communion  with  them  in  the  Lord.  Hence  their 
remains  were  gathered  with  great  care,  and  solemnly  interred.  Thus 
Jblycarp's,  at  Smyrna  (§  23,  3),  were  collected  and  preserved  as  tiftua- 
■f=pa  x&uv  rio'Kvn'Kuiv  xai  boxLjx^tt pa  vrtfp  ^pvaiov,  in  order  that  his  -y  fv£- 
^tXiov  iv  ayyaXtuott.  xai  XaW  fij  fs  tu>v  rtpo^^yjxotuf  ^vr^Tqv  xai  Twv  jUfXXoj- 
rwv  oiaxrjaiv  *s  xai  itoipae<.av  might  there  be  performed. — The  relics  were 
not  yet  thought  to  possess  miraculous  virtues,  nor  do  we  find  any  trace 
of  praying  to  saints.  But  it  was  confidently  believed,  that  at  the  throne 
of  God  they  effectually  interceded  for  the  Church  militant  on  earth,  as 
they  had  been  often  asked  to  do  before  their  departure.  The  living, 
also,  felt  it  to  be  their  duty  constantly  to  pray  for  departed  saints. 
High  respect  was  likewise  paid  to  confessors  (§  23,  5)  during  their 
life,  and  they  were  allowed  to  exercise  great  influence  in  the  affairs  of 
the  church,  as  in  the  choice  of  bishops,  the  restoration  of  the  fallen,  etc 


THE     MONTANISTIC    REFORMATION.  131 


2  37.   THE   MONTANISTIC  REFORMATION  (about  150  a.  d.). 

Comp.  G.  Wernsdorf,  de  Montanistis.  Gedan.  1751.  —  ^4.  Neander, 
Antignosticus  (Transl.  by  J.  E.  Ryland,  Lond.  Bohn.).— K.  Hessdberg, 
Tertullian's  Lehre  (The  Doct.  of  Tert.).  Dorp.  1848.— [A.  Schweghr,  d! 
Montan.  u.  d.  chr.  K.  d.  2  Jahrh.  —  Montan.  and  the  Chr.  Ch.'of  the 
Second  Cent.— Tlibg.  1841.— .P.  Chr.  Baur,  das  Wesen  d.  Montanism 
in  the  Tubg.  Jahrb.  for  1841.  IV.] 

However  rigorous  the  moral  demands  which  the  Church  of  the 
second  and  third  century  made  upon  its  members,  and  however 
strict   the   exercise  of  its    discipline,  parties   were  not  wanting 
who  deemed  the  common  practice  and  views  insufficient.    Anion"- 
these   the  Montanists  were   the   most  notable.     The  movement 
originated  in  Phrygia,  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century. 
Its  leading  characteristics  were  :  a   new  order  of  ecstatic  pro- 
phets,   with    somnambulistic    visions    and    new    revelations ;    a 
grossly  literal  interpretation  of  scriptural  predictions  ;   a  fanati- 
cal  millenarianism  ;   a  self-confident  asceticism  ;    and  an  exces- 
sive rigour  in  ecclesiastical  discipline.     Thus,  without  dissenting 
from  the  doctrinal  statements  of  the  Church,  Montanism  sought 
to  reform  its  practice.     In  opposition  to  the  false  universalism 
of  the  Gnostics,  the  Montanists  insisted  that  Christianity  alone, 
and   not   heathenism,   contained    the    truth.     In   opposition    to 
Catholicism,  they  maintained  that  their  own  spiritual  church  was 
really  a  step  in   advance   of  apostolical  Christianity.      If  Mon- 
tanism   had    universally  prevailed,  Christianity  would    speedily 
have   degenerated   into   mere   enthusiasm,  and   as   such  run   it's 
course.     This  the   Church  recognized  at  an  early  period,  and 
hence  protested  against  these  views  as  a  heretical  aberration. 
It  could  not  but  be  seen  that  their  much-vaunted  purity  of  doc- 
trine was  always,  more  or  less,  at  the  mercy  of  the  disordered 
imagination  of  some  Montanist  prophet.     Still,  their  moral  ear- 
nestness   and    zeal    against   worldliness,   hierarchism,   and   false 
spiritualism,  rendered  important  service  to  the  Church,  both  in 
the  way  of  admonition  and  of  warning. 

1.  Phrygian  Montanism.— About  the  middle  of  the  second  century, 
Montanus,  a  native  of  Ardaban,  appeared  at  Pepuza,  in  Phrygia,  as  a 
prophet  and  reformer  of  Christianity,  to  which  he  had  only  lately  be- 
come a  convert.  He  had  visions,  and  while  in  a  state  of  unconscious- 
Doss  and  ecstasy,  prophesied  of  the  near  advent  of  Christ,  and  inveighed 


132  SECTION    I.-  FIRST    P  ERI  0  D    (100— 323  A.  D.)  . 

against  the  corruption  in  the  Church.  Maximilla  and  Priscilla,  twe 
females,  were  infected  with  his  enthusiasm,  became  likewise  somnam- 
bulistic, and  prophesied.  Part  of  the  congregation  recognized  him  as 
a  divine  prophet,  and  believed  his  predictions  and  teaching  (Montanis- 
tte,  Ka-ra'^pvyfj,  Pepuziani).  Others  regarded  him  and  these  two 
females  as  possessed,  and  would  have  called  in  the  aid  of  exorcism. 
Meantime  opposition  only  served  to  feed  the  delusion.  Montaims  felt 
convinced  that  in  him  was  fulfilled  the  promise  of  Christ  concerning 
the  Paraclete,  who  was  to  guide  the  Church  into  all  truth.  His  adhe- 
rents declared  that  they  alone  had  received  the  Holy  Ghost.  They 
called  themselves  livtvpatixol,  and  designated  the  unbelieving  Catho- 
lics as  ^woi.  The  movement  spread,  growing  in  error  as  it  pro- 
ceeded. The  principal  ecclesiastical  teachers  of  Asia  Minor  (Claudius 
Apollinarius,  Miltiades,  Rhodon,  etc.)  rose  against  it  as  one  man, 
and  by  word  and  writing  contended  against  Montanism.  Several 
synods  also  solemnly  pronounced  against  it  (about  150).  They  suc- 
ceeded in  arresting  the  spread  of  this  delusion. 

2.    Montanism    in    the  West.  —  The   sentence  of  condemnation  pro- 
nounced in  Asia  Minor  was  approved  of  at  Rome.     But  the  Christians 
of  Gaul,  who  had  always  kept  up  close  intercourse  with  the  Mother 
Church  in  Asia  Minor,  and  who,  under  the  pressure  of  the  Aurelian 
persecution,  cherished  at  that  time  more  lively  expectations  of  a  coming 
millennium,  refused  entirely  to  condemn  the  Montanistic  movement. 
Accordingly,  they  addressed  conciliatory  letters,  both  to  Asia  Minor 
and  to  Rome.     Irenasus,  at  the  time  only  a  presbyter,  went  to  Rome, 
and  persuaded  Bishop  Eleutherus  to  adopt  mild  and  conciliatory  mea- 
sures.    But    soon   afterwards,  when   Praxcas,   a  confessor  from  Asia 
Minor  (§  40,  3),   arrived  in  Rome,   he  and  Cajus,  a  presbyter  and  a 
fanatical  enemy  of  rnillenariauism,  so  wrought  upon  Bishop  Victor  by  a 
description  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Montanists,  that  he  withdrew  the 
epistles  of  peace  which  he  had  already  written.     From  that  time  the 
Roman  Church  remained  strenuously  opposed  to   Montanism.     Still, 
the  movement  met  with  considerable  sympathy  in  the  West,  especially 
in  Proconsular  Africa.     This  translocation,  however,  proved  otherwise 
useful,  by  removing  much  of  the  fanaticism  and  sectarianism  which 
had  originally  attached  to  the  party.     Tertuttian,  a  presbyter  of  Carth- 
age (about  the  year  201),  and  the  most  eminent  teacher  in  the  West, 
of  his  time,  was  by  far  the  ablest  champion  of  Montanism.     He  devoted 
all  his  energy  and  talents  to  gain  adherents  to  his  principles.     But  the 
stigma  of  sectarianism  and  the  reproach  of  heresy  attached  to  them. 
Still  the  sect  of  Tertullianists  continued  in  Africa  for  a  long  time.* 

3.  Doctrine  and  Practice.— It  is  the  fundamental  idea  of  Montanism 

that  Divine  revelation  gradually  and  increasingly  developed.     This 

progression  had  not  reached  its  climax  in  Christ  and  His  apostles,  but 

was  destined  to  do  so  during  the  era  of  the  Paraclete,  which  had  coin- 

*  Cf.  Lit.  §  39,  5,  on  Tcrtullian. 


ECCLESIASTICAL    SCHISMS.  133 

meneed  with  Monianus.  The  patriarchal  period  was  the  period  of 
infancy  in  the  kingdom  of  God  ;  the  period  of  the  law  and  of  prophecy, 
under  the  Old  Covenant,  its  childhood ;  in  the  Gospel  it  entered  upon 
the  period  of  youth  ;  while  in  the  Montanistic  effusion  of  the  Spirit,  it 
finally  attained  the  full  maturity  of  manhood.  Its  absolute  completion 
may  be  expected  to  take  place  in  the  millennium,  which  was  regarded 
as  at  hand.  The  following  were  the  principal  reformatory  ordinances 
of  the  Paraclete  :  Second  marriage  was  to  be  considered  fornication ;  — 
much  greater  importance  was  to  b*  attached  to  fasting :  on  the  "dies 
stationum"  it  was  absolutely  unlawful  to  partake  of  anything,  and  two 
weeks  before  Easter  only  water  and  bread  or  dry  food  {^po^ayiai, ) 
were  allowed ;  —  those  who  had  been  excommunicated  were  to  con- 
tinue in  the  "  status  poenitentiaj"  during  the  remainder  of  their  lives  ; 
—  martyrdom  was  to  be  sought  after  ;  to  withdraw  iu  any  way  from 
persecution  was  no  less  than  apostacy  —  virgins  were  to  appear 
only  veiled,  and,  generally,  women  to  renounce  all  luxury  and  orna- 
ments; —  worldly  science  and  art,  and  all  worldly  enjoyments,  even 
those  which  appear  to  be  innocent,  were  treated  as  a  snare  laid  by  the 
enemy,,  etc. 

?38.  ECCLESIASTICAL   SCHISMS. 

It  so  happened  that  sometimes  in  one  and  the  same  congrega- 
tion there  were  those  who  advocated  the  administration  of  lax 
and  of  rigorous  discipline.  Each  of  these  parties,  of  course, 
wished  to  enforce  its  peculiar  views,  to  the  exclusion  of  all 
others.  From  such  controversies,  accompanied  as  they  fre- 
quently were  by  disputes  between  presbyters  and  bishops,  and 
by  doctrinal  divergences,  various  schisms  arose  which  continued 
for  a  period,  even  although  outward  circumstances  seemed  at 
the  time  to  render  ecclesiastical  union  more  than  ever  desirable. 
We  read  of  four  such  schisms  during  the  period  under  review. 

1.  The  Schism  of  IJippnlylus  at  Rome  {about  220-235).  — (Comp. /. 
Bollinger,  Hipp.  u.  Callistus.  Regensb. .1853.—  Wordsworth,  S.  Hippol. 
and  his  Age.  Lond.  1853.—  W.  E.  Taylor,  Hippol.  and  the  Chr.  Ch.  of 
the  Third  Cent,  Lond.  1853.— Art.  "  Hippol."  in  Herzog's  Encycl.,  in 
the  translat.,  publ.  by  Lindsay  and  Blakiston,  II.  570,  I860.)— After  a 
life  full  of  curious  adventures,  Callistus  (Calixtus),  a  liberated  slave, 
was  in  217  raised  to  the  see  of  Rome,  not  without  strenuous  opposition 
from  the  more  strict  party  in  the  Church.  They  charged  him  with  a 
c  muivance  at  every  kind  of  transgression,  equally  inconsistent  with 
Christian  earnestness  and  destructive  of  all  discipline.  Besides,  they 
also  accused  him  of  holding  the  Noetian  heresy  (<j  40,  4).  The  opposi- 
tion was  headed  by  Hippolytus,  a  presbyter,  whom  his  adherents  elected 
12 


134     SECTION  I.  —FIRST  PERIOD  (100—323  A.  D.). 

counter-bishop.  The  schism  lasted  till  the  time  of  Pontianus,  the 
second  in  occupation  of  the  see  of  Rome  after  Callistus.  The  chiefs  of 
both  parties  having  been  banished  to  Sardinia,  a  reconciliation  took  place 
between  their  adherents,  who  united  to  choose  another  bishop  (235). 

2.  The  Schism  of  Felicissimus  at  Carthage,  about  the  year  250, 
was  in  reality  an  opposition  to  the  episcopal  authority  of  Cyprian.  The 
(moderate)  strictness  of  that  bishop  in  dealing  with  the  lapsed  was  only 
made  a  pretext.  Several  presbyters  at  Carthage  were  dissatisfied  with 
the  appointment  of  Cyprian  as  bishop  (248),  and  sought  to  withdraw 
from  his  jurisdiction.  At  their  head  was  Novatus.  They  ordained,  of 
their  own  authority,  Felicissimus,  who  afterwards  became  the  chief  of 
the  party,  as  deacon.  When,  during  the  Decian  persecution,  Cyprian 
for  a  short  time  left  Carthage,  they  accused  him  of  dereliction  of  duty 
and  cowardice.  But  Cyprian  soon  returned,  and  his  opponents  turned 
his  strictness  towards  the  lapsi  to  account  for  exciting  people  against 
him.  The  bishop  had  protested  against  the  readiness  with  which  some 
confessors  had,  without  fully  examining  into  the  circumstances,  given 
libellos  pacts  to  the  lapsed,  and  deferred  the  consideration  of  such  cases 
to  a  synod,  to  be  held  after  the  persecution  had  ceased.  An  eccle- 
siastical visitation  completed  the  breach.  The  dissatisfied  presbyters 
at  once  received  the  lapsed ;  renounced  the  authority  of  Cyprian, 
although,  when  the  persecution  broke  out  afresh,  that  bishop  himself 
introduced  a  milder  discipline;  and  elected  Fortunatus  as  counter- 
bishop.  Only  after  considerable  trouble  Cyprian,  by  a  combination 
of  prudence  and  firmness,  succeeded  in  arresting  the  schism. 

3.  In    the    Schism   of   Novation,    a   Presbyter  at   Fame   (251),   the 
cause  of  dispute  was  of  an  almost  opposite  character  from  that  just 
described.     Cornelius,  Bishop  of  Rome,  exercised  a  mild  discipline  ;  a 
practice  opposed  by  a  stricter  party,  under  the  presbyter  Novatian, 
"When  Novatus  of  Carthage  arrived  at  Rome,  he  joined  the  discontented 
party,  although  his  own  views  on  ecclesiastical  discipline  had  been  the 
very  opposite  of  theirs,  and  incited  them  to  separation.     The  strict 
party  now  chose  Novatian  as  their  bishop,     Both  parties  appealed  for 
recognition   to   the   leading   churches.     Cyprian   pronounced   against 
Novatian,   and    contested  the    sectarian  principles    of  his    adherents, 
according  to  which  the  Church  had  not  the  right  to  assure  forgiveness 
to  the  lapsed,  or  to  those  who,  by  gross  sin,  had  broken  their  baptismal 
vows  (though  they  admitted  the  possibility  that,  by  the  mercy  of  God, 
such  persons  might  be  pardoned).     The  Novations  also  held  that  the 
Church,  being  a  communion  of  pure  persons,  could  not  tolerate  in  its 
bosom  any  who  were  impure,  nor  readmit  a  person  who  had  been  ex- 
communicated, even  though  he  had  undergone  ecclesiastical  discipline. 
On  this  ground  the  party  called  itself  the  Kd^apot.     Owing  to  the 
moral  earnestness  of  their  principles,  even  those  bishops  who  took  a 
different  view  from  theirs  were  disposed  to  regard  them  more  favcura- 


THEOLOGICAL    SCHOOLS.  135 

bly ;  and  almost  through  the  whole  Roman  empire  Novatian  com- 
munities sprung  up,  of  which  remnants  existed  so  late  as  the  sixth 
century. 

4.  The  Schism  of  Meletius  in  Egypt. — During  the  Diocletian  persecu- 
tion, Meletius,  Bishop  of  Lycopolis,  in  Thebais,  had,  without  being 
authorized,  arrogated  to  himself  the  power  of  ordaining  and  of  other- 
wise interfering  with  the  rights  of  his  metropolitan,  Petrus,  Bishop  of 
Alexandria,  who  for  a  season  had  retired  from  his  diocese.  Warnings 
and  admonitians  were  in  vain.  An  Egyptian  synod  then  excom- 
municated and  deposed  him.  This  gave  rise  to  a  schism  (30G)  which 
spread  over  Egypt.  The  general  Council  of  Nice  (325)  offered  to  all 
Meletian  bishops  amnesty,  and  the  succession  in  their  respective  sees 
in  case  the  Catholic  counter-bishop  should  die.  Many  submitted,  but 
Meletius  himself,  with  some  others,  continued  schismatic,  and  joined 
the  party  of  the  Arians. 


IV.  DOCTRINAL  AND  APOLOGETIC  LABORS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

§39.  THEOLOGICAL   SCHOOLS   AND   THEIR   REPRESEN- 
TATIVES. 

The  earliest  Christian  writers  had    enjoyed  intercourse  with, 
and  instruction  from,  the  apostles.     On  that  account  they  are 
commonly  called  Apostolic  Fathers.     In  their  case,  as  in  that  of 
the  apostles  themselves,  the  immediate  requirements  of  practical 
life  formed  the  burden  and  the  motive  of  their  writings.     But 
the  literary  contest    with    heathenism,  which    immediately  suc- 
ceeded, gave  a  more  scientific  character  to  Christian  authorship. 
This  contest  gave  rise  to  a  long  series  of  apologetical  works, 
which    in    great   part    date   from    the    second    century.      The 
scientific  tendency  of  Christian  theology  developed  even  more 
fully  in  the  1hird  century  during  the  controversy  with  Judaising 
and    paganising   heretics.     In    opposition    to    those    dangerous 
aberrations,  three  peculiar  types  of  doctrinal  views  developed 
within  the  Catholic  Church  after  the  close  of  the  second  century. 
They  are  commonly  distinguished  as  the  schools  of  Alexandria, 
of  Asia  Minor,  and  of  North  Africa.  —  Since  the  close  of  the 
first  century,  another  branch  of  literature,  though  one  of  very 
doubtful  value,  had  also  appeared.     We  allude  to  the  apocry- 
pho.l  and  pseudo-epigraphic  writings,  which  arose  partly  with 


18G  SECTION    I.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (100—323  A.  D.). 

the  view  of  spreading  certain  heresies,  partly  for  apologethal 
purposes,  and  partly  to  give  sanction  to  certain  ecclesiastical 
ordinances.  This  species  of  literature  seems  to  have  attained  its 
highest  point  during  the  second  and  third  centuries. — (Cf.  §  47.) 

1.  The  AposfoJic  Fathers.  —  (Comp.  A.  Hilgenfeld,  die  ap.  V.  Halle 
1853.  /.  H.  B.  Lubkert,  d.  Theologie  d.  ap.  V.  in  the  "Luther.  Zeitschr." 
for  1854.  IV.  Lechler,  d.  Apost.  u.  nachapost.  Zeitalter.  Stuttg.  1857). 
Of  these  seven  are  mentioned : 

(1.)  Clement,  Bishop  of  Home  (Philippians  iv.  3),  from  whom  we 
have  an  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  containing  admonitions  to  concord 
and  humility. 

(2.)  Barnabas,  the  well-known  companion  of  the  Apostle  Paul. 
The  letter,  preserved  under  his  name,  betrays,  by  its  allegorical  inter- 
pretations, the  Alexandrian  ideas  of  the  author,  and  breathes  contempt 
for  the  Old  Testament,  and  its  ceremonial.  It  contains,  however,  some 
ingenious  views,  and  gives  evidence  of  deep  piety.  Its  authenticity  is 
more  than  doubtful. 

(3.)  Hermas  (Rom.  xvi.  14).  The  Hoi/x^v  (Pastor)  ascribed  to  him 
was  perhaps  written  by  a  later  Hermas,  the  brother  of  the  Roman 
Bishop  Pius,  about  the  year  150.5  The  work  derives  its  name  from  the 
circumstance  that  in  it  an  angel,  under  the  guise  of  a  shepherd, 
instructs  the  author.  It  contains  visions,  "mandata,"  and  "  simili- 
tudines."  It  is  still  in  dispute  whether  the  Greek  copy  recently  brought 
from  Greece,  is  really  a  transcript  from  the  original,  or  only  a  retrans- 
lation  from  the  old  Latin  version. 

(4).  Ignatius,  Bishop  of  Antioch  ($  23,  2).  "We  possess  seven 
letters  of  his,  which  on  his  journey  to  martyrdom  he  addressed  to 
various  churches  (one  of  them  to  Polycarp).  Of  the  two  Greek  re- 
censions, the  more  lengthy  is  manifestly  a  paraphrase.  They  are 
distinguished  above  all  other  writings  of  this  time  by  energetic  oppo- 
sition to  Judaistic  and  Docetic  heresy,  by  a  most  decided  confession 
of  the  Divinity  of  Christ,  and  by  strenuous  assertions  of  the  authority 
of  bishops  as  the  representatives  of  Christ.  Bunsen,  Lipsiiis,  and 
others,  maintain  that  a  still  shorter  recension  (in  Syriac  translation), 
of  only  three  letters,  represents  the  genuine  works  of  Ignatius  ;  while 
Baur,  Hilgenfeld,  and  others,  deny  the  genuineness  of  all  the  three 
recensions. 

(5.)  Polycarp,  Bishop  of  Smyrna  (§  42,  3),  a  disciple  of  the  Apostlo 
John,  has  left  a  letter  addressed  to  the  Philippians. 

((').)  Papias,  Bishop  of  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia,  likewise  a  disciple 
of  John,  collected  the  oral  traditions  of  the  discourses  and  deeds  of 
the  Lord  (xoywov  xvpuixuv  ifyyrjais),  of  which  only  a  few  fragments  have 
been  handed  down.  Credulity,  misunderstanding,  and  an  unbounded 
attachment  to  millcnnarian  views,  seem  to  have  characterized  this 
work.     On  this  account  Eusebius  called  P.  afuupbg  rbv  vovv. 


THEOLOGICAL     SCHOOLS.  137 

(7).  A  letter  addressed  to  Piognetus  by  an  unkno-wn  author,  who 
calls  himself  jua^rjj?  tuv  arioatoXw.  It  is  manifestly  erroneous  to 
regard  Justin  Martyr  as  its  writer.  The  letter  ably  refutes  the  ob- 
jections of  Piognetus  to  Christianity.  Unlike  the  other  Fathers,  the 
author  regards  the  heathen  gods  not  as  demons,  but  as  empty  phantoms. 
The  institutions  of  the  Old  Testament  he  considers  to  have  been  human, 
and  indeed  partly  inept,  arrangements.  The  best  edition  of  the  Apos- 
tolic Fathers  is  that  by  Cotelerius,  Paris  1678,  folio ;  the  latest  edition, 
that  by  Hefele,  4th  edition.  Tub.  1855. 

2.  Among  the  numerous  Apologetical  Writers  of  the  second  cen- 
tury (complete  collections  of  their  works,  so  far  as  extant,  comp.  \  41, 
1,  were  published  by  Prud.  Maranus.  Par.  1742.  2  Voll.  fol.  and  by  C. 
T.  Otto.  Jen.  1842,  etc.)  the  first  place  must  be  assigned  to  Justih 
Martyr,  who  was  born  at  Sichem  in  Samaria,  and  died  as  martyr  in 
the  year  106.  As  a  heathen,  he  successively  sought  after  truth  in  the 
various  philosophical  systems,  among  which  he  was  most  attracted  by 
that  of  Plato.  But  it  was  only  when  an  unknown  venerable  man, 
whom  he  met  by  the  sea-shore,  directed  him  to  the  prophets  and 
apostles,  that  he  found  satisfaction.  In  the  thirtieth  year  of  his  life 
he  became  a  convert  to  Christianity,  which,  while  continuing  to  wear 
his  philosopher's  cloak  (pallium),  he  enthusiastically  defended  by 
writings  and  discussions.  But  thereby  he  also  called  forth  the  special 
hatred  of  heathen  sages.  Crescens,  a  Cynic  at  Rome,  was  his  most 
bitter  enemy,  and  left  nothing  undone  to  secure  his  destruction.  In 
this  he  succeeded.  Under  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  about 
the  year  166,  Justin  was  scourged  and  beheaded  at  Rome.  (Comp. 
Semisck,  Justin  Martyr,  transl.  by  J.  E.  Ryland.  Edin.  T.  and  T. 
Clark.) 

3.  The  School  of  Asia  Minor.  —  This  school  may  be  traced  back  to 
the  labours  of  John,  and  was  distinguished  by  its  firm  adherence  to 
the  Bible,  its  strong  faith,  its  scientific  liberality,  its  conciliatory  tone, 
and  its  trenchant  polemics  against  heretics.  The  greater  part  of  its 
numerous  and  formerly  so  celebrated  teachers  are  known  to  us  almost 
only  by  name.  One  of  its  oldest  representatives  was  Melito,  Bishop 
of  Sardis,  who  died  about  170.  Of  his  numerous  writings,  which  bore 
on  all  the  important  ecclesiastical  questions  of  the  time,  only  a  very 
few  fragments  have  been  preserved.  Eusebius  and  Jerome  have  pre- 
served a  list  of  eighteen  different  tractates  by  that  Father.  After 
Melito,  Iren^eus,  a  disciple  of  Pulycarp,  was  the  most  celebrated  teacher 
of  that  school.  He  Avent  into  Gaul,  where  he  became  presbyter,  and, 
after  the  martyrdom  of  Bishop  Pothinus  (£  23,  3),  Avas  elevated  to  the 
see  of  Lyons.  He  died  a  martyr  under  Septimius  Severus  in  the  year 
202.  The  best  editions  of  his  writings  are  those  by  R.  Massnet,  Paris 
1710;  ani  by  A.  Stieren,  Leipsic  1847.  —  The  learned  IIippolytus, 
presbyter,   and  afterwards  schismatic  Bishop  at  Rome  ($  38,  1),   ob. 

12* 


138  SECTION    I.  — FIRST    PERIOD    (100— 323  A.  D.)  . 

235,  was  a  disciple  of  Irenceus.  Such  was  the  authority  in  which 
Hippolytus  was  held,  that,  soon  after  his  death,  his  friends  erected  a 
statue  of  him  in  Rome,  hearing  on  the  hack  of  the  chair  a  list  of  his 
numerous  writings.  It  was  dug  out  on  an  island  of  the  Tiber  in  the 
year  1551.  The  best  edition  of  his  writings  is  that  by  /.  A.  Fabricius, 
Hamb.  1716.  2  vols.  4to.  supplemented  by  S.  Hippolyti  Episc.  et  Mart. 
Refutat.  omn.  hseres.  Libr.  X.  quae  supersunt.  ed.  Duncker  et  Schnei- 
dewin.  Gott.  185G. 

4.   The  School  of  Alexandria.— The  principal  task  to  which  the  repre- 
sentatives of  this  school  set  themselves,  was  to  oppose  a  true  churchly 
Gnosis  to  the  spurious  Gnosticism  of  heretics.     In  this  attempt,  some 
of  them,  however,  were  entangled  in  dangerous  philosophical  aberra- 
tions.    Still,  most  of  them  were  distinguished  by  classical  culture,  by 
logical  acumen,  by  liberality  and  originality.     The  centre  of  this  theo- 
logical tendency  was  the  Catechetical  School  of  Alexandria,  which,  from 
an  institution  for  the  instruction  of  educated  catechumens,  became  a 
theological  seminary.     The  first  celebrated  teacher  in  this  institution 
was  Pant^nus  (ob.  202).     He  was  surpassed  by  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria, his  pupil  and  successor.     Impelled  by  a  desire  for  knowledge, 
this  writer,  when  still  a  heathen,   had  travelled  about;    and  having 
acquired  considerable  learning,  arrived  at  Alexandria,  where  he  was 
attracted  by,  and  converted  under,  Pantjenus.     During  the  persecution 
under  Sepiimius  Severus  (202),  he  withdrew,  according  to  Matt.  x.  23, 
by  flight  from  the  vengeance  of  the  heathen.     But  to  his  death  in  220 
he  continued  to  work  and  to  write  for  the  Church.     (Best  edition  by  J. 
Potter,  Oxon.  1715.  2  vols,  fol.)     However  great  his  fame,  it  was  sur- 
passed by  that  of  Origen,  his  pupil  and  successor,  whom  heathens  and 
Christians  equally  admired  for  his  learning,  and  who,  from  his  unwea- 
ried diligence,  bore  the  designations  of  Adamantius  and  Xa-Kxivttpo;. 
He  was  distinguished  as  a  philosopher,  as  a  philologian,  as  a  critic, 
as  an  exegetical,  dogmatic,  apologetic,  and  polemic  writer.     Posterity 
has,  with  equal  justice,  honoured  him  as  the  founder  of  scientific  the 
olo°-y,  and  disowned  him  as  the  originator  of  many  heretical  views. 
He  was  born  at  Alexandria,  of  Christian  parents,  about  the  year  185, 
and   trained  by  his  father  Lconidas,  and    by  Pantainvs  and  Clement. 
When  still  a  mere  boy,  he  encouraged  his  father  to  undergo  martyrdom 
under  Septimius  Severus  (in  202),  provided  for  his  helpless  mother  and 
her  six   orphan   children,   and  was    appointed    by   Bishop    Demetrius 
teacher  in  the  catechetical  school  (in  203).     In  order  to  do  justice  to 
his  new  office,  he  applied  himself  with  all  diligence  to  the  study  of 
philosophy,  under  the  tuition  of  Ammonius  Saccas,  a  Neo-Platonist. 
In  private  life  he  was  exceedingly  abstemious,  and  from  his  youth  a 
strict  ascetic.     In  his  zeal  for  Christian  perfection,  and  misunderstand- 
ing the  passage  in  Matt.  xix.  12,  he  made  himself  a  eunuch,  —  a  step 
which  he  afterwards  felt  to  have  been  wrong.     Meantime  his  fame 


THEOLOGICAL    SCHOOLS.  139 

increased  daily.  In  obedience  to  a  highly  honourable  call,  he  labeled 
for  some  time  in  the  mission  in  Arabia.  The  excellent  Empress  Julia 
Mammcea  summoned  him  to  Antioch  (218) ;  and  in  the  year  228  he 
undertook,  for  ecclesiastical  purposes,  a  journey  to  Palestine,  where  the 
the  bishops  of  Ccesarea  and  Jerusalem  ordained  him  presbyter,  though 
in  opposition  to  the  canons  of  the  Church.  His  own  bishop,  Demetrius, 
who  had  at  any  rate  been  jealous  of  the  fame  of  Origen,  resented  this 
invasion  of  his  rights,  recalled  him,  and  in  two  synods  held  at  Alexan- 
dria (in  231  and  in  232),  caused  him  to  be  deposed  and  excommunicated 
for  heresy,  self-mutilation,  and  contempt  of  ecclesiastical  canons.  Origen 
now  betook  himself  to  Csesarea,  where,  honoured  and  assisted  by  the 
Emperor  Philip  the  Arabian,  he  opened  a  theological  school.  Here 
his  literary  activity  attained  its  climax.  During  the  Decian  persecu- 
tion he  was  imprisoned,  and  finally  died  at  Tyre,  in  254,  in  consequence 
of  the  fearful  tortures  which  he  had  borne  with  calmness. — (Comp.  E.  R. 
Redepenning,  Origenes.  Bonn  1841.  2  vols.  G.  Thomasius,  Origenes, 
Nuremb.  1837.  (Best  editions  of  his  works  by  C.  de  la  Rue,  Paris  1733. 
4  vols,  fob,  and  by  Lommatszch,  Berlin  1831,  2G  vols.)  —  Among  the 
successors  of  Origen  at  Alexandria,  Dioxysius  Alexandrixus  (since 
233)  was  the  most  celebrated.  In  the  year  248  he  was  elevated  to  the 
see  of  that  city,  and  died  in  265.  He  was  not  equal  to  Origen  in  point 
of  speculation.  But  indeed  his  Charisma  was  rather  the  jsi^f'pi'jjatj. 
Even  his  cotemporaries  called  him  the  Great.  During  the  Decian  per- 
secution he  displayed  equal  prudence,  calmness,  courage,  and  constancy. 
Amid  the  ecclesiastical  disputes  of  his  time,  he  had  ample  opportunity 
of  manifesting  the  generosity  and  mildness  of  his  character,  his  faithful 
adherence  to  the  Church,  and  his  zeal  for  the  purity  of  its  teaching. 
Everywhere  the  influence  of  his  self-denial  and  amiability  was  felt. — 
Gregory  Thaumaturgus  had  attended  on  the  teaching  of  Origen  at 
Cajsarea.  Converted,  as  a  youth,  under  Origen,  from  paganism  to  the 
Gospel,  he  clung  with  the  deepest  affection  to  his  venerated  teacher. 
He  afterwards  became  bishop  of  his  native  city,  Neo-Cresarea,  and  on 
his  death-bed  enjoyed  the  consolation  of  leaving  to  his  successor  no 
more  unbelievers  in  the  city  (17)  than  his  predecessor  had  left  be- 
lievers. He  was  designated  a  second  Moses,  and  it  was  thought  that 
he  possessed  the  power  of  working  miracles. — (Cf.  \  47,  3,  4.) 

5.  The  School  of  North  Africa  was  distinguished  by  its  realism  and 
its  practical  tendency,  thus  representing  the  opposite  extreme  to  the 
idealism  and  the  speculations  of  the  Alexandrians.  Its  peculiarity  was 
that  of  the  Western  mind  generally,  and  chiefly  manifested  itself  in 
the  controversy  with  Gnosticism.  Its  representatives,  although  them- 
selves classically  educated,  rejected  classical  science  and  philosophy, 
as  apt  to  lead  astray.  They  laid  great  stress  on  purity  of  apostolical 
tradition,  and  insisted  on  sanctification  of  the  life  and  strict  asceticism. 
Its  first  and  greatest  teacher  was  Tertullian,  the  son  of  a  heathen 


140  SECTION    I. — FIRST    PERIOD    (100—323  A.  D.J. 

centurion  at  CarthagJ.  While  a  pagan,  he  distinguished  .  imself  aa 
an  advocate  and  rhetorician.  He  was  converted  late  in  life  ,  and.  after 
a  considerable  stay  at  Rome,  was  ordained  a  presbyter  at  Carthage 
(ob.  220).  Naturally  he  was  impetuous  and  energetic;  in  his  writings, 
as  in  his  life,  he  appears  a  strong  man,  full  of  glowing  enthusiasm  for 
the  foolishness  of  the  Gospel,  and  equally  strict  towards  himself  and 
others.  He  originated  the  Latin  ecclesiastical  language;  his  "Punic 
style"  is  terse,  rich  in  imagery  and  rhetorical  figures  ;  his  thoughts 
are  acute  and  deep.  Although  himself  trained  in  heathen  lore,  he  was 
fanatically  opposed  to  it,  and  equally  so  to  Gnosticism.  His  zeal  in 
favour  of  strict  asceticism,  and  against  every  kind  of  worldliness,  led 
him  to  become  a  Montanist  in  201.  There  his  peculiar  mode  of  think- 
ing and  feeling,  the  energy  of  his  will,  the  ardour  of  his  affections,  his 
powerful  imagination,  his  tendency  towards  the  strictest  asceticism, 
and  his  predilection  for  realism,  found  full  scope  for  development.  If, 
withal,  he  kept  free  from  many  aberrations  of  Montanism,  this  must  be 
ascribed  to  his  clear  understanding  and,  however  much  he  may  have 
despised  it,  to  his  thorough  scientific  training.  (Best  edition  of  his 
works  by  Fr.  Oehler,  Leipsic  1854.)  Comp.  g  37. — Thascius  Cecilics 
Cyprianus  was  first  a  heathen  rhetorician,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Carth- 
age, and  died  a  martyr  under  Valerian  in  258.  Although  trained  by 
the  writings  of  Tertuilian  (  "  da  magistrum  !"  ),  he  kept  clear  of  his 
extravagances.  He  was  equally  distinguished  by  warm  and  firm  adhe- 
rence to  the  idea  of  one,  holy,  visible  Church,  and  by  zeal,  faithful- 
ness, vigour,  and  prudence  in  the  cure  of  souls  and  the  administration 
of  his  congregation.  His  life  and  writings  give  ample  evidence  of 
these  qualities.  (Comp.  Bet/her;/,  Cypr.  nach  sein.  Leben  und  Wir- 
ken. — Cypr.,  his  Life  and  Works — Gott.  1831. —  G.  A.  Poole,  Life  and 
Times  of  Cyprian,  Oxf.  1S40.)— Z/.  CoeJ.  Lactantius  Firmianus  (ob. 
330),  by  birth  a  heathen,  afterwards  teacher  of  elocution  at  Nicome- 
dia,  and  then  tutor  to  Crispits,  the  imperial  prince,  who  was  executed 
in  32G  by  command  of  his  father  (Constantine  the  Great).  His  apolo- 
getic writings  show  that  he  was  modest,  amiable,  and  learned.  They 
abound  with  evidences  of  his  culture,  affectionateness,  and  clearness. 
Frrmi  the  purity  of  his  Latin  style  and  the  elegance  of  his  diction,  in 
which  he  far  surpassed  all  other  Fathers,  he  was  called  the  Christian 
Cicero.  But  his  writings  are  destitute  of  depth  and  acumen,  and  on 
theological  questions  he  frequently  commits  blunders  and  oversights. — 
To  this  school  belong  also  Minucius  Felix,  Cornmodianvs,  and  Arnobhts, 
all  of  them  apologetic  writers. — (Cf.  \  47,  5.) 

G.  During  this  period  the  School  of  Aniioch  (g  47,  1),  of  which  the 
presbyters  Dorotheus  and  Lucian  were  the  founders,  first  appeared. 
The  latter  died  a  martyr  in  311.  Through  his  influence,  that  school 
from  the  first  gave  its  main  attention  to  the  critical,  grammatical,  and 
historical  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures. — There  is  said  tc  have  been 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  DOCTRINE,  ETC.      141 

a  Christian  school  at  Edessa,  as  early  as  the  second  century,  -where 
Macarius  expounded  the  Scriptures  in  the  third  century. 

7.  The  greater  part  of  the  very  numerous  Apocryphal  and  Pseudo- 
epigraphic  Works  were  composed  to  promote  the  spread  of  heretical, 
chiefly  of  Ebionistic  and  Gnostic  views.  Many  of  them,  however,  must 
also  be  traced  to  Catholic  authors.  Their  chief  purpose  seems  to  have 
been,  through  a  kind  of  pious  fraud,  to  exalt  Christianity  by  "  vatici- 
nia  post  eventum/'  or  to  fill  up  any  gaps  in  its  history  by  myths  and 
fables  already  existent,  or  specially  devised  for  that  end.  The  subjects 
chosen  were  either  connected  with  the  Old  or  with  the  New  Testament. 
Among  the  latter  we  reckon  Apocryphal  Gospels,  Acts  of  Apostles, 
Apostolic  Letters  and  Revelations.  In  these  gospels  reference  is  not 
made  to  the  teaching  of  Christ,  probably  because  it  was  thought  that 
tin'  canonical  gospels  had  given  sufficient  details  on  that  subject.  On 
the  other  hand,  they  dwell  largely  on  the  history  of  the  childhood  of 
the  Lord,  and  furnish  fabulous,  though  pretendedly  documentary  sup- 
plements to  the  accounts  of  Christ's  sufferings.  Besides,  a  number  of 
spurious  ancient  heathen  and  Jewish  oracles  Avere  circulated  and  fre- 
quently quoted  for  apologetic  purposes  ($  41,  1). 

2  40-   DEVELOPMENT   OF   DOCTRINE   AND   DOGMATIC 
CONTROVERSIES. 

Comp.  F.  Chr.  Baur,  d.  chr.  Lehre  v.  d.  Dreieinigkeit  (The  Chr. 
Doctr.  of  the  Trinity).  I.  T'ubg.  1841.—  G.  A.  Meier,  d.  Lehre  v.  d. 
Trinit'at.  I.  Hamb.  1844. — /.  A.  Domer,  d.  Lehre  v.  d.  Person  Christi. 
2d  Ed.  I.  Stuttg.  1845.— K.  A.  Kahnis,  d.  Lehre  v.  h.  Geiste  (The  Doctr. 
concern,  the  H.  Sp.).  I.  Halle  1847. — Lobeg.  Lange,  Gesch.  u.  Lehrb. 
d.  Antitrin.  vor  d.  nicosn.  Synode.  Leipz.  1851.  —  (FT.  Corrodi)  krit. 
Gesch.  d.  Chiliasm.  (Crit.  Hist,  of  Millenar.)  4  vols.  Zur.  1794.  Art. 
"  Chiliasmus,"  in  Herzog's  Encycl.  I.  p.  G57  etc.  Philad. 

In  its  friendly  or  hostile  contact  with  heathen  culture,  Chris- 
tianity had  to  appear  in  a  scientific  form,  in  order  thus  also  to 
prove  its  claim  to  recognition  as  a  universal  religion.  It  must 
therefore  soon  have  been  felt  necessary  to  develop  the  doctrines 
of  the  Gospel.  During  the  three  first  centuries,  however,  the 
dogmas  of  the  Catholic  Church  were  not  yet  fully  formed  and 
established.  Before  this  could  be  accomplished,  Christian  truth 
had  freely  to  develop  in  individuals  ;  —  besides,  as  yet,  no  gene- 
rally recognized  medium  for  the  decision  of  these  questions,  such 
as  the  later  universal  councils,  existed;  —  the  persecutions  left 
nc  time  or  quietness  for  such  purposes  ;  — and  all  the  energies 
of  the    Church    were    engaged    in    defending     Christian    truth 


142         SECTION    I.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (100—323  A.  D.). 

against  the  inroads  of  heathen  and  Jewish  elements,  which  in 
Ebionism  and  Gnosticism  presented  so  threatening  a  front. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  internal  collisions  and  discussions 
which  took  place  at  that  period  prepared  the  Church  for  unfold- 
ing and  ultimately  establishing  Christian  doctrine.  Among 
these  we  reckon  the  contest  between  the  Catholics  and  the  Mon- 
tanists  (§  3*7). — The  discussions  about  Easter  and  about  baptism 
(§  31,  2  ;  32,  2)  had  also  a  dogmatic  bearing,  while  the  various 
schisms  (especially  that  of  Novatian,  §  38)  tended  to  fix  the 
dogma  concerning  the  Church.  Nor  must  we  leave  out  of  con- 
sideration the  Millenarian  discussions.  But  of  greatest  im- 
portance by  far  was  the  Trinitarian  controversy,  which  took 
place  in  the  third  century. 

1.  The  Trinitarian  Questions. — These  bore  on  the  relation  between 
the  Divine  juorap^'a  (the  unity  of  God)  and  the  olxovo^a  (the  nature 
and  the  relations  of  the  Trinity).  Peculiar  emphasis  was  laid  on  the 
relation  subsisting  between  the  Son  (or  a.oyo$)  and  the  Father.  The 
Church  firmly  maintained  the  independent  personal  subsistence  of  the 
Son  (Hypostasianish)  ;  but  various  errors  and  difficulties  arose  when 
it  was  attempted  to  bring  this  view  into  harmony  with  the  monotheism 
of  Christianity.  Adopting  the  distinction  made  by  Philo  between  the 
Xcyo;  ti'Sto^troj  and  the  ?..  rtpopoptxoi  (§  11,  1),  it  was  at  first  thought 
that  the  hypostasation  was  somehow  connected  with  or  depended  on 
the  creation  of  the  world,  and  had  taken  place  for  that  purpose, — in 
short,  that  it  was  not  necessary  and  eternal,  but  a  free  act  in  time  on 
the  part  of  God.  The  real  essence  of  the  Deity  was  rather  ascribed  to 
the  Father,  and  all  the  attributes  of  divinity  were  not  assigned  to  the 
Son  in  the  same  manner  as  to  the  Father.  The  statement  of  Christ 
(John  xiv.  28) :  "  The  Father  is  greater  than  I,"  was  also  applied  to 
Christ's  state  of  existence  before  His  incarnation.  The  views  enter- 
tained about  the  Holy  Ghost  were  even  more  vague.  His  personality 
and  independent  existence  were  not  subjects  of  settled  or  deep  convic- 
tion ;  it  was  more  common  to  subordinate  Him,  and  also  to  ascribe  to 
Christ  Himself  the  functions  peculiar  to  the  third  person  of  the  Trinity 
(inspiration  and  sanctification).  But  this  process  of  subordination  ap- 
peared to  some  of  the  Fathers  to  endanger  not  only  the  fundamental 
doctrine  of  the  unity  of  God,  but  also  that  of  the  divinity  of  Christ. 
Hence  they  preferred  passing  over  the  personal  distinction  between 
the  Logos,  the  Spirit,  and  the  Father.  One  of  two  ways  might  here  be 
chosen.  Following  the  example  of  the  Ebionites,  Christ  might  be 
regarded  as  a  mere  man,  who,  like  the  prophets,  had  been  furnished 
with  Divine  wisdom  and  power,  only  in  infinitely  higher  measure 
[dynamistie  Monarchianism).  Or  else,  yielding  more  fully  to  the  felt 
want  of  Christians,  it  might  be  conceived  that  the  whole  fulness  of  the 


DEVELOPMENT     OF    DOCTRINE,     ETC.  143 

Deity  dwelt  in  Christ ;  thus  identifying  the  Logos  with  the  Father, 
i.  e.,  regarding  the  former  as  only  a  peculiar  mode  in  which  the  latter 
operated  [modalistic  Monarchianism).  Either  of  these  forms  of  Monarch- 
ianism  was  regarded  as  heretical,  and  the  hypostasian  view  as  alone 
orthodox.  Still  the  latter  also  contained  an  element  of  error  (that  of 
subordination),  while  the  former  (at  least  in  its  more  elevated,  modal- 
istic form)  embodied  a  truth  which  as  yet  was  left  out  of  the  orthodox 
view  (the  acknowledgment  of  the  equality  of  being,  or  of  the  ufioovaia 
of  the  Son  with  the  Father).  These  two  opposing  views  were  recon- 
ciled and  united  by  the  doctrine  of  homousian  Hypostasianism  pro- 
pounded in  the  third  century,  but  which  found  general  acknowledg- 
ment only  in  the  fourth  century. 

2.  The  Di/nainisfic  Monarchians. — Among  them  we  reckon,  1.  The 
Alogians  in  Asia  Minor  (about  170).  They  violently  opposed  the  mil- 
lenarianism  and  prophetism  of  the  Montanists,  and  rejected  not  only 
the  Book  of  Revelation,  but  also  the  Gospel  of  John.  Epiphanhis  gave 
them  their  equivocal  name,  Alogians,  not  without  meaning,  because 
they  rejected  both  the  doctrine  and  the  Gospel  of  the  Logos. 
(a?ioyoc=  unreasonable).  2.  The  same  writer  speaks  of  the  Theo- 
DOTIAN  sect  as  an  anoairaafia  rfiq  akoyov  alptazuq.  Their  founder, 
Theodotus  6  c kvt ev  f ,  from  Byzance,  taught  ipMv  avtipunov  elvai 
tov  Xpioruv.  —  Spiritu  quidem  sancto  natum  ex  virgine,  sed  homi- 
nem  nudum  nulla  alia  prte  caeteris  nisi  sola  justitise  autoritate. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  second  century  he  arrived  at  Rome,  where  he 
gained  some  adherents,  but  was  excommunicated  by  Bishop  Victor. 
Another  Theodotus  (6  TpaireZiTijc)  conceived  that  the  power  of  God  in 
Christ  was  less  than  that  in  Melchisedec,  since  the  latter  was  media- 
tor between  God  and  angels.  On  this  ground  his  adherents  were  called 
Melchisedechites.  3.  Of  greater  influence  than  either  of  these  heretics, 
was  Arte.mon,  who  busied  himself  with  Aristotle  rather  than  with  the 
Bible,  and  maintained  that  his  doctrine  had  been  regarded  at  Rome  as 
orthodox  up  to  the  time  of  Bishop  Zephyrinus  (the  successor  of  Victor), 
who  excommunicated  him  and  his  adherents. 

3.  Praxeas  and  Terhdlian. — Patripassianism,  which  represents  the 
Father  as  Himself  becoming  incarnate  and  suffering  in  Christ,  may  be 
regarded  as  the  preparation  for,  and  the  first  rough  form  of  Modalism. 
These  views  were  first  prominently  brought  forward  by  Praxeas,  a 
confessor  from  Asia  Minor  (§  37,  2).  He  propounded  them  without  let 
ir  Rome,  about  the  year  190 ;  but  was  even  then  vigorously  opposed 
by  Tertullian.  On  his  return  to  Africa  that  Father  wrote,  in  defence 
of  Montanism  and  Hypostasianism,  a  treatise  against  him,  in  which  he 
showed  the  weak  parts,  the  contradictions,  and  the  dangerous  tendency 
of  the  theory  of  Praxeas.  Although  Tertullian  himself  is  not  quite 
free  from  the  errors  of  Subordinatianism,  his  views  are  more  satisfac- 
tory, since  he  speaks  of  a  threefold  progress  in  the  hypostasatic  n  of  the 


144  SECTION     I.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (lOO    -323  A.  D.). 

Son  (filiatio).  The  first  stage  consisted  of  the  eternal  indwelling  (im- 
manence, immanent  subsistence)  of  the  Son  in  the  Father ;  the  second 
stage  took  place  when  the  Son  came  forth  by  the  side  of  the  Father,  for 
the  purpose  of  creating  the  world  ;  and  the  third  when,  by  His  incar- 
nation, the  Son  manifested  Himself  in  the  world. 

4.  Noetus,  Callishis,  and  Hippolyiiis. — The  views  of  Noetus  of  Smyrna 
were  not  quite  free  from  Patripassian  error.  He  taught  that  the  Son  - 
was  the  son  of  himself,  and  not  of  another.  This  doctrine  was  brought 
to  Rome  about  215  by  Epigonus,  his  disciple,  where  it  met  with  con- 
siderable support,  being  chiefly  advocated  by  Cleomenes.  In  opposition 
to  these  views,  Hippolytus  (#  39,  3)  maintained  the  doctrine  of  subor- 
dinatian  Hypostasiauism,  which  up  to  that  time  was  regarded  as 
orthodox  (from  all  eternity  Christ  was  perfect  Logos,  but  only  as  the 
Juiyos  ivdiu^c-tos,  being  undistinguished  from  the  Father ;  by  His  incar- 
nation He  had  become  perfectly  the  Son).  Callistus,  Bishop  of  Rome, 
conceived  that  both  views  contained  some  elements  of  truth  and  others 
of  error.  Although  by  no  means  clear  in  his  statements,  or  wholly 
free  from  error,  he  was  the  first  to  propound  what,  in  its  fuller  develop- 
ment, is  known  as  homousian  Hypostasianism.  Hippolytus  reproached 
the  bishop  with  being  a  Noetian,  and  he  retorted  by  charging  the 
presbyter  with  Ditheism.  Sabellius,  who  at  the  time  lived  in  Rome, 
was  at  first  undecided,  but  ultimately  pronounced  in  favour  of  Modalism, 
and  was  excommunicated  by  Callistus.  Hippolytus  and  his  adherents 
renounced  the  authority  of  Callistus,  and  formed  a  community  of  theii 
own  (J  38,  1). 

5.  Berylhis  and  Origen.  —  Beryllus  of  Bostra,  in  Arabia,  was  also  a 
Patripassian.  His  system  formed  a  link  of  connection  between  Patri- 
passianism  and  Sabellian  Modalism.  He  denied  the  Lhia  ^i6ttji  of  the 
divinity  of  Christ,  and  designated  it  as  narpixr;  %sorr^,  but  at  the  same 
time  regarded  it  as  a  new  form  of  manifestation  (rtpd$wrov)  on  the  part 
of  God.  In  the  year  244  an  Arabian  synod,  to  which  Origen  also  was 
invited,  was  convened  to  discuss  his  views.  Beryllus,  convinced  of  his 
error,  made  full  recantation.  All  former  teachers  had  held  that  the 
hypostasation  of  the  Logos  had  taken  place  in  time,  for  the  purposes 
of  creating  the  world  and  of  the  Incarnation.  Origen  was  the  first  to 
propound  the  truth  that  the  Son  is  begotten  by  the  Father  from  all 
eternity,  and  hence  from  all  eternity  a  hypostasis.  Again,  the  Son  is 
not  begotten  because  this  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  Son  might 
become  the  Creator,  but  because  it  is  necessary  in  and  by  itself,  as 
light  cannot  be  without  radiance.  He  also  propounded  the  dogma  that 
the  generation  of  the  Son  was  going  on  for  over.  He  held  that,  as  the 
life  of  God  is  not  bound  to  time,  the  becoming  objective  of  this  life  in 
the  Son  must  likewise  lie  beyond  the  limitations  of  time;  it  is  not  an 
act  of  God  once  done,  but  a  continuous  manifestation  of  His  life  (ad 
yn'Ki  u  IIar>jp  ?bv  Tioi).     True,  even  Origen  is  not  quite  free  from  the 


DEVELOPMENT     OF     DOCTRINE,    ETC.  145 

errors  of  Subordinatianism,  but  in  his  case  they  are  confined  within 
the  narrowest  limits.  He  rejects  indeed  the  expression,  that  the  Son 
was  ix  trfi  oucrtoj  tov  rtarpdj,  but  only  in  opposition  to  the  Gnostic 
theories  of  emanation.  Similarly,  he  speaks  of  a  htpo-tqs  trte,  otoiaj, 
but  only  in  opposition  to  the  opoovaios,  taken  in  the  sense  of  the  Patri- 
passians.  He  held  that  the  Son  was  begotten  ix  tov  ^eXy^ato?  $tov,  but 
only  because  he  regarded  Him  as  the  Divine  will  become  objective ; 
he  calls  Him  a  xtinfxa,  but  only  in  so  far  as  He  is  ^eorcoiov/xsvo^,  and  not 
aurd^fof ;  but  the  Son  is  avroso<|><,'a,  avtoaX^tia,  oivrspo;  £sdj.  He  held  a 
subordination,  not  of  essence,  but  of  being  or  of  origin. 

6.  Sabellius  and  the  two  Dionysii.  —  Sabellius,  from  Ptolemais,  in 
Egypt,  had  during  his  stay  at  Rome  devised  a  peculiar,  speculative, 
and  monarchian  system,  which  met  with  considerable  support  from  the 
bishops  of  his  country.  It  was  favourably  distinguished  from  other 
systems  of  the  kind,  in  that  it  assigned  a  distinct  and  necessary  place 
to  the  Holy  Ghost.  According  to  him,  God  is  a  simple  unity  {povds), 
who,  as  £sds  oiuntwv,  rested  in  Himself,  and  when  about  to  create  the 
world  came  forth  out  of  Himself  as  £*6s  iazZ>v  or  xoyoj.  During  the 
course  of  the  development  of  the  world,  the  Monas  (or  the  Logos)  pre- 
sented Himself,  for  the  purpose  of  salvation,  successively  under  three 
different  forms  of  existence  (6v6fxata,  rtpdjwrta),  of  which  each  contained 
the  entire  Monas.  They  are  not  vrtoataous,  but  npo^rta  (masks),  as  it 
were  parts  which  God,  when  manifesting  Himself  in  the  world,  suc- 
cessively undertook.  Having  finished  His  peculiar  part  by  the  giving 
of  the  law,  the  "Prosopon"  of  the  Father  returned  again  into  His 
absolute  state.  Next  He  appears  in  the  incarnation  as  the  Son,  when, 
at  His  ascension,  He  again  returns  into  the  Monas  ;  and  lastly  mani- 
fests Himself  as  the  Holy  Ghost,  that  when  the  Church  shall  have  been 
wholly  sanctified,  He  may  again,  and  for  all  eternity,  become  a  monas, 
without  distinction  in  itself.  Sabellius  designated  this  process  as  an 
expansion  («cra<nj)  and  contraction  {avarox-r,  nxarnj/id  j).  To  make 
his  ideas  more  intelligible,  he  illustrated  the  above  process  by  a  simile 
of  the  sun,  6Woj  Lihv  iv  uia,  vrtorytdasi,  toils  8s  i%ovtos  rd?  ivspysCas,  v'z->  fo 
r*}s  /t£pKj>fpEia?  azrjtm,  to  tyutiotLxov  xai  to  ^u%ftov.  —  At  the  Synod  of 
Alexandria,  in  261,  Dionysius  the  Great  (g  39,  4)  contended  against 
the  Sabellianism  of  the  Egyptian  bishops,  but  in  his  zeal  made  use  of 
terms  which  implied  subordinatian  errors  of  the  grossest  kind  (|fW 
xat  ovoiav  avtov  sivcu  tov  Ylatpb^  wsrffp  iatw  o  ystopyoj  rtpo?  trjv  dfiTifXov 
xai  o  vavTttjybi  rtpoj  to  axufo^, —  uj  rfot^a  uv  ovx  $v  itpivyivvrpaj.).  When 
Dionysius,  Bishop  of  Rome,  obtained  tidings  of  this,  he  rejected,  in  a 
Synod  at  Rome  in  2G2,  the  expressions  used  by  his  colleague  at  Alex- 
andria, and  published  a  tractate  ('AvatpoTtr;),  in  which,  with  ecpual 
aeuteness,  clearness,  and  depth,  he  defended  against  Sabellius  the 
doctrine  of  the  hypostastic  existence,  and  against  the  Alexandrians  the 
iuoovaia  and  the  eternal  generation  of  the  Son.  Dionysius  of  Alex- 
13 


146  SECTION    I. FIRST    PERIOD     (100—323    A.  D.). 

andria  retracted,  with  praiseworthy  modesty,  the  ill-chosen  illustra- 
tions he  had  employed,  and  declared  himself  substantially  at  one  with 
the  views  of  the  Bishop  at  Rome. 

7.  Paul  of  Samosata. — For  half  a  century  dynamistic  Monarchianism 
had  not  been  represented  by  any  man  of  note,  when,  about  the  year  2G0, 
it  was  again  propounded  in  a  (comparatively)  more  profound  manner 
by  Paul  of  Samosata,  an  arrogant,  vain,  luxurious,  and  withal  covetous 
and  immoral  prelate.  While,  with  the  former  advocates  of  this  theory, 
he  maintained  that  the  Godhead,  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  term,  con- 
sisted only  of  one  person,  he  at  the  same  time  admitted  in  the  Deity  a 
relationship  between  the  xdyoj  ir&tu&?os  and  7tpo$opi,x6s.  Again,  while 
in  the  opinion  of  his  predecessors  the  humanity  of  Christ  chiefly  consti- 
tuted his  distinctive  personality,  Paul  (like  the  Socinians  of  modern 
times)  held  that,  by  His  inimitable  excellency,  the  man  Jesus  had  gra- 
dually risen  to  Divine  dignity,  and  to  deserve  the  name  of  God.  The 
Syrian  bishops  held  three  synods  to  discuss  his  errors.  At  the  third 
of  these  (2f>9),  they  condemned  him,  and  rejected  the  expression  ofioov- 
eto?,  which  he  had  misapplied.  But,  by  the  protection  of  Queen  Zenobia, 
Paul  retained  his  see.  When  Zenobia  was  vanquished  by  Aurelian,  in 
the  year  272,  the  Synod  accused  him  before  the  (heathen)  emperor, 
who,  after  taking  the  opinion  of  the  bishops  "  in  Italy  and  Rome," 
expelled  Paul. 

8.  Tlie  Millenarian  Controversy. — Since  the  time  of  Papias,  the  expec- 
tation of  a  millenial  reign  of  glory,  at  the  close  of  the  present  dispen- 
sation, had  been  fondly  cherished  by  the  Christians,  who.  under  their 
continued  persecutions,  looked  for  the  speedy  return  of  the  Lord.  Only 
the  spiritualists  of  Alexandria  ( Clement,  Origen,  etc)  opposed  these  views, 
and,  by  allegorical  interpretations,  explained  away  the  Biblical  argu- 
ments in  favour  of  them.  Cuius,  a  Roman  presbyter  (about  210), 
asserted,  in  his  controversy  with  Procuhi.t,  a  Montanist,  that  both  Mil- 
lenarianism  and  the  Book  of  Revelation,  on  which  it  was  founded,  were 
a  fabrication  of  Cerinthns,  the  heretic.  Fifty  years  later,  the  Millena- 
rians  of  Egypt  were  headed  by  Nepos,  the  learned  Bishop  of  Arsinoe. 
lie  wrote  a  treatise  against  Clement  and  Origen,  entitled  "Exsy^oj  tZ>v 
dM^yopwrw.  After  the  death  of  Nepos,  his  adherents,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Coracion,  a  presbyter,  seceded  from  the  Church  of  Alexandria. 
To  arrest  the  mischief,  Dionysius  immediately  hastened  to  Arsinoe.  A 
discussion  ensued,  which  lasted  for  three  days,  at  the  close  of  which, 
the  leaders  of  the  Millenarian  party  sincerely  thanked  the  Bishop  for 
his  instruction.  Coracion  himself  made  formal  recantation.  To  confirm 
his  converts,  Dionysius  wrote  a  book  entitled  IT? pi  irtayyt%iwv.  Aversion 
to  the  spiritualism  of  the  school  of  Origen  soon  afterwards  induced 
Methodius,  Bishop  of  Olympus,  to  advocate  a  moderate  Millenarianism, 
which  Lactantius  also  enthusiastically  defended.  But  as  the  aspect 
.)f  outward  affairs  changed  under  the  reign  of  Constantino  the  Great, 


THEOLOGICAL     LITERATURE.  147 

these  views  lost  their  hold  on  men's  minds.  The  Church  now  prepared 
for  a  long-continued  period  of  temporal  prosperity,  and  the  State-Church 
of  that  time  forgot  the  millennial  glory  of  the  future. 

§41.    THEOLOGICAL   LITERATURE. 

1.  Attention  was  chiefly  paid  to  Apologetics.  —  The  apology  of 
Quadrutus,  Bishop  of  Athens,  has  been  lost.  In  this  tractate,  which 
he  handed  to  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  he  appealed  to  the  fact  that  he 
had  been  acquainted  with  some  of  the  persons  whom  Jesus  healed  or 
raised  from  the  dead.  —  The  same  fate  overtook  the  apologies  of  Ari sli- 
des, a  converted  philosopher  of  Athens, — of  Ariston  of  Fella,  who  wrote 
a  Dialogue  between  Papiscus,  a  Jew  of  Alexandria,  and  Jason,  a  Jewish 
Christian, — of  Melito,  Bishop  of  Sardes,  of  Claudius  Appolinaris  from 
Hierapolis,  and  of  Miltiades,  a  rhetorician,  who  handed  their  apologies 
to  Marcus  Aurelius.  (The  "Oration  of  Melito  to  Antonius  Cgesar," 
edited  by  W.  Cureton  in  his  Spicilegium  Syriac.  Lond.  1855,  is  probably 
not  the  celebrated  apology  of  that  Father,  but  his  tractate  nspi  dji^iaj). 
With  Justin  Martyr  commences  the  series  of  apologies  which  have  been 
preserved.  That  Father  wrote  a  large  and  a  smaller  apology  —  both 
addressed  to  Marcus  Aurelius  —  a  Dialogue  "  cum  Tryphone  Judaeo," 
and  a  tractate  rtspi  ^oiap^'as.  The  authenticity  of  the  Xoyoj  napaivEtixos 
rtpoj  "Ettijraj  (cohortatio),  and  of  the  Xoyoj  (oratio)  *p6j  "Exxrjvas,  is 
doubtful.  Tatian,  a  pupil  of  Justin  (1 28,  8),  wrote  a  juSyoj  rtpo?  "Ex%r;va; ; 
Athenagoras  handed  to  Marcus  Aurelius  his  TtpcofcCa,  rtfpi  ^piana^r  ; 
Tlieophilus  of  Antioch  wrote  rtpo?  AvtoXvxov  ntpi  r^j  fuv  Xpi/jnavuv 
rttcTTfios ;  Hermias,  a  satire,  8iaavptubs  rCj>  tl-u>  tyiiooofuv. — From  the  pen 
of  Clemois  Alex,  we  possess  an  apology  consisting  of  three  portions : 
The  \6yos  rtp&tpirttixb;  rtpoj  "EM-^ra?  shows  the  falsehood  of  heathenism, 
the  rtcudaywyoj  shows  the  way  to  Christ,  and  the  atpuifiata  introduce  the 
reader  to  the  deeper  truths  of  Christianity.  Origen  wrote  an  excellent 
apology  "contra  Celsum"  (§  24,  2).  From  the  able  pen  of  Tertullian 
we  have  the  " Apologeticus  adv.  gentes," —  the  "ad  nationes," — "ad 
Scapulam"  (the  Proconsul  of  Africa),  —  "  de  testimonio  animas": — 
from  Minucius  Felix,  an  advocate  at  Rome,  an  excellent  Dialogue  enti- 
tled "Octavius";  —  from  Cyprian  the  "  de  idolorum  vanitate"  and 
"testimonia  adv.  Judaeos."  Commodian  wrote,  in  barbarous  Latin  and 
in  bad  hexameters,  his  "  instructiones  adv.  gentium  Deos," — Arnobivs, 
even  before  his  baptism,  the  "  disputationes  adv.  gentes,"  containino- 
traces  of  Gnostic  leanings, — Lactantius,  in  elegant  Latin,  his  "institu- 
tiones  divinse'  — "  de  mortibus  persecutorum,"  "  de  opificio  Dei,"  "  de 
iraDei." — Among  the  pseudo  epigraphic  and  apocryphal  works,  written 
for  apologetic  purposes,  we  reckon  the  "  Testamenta  XII.  patriarch- 
arum,"  being  the  instructions  and  prophecies  addressed  by  Jacob  to 
his  twelve  sons,  —  and  the  Christian  Sibylline  books,  being  oracles  (in 


148         SECTION    I.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (100—323  A.  D.)  . 

hexameters)  by  the  daughters-in-law  of  Noah,  referring  to  the  history 
of  the  various  empires,  the  life  of  Jesus,  the  fate  of  Rome,  Antichrist, 
etc.  The  Christians,  who  frequently  appealed  to  them  as  very  ancient 
testimonies  in  favour  of  the  truth,  were,  by  way  of  derision,  designated 
by  the  heathen  as  Sibyllists.  —  (Cf.  \  48,  3.) 

2.  Polemics.  —  No  polemical  works  of  very  ancient  date  (against  the 
Ebionites,  the  Gnostics,  the  Montanists,  etc.)  have  been  preserved. 
This  species  of  literature  seems  to  have  been  assiduously  cultivated  by 
the  theologians  of  Asia  Minor.  Hippolytus  wrote  his  ^iXoao^ov/xeva  »} 
xo.ro.  nan^v  tupsaftoi-  ?"Keyx"S  against  every  kind  of  heresy.  The  following 
authors  wrote  against  the  Gnostics:  Irenmis,  the  t/Uy^oj  xai  aiarportr; 
rvjs  ^evbu>vvfnov  yi/watcoj  (adv.  hau-eses), — Tcrtullian,  "  de  praescriptione 
hsereticorum,"  "adv.  Hermogenem,"  "adv.  Valentinianos,"  "adv. 
Marcionem,"  "  de  anima,"  "  de  carne  Christi,"  "  de  resurrectione 
carnis,"  "  Scorpiace"  (antidote); — against  the  Monarchians:  Hippoly- 
tus, "contra  Noetum,"  "contra  Artemonem," — Terlullian,  "adv. 
Praxeam,"  —  Novation,  "  de  trinitate," —  Dionysius  of  Alex,  and  Dio- 
nysius  of  Home;  —  against  the  Allegorists  (the  disciples  of  Origen): 
Nepos  of  Arsinoe  ($  40,  8)  and  Methodius  of  Olympus,  rtc pi  avaa?doeu>s 
and  rtfpi  tu>v  ytwrjrdv,  —  while,  on  the  other  hand,  Dionysius  of  Alex. 
(3  44,  8),  Gregorius  Thaumaturgus  («s  'Slpiyiviqv  rtawpyvpixoj  %6yo$),  and 
Pampkilus  of  Coesarea  ('  ArfoJwyio.)  defended  Origen  and  his  tendencies. 
— (Cf.  |  48,  3.) 

3.  Dogmatics. — In  the  tractate  rtipl  dp^wv  (de  principiis),  which  has 
only  been  handed  down  in  the  Latin  revision  of  Rufinus,  Origen  gave 
a  systematic  exposition  of  Christian  doctrines  generally.  The  work  is 
full  of  ingenious  speculations;  it  also  contains  many  traces  of  Platonic, 
Gnostic,  and  spiritualizing  views,  and  a  good  many  heterodox  state- 
ments (such  as:  the  eternity  of  creation,  the  fall  of  human  souls  before 
the  creation  of  the  world,  their  incarceration  in  the  body,  a  denial  of 
the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection,  Apocatastasis,  etc.).  Occasionally, 
dogmatical  statements  on  special  points  occur  in  some  of  the  apologetic 
and  polemic  writings  of  that  period.  On  the  doctrine  concerning  the 
Church,  the  work  of  Cyprian,  "  de  unitate  ecclesiae,"  may  be  said  to 
form  an  era.— (Cf.  \  48,  5.) 

4.  Criticism  and  Exegesis.  —To  correct  the  text  of  the  LXX.,  Origen 
undertook  his  gigantic  work  entitled  the  Ilexapla,  which  consists  of 
collation  of  the  different  texts  in  six  columns.  Similar  labours  engaged 
Lncian  of  Antioch  (§  39,  6). — The  exegesis  commonly  in  use  was  that 
known  as  allegorical,  the  Fathers  following  in  this  respect  the  Rabbins 
and  the  Hellenists.  The  Kxst's  of  Melito  ($  39,  3),  in  which  the  mystical 
sense  of  Biblical  names  and  words  is  indicated,  furnishes  directions  for 


THEOLOGICAL     LITERATURE.  149 

the  allegorical  interpretation  of  Scripture.     It  is  preserved  in  a  latei 
Latin  elaboration  (Clavis  Melitonis  in  Pitra  Spicil.     Solesmense  T.  II. 
III.).    Origen  reduced  the  prevailing  mode  of  interpretation  to  definite 
canons.     He  distinguished  in  every  passage  of  Scripture  a  threefold 
sense — first  the  literal,  then  the  higher  or  mystical,  i.  e.,  the  tropical  or 
moral,  and  lastly,  the  pneumatic  sense, — as  it  were  the  ou>pa,  $vz*i,  and 
rtvtvuo..     Without  undervaluing  the  literal  meaning  of  a  passage,  he 
deemed  it  of  much  greater  importance  to  ascertain  its  mystical  sense. 
Every  history  in  the  Bible  was  a  representation  of  what  had  occurred 
in  the  higher  world.     Most  events  had  occurred  just  as  they  were  re- 
lated ;  but  some,  which,  if  literally  taken,  appeared  to  him  unworthy 
or  unreasonable,  were  merely  typical,  and  had  not  really  taken  place. 
The  founders  of  the  school  of  Antioch  ($  39,  6),  and  probably  also 
Nepos  the  Millenarian  (g  40,  8),  opposed  this  allegorical  treatment  of 
the  Bible,  and  advocated  an  exclusively  historical  and  grammatical 
interpretation.     The    exegetical    writings    previous    to    Origen    have 
not  been  preserved.     Of  his  own  works,  the  ot/ueiuoeic  or  brief  scholia, 
the  rofioi,  or  detailed  commentaries  on  entire  Biblical  books,  and  the 
fyiTa'cu,  being  explanatory  lectures  on  the  Scriptures,  have  been  pre- 
served, partly  in  the  original,  and  partly  in  the  Latin  translations  of 
Hieronymus  and  of  Rufinus.     Hippolytus  was,  next  to  Origen,  proba- 
bly the  ablest  exegetical  writer ;  but  only  small  fragments  from  his 
exegetical  works  have  been  handed  down. — (Cf.  \  48,  1.) 

5.  In  Historical  Theology  we  possess  Acts  of  Martyrs,  Apocryphal 
Gospels,  and  Acts  of  Apostles  (Ev.  Jacobi  Minoris,  Ev.  de  nativitate 
Maria?,  Hist,  de  Joachim  et  Anna,  Hist.  Josephi  fabri  lignarii,  Ev. 
infantias  Salvat.,  Ev.  Nicodemi,  Acta  Pilati,  etc.).  Eusebius  has  pre- 
served some  fragments  of  the  v7to/xy^uata.  tuiv  exx%r;uiaritt,x^v  rtpa|stoj>  of 
Jlegesippus,  a  Jewish  Christian  from  Asia  Minor.  Of  greater  import- 
ance than  this  work  was  the  Chronography  (Xpovoypa^ia)  of  Julius 
Africanus,  which  showed  the  connection  between  Biblical  and  profane 
history.  But  this  tractate  has  also  been  lost.  Among  writings  of  the 
same  class  we  may  also  reckon  the  work  of  Lactantius,  de  morte  perse- 
cutt,— (Cf.  I  48,  2.) 

6.  Practical  Theology. — Li  Ilomuetics,  the  first  rank  must,  be  assigned 
to  Origen.  The  most  interesting  writings  of  an  ascetic  character  are 
those  of  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Tt'$  6  iu>%6fj8i'os  rtkoucrtoj  ;  of  Origen, 
Hfpi  fv^;,  and  Etj  fxaprvpiov  rtporpfrfrtxoj  Xoyoj ;  of  Methodius  of  Olym- 
pus, HvfjLTtoaiov  tuiv  hixa  rtap^f'i'wf  r(i pi  trt<;  ayyi'A.ofit^.rttov  rtap^fi'taj.  Among 
the  Latins,  we  have  by  Tertullian  (before  he  became  a  Montanist),  "de 
oratione,"  "ad  martyres,"  "de  spectaculis,"  "de  idolatria,"  "de  cultu 
feminarum,"  "  de  patientia,"  "  ad  uxorem  ;"  (after  he  became  a  Mon- 
tanist:) "de  virginibus  velandis,"  "  de  corona  militis,"  "  de  fuga  in 
13* 


150  SECTION    I.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (100—323  A.  D.). 

perseeutione,"  "  de  exhortatione  castitatis,"  "  de  monogamia,"  "de 
pudicitia,"  "de  jejuniis,"  "de  pallio  ;" — by  Cyprian,  "de  gratia  Dei," 
"de  lapsis,"  "  de  opere  et  eleemosynis,"  "  de  bono  patientijje,"  "  de 
zelo  et  livore,"  etc. — On  the  subject  of  Ecclesiastical  Law  (constitu- 
tion, worship,  discipline),  the  pseudo-Clementine  hvatayaX  tuv  artoardxcov 
(constitutiones  apostolorum)  are  of  very  great  importance.  These 
originated  in  the  Syrian  Church,  partly  at  the  close  of  the  third  and 
partly  at  the  commencement  of  the  fourth  century.  The  first  six  books 
also  bear  the  name  of  SiSowxcaux,  xa£o?.<.x>j.  At  the  end  of  Book  VIII. 
eighty-five  pseudo-epigraphic  "Canones  apostolorum"  are  appended. — 
(Cf.  i  48,  7.) 


SECOND    PERIOD 


OF 


ECCLESIASTICAL      HISTORY 

UNDER  THE  ANCIENT  CLASSICAL  FORM  OF  CULTURE. 

FROM   THE   TEAR   323-692. 

I.   STATE   AND   CHURCH. 

Comp.  A.  Beugnot,  hist,  de  la  destruction  du  Paganisme  en  Occident. 
Par.  1835.  2  VolL— E.  Chaslel,  hist,  de  la  destr.  du  Pag.  dans  Fempiro 
de  l'Orient.  Par.  1850. — E.  von  Lasaulx,  der  Untergang  des  Hellenis- 
mus  (The  Fall  of  Hellen.).  Mun.  1854.— F.  Lubber,  d.  Fall.  d.  Heidenth. 
Schwerin  1856. 

§42.   FALL  OF   HEATHENISM   IN   THE   ROMAN   EMPIRE. 

After  the  defeat,  of  Licinius  (323),  Constantine  openly  pro- 
fessed himself  a  Christian,  although  he  still  remained  Pontifex 
Maximus,  and  was  baptized  by  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia  but  shortly 
before  his  death  (337  .  He  showed  himself  tolerant  towards 
heathenism,  whilst  he  encouraged  conversion  to  Christianity  by 
bestowing  special  favours  upon  those  professing  it.  His  sons, 
however,  used  violence  in  suppressing  heathenism.  Julian's 
reign  was  merely  a  historical  anomaly,  which  proved  that  hea- 
thenism perished  because  its  effete  powers  were  exhausted,  rather 
than  by  violence.  His  labours  all  perished  with  his  death.  Ju- 
lian's successors  resumed  the  work  of  restricting,  persecuting,  and 
exterminating  it.  But  Justinian  inflicted  the  most  fatal  blow. — 
In  spite  of  Julian's  imperial  protection,  and  the  splendid  renown 
of  learned  advocates  ( Jamblicus,  ob.  333  ;  Libanius,  ob.  395  ; 
Himerius,  ob.  390 ;  Themistius,  ob.  390  ;  Proclus,  ob.  485) 
Neo-Platonism  (§  24,  2)  was  wholly  unable  to  accomplish  its 
purpose.     Still  more  signal  was  the  failure  of  the  Hypsistarians, 

(151) 


152        SECTION     I. — SECOND    PERIOD    (323—692  A.D.). 

Euphemites,  and  Ccelicoli,  in  their  attempts  to  rejuvenate  hea- 
thenism by  means  of  a  rigid  Jewish  monotheism,  or  an  anti- 
quated Sabaeism.  In  the  literary  controversy  between  Chris- 
tianity and  heathenism,  the  character  of  the  contest  had  been 
reversed. 

1.  Constantine  M.  and  his  Sous.6  (Cf. /.  C.  F.  Mango,  Leb.  Fonst. 
Bresl.  1817. — /.  Burckhardt,  Konst.  u.  s.  zeit.  Bas.  1853.) — Constan- 
tine's  conversion  cannot  be  set  down  to  the  account  of  mere  political 
calculation.  However,  outbursts  of  passionate  violence  (among  them 
the  execution  of  Crispus,  his  son),  and  not  a  few  actions  which  cannot 
be  justified,  occurred  after  bis  profession  of  Christianity.  He  died  in 
337,  soon  after  having  received  baptism,  -without  having  ever  taken 
part  in  all  the  rites  of  public  worship.  His  dislike  of  heathenism, 
which,  through  the  influence  of  some  powerful  families,  was  still  preva- 
lent at  Rome,  formed  one  of  the  elements  in  his  resolution  to  transfer 
his  residence  to  Byzantium  (Constantinople).  His  three  sons  com- 
menced their  reign  by  assassinating  all  the  relatives  of  the  Emperor 
(only  two  nephews,  Gallus  and  Julianus,  escaped),  and  by  dividing 
among  themselves  the  empire.  Consiantius  (337-361)  ruled  first  over 
the  East.  After  the  death  of  Constantine  II.  (ob.  340),  and  of  Con- 
stans  (ob.  350),  he  became  sole  lord  of  the  empire.  All  the  sons  of 
Constantine  endeavoured  to  suppress  heathenism  by  force.  Constan- 
tius  caused  all  heathen  temples  to  be  shut,  and  interdicted  sacrifices  on 
pain  of  death.  Great  numbers  of  pagans  made  profession  of  Chris- 
tianity, few  of  them  from  real  conviction.  These  measures  only  deep- 
ened the  dislike  of  the  more  noble-minded  heathen  against  Christianity. 
In  their  opinion,  patriotism  and  intellectual  culture  were  identical  with 
attachment  to  the  old  faith. 

2.  Julian  the  Apostate  (361-363). — (Comp.  A.  Neander,  Kaiser  Julian 
und  sein  Zeitalter  (The  Emp.  Jul.  and  his  Age).  Leipz.  1812. —  V.  S. 
Teuffel,  de  Jul.  Christianismi  contemi.  etosore.  Tub.  1844. — 1).  Strauss, 
d.  Romantiker  auf  d.  Thron  d.  Caes.iren.  Mannh.  1847.  —  J.  E.  Aver, 
Julian  d.  Abtr.  im  Kampfe  mit  den  Kirchenvatern  s.  Zeit.  (Cont.  betw. 
Jul.  the  Apost.  and  the  Fathers  of  his  Age).  Vienna  1855.) — Julian*, 
the  heir  to  the  throne,  who  was  at  any  rate  incensed  at  the  murder  of 
his  relatives,  long  chafed  under  the  monkish  and  ascetic  training  to 
which  he  was  subjected.  But  he  could  conceal  under  the  garb  of 
feigned  bigotry  his  heart-hatred  of  Christianity.  When  at  last  he 
obtained  permission  to  study  at  Nicomedia  and  Athens,  the  represent- 
atives of  heathenism  in  these  places  filled  him  with  the  conviction  that 
he  was  called  by  the  gods  to  restore  the  ancient  faith.  Lulled  into 
security  by  his  hypocrisy,  Constantius  intrusted  Julian  with  the  com- 
mand of  an  army  against  the  Germans.  His  courage  and  talents 
sained  him  the  heart  of  the  soldiers.    He  now  threw  off  the  mask,  and 


FALL    OF    HEATHENISM  153 

openly  raised  the  standard  of  rebellion.     Constantius  died  on  his  expe- 
dition against  him,  and  Julian  became  Emperor  (361-363).    He  imme- 
diately addressed  himself  with  zeal  and  energy  to  the  execution  of  his 
long-cherished  plans,  and  sought  to  renew  and  restore  the  glories  of 
ancient  Paganism.     To  weaken  and  oppress  Christianity,  he  employed 
ingenious  rather  than  violent  measures,  although  he  deprived  the  clergy 
of  their  possessions,  reminding  them  in  derision  of  the  duty  of  evan- 
gelical poverty.       He  encouraged,  so  far  as  he  could,  schisms  in  the 
Church,  favoured  all  heretics  and  sects,  sought  by  artifices  to  induce 
the  soldiers  to  take  part  in  sacrifices,  interdicted  Christians  from  having 
literary  schools,  removed  them  from  the  higher  offices  of  state,  and 
heaped  on  them  all  manner  of  indignity,  etc.     In  order  to  defeat  the 
prediction  of  Christ  (Matt,  xxiii.  38;  xxiv.  2),  he  attempted  to  restore 
the  temple  at  Jerusalem.     But  earthquakes  and  flames  bursting  from 
the  ground,  scattered  the  workmen.     By  all  means  in  his  power,  and 
in  every  manner,  he  sought  to  restore  and  to  elevate  Paganism.    From 
Christianity  he  borrowed  certain  charitable  institutions,  its  ecclesiasti- 
cal discipline,  preaching,   singing   at  public   worship,  etc.      He   also 
bestowed  a  number  of  distinctions  on  the  heathen  priesthood ;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  insisted  on  strict  discipline  among  them.     In  his  capa- 
city of  Pontifex  Maxim  us,  he  himself  sacrificed  and  preached,  and  led 
a  strictly  ascetic  and  almost  cynically  simple  life.     But  the  want  of 
success  attending  his  endeavours  increasingly  exasperated  him.     Al- 
ready fears  were  entertained  of  new  persecutions,  when,  after  a  reign 
of  only  twenty  months,  he  died  in  an  expedition  against  the  Persians, — 
as  Christians  related  it,  with  the  words,  "Tandem  vicisti,  Galilaee!" 
on  his  lips. — On  the  throne  of  the  Caesars,  Julian  had  displayed  talents 
and  virtues  such  as  had  not  adorned   it  since  the  time  of  Marcus 
Aurelius. 

3.  Final  Destruction  of  Heathenism. — With  Julian  perished  also  his 
futile  attempts.  His  successors,  Jovian  (ob.  364),  and  then  in  the  West, 
Valentinian  I.  {ob.  375),  Gratiau  (ob.  383),  and  Valentinian  IF.  (ob.  392), 
—  in  the  East,  Valens  (ob.  378)  and  Theodosias  I.  (ob.  395),  tolerated 
heathenism  for  some  time,  but  only  to  prepare  for  its  more  certain 
destruction.  Scarcely  had  Tlicodosius  in  some  measure  allayed  political 
troubles,  when,  in  382,  he  made  conversion  to  heathenism  a  criminal 
offence.  The  populace  and  the  monks  destroyed  the  temples.  On  this 
account  Libanitis  addressed  to  the  Emperor  his  celebrated  oration,  ntpi 
rw  ifpwv ;  still,  the  latter  caused  the  remaining  temples  to  be  shut,  and 
interdicted  all  attendance  on  them.  Bloody  contests  raged  in  the 
streets  of  Alexandria  during  the  episcopate  of  TheopJiilus,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  Christians  destroyed  the  splendid  Serapeion  (391). 
In  vain  the  heathen  expected  that  this  sin  would  cause  the  heavens  to 
fall  or  the  earth  to  perish;  even  the  Nile  refused  to  avenge  the  out- 
rage through  drought. —  Gratian  followed  in  the  West  the  example 
which  Theodosius  had  set  in  the    East.     He  was  the  first  to  decline 


154        SECTION    I.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

the  dignity  of  Pontifex  Maximus ;  he  deprived  the  heathen  priests  of 
their  immunities,  confiscated  the  landed  property  belonging  to  the 
temples,  and  ordered  the  altar  of  victory,  which  stood  in  the  Curia  of 
the  Senate  at  Rome,  to  be  removed.  It  was  in  vain  that  Symmachus, 
the  prrefectus  urbi,  endeavoured  to  get  it  restored.  By  the  advice  of 
Ambrosius,  Yalentinian  II.,  on  four  different  occasions,  refused  to  see 
deputations  which  had  come  to  him  on  this  subject.  As  soon  as  Thee 
dosius  became  sole  ruler  (392),  edicts  even  more  stringent  appeared. 
On  his  entrance  into  Rome  (394),  he  addressed  the  Roman  Senate  in 
language  of  reproof,  and  adnfonished  them  to  adopt  Christianity.  Ilia 
sons  Honorius  (ob.  423)  in  the  West,  and  Arcadius  in  the  East  (ob. 
408),  continued  the  policy  of  Theodosius.  Under  Theodosius  II.  [ob. 
450),  monks  armed  with  imperial  power  travelled  through  the  provinces 
for  the  purpose  of  suppressing  heathenism.  This  was  not  accomplished 
without  deeds  of  violence.  The  most  horrible  of  these  was  the  as- 
sassination at  Alexandria  of  Hypatia,  a  woman  of  noble  birth  and  a 
heathen  philosopher  (415).  In  official  language,  heathenism  was 
regarded  as  defunct.  For  a  long  time  it  had  been  branded  as  the 
religion  of  rustics  (Paganismus),  and  could  only  be  practised  secretly 
and  in  distant  localities.  Its  last,  and  indeed  its  only  prop,  was  the 
Academy  at  Athens,  which  attained  its  highest  celebrity  when  Proclus 
(ob.  485)  taught  in  its  halls.  Justinian  I.  (527-565)  closed  this  insti- 
tution. Its  teachers  fled  into  Persia.  With  their  departure  heathen- 
ism in  the  Roman  and  Grecian  empire  may  be  said  to  have  deceased. 
Still,  in  the  mountains  of  the  Peloponnesus,  the  Mainats  maintained 
their  political  independence  and  ancestral  religion  so  late  as  the  ninth 
century ;  while  in  Sardinia,  Corsica,  and  Sicily,  individual  heathens 
were  found  even  at  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great  (ob.  604). 

4.  Resistance  and  Apologies  of  the  Heathen.  —  Julian  alone  could  still 
polemise  after  the  ancient  fashion.  Of  his  work  xara  Xpi7riai'<I>v,  in 
seven  books,  the  principal  portions  have  been  preserved  in  the  reply  of 
Ci/rill  of  Alexandria.  He  pronounced  Christianity  a  degenerate  form 
of  Judaism,  and  declared  that  the  adoration  of  Christ,  and  martyr- 
worship,  were  later  perversions  of  the  doctrine  of  Christ.  The  other 
representatives  of  heathenism  were  content  to  sue  for  religious  liberty 
and  toleration.  Again,  while  among  Christian  writers  Lactantius  had 
still  plead  for  mutual  forbearance,  Firmicus  Mater  mis  already  plied  the 
sons  of  Constantine  the  Great  with  fanatical  admonitions  to  suppress 
idolatry  by  force,  pressing  upon  them  the  command  of  God  to  Joshua 
to  exterminate  the  Canaanites.  But  when,  from  the  fifth  century,  the 
incursions  of  the  barbarians  gave  indications  of  the  speedy  downfall 
of  the  Roman  empire,  heathen  writers  felt  encouraged  to  ascribe  the 
disasters  of  the  commonwealth  to  a  judgment  of  the  gods,  on  account 
of  the  suppression  of  the  ancient  religion,  under  which  the  State  had 
so  lon<r  flourished.  These  statements  were  made,  anion";  others,  bv  the 
heathen  historians  Zosimus  and  Eunapius.     But  history  itself  refuted 


CHRISTIAN     STATE    AND    STATE    CHURCH.  Ib5 

Iheru  better  than  Christian  apologetical  writers  (}  48,  3)  could  have 
done ;  for  these  very  barbarians  gradually  adopted  Christianity,  and 
almost  surpassed  the  Roman  emperors  in  the  number  and  severity  of 
their  measures  for  the  suppression  of  heathenism. 

5.  According  to  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  whose  father  had  belonged  ta 
the  sect  of  the  Hypsistarians  in  Cappadocia,  the  religious  views  of 
that  party  consisted  of  a  mixture  of  Grecian  heathenism  with  Jewish 
monotheism,  and  the  Eastern  worship  of  fire  and  of  the  stars, —  special 
opposition  being  made  to  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  A 
kindred  sect  were  the  Euphemites  (those  that  sung  praise)  in  Asia, 
who  also  bore  the  name  of  Messalians  (praying)  or  Euchetes,  and  the 
sect  of  the  Cozlicoloe  in  Africa. 

§43.   THE   CHRISTIAN   STATE   AND  THE   STATE   CHURCH. 

Comp.  C.  Eiffel,  gesch.  Darst.  des  Verh.  zw.  K.  u.  Staat.  (Histor. 
Repr.  of  the  Relat.  betw.  Ch.  and  State).  Vol.  I.  May.  1836.—  Planch, 
Gesch.  d.  Kirchl.  Gesellschafts.— Verf.  Vol.  I. 

As,  in  his  capacity  of  Pontifex  Maximus,  the  Roman  Emperor 
had  formeidy  had  the  supreme  direction  of  all  religious  affairs, 
so,  when  Christianity  became  the  religion  of  the  State,  he 
gradually  came  to  occupy  a  similar  position  in  reference  to  the 
Church.  Even  Constantine  the  Great  regarded  himself  as  tTtlaxortos 
tuv  t'sco  r>7?  ixx^rjio-q,  and  all  his  successors  exercised  the  "jus 
circa  sacra,"  nor  were  their  claims  in  this  respect  ever  called  in 
question.  The  Donatists  (§  63,  2)  alone  held  that  the  State  had 
no  control  whatever  over  the  Church.  As  yet,  the  limits  within 
which  the  State  might  claim  certain  rights  in  reference  to  the 
Church  were  not  clearly  defined.  But  thus  much  was  asserted, 
at  least  in  theory,  that  the  Emperor  had  no  power  of  his  own 
accord  to  decide  on  internal  questions  concerning  the  Church 
(worship,  discipline,  and  doctrine).  To  decide  on  such  questions, 
General  Synods  were  convened,  of  which  the  decrees  obtained 
imperial  sanction,  and  thereby  became  public  enactments.  But, 
in  measure  as  the  court  of  Byzantium  degenerated  and  became 
the  centre  of  intrigues,  the  interference  of  the  court  in  eccle- 
siastical matters  became  increasingly  pernicious.  More  than 
once,  heresy  for  a  time  prevailed  through  personal  feeling, 
unworthy  artifices,  and  even  by  open  force.  But  in  the  end, 
generally,  truth  again  obtained  the  victory.  The  usurper  Basil- 
icus  was  the  first,  in  the  year  416,  to  determine,  by  imperial 
edicts,  what   should   be   taught  and  what  should   be  believed 


156        SECTION    I.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

throughout  the  empire  (§  52,  5s).  Later  emperors  followed  his 
example;  among-  them,  especially  Justinian  I.  (527  to  565s); 
and  court  theologians  even  attempted  to  justify  such  interferences 
by  investing  the  imperial  office  with  a  priestly  character,  of 
which,  according  to  them,  Melchisedec  had  been  a  type.  — The 
emperors  exercised  great  influence  on  the  election  of  bishops  in 
the  principal  cities  ;  at  a  later  period,  they  appointed  or  deposed 
them  as  they  chose.  On  the  other  hand,  the  protectorate  of  the 
emperors  conferred  on  the  Church  a  number  of  outward  advan- 
tages and  privileges.  Among  them  we  reckon  the  fact,  that  the 
State  undertook  the  maintenance  of  the  Church,  partly  by 
bestowing  rich  presents  and  foundations  from  the  public  ex- 
chequer, partly  by  making  over  to  the  Church  the  heathen 
temples  and  the  possessions  attaching  to  them.  Even  Con- 
stantine  had  authorized  the  Church  to  receive  legacies  of  every 
kind.  Besides,  churches  and  ecclesiastical  officials  were  free  from 
all  public  burdens.  The  ancient  practice  of  bishops  to  act  as 
arbiters  (1  Cor.  vi.  1-6)  was  formally  recognized  ;  the  clergy 
were  exempted  from  secular  jurisdiction,  and  placed  under  Ihe 
authority  of  their  superiors.  The  right  of  asylum  which  had 
belonged  to  the  heathen  temples  was  transferred  to  Christian 
churches.  Connected  with  this  was  the  right  of  episcopal  inter- 
cession in  favour  of  those  who  had  been  condemned  by  the 
tribunals,  —  a  practice  by  which  the  latter  became  subject  to  a 
certain  spiritual  control,  and  unjust,  arbitrary,  or  harsh  measures 
were  not  unfrequcntly  prevented. 

1.  According  to  the  jus  circa  sacra,  the  emperors  had  power  to 
arrange  all  things  which  bore  on  the  relation  between  Church  and 
State.  At  the  same  time,  it  was  also  their  duty  to  preserve  or  restore 
peace  and  unity  in  the  Church,  to  protect  orthodoxy,  to  take  charge  of 
the  interests  of  the  Church  and  of  the  clergy,  and  to  uphold  the  eccle- 
siastical canons.  Constantine  the  Great  already  excluded  all  heretics 
from  the  privileges  which  he  had  accorded  to  the  Church,  and  deemed 
it  his  duty  to  oppose  the  progress  of  heresy  to  the  best  of  his  power. 
For  that  purpose,  the  State  did  not  hesitate  to  take  away  or  to  close 
such  churches,  to  interdict  their  worship,  to  exile  their  leaders,  and 
afterwards  also  to  confiscate  their  property.  The  usurper  Maximus 
('i  54,  2j  was  the  first,  so  early  as  the  year  385,  to  execute  sentence  of 
death  against  heretics.  But  during  this  period  his  example  was  not 
followed  by  his  successors.  In  654,  Const ans  II.  caused  a  determined 
opponent  of  his  ecclesiastical  schemes  (§52,8)  to  be  scourged  and 
barbarously  mutilated. — The  Fathers  of  the  fourth  century  disapproved 
ol  all  constraint  in  matters  of  faith  (comp.  however  §63,  2). 


CHRISTIAN    STATE   AND    STATE   CHURCH.  157 

2.  The  institution  of  General  Synods  (ovvohoi  olxov/xevixau,  concilia 
universalia  s.  generalia)  originated  with  Constantine  the  Great.  They 
were  convoked  by  the  Emperor,  and  presic'sd  over  either  by  the 
monarch  in  person,  or  by  a  prelate  chosen  by  the  Council.  An  imperial 
commissary  opened  the  Syuod  by  reading  the  imperial  edict  convening 
it;  and  also  attended  the  meetings,  for  the  purpose  of  guarding  the 
rights  of  the  State.  The  travelling  expenses  and  maintenance  of 
members  of  Synod  were  paid  from  the  treasury.  The  decrees  were 
designated  by  the  common  name  of  opot,  definition.es ;  —  if  they  de- 
termined on  matters  of  faith,  they  were  called  66-y/A.ata,  or  if  couched 
in  the  form  of  a  confession,  ovfifiojm. ;  —  if  they  bore  on  the  government, 
worship,  or  discipline  of  the  Church,  they  were  called  xavovi^.  Dogmas 
and  symbols  required  to  be  unanimously  passed ;  for  canons  a  majority 
of  votes  was  sufficient.  From  the  first,  only  bishops  were  held  entitled 
to  vote  in  synods.  But  the  prelates  might  be  represented  by  some  of 
their  inferior  clergy.  —  Instead  of  oecumenic  councils,  which  could  not 
be  rapidly  convened,  avvobot  evStj/xovoai,  as  they  were  called,  were  some- 
times held  at  Constantinople.  These  were  composed  of  all  the  bishops 
present  at  the  time  in  the  capital.  Such  endemic  synods  were  also 
occasionally  held  at  Alexandria.  —  Twice  a  year  Provincial  Synods 
assembled  under  the  presidency  of  their  respective  metropolitans.  By 
and  bye  Patriarchal  or  Diocesan  Synods  were  instituted,  to  serve  as  a 
court  of  appeal. 

3.  Among  the  sources  of  general  Ecclesiastical  Law  at  that  period, 
we  may  mention,  1.  The  canons  of  the  general  councils,  —  2.  The 
decrees  of  the  principal  provincial  synods,  —  3.  The  Apostolic  Canons 
(I  41,  6),  —  4.  The  epistola;  canonical  of  the  principal  bishops  (especially 
of  those  in  the  sedes  apostolicae,  \  30  ;  above  all,  those  from  Rome  and 
Alexandria),  in  reply  to  inquiries  about  the  ecclesiastical  practice  pre- 
valent in  their  dioceses  (those  from  Rome  were  called  epistoloz  decre- 
tales),  —  5.  The  imperial  laws  on  the  subject,  vofiot  (the  Codex  Theodo- 
sianus  about  440,  the  Codex  Justiniangeus  534,  the  Novelise  Justiniani). 
So  far  as  we  know,  the  first  collection  of  those  was  made  in  the  Greek 
Church,  by  Johannes  Scholasticus,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  It 
obtained  the  name  of  Nomo-canon  (about  560),  because  the  ecclesiastical 
v6ixoi  of  Justinian  were  added  to  it.  A  later  Greek  nomo-canon  bears 
the  name  of  Theodorus  Balsamon.  In  the  West,  all  former  collections 
gave  place  to  the  Codex  canonum,  compiled  by  the  Roman  abbot 
Dionysius  the  Small,  to  which  also  all  the  decretal  letters  then  extant 
were  appended  (about  500). 

14 


158        SECTION    I.  —  SECOND    PERIOD    (.323— 692  A.  D.). 

II.  MONASTICISM,  THE  CLERGY  AND  HIERARCHY. 

?44.  MONASTICISM. 

Comp.  A.  Mdhler,  Gesch.  d.  Monchth.  in  d.  Zeit  sein.  Entsteh.  (Hist 

Df  Mon.  at  the  time  of  its  Orig.)  in  his  coll.  Works,   I.    1G5,  etc. 0 

I.  Mangold,  de  monachatus  orig.  et  causis.  Marb.  1852.  —  Comp.  also 
the  works  cited  in  \  2,  2. 

Satiated  of  the  ways  of  the  world,  and  following  the  inclina- 
tion for  a  contemplative  life,  which  is  characteristic  of  Orientals, 
many  persons  retired  into  solitude.  Here,  amidst  prayer  and 
labour,  amidst  want  and  self-denial  which  not  unfrequently  de- 
generated into  self-torture,  these  Anachorets  sought  after  that 
sauctification  which  they  deemed  impossible  to  attain  in  the  midst 
of  a  corrupt  world.  The  first  example  of  this  mode  of  life  was 
given  by  Paul  of  Thebes,  whose  end  became  only  accidentally 
known  (§36,  3).  But  Monasticism  properly  originated  with 
St  Antonius,  ob.  356.  His  shining  example  was  soon  followed, 
and  the  deserts  of  Egypt  became  peopled  with  swarms  of  hermits, 
who  gained  from  the  wilderness  a  scanty  subsistence.  On  the 
Nitrian  mountains  Amonius,  and  in  the  Scetian  Desert  Macarius 
the  elder,  founded  celebrated  institutions  of  anachorets.  The 
largest  of  these  communities  was  that  founded  by  raeliomius 
(ob.  348)  in  Tabennre,  an  island  in  the  Nile.  By  the  rules  which 
he  gave  to  his  followers,  the  institutions  of  anachorets  were 
transformed  into  regular  monastic  establishments  (xou'65  j3i'os). 
The  monks  with  their  president,  called  Abbot  (abbas  =  father) 
or  Archimandrite,  were  to  live  in  a  cloister  (coenobium,  monas- 
terinm,  claustrum,  mandra,  dairo,  i.e.,  dwelling),  and  to  spend 
their  time  in  prayer  and  labour  (agriculture,  making  of  baskets, 
carpets,  etc.).  Several  other  monasteries  were  founded  in  con- 
nection with  the  great  cloister  at  Tabennaa,  and  soon  the  number 
of  these  monks  amounted  to  50,000.  Ililarion  founded  in 
Palestine,  near  Gaza,  a  monastery  on  the  some  principles,  the 
affiliated  cloisters  of  which  extended  over  all  Syria.  —  In  the 
East,  the  number  of  cloisters  and  monks  increased  immensely. 
The  monastic  life  was  vaunted  as  a  fiios  dyymxos  and  a  ^pixoao^ia 
v\rtw/.Y,  and  regarded  as  a  substitute  for  the  martyrdom  which  was 
not  any  longer  attainable.      Already  its  institution  was  traced 


MON  ASTICISM.  159 

Dack  to  Elijah  and  John  the  Baptist,  and  the  Therapeutce  were 
represented  as  having  been  the  first  Christian  monks.  The 
cloisters  became  an  asylum  for  those  that  were  oppressed  or 
persecuted,  institutions  of  charity  for  the  poor  and  sick,  and  soon 
afterwards  also  seminaries  for  training  those  who  were  to  fill  the 
clerical  or  episcopal  office.  But  here  also  corruption  made  sad 
navoc.  Not  spiritual  motives  only,  but  ambition,  vanity,  idle- 
ness, and  especially  a  desire  to  withdraw  from  the  obligation  to 
serve  in  the  army,  etc.,  or  to  pay  taxes,  helped  to  fill  the  cloisters. 
Hence  in  365,  the  Emperor  Valens  ordered  that  such  persons 
should  be  taken  by  force  out  of  the  monasteries.  In  order  to 
arrest  religious  delusions  (such  as  self-tortures,  work-righteous- 
ness, enthusiasm  and  fanaticism,  spiritual  pride,  etc.),  and  to  make 
these  institutions  available  for  the  real  good  of  the  Church,  by 
"converting  them  into  seminaries  for  scientific  studies  and  for 
education,  some  eminent  bishops,  among  them  Basil  the  Great, 
took  the  monasteries  under  their  special  superintendence  and 
care.  Other  prelates,  however,  frequently  employed  the  monks 
as  a  ready  soldiery  to  carry  out  their  ambitious  or  party  views. 
—  At  first,  the  Western  Church  was  opposed  to  these  monastic 
tendencies.  The  authority  of  Athanasius,  who  on  several  occa- 
sions was  obliged  to  seek  a  refuge  in  the  West,  led  to  a  more 
favourable  opinion  of  them.  After  that,  the  most  celebrated  of 
the  Fathers,  headed  by  such  men  as  Ambrose,  Jerome,  and 
Augustine,  exerted  all  their  influence  to  spread  monastic  institu- 
tions. Martin  of  Tours  introduced  them  into  Northern  Gaul 
about  the  year  380.  In  Southern  Gaul,  Honoratus  founded  the 
celebrated  monastery  of  Lerinum,  and  Johannes  Cassianus,  (ob. 
432)  the  still  more  celebrated  institution  at  Massilia.  But 
Monasticism  in  the  West  almost  perished  during  the  migration 
of  nations  ;  it  was  reserved  for  Benedict  of  Nur'sia,  in  the  year 
52(J,  to  reorganize  the  monasteries,  and  to  introduce  unity  and 
order  in  them  (§  85). 

1.  St.  Antonius  sprung  from  a  Coptic  family  at  Coma,  in  Egypt. 
Left  in  his  18th  year  an  orphan,  the  passage  in  the  Gospel  about  the 
rich  young  man  (Matt,  xix.)  affected  him  in  such  a  manner,  that  he 
gave  all  his  goods  to  the  poor  and  retired  to  the  desert.  Amidst 
agonizing  internal  conflicts  and  temptations,  his  Christian  experience 
ripened.  Persons  of  all  ranks  went  to  consult  him  in  search  of  comfort 
and  peace.  Even  Conslantine  the  Great  intimated  in  a  letter  his 
veneration  for  this  Christian  Diogenes.     Through  his  prayers  bodily 


1G0         SECTION   I. — SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

diseases,  through  his  counsel  spiritual  ailments,  were  removed.  Twice 
—  in  the  year  311,  during  the  Diocletian  persecution,  and  in  the  year 
351,  during  the  height  of  the  Arian  controversy  —  he  suddenly 
appeared  in  Alexandria.  By  Christians  and  Pagans  regarded  as  a 
sign  from  God,  he  succeeded  in  converting,  -within  a  few  days,  thousands 
of  heathens.  Like-minded  persons  gathered  around  him  in  order  to 
enjoy  his  ministrations.  In  his  last  days  he  retired  from  "them,  and 
died  at  the  age  of  105  years  (in  356). 

2.  Nunneries.  —  As  early  as  the  second  century,  some  pious  virgins 
renounced  marriage  in  order  to  devote  themselves  wholly  to  God.  As 
their  sex  prevented  them  from  leading  the  life  of  anachorets,  they  were 
the  more  ready  to  fall  in  with  the  idea  of  a  monastic  life.  St.Antonius 
himself  had  given  the  first  example  of  a  nunnery,  when,  on  retiring  to 
the  wilderness,  he  founded  for  his  sister,  at  Coma  in  Egypt,  an  institu- 
tion destined  to  receive  such  virgins.  The  first  regular  nunnery  was 
instituted  hy  Pachomius,  and  presided  over  by  his  sister.  After  that 
time  their  number  rapidly  increased.  Their  president  was  called 
Ammas  (mother),  and  the  members  /*oro^at,  Sanctimoniales,  Koniue 
(in  Coptic  =  castce).  St.  Paula  of  Rome,  the  pupil  and  friend  of  St. 
Jerome,  became  the  patroness  of  female  Monasticism  in  the  West. 
She  and  her  daughter  Eustochium  followed  Jerome  to  Palestine,  and 
founded  in  his  vicinity,  near  Bethlehem,  three  nunneries. 

3.  St.  Basil  gave  to  the  monks  in  the  East  new  and  improved  rules, 
which  soon  came  into  general  and  almost  exclusive  use.  Since  the 
fifth  century  the  synods  gave  laws  to  monasteries  and  their  inmates. 
In  451  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  subjected  cloisters  to  the  jurisdiction 
of  bishops.  —  At  first  it  was  held  lawful  for  monks  to  return  into  the 
world,  although  this  step  was  regarded  as  blameworthy,  and  requiring 
penance.  But  from  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  monastic  vows  were 
regarded  as  absolutely  binding.  Hence  entrants  required  to  be  of  a 
certain  (canonical)  age,  and  to  have  passed  a  noviciate,  or  period  of 
probation  and  for  consideration.  Since  the  sixth  century,  not  only  a 
"propria  professio,"  but  even  a  "paterna  devotio"  was  held  to  be  bind- 
ing.—According  to  the  rule  of  St.  Basilius,  every  monastery  had  one 
or  more  presbyters  attached  to  it,  who  conducted  worship  and  admin- 
istered the  sacraments.  Up  to  the  tenth  century,  the  monks  themselves 
were  regarded  as  laymen,  but  were  distinguished  as  " Religiosi"  from 
the  "  Seculares."  Monasticism  was,  however,  considered  a  preparation 
for  the  clerical  office,  and  the  majority  of  bishops  were  taken  directly 
from  monasteries. — (Cf.  \  70,  3.) 

4.  The  Acoimetes  were  a  particular  class  of  monks,  whose  origin 
dates  from  the  fifth  century.  Studius,  a  Roman,  founded  for  them  at 
Constantinople  the  celebrated  monastery  of  Sludion.  They  derived 
their  peculiar  name  from  the  circumstance  that,  in  their  cloisters 


MONASTICISM.  161 

Ph'ine  worship  was  continuously  celebrated  night  and  day.  —  The 
Stvlites  were  a  peculiar  class  of  hermits.  The  best  known  among 
them  was  Symeon  Stylites,  Avho  at  the  commencement  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury lived  for  thirty  years,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Antioch,  on  a  pillar 
thirty-six  yards  high,  and  thence  preached  repentance  to  the  multitudes 
who  from  all  parts  crowded  to  see  and  hear  him.  Vanquished  by  the 
power  of  his  addresses,  thousands  of  Saracens  who  wandered  about  in 
that  neighbourhood  were  baptized.  The  best-known  Stylites,  next  to 
him,  are  a  certain  Daniel  (near  Constant,  ob.  489)  and  a  youngei 
Simeon  (near  Antioch,  ob.  596). 

5.  Even  after  Pachomius,  Hilarion,  and  Basilivs  had  given  fixed 
rules  to  the  various  monasteries,  individual  associations  of  hermits 
refused  to  submit  to  any  regulation.  Among  them  we  may  mention 
the  Sarabaites  in  Egypt,  and  the  Remobotii  in  Syria.  Irregular  asso- 
ciations of  monks  wandered  about  through  Mesopotamia,  under  the 
name  of  Bocrxot,  pdbulatores,  from  the  circumstance  that  they  lived  on 
herbs  or  roots.  Since  the  fifth  century  we  read  of  the  Gyrovagi  (as 
they  were  called),  in  Italy  and  Africa,  who,  under  the  designation  of 
monks,  led  a  dissolute  and  vagrant  life.  —  The  Euchites  and  Eusta- 
thians,  who  appeared  in  the  second  half  of  the  fourth  century,  were 
heretical  and  schismatic  monks.  The  former  —  who  are  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  heathen  Euchetai  ($  42,  5)  —  bore  also  the  names  of 
Messalians  and  Choreutai  (from  their  mystical  dances).  They  claimed 
to  have  attained  the  highest  point  of  spirituality,  and  on  that  ground 
to  be  above  the  law.  Pretending  to  be  absorbed  in  silent  prayer,  and 
honoured  with  heavenly  visions,  they  went  about  begging,  since  labour 
was  unbecoming  perfect  saints.  They  taught  that,  in  virtue  of  his 
descent  from  Adam,  every  man  brought  an  evil  spirit  with  him  into 
the  world,  who  could  only  be  overcome  by  prayer.  Thus  alone  would 
the  root  of  all  evil  be  removed.  After  that  was  done,  man  required  no 
longer  either  the  law,  the  Scriptures,  or  the  sacraments.  He  might 
give  reins  to  his  passions,  and  even  do  what  would  be  sinful  in  one  who 
was  still  under  the  law.  They  employed  the  lascivious  imagery  of 
sensual  love  to  describe  their  mystical  communion  with  God.  The 
Gospel  history  they  regarded  as  only  an  allegory,  and  considered  fire 
to  be  the  creative  principle  of  the  universe.  Flavian,  Bishop  of  An- 
tioch, by  artifices  and  accommodation,  obtained  knowledge  of  their 
secret  principles  and  practices  (381).  But,  despite  the  persecution  to 
which  they  were  subjected,  they  continued  till  the  sixth  century. — The 
Eustathians  derived  their  name  from  Eusiathius,  Bishop  of  Sebaste, 
the  founder  of  Monasticism  in  the  Eastern  provinces  of  the  empire. 
In  their  fanatical  contempt  of  marriage,  they  went  so  far  as  to  regard 
communion  with  married  persons  as  impure,  and  to  institute  religious 
services  of  their  own.  They  rejected  the  feasts  of  the  Church,  enjoined 
fasting  on  Sundays  and  feast-days  (g  31),  and  entire  abstinence  from 
animal  food.  Their  women  went  about  dressed  as  men.  They  also 
14* 


1G2        SECTION    I.  —  SECOND    PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

insisted  that  persons  of  property  should  give  up  all  their  possessions. 
Servants  left  their  masters,  wives  their  husbands,  to  join  the  commu- 
nion of  these  saints.  But  the  vigorous  measures  taken  by  the  Synod 
of  Gangra  in  Paphlagonia  (between  a.d.  360  and  370)  arrested  the 
spread  of  the  sect. 

\  45.  THE  CLERGY. 

Gradually  the  separation  between  the  clergy  and  laity  became 
more  and  more  marked,  while  the  superior  ecclesiastical  function- 
aries formed  a  spiritual  corresponding-  to  the  secular  aristocracy. 
It  was  maintained  that  tlie  priesthood  occupied  the  same  relation 
to  the  laity  as  the  soul  to  the  body.  Withal,  the  number  of 
aspirants  to  the  clerical  office  increased  to  a  degree  to  render  it 
necessary  for  the  State  to  regulate  their  admission  by  certain 
laws.  The  clergy  were  appointed  by  the  bishops,  but  with  the 
formal  concurrence  of  the  people.  In  the  East,  bishops  were 
chosen  by  all  the  prelates  of  a  province,  under  the  presidency 
of  the  metropolitan,  on  whom  also  devolved  the  ordination  of 
the  person  elected.  But  in  the  West  the  old  practice  continued, 
and  bishops,  clergy,  and  people  combined  in  making  the  choice. 
The  Council  of  Nice  interdicted  the  translation  of  bishops, 
characterizing  it  as  spiritual  adultery  (Eph.  v.  23,  etc.);  still 
the  practice  was  by  no  means  uncommon.  The  monarchical 
power  of  the  bishop  over  his  clergy  was  admitted  by  all  parties. 
According  to  the  practice  in  Home,  one-fourth  of  the  total 
revenues  of  a  congregation  went  to  the  bishop,  another  fourth 
to  the  rest  of  the  clergy,  a  third  portion  to  the  poor,  and  the 
remainder  was  employed  for  ecclesiastical  buildings  and  furni- 
ture. In  the  course  of  time  the  episcopal  functions  and  privi- 
leges of  the  chorejriscojjoi  were  more  and  more  limited  ;  they 
were  subordinated  to  the  city  bishops,  and  ultimately  (about  360) 
the  office  was  wholly  suppressed.  After  the  reaction  against 
episcopal  claims  had  ceased,  the  presbyters — especially  those  who 
ministered  in  affiliated  or  rural  congregations  —  obtained  a  posi- 
tion of  greater  independence  than  before  as  regarded  the  admin- 
istration of  worship  and  of  the  sacraments.  By  and  by  the 
extension  of  congregational  relationships  gave  rise  to  a  variety 
of  new  ecclesiastical  offices. 

1.  Training  of  the  Clergy. —  The  few  theological  schools  which  existed 
in  Alexandria,  in  Caesarea,  in  Antioch,  in  Edessa,  and  in  Nisibis,  were 
manifestly   quite   insufficient   for   the   requirements   of    the    Church. 


THE    CLERGY.  163 

Besides,  irnst  of  them  went  down  during  the  political  and  ecclesiastical 
turmoils  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries.  In  the  West  there  were  not 
any  such  institutions.  So  long  as  the  heathen  seminaries  of  learning 
flourished  at  Athens,  Alexandria,  Nicomedia,  etc.,  many  Christian 
youths  obtained  in  them  their  preparatory  literary  training,  and  after- 
wards supplemented  Avhat  was  wanting  in  a  religious  aspect  by 
retiring  into  solitude  or  into  monasteries,  and  there  devoting  them- 
selves to  asceticism  and  theological  study.  Others,  despising  classical 
training,  contented  themselves  with  a  monastic  education.  Others, 
again,  commenced  their  clerical  career,  when  still  boys,  as  lectores  or 
episcopal  clerks,  and  were  trained  under  the  superintendence  and 
direction  of  bishops  or  experienced  clergymen.  Augustine  constituted 
his  clergy  into  a  kind  of  monastic  community  [monaster ium  clericorum), 
and  transformed  it  into  a  clerical  seminary.  This  arrangement  met 
with  general  approbation  ;  and,  when  the  North  African  bishops  were 
expelled  by  the  Vandals  from  their  country,  was  imported  into  Sicily 
and  Sardinia. 

2.  Ultimately  the  Canonical  Age  of  priests  was  fixed  at  30  years, 
that  of  deacons  at  25.  Neophites,  those  who  had  been  baptized  when 
sick  (clinici),  penitents  and  energumenoi,  bigami,  mutilated  persons, 
eunuchs,  slaves,  actors,  dancers,  soldiers,  curials,  etc.,  were  not  to  be 
admitted  to  the  clerical  office.  At  so  early  a  period  as  the  fourth  century 
the  African  Church  insisted  that  candidates  for  the  ministry  should 
undergo  a  strict  examination  as  to  their  attainments  and  orthodoxy; 
Justinian  I.  required  that  the  bishops  should  at  least  inquire  into  the 
orthodoxy  of  candidates. 

3.  Ordination  (^ftpotow'a)  was  regarded  as  analogous  to  the  chrisma 
of  baptism,  and  hence  as  a  sacrament.  If  the  latter  admitted  into  the 
general  priesthood,  the  former  made  a  person  a  priest  in  a  special 
sense  ;  both  imparted  a  l<  character  indelebilis."  Its  eifect  was  regarded 
as  almost  magical.  To  impart  ordination  was  the  privilege  of  bishops 
only ;  but  presbyters  were  wont  to  assist  in  the  ordination  of  their 
colleagues.  The  principle,  "  ne  quis  vage  ordinetur,"  was  universally 
acted  upon  —  the  only  exception  being  in  the  case  of  missionaries. 
According  to  the  Canons,  a  person  was  not  to  be  ordained  to  any 
superior  ecclesiastical  office  till  he  had  passed  through  all  the  inferior 
grades,  commencing  with  the  sub-diaconate.  At  first,  ordination  con- 
sisted only  in  imposition  of  the  hands  ;  but  at  a  later  period  the  person 
set  apart  was,  after  the  analogy  of  baptism,  also  anointed  (with  chrism, 
i.  e.,  oil  mixed  with  balsam).  This  ceremony  was  preceded  by  the 
Lord's  Supper,  taken  fasting.  Since  the  sixth  century  candidates  had 
also  to  submit  to  Tonsure.  This  practice  was  first  introduced  in  the 
case  of  penitents ;  it  was  imitated  by  the  monks,  as  being  a  symbol  of 
humility,  and  from  them  it  passed  to  the  regular  clergy.  According 
to  the  Grecian  mode  of  tonsure  (tonsura  Paulil,  the  hair  of  the  whole 


1G4        SECTION    I.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 692  A   D.). 

b".ad  was  clipped  quite  short;  according  to  the  Roman  mode  (tonsura 
Fetri),  a  narrow  rim  of  hair  was  left  all  round  the  head   (either  id 
r  smembrance  of  Christ's  crown  of  thorns,  or  as  a  symbol  of  the  royal 
j-riesthood,  corona  sacerdotalis).     The  anniversaries  of  episcopal  ordi- 
nations (natales  Episcoporlim)  were  frequently  celebrated  as  festivals. 
Gradually,  Investiture,  or  the  solemn  putting  on  of  the  insignia  of 
office,  was  introduced.     It  formed  the  only  real  mark  of  distinction  in 
ordination  between  the  different  grades   of  the  clerical  office.  — The 
practice  among  the  clergy  of  wearing  a  peculiar  dress  on  all  ordinary 
occasions,  and  official  robes  when  administering  the  ordinances,  had  its 
origin  in  the  circumstance  that  the  clergy  still  retained  a  style  of  dress 
after  fashion  had  abolished  its  use  among  the  laity.     The  desire  to 
attach  a  symbolical  meaning  to  everything,  and  to  imitate  the  dresses 
worn  by  the  priests  under  the  Old  Testament  dispensation,  gave  rise  to 
various  other  modifications  and  additions. 

4.   Injunction  of  Celibacy.  —Following  the  precedent  of  the  Spanish 
Provincial  Synod  of  Elvira  (a.d.  305),  the  first  Council  of  Nice  (325) 
felt  inclined  to  enjoin  clerical  celibacy  throughout  the  whole  Church, 
at  least  so  far  as  the  "ordines  majores"  were  concerned.     But  this 
measure  was  opposed  by  Paphnutius,  a  confessor  and  Egyptian  bishop, 
who  from  his  youth  had  been  an  ascetic.     He  maintained  that  not  only 
abstinence,  but  marriage  also,  was  chastity  ;  and  his  influence  decided 
the  question.     The  former  practice  was  therefore  maintained,  which 
ruled  that  bishops,  presbyters,  and  deacons,  were  not  to  have  been  twice 
married,  nor  to  contract  a  marriage  after  their  ordination,  but  were 
allowed  to  use  their  own  discretion  in  reference  to  marriages  contracted 
before  their  ordination.     These  comparatively  liberal  views  continued 
for  a  considerable  period  to  be  entertained  in  the  East;  and  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  Eustathians  ($44,  5),  the  Synod  of  Gangra  defended  the 
sanctity  of  wedlock,  and  the  rights  of  married  priests.     In  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries  frequent  instances  of  married  bishops  occurred  (for 
example,  the  father  of  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Syne- 
sius  of  Ptolemais,  and  many  others).     Justinian  J.  prohibited  married 
persons  to  be  elected  bishops.     The  second  Trvllan  Council  (a.d.  092) 
confirmed   this   mandate,   prohibited   all   clergymen  from  marrying  a 
second  time;  but  allowed  presbyters  and  deacons,  before  their  ordina- 
tion, to  contract  a  first  marriage,  only  enjoining  a  temporary  separation 
during  the  period  of  their  service  at  the  altar.     To  this  a  special  pre- 
test against  the  unnatural  severity  of  the  Roman  Church  was  added. — 
In  the  West  the  principles  promulgated  in  Spain  were  generally  enter- 
tained, and  Leo  the  Great  applied  them  also  to  snb-deacons.     But  there 
also  the  frequent  instances  of  contravention  rendered  a  degree  of  indul- 
gence necessary. 

5.  The  number  of  Ecclesiastical  Functionaries  was  largely  increased 
by  the  employment  of  clerical  attendants  on  the  sick,  or  parabolanoi 


PATRIARCHAL     OFFICE     AND     PRIMACY.  165 

(from  itapaf3d%%ca$at  -tr[v  Cor-v),  and  grave-diggers  (xoniatai,  fossarii), 
whose  number  increased  to  a  very  great  extent  in  the  larger  cities. 
Where  a  bishop  -was  arrogant,  imperious,  or  prone  to  violent  measures, 
he  had  in  these  officials  a  kind  of  standing  army  and  body-guard.  In 
a.d.  418,  Theodosius  II.  limited  the  number  of  parabolanoi  in  Alexan- 
dria to  GOO,  and  that  of  the  copiatai  in  Constantinople  to  950.  The 
property  of  the  churches  was  administered  by  oi.xovo/.ioi  ;  their  causes 
were  carried  through  the  courts  of  law  by  special  advocates  [Xxbixoi, 
ovvbixoi,  defensores)  ;  the  proceedings  at  ecclesiastical  assemblies  were 
taken  down  by  notarii,  taxvyparpoc  Besides  these  officials,  record-keepers 
(xaptofyvhaxis),  librarians,  thesaurarii  (axtvofv7Mxs$),  etc.,  wers  employed. 
All  these  were  unordained  persons.  Among  the  online*  majores,  also, 
new  grades  were  introduced.  In*  the  fourth  century  an  archdeacon  was 
placed  over  the  deacons.  He  was  the  right-hand  man,  the  substitute 
and  plenipotentiary  of  the  bishop,  and  frequently  succeeded  to  that 
office.  The  College  of  Priests  also  was  presided  over  by  an  arch- 
presbyter.  The  superintendence  of  several  congregations  was  en- 
trusted to  a  city  presbyter,  who  was  called  the  periodeutes,  or  visita- 
tor.  —  The  seniores  plebis  of  the  African  churches  were  lay  elders,  and 
not  ordained  in  the  same  manner  as  the  clergy.  The  office  of  deacon- 
esses gradually  lost  in  importance,  and  ultimately  ceased  entirely. 

§46.   THE   PATRIARCHAL  OFFICE   AND   THE   PRIMACY. 

Comp.  Le  Quien,  Oriens  Christianus.  Par.  1740.  3  Vill.  fol. — Janus, 
de  origg.  Patr.  chr.  Vit.  1718. —  Wilisch,  kirchl.  Geogr.  u.  Statistik. 
(Eccl.  Geogr.  and  Statist.).     I.  56  etc. 

The  institution  of  Metropolitan  Sees  (§  30)  had,  during  the 
period  preceding  that  which  we  describe,  prepared  the  way  for 
introducing  hierarchical  distinctions  among  bishops.  This  move- 
ment was  greatly  furthered  by  the  political  division  of  the  empire 
under  Gonstantine  the  Greai.  The  bishops  of  capital  cities  now 
claimed  a  spiritual  sway  analogous  to  that  which  the  imperial 
governors  exercised  in  secular  matters.  But  former  privileges 
and  later  claims  prevented  anything  like  a  complete  correspond- 
ence  between  the  secular  and  the  hierarchical  arrangements. 
The  first  Council  of  Nice  (325)  expressly  confirmed  the  prepon- 
derance of  the  Bishops  of  Borne,  Alexandria,  and  Antioch,  which 
these  prelates  had  long  enjoyed.  The  second  general  Council 
of  Constantinople  (in  381 )  exempted  the  Bishop  of  Constanti- 
nople (bia  to  iliau  avt7]v  viav  'Pa/t^v)  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Metropolitan  Heraclea,  in  Thracia,  and  assigned  to  him  the  first 
'auk  after  the  Bishop  of  Rome.     The  bishops  thus  distinguished 


166        SECTION    I.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

core  the  title  of  Patriarchs  —  a  designation  which  the  Roman 
bishops  refused,  in  order  not  to  be  on  the  same  level  with  other 
prelates,  choosing  in  preference  the  title  of  Papa,  lianas.     The 
fourth  general  Council  of  Chalcedon  (a.d.  451)  placed  the  Pa- 
triarch of  the  metropolis   of  the  East  on  a  footing  of  perfect 
equality  with  his  colleague  of  Rome  ;  put  the  three  dioceses  of 
Thracia,  Pontus,  and  Asia  under  his  jurisdiction  ;  and  invested 
him  with  the  power  of  receiving  complaints  against  the  metro- 
politans of  any  diocese.    The  same  council  also  raised  the  Bishop 
of  Jerusalem,  whom  the   Council  of  Nice   had   in   325   already 
declared  as  entitled  to  special  honours,  to  the  dignity  of  Patri- 
arch, and  invested  him  with  supremacy  over  the  whole  of  Palestine, 
while  formerly  that  prelate  had  been  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Metropolitan  of  Ceesarea.     Still,  some  metropolitans — and  among 
them  especially  those  of  Salamis  in  Cyprus,  of  Milan,  of  Aquileia, 
and  of  Ravenna,  in  Italy — refused  to  acknowledge  that  their  sees 
were,  in  any  sense,  subject  to  their  respective  patriarchs.  —  The 
district  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  was  called  paroehia, 
rto^wixia,  that  of  the  metropolitan  2^'ovincia,  Erfap^'a,  that  of  the 
patriarch  dicecesis,  SioJx^.c: ;  but  these  terms  were  often  inter- 
changed. —  The  patriarchs  were  entitled  to  have  at  the  Imperial 
Court  resident  legates,   who  were  called  Apocrisiarians.     The 
ovyxi-k-koL    acted   as   clerical   councillors   and   assistants   of  the 
patriarchs.  —  From  the  sixth  centnry  the  popes  began  to  confirm 
the  election  of  oriental  metropolitans,  by  sending  them  the  pal- 
lium, as  the  archiepiscopal  insignium.  —  From  this  period  it  was 
considered  to  be  necessary  for  the  validity  of  a  general  council, 
that  all  the  five  patriarchs  should  be  represented  in  them.     But 
when  in  637  Jerusalem,  in  638  Antioch,  and  in  640  Alexandria, 
became  subject  to  the  Saracens,  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
remained  the  sole  representative  of  that  dignity  in  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  Roman  Empire.     His  Roman  colleague  was  his 
only  rival,  and  he  was  no  way  able  to  compete  with  him.     On 
the  contrary,  the  pretensions  of  Rome  to  the  primacy  rapidly 
secured  universal  assent. 

1.  The  Rivalry  between  Rome  and  Byzantium. — (Comp.  besides'the  works 
referred  to  in  g  30,  4  :  ArcJiinard,  les  origines  de  l'egl.  Rom.  2  Voll 
Par.  1851. — //.  G.  ffasse,  iiber  d.  Vereinio;.  d.  geistl.  u.  weltl.  Ober^e- 
walt  im  rom.  Kirchenstaate  (On  the  Combinat.  of  Spir.  and  Secul.  Su- 
premacy in  the  States  of  the  Ch.).  Ilaarl.  1852.  4to.  —  F.  Muassen 
(Rom.  Cath.),  der  Primat  d.  Bi»  di.  zu  Rom  u.  d.  altesten  Patriarchal- 


PATRIARCHAL     OFFICE     AND     PRIMACY.  167 

kirchen  (The  Primacy  of  the  Bish.  of  Rome  and  of  the  oldest  Patr.  Ch.). 
Bonn  1853.) — Since  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (a.d.  451)  the  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople  alone  claimed  equal  power  and  honours  with  the 
Bishop  of  Rome.  Justinian  I.  gave  indeed  to  the  Bishop  of  Constanti- 
nople the  designation  of  (Ecumenical  Patriarch  ;  hut  this  remained  an 
empty  title,  while  the  Bishop  of  Rome  took  every  opportunity  to  declare, 
by  word  and  deed,  that,  according  to  Divine  appointment,  he  exercised 
supremacy  over  the  whole  Church,  and  over  all  prelates,  including  the 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  Even  in  so  far  as  the  principles  were 
concerned  on  which  each  of  these  two  prelates  rested  his  claims,  those 
of  Rome  were  much  more  full  and  intelligible.  In  the  East  the  epis- 
copal sees  ranked  according  to  the  political  importance  attaching  to 
the  cities  in  which  they  were  placed.  As  Constantinople  was  the  resi- 
dence of  the  ruler  of  the  whole  olxov/xtiv;,  its  bishop  was  likewise  held 
to  be  oecumenical.  But,  in  the  opinion  of  the  world,  the  position  of 
ancient  Rome  was  higher  than  that  of  her  modern  rival.  All  the  proud 
reminiscences  of  history  clustered  around  the  capital  of  the  West.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  visible  decline  and  the  threatening  decay  of  the 
empire  were  associated  with  Byzantium.  But  neither  did  the  West 
admit  the  principle  on  which  the  pretensions  of  the  see  of  Constanti- 
nople were  founded.  Not  the  will  of  the  Emperor,  it  was  argued,  nor 
the  growing  decrepitude  of  the  empire,  could  decide  the  spiritual  rank 
of  a  bishop  ;  the  history  of  the  Church  and  the  will  of  its  Divine 
Founder  and  Lord  must  determine  the  question.  Measured  by  this 
standard,  the  see  of  Constantinople  was  not  only  inferior  to  those  of 
Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem,  but  even  to  those  in  many  cities 
whose  bishops  indeed  were  not  metropolitans,  but  whose  churches  had 
been  founded  by  apostles  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  Rome  undoubtedly 
occupied  the  first  rank.  There  the  two  princes  of  the  apostles  had 
lived,  taught,  witnessed,  and  suffered ;  their  graves  and  bones  were 
there.  More  than  that,  Peter,  whom  the  Lord  Himself  had  made  pri- 
mate among  the  apostles,  had  been  the  first  occupant  of  the  see  of 
Rome,  and  the  Roman  bishops  were  his  successors  and  the  heirs  of 
his  privileges.  The  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  depended  for  the  sup- 
port of  his  claims  only  on  the  influence  of  the  court.  But  frequently 
that  very  court,  which  had  seconded  and  fostered  his  claims,  deserted 
him,  in  order,  through  the  wide  influence  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  to 
strengthen  its  tottering  power  in  Italy.  Again,  he  was  selected  and 
deposed  by  the  court ;  too  often  he  fell  a  sacrifice  to  its  intrigues,  or 
became  the  tool  of  its  policy  and  the  advocate  of  its  heretical  views. 
How  favourable,  in  comparison  with  this,  was  the  position  of  the  Bishop 
of  Rome !  In  his  selection  the  court  could  but  rarely  exercise  any 
influence,  much  more  rarely  could  it  bring  about  his  deposition.  While 
the  East  was  torn  by  a  number  of  ecclesiastical  disputes,  in  which  truth 
and  error  (if  only  for  a  time)  alternately  prevailed,  the  West,  ranged 
under  the  leadership  of  Rome,  presented  almost  always  a  close  and 


1G8         SECTION   I.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

united  phalanx.  To  Rome  disputants  appealed  for  ultimate  decision, 
oppressed  parties  for  advocacy  and  protection  ;  and  since  the  Bishops 
of  Rome  always  lent  their  authority  to  truth  and  right,  the  party 
whose  case  was  supported  by  them  always  ultimately  carried  off  the 
victory.  Even  at  that  period,  "  Roma  locuta  est"  was  in  itself  a  power. 
Thus,  in  the  opinion  of  Christendom,  Rome  gradually  rose  in  authority, 
and  soon  it  claimed,  as  of  right,  what  at  first  personal  confidence  or 
the  urgency  of  circumstances  had  accorded  in  special  and  individual 
instances.  Besides,  during  the  lapse  of  ages,  Rome  always  learned, 
but  never  forgot.  The  consciousness  of  common  interests,  supported 
by  a  deep  hierarchical  spirit,  had  sprung  up  and  gathered  around 
the  chair  of  Peter,  —  influences  hy  which  even  worthless  or  weak 
popes  were  upheld.  Thus,  despite  all  opposition  and  resistance, 
Rome  steadily  advanced  towards  the  mark  which  all  along  it  had  kept 
in  view.  At  last  the  East  was  only  able  to  preserve  and  assert  its 
ecclesiastical  independence  by  an  act  of  complete  and  final  separation. 

2.  History  of  the  Pretensions  of  Rome  to  the  Primacy.  —  The  Council 
of  Nice  (325)  assigned  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome  spiritual  supremacy  over 
the  (ten)   suburbicarian  provinces,  i.e.,  over  Middle  and  Lower  Italy, 
and  the  islands  of  Sardinia,  Corsica,  and  Sicily.     This  arrangement 
had  been  made  in  conformity  with  the  political  position  of  Rome  at  the 
time.     But  long   before  that,  Rome   enjoyed  a  much  more  extensive 
authority  (§30,  4),  from  the  circumstance  that  it  was  the  only  sedes 
apostolica  in  the  West.     Indeed,  when  any  difficulty  occurred,  it  was 
the  practice  in  all  parts  of  the  West  to  apply  to  Rome  for  guidance. 
As  early  as  the  fourth  century,  the  official  answers  to  these  appeals 
assumed  a  tone  of  command  rather  than  of  advice  (epistol^e  decre- 
tai.es).     But  until  the  year  343,  no  attempt  was  made  to  assert  any 
claim  of  authority  over  the  East.     But  in  that  year,  the  pressure  of 
circumstances  obliged  the  Council  of  Sardica  (g  50,  2)  to  decree  that 
Julius,    Bishop    of    Rome,    had,    as    the    consistent    and    trustworthy 
advocate  of  orthodoxy,  the  right  of  hearing  appeals  from  bishops  in  any 
part  of  the  empire;  and,  if  he  found  the  complaints  just,  of  appointing 
judges  and  instituting  a  fresh  trial,  the  verdict  in  that  case  to  be  final. 
But  this  decree  applied  only  to  Julius  as  an  individual,  and  must  be 
regarded  as  only  a  temporary  expedient  adopted  by  a  minority  which 
was  hardly  beset.     Hence  it  scarcely  excited  attention,  and  was  soon 
forgotten.     But  Rome  did  not  forget  it ;  and  in  402-417,  Innocent  I. 
made  it  the  basis  of  a  claim  to  the  effect  that  all  causa;  majores  should 
be  submitted  to  the  Apostolic  See  for  decision.     Still,  even  then  the 
claim  to  primacy  was  based  only  upon  human  authority.     Leo  the 
Great  (440-4G1)  was  the  first,  in  his  instruction  to  his  legates  at  the 
Council  of  Ephesus  (449),  to  rest  it  on  Divine  authority,  by  appealing 
to  Matt.'xvi.   18    (§30,  3).     Formerly,  Western    authorities,  such    as 
Hilary,  Ambrose,  Jerome,  and  Augustine,  and  Innocent  I.  himself,  had 
adopted  the  interpretation  of  the  passage  by  Cyprian,  who  applied  it 


PATRIARCHAL     OFFICE     AND     PRIMACY.  169 

to  all  the  apostles,  and  hence  to  all  bishops ;  while  they  understood 
the  word  rft'-rpa  as  applying  either  to  the  confession  of  Peter,  or  to  the 
person  of  Christ.  Leo  L,  however,  applied  it  to  Peter  exclusively,  and 
to  the  Pope  as  his  sole  successor.  Of  course,  the  Fathers  of  Ephesus, 
and  afterwards  also  those  of  Chalcedon  (a.d.  451,  comp.  I 52,  4), 
refused  to  receive  this  interpretation.  The  claims  of  Leo  received 
fuller  acknowledgments  in  the  West.  On  the  occasion  of  a  resistance 
to  them  by  Hilary,  Bishop  of  Aries,  the  Pope  procured  from  the  youth- 
ful Emperor  Valentinian  III.  a  rescript  (a.d.  445),  which  ordained 
that  in  future  none  should  venture  to  resist  or  to  doubt  the  primacy  of 
the  Pope,  which  the  Lord  Himself  had  instituted.  The  suburbicarian 
bishops  of  Italy  readily  submitted.  The  Synodus  palmaris  of  Rome 
(a.d.  503),  which  Theodoric,  King  of  the  East  Goths,  had  summoned 
to  inquire  into  the  charges  brought  against  Pope  Si/mmachns,  absolved 
the  latter  without  an  investigation  ;  and  Ennodius  of  Pavia  openly 
proclaimed  the  principle  that,  since  the  Pope  was  judge  over  all,  he 
could  not  be  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  any.  Still,  the  metropolitans 
of  Northern  Italy  (of  Aquihia,  Milan,  and  Ravenna)  steadily  opposed 
these  views,  and  for  centuries  maintained  the  independence  of  their 
sees.  However  great  their  reverence  for  the  "  cathedra  Petri,"  the 
bishops  of  North  Africa  ascribed  to  the  Pope  only  a  "  principatus 
honoris ; "  at  all  periods  they  firmly  resisted  the  aggressions  of  Rome ; 
and  when  Apiarius,  a  presbyter  who  had  been  deposed,  sought  pro- 
tection in  Rome  (a.d.  418),  they  interdicted,  on  pain  of  excommunica- 
tion, every  appeal  "ad  transmarina  judicia."  They  also  refused  to 
acknowledge  the  validity  of  the  decree  of  the  Council  of  Sardica,  even 
when  Pope  Zosimus  pretended  it  had  come  from  the  Council  of  Nice. 
—  In  a.  d.  590-604,  Gregory  the  Great  still  admitted  that  the 
Patriarchs  of  Alexandria  and  Antioch  occupied  the  same  rank  with 
himself,  and  that  even  the  other  bishops  were  subject  to  his  jurisdiction 
only  iu  ca.se  of  an  accusation  preferred,  but  that  in  other  respects  their 
office  was  the  same  as  his.  That  prelate  also  refused  the  proud  title 
of  "  episcopus  universalis,"  which  Johannes  Jejnnator,  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  had  shortly  before  assumed  (a.  d.  587),  and  in  token 
of  humility  called  himself  "  servus  servorum  Dei."  But  the  protest  of 
Rome  against  the  assumption  of  the  see  of  Constantinople  remained 
unheeded,  till  the  usurper  and  murderer  Phocas  interdicted  the  use  of 
this  appellation  to  his  patriarch,  and  acknowledged  the  see  of  Peter  as 
the  "caput  omnium  ecch'siarum"  (a.  d.  GOG). — The  firm  and  energetic 
heaving  of  Rome  during  tne  Monothelete  controversy  (§  52,  8)  secured 
for  it,  another  brilliant  triumph.  The  sixth  cecum.  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople condescended,  in  680,  to  make  to  the  Pope  a  humble  report 
of  its  proceedings,  and  to  request  his  confirmation  of  them.  However, 
the  SEroxD  Trullan  Council,  a.  d.  692  ($  63,  3),  amply  made  up  for 
this  by  a  sweeping  condemnation  of  the  decrees  of  Rome,  thereby  lay- 
ing i.hc  foundation  for  the  later  schism  between  the  East  and  the  West. 
15 


170         SECTION    I.  —  SECOND    PERIOD    (323-692  A.  D.)  . 

III.  THEOLOGICAL  SCIENCE  AND  LITERATURE. 
§  47.   THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOLS  AND  TENDENCIES. 

The  ancient  Church  attained  its  highest  stage  of  literary  emi. 
nence  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  As  the  number  of 
seminaries  of  theological  learning  was  very  small  (§  45,  1),  most 
of  the  great  theologians  of  that  period  were  self-taught.  But 
the  fewer  the  outward  means,  opportunities,  and  stimuli  for  call- 
ing forth  and  developing  the  mental  activity,  the  greater  must 
have  been  the  intellectual  resources  of  that  period,  and  the 
stronger  its  general  impetus  towards  such  culture.  These  schools 
still,  however  few,  served  as  points  whence  a  more  scientific  theo- 
logy issued,  and  where  it  found  a  rallying-place.  Their  extinc- 
tion marks  the  general  decadence  of  scientific  studies  and  of 
original  investigation.  Probably  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century 
—  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  a.  d.  451  —  formed  the  turning- 
point.  After  that  period,  science,  and  in  general  every  ecclesi- 
astical movement,  stagnated  or  declined. — The  theological  direc- 
tions prevalent  at  the  time  may  be  distinguished  as  those  of 
traditionalism  and  of  free  scientific  inquiry.  The  collisions 
between  them  gave  rise  to  the  various  dogmatic  discussions  of 
that  period.  The  former  of  these  parties  defended  the  results 
of  the  development  of  doctrine  already  achieved,  as  being  esta- 
blished and  sanctioned  by  tradition,  and  even  sought  conclusively 
to  settle,  in  the  same  manner,  the  doctrinal  questions  which 
arose  in  the  progress  of  subjective  development.  The  latter  of 
these  schools  represented  the  cause  of  the  freedom  of  Christian 
intellect,  and  resisted  every  attempt  at  narrowing  the  province 
of  free  inquiry.  The  first  had  its  most  numerous  adherents 
among  the  Latins  of  Italy  and  North  Africa;  the  second,  among 
the  Grecians  of  the  East  and  of  Egypt.  But  this  division  was 
not  by  any  means  complete,  nor  was  the  distinction  perfectly 
marked  and  established.  From  the  lively  intercourse  subsisting 
between  different  parts  of  the  empire,  the  germs  of  traditionalism 
were  carried  to  the  East  (and  especially  to  Egypt),  while  those 
of  scientific  and  philosophical  inquiry  were  also  brought  to  the 
West ;  and  this  interchange  and  admixture  gave  rise  to  various 
intermediate  views. — Bu+  after  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  the 


THEOLOGICAL    SCHOOLS    AND    TENDENCIES.        171 

spirit  of  free  scientific  inquiry  gradually  disappeared  in  the  East- 
ern as  in  the  Western  Church,  and  a  traditionalism,  which  became 
more  and  more  ossified,  attained  supreme  and  unlimited  sway. 
Political  troubles,  hierarchical  aggressions,  a  narrow-minded 
monasticism,  and  the  spread  of  barbarism,  arrested  every  liberal 
or  scientific  movement.  In  place  of  the  youthful  vigour  of  inde- 
pendent inquiry,  we  find  the  industry  of  mere  compilers,  or  labo- 
rious but  vain  attempts  to  appropriate  the  intellectual  products 
of  centuries  gone  by.  Such  was  now  the  authority  of  the  older 
Fathers,  and  so  binding,  in  common  esteem,  were  their  dicta, 
that  the  discussions  in  councils  were  almost  entirely  carried  on 
by  citations  from  those  Fathers  whose  orthodoxy  was  ac- 
knowledged. 


'ov 


1.   The  School  of  Anlioch  may  be  regarded  as  representing  liberal 
and  scientific  investigations  ($  39,  6).     At  first,  following  in  the  wake 
of  the  inquiries  and  general  principles  of  Origen,  it  became,  in  the 
course  of  its  development,  independent  of,  and  indeed  frequently  di- 
verged from,  that  great  teacher.     More  especially  did  it  substitute  a 
method  of  grammatical  and  historical  exegesis  for  the  allegorical  inter- 
pretations of  the  Origenists,  and  calm,  sober  reflection  in  place  of  their 
extravagant  speculations.    It  endeavoured  to  ascertain  the  plain  mean- 
ing of  the  Scriptures,  and  to  derive  from  them  a  purely  Biblical  theo- 
logy.    Thoroughly  opposed   to   all   mysticism,  these   divines  viewed 
Christianity  in  its  intellectual  and  rational  aspect ;  and,  by  a  process 
of  clear  and  logical  thinking,  sought  to  deduce  its  dogmas.     Hence 
they  attempted  carefully  to  distinguish  between  the  Divine  and  the 
human  in  Christ  and  in  Christianity,  to  view  each  of  these  elements 
separately,  and  to  secure  its  right  place  especially  for  the  human  ele- 
ment.   But  in  this  they  frequently  strayed  into  rationalistic  sentiments. 
Still  the  school  impressed  its  stamp  on  the  East  properly  so  called.    Its 
most  celebrated   representatives   were  Diodorus   of  Tarsus,   and  his 
pupils,  the  three  great  Antiochians  (as  they  are  called) :  Theodorus, 
JonN  Chrysostom,  and  Theodoret.  —  Diodorus  was  first  a  monk  and 
presbyter  at  Antioch,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Tarsus  in  Cilicia  (ob.  394). 
In  consequence  of  a  later  condemnation  of  the  Church  (g  52,  6),  his 
numerous  writings  were  suppressed.    He  gave  to  the  school  its  peculiar 
dogmatic  character. — Theodorus,  Bishop  of  Mopsuestia  in  Cilicia  (ob. 
429),  was  a  friend  and  fellow-student  of  Chrysostom.     The  ban  of  the 
fifth  oecumenical  Council  of  Constantinople  attached  also  to  his  writings 
and  teaching.     At  a  later  period,  the  Syrian  Church  honoured  him 
with  the  designation  of  "Inferpres."     He  was  considered  one  of  the 
deepest  thinkers  of  the  age. — John  of  Antioch,  whose  name  was  after- 
wards almost  forgotten  in  the  title  of  Chrysostom,  by  which  he  was 
designated.    His  pious  mother  Anthusa,  who  had  early  become  a  widow, 


172         SECTION    I. — SECOND    PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

Destowed  groat  care  on  his  education.  lie  attended  the  rhetorical 
school  of  Lilian  tun,  and  practised  at  Antioch  with  great  success  as  at 
advocate.  But  after  his  baptism  he  gave  up  this  profession,  becan,<» 
the  pupil  of  Diodorus,  and  a  monk  and  presbyter  iu  his  native  city. 
Ultimately,  his  brilliant  eloquence  procured  for  him  the  patriarchal 
see  of  Constantinople  (a.  d.  397).  On  his  activity  there,  comp.  g  51,  3. 
He  died  in  exile,  a.  d.  407.  Along  with  Athanasius  and  the  three 
Cappadocians  ($  75),  he  may  be  ranked  as  the  most  eminent  of  the 
Greek  Fathers  (Ed.  of  his  works  by  M.  Montfaucon.  Par.  1713.  13 
Voll.  fob). — Theodoret,  Bishop  of  Cyros  in  Syria,  was  a  pupil  of  The- 
odoras (ob.  457).  He  was  the  most  learned  and  fertile  writer  of  his 
age  —  a  profound  thinker,  and  a  diligent  pastor,  a  man  of  straightfor- 
ward and  noble  character,  and  one  who  could  avoid  the  extreme  views 
of  his  cotemporaries  (g  52,  3,  4).  Still,  during  the  imperial  attempts 
at  bringing  about  a  union,  he  was  branded  as  a  heretic  (£  52,  6).  Best 
ed.  of  his  works  by  J.  Sirmond  et  J.  Gamier.  Par.  1G42 ;  and  by  J.  L. 
Schulze.  Halle  17G9. 

2.  The  theology  of  the  national,  East  Syrian  Church,  which  had  for 
its  seminary  the  theological  school  of  Edessa  ($  39,  6),  was  still  more 
bound  by  tradition,  than  that  of  the  Antioch  (Greek)  Syrian  Church. 
There  the  oriental  spirit  reigned  still  more  absolutely,  showing  itself  in 
a  play  of  fancy  with  excessive  pathos  and  exuberant  imagery,  a  leaning 
to  theosophy,  mysticism  and  asceticism,  fertility  in  hymnology,  addi- 
tions to  the  liturgy,  the  service  of  the  Church,  and  constitution,  com- 
bined with  doctrinal  stability.  In  exegesis  it  adopted,  like  that  of 
Antioch,  the  opposite  of  Origen's  allegorical  arbitrariness,  but  was 
not  scientific  and  critical,  but  rather  purely  practical  and  mystical ; 
hence  the  errors  of  Origen's  school  were  rationalizing,  those  of  the 
school  of  Edessa  anthropomorphistic,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Audians 
($  62).  But  their  local  proximity,  and  the  active  intercourse  between 
the  teachers  and  pupils  of  both  schools,  resulted  in  a  greater  agreement 
between  them.  In  the  christological  controversies,  especially,  the 
school  at  Edessa,  and  its  daughter  at  Nisibis,  attached  themselves 
closely  to  the  interests  and  doctrines  of  the  school  at  Antioch  ($  52,  3). 
The  most  renowned  teachers  of  the  East  Syrian  Church  were : 

(1.)  Jambs  of  Nisibis  (ob.  circa  350),  founder  of  the  school  there, 
champion  against  the  Arian  heresy,  distinguished  by  zeal  in  performing 
his  duties  as  a  bishop,  and  one  of  the  most  revered  fathers  of  tho 
Syrian  Church. 

(2.)  Epiiraem  Syrus,  deacon,  and  second  founder  of  the  theological 
school  at  Edessa  (350),  the  most  celebrated  poet,  exegete,  and  preacher 
of  the  national  Syrian  Church  (propheia  Syrorum),  was  a  zealous 
adherent  of  Nicene  orthodoxy,  and  in  old  age  made  (372)  a  journey 
to  Cappadocia,  to  become  acquainted  with  Basil. 

(3.)  Ibas  of  Edessa  (ob.  circa  470)  teacher,  then  bishop  at  Edessa, 
translator  of  the  writings  of  Diodorus  and  Theodoras.     Like  them  he 


THEOLOGICAL    SCHOOLS    AND    TENDENCIES.       173 
i 

was  accused  of  Nestorianism,  and  acquitted  at  Chalcedon  (451),  but 
pronounced  a  heretic  at  Constantinople  (553). —  (Cf.  \  52,  4,  6.) 

3.  After  the  discussion  between  Dionysius  of  Alexandria  and  his 
namesake  of  Rome  (§  40,  5),  the  theolotjy  of  Alexandria  had  assumed 
a  twofold  type.  The  Old  School  remained  faithful  to  the  views  of 
Origen,  and  generally  assumed  a  position  antagonistic  to  the  theology 
and  tradition  of  the  West,  asserting  the  right  of  free  and  unrestricted 
investigation.  While  revering  the  memory  of  Origen,  the  representa- 
tives of  that  school  discarded  most  of  his  extravagant  speculations. 
The  best  known  theologian  of  that  party  was  Ewtebius  of  Cozsarea  (ob. 
338)  the  historian.  He  was  on  terms  of  intimate  friendship  with 
Famphilus  the  confessor,  whom  he  called  father,  and  whose  admiration 
of  Origen  he  shared.  He  also  enjoyed  the  fullest  confidence  of  C<>n- 
stantine  the  Great,  who  furthered  his  historical  studies  by  giving  him 
access  to  all  the  archives  of  the  empire.  His  learning  was  extensive, 
and  his  diligence  untiring  ;  but  he  was  not  profound,  and  lacked  specu- 
lative talent  and  doctrinal  consistency.  All  the  more  credit  is,  there- 
fore, due  to  his  comprehensive  and  laborious  historical  investigations. 
He  and  most  of  his  friends  were  semi-Arians.  The  school  became 
extinct  during  the  latter  half  of  the  fourth  century.  Since  that  time, 
enthusiastic  admirers  of  Origen  have  not,  indeed,  been  wanting;  but 
their  influence  on  the  development  of  the  Church  has  been  small, 
and  the  suspicion  of  heterodoxy  has  always  attached  to  them  (comp. 
I  52,  6).7 

4.  It  was  otherwise  with  the  New  Alexandrian  School,  whose  influ- 
ence became,  after  the  fourth  century,  co-extensive  with  that  of  Alex- 
andrian culture  generally.  This  party  also  (at  least  the  earlier  repre- 
sentatives) sincerely  respected  the  memory  of  Origen.  and  in  their 
speculative  treatment  of  Christian  doctrine  followed  in  his  footsteps. 
But  they  disowned  his  unbiblical  errors,  and  consistently  carried  out 
what  was  sound  in  his  teaching.  More  especially  did  this  school,  by 
firm  adherence  to  the  doctrine  of  the  eternal  generation  of  the  Son, 
keep  clear  of  all  svbordinatianism.,  and  thus  draw  more  closely  to  the 
divines  of  the  Western  Church  (?  40,  f>).  A  predilection  for  what  in 
Christianity  was  mysterious,  and  a  dislike  of  the  intellectual  tendency 
in  theology,  were  the  characteristics  of  the  school  of  Alexandria  as 
contrasted  with  that  of  Antioch.  It  regarded  the  union  of  the  Divine 
and  the  human  in  Christ  and  in  Christianity  as  a  glorious  mystery, 
which  it  was  impossible  to  analyze  or  explain.  But  it  lost  sight  of  the 
human  aspect  of  these  realities,  or  rather  merged  the  human  in  the 
Divine.  While  energetically  maintaining  the  intimate  connection  of 
these  two  elements,  it  lost  sight  of  their  diversity,  and  fell  into  an 
error  the  opposite  from  that  towards  which  the  school  of  Antioch 
verged.  Its  leading  and  most  orthodox  representatives  were  Athanasius, 
the  three  great  Cappadocians    (Basilius  and  the  two  Gregorys)  and 

15* 


174       SECTION    I.  —  SECOND    PERIOD    (.'S23— 692  A.  D.)  . 

Didymus  the  Blind.  The  leaven  of  error  in  the  New  Alexandrian 
School  appeared  for  the  first  time  in  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  although 
that  Father  was  still  regarded  as  orthodox.  After  that  period  the 
school  rapidly  declined.  The  tendency  of  the  teaching  of  Synesius  was 
philosophical  rather  than  theological.  Almost  his  counterpart  was 
Epiphanius,  whose  glowing  zeal  for  traditionary  orthodoxy  inclined 
him  towards  the  New  Alexandrian  School,  although  he  had  not  the 
least  sympathy  with  its  speculative  tendencies. 

(1.)  Probably  the  most  prominent  ecclesiastical  personage  in  the  fourth 
century  was  Athanasius,  whom  his  successors,  in  acknowledgment  of 
his  merits,  have   called    "  Pater  orthodoxies."     He  was   every  inch  a 
Church-Father,  and  his  history  is  at  the  same  time  that  of  the  Church 
of  his  day  (comp.  $  50).     His  was  a  life  of  heroism  in  the  midst  of 
contests,  of  faithfulness,  of  power  and  wisdom  in  construction  ;  nor  was 
he  less  great  when  defeated  than  when  successful;    rich  and  varied 
talents,  energy,  determination,  earnestness  and  gentleness,  extensive 
learning  and  humble  faith,  were  beautifully  blended  in  him.     In  319 
he  became  a  deacon  in  Alexandria.     Alexander,  the  bishop  of  that  see, 
perceiving  his  talents,  took  him  to  the  Council  of  Nice  (325),  where  he 
first  engaged  in  that  great  contest  to  which  his  life  was  devoted.    Soon 
afterwards,  when    Alexander  died,  Athanasius  was    chosen    his    suc- 
cessor (328).     He  held  the  episcopal  office  for  forty-five  years:  during 
that  period  he  was  ten  times  banished,  and  passed  twenty  years  in 
exile,  chiefly  in  the  West  [ob.  373).     His  writings  are  mainly  directed 
against  Arianism.    (His  works  edited  by  Monlfaucon.  Par.  1698,  3  vols.) 
(2.)    Basil   the   Great,    Bishop   of  Cassarea   in    Cappadocia — his 
native  city  —  was  truly  a  "  royal"  personage  in  history  (ob.  379).     His 
mother  Emmelia,  and  his  grandmother  Macrina,  early  planted  the  seeds 
of  piety  in  his  breast.     When  studying  at  Athens  he  entered  into  close 
friendship  with  his  like-minded  countryman,    Gregory  of  Nazianzus. 
This  connection,  based  upon  attachment  to  the  Church  and  to  science 
—  which    afterwards    also    embraced    Gregory,  Bishop   of  Nyssa,  the 
brother  of  Basil  —  lasted  through  life.     Having  spent  a  considerable 
period  in  ascetic  retirement,  and  distributed  his  property  among  the 
poor,  Basil  first  became  presbyter  and  then  bishop.     His  life  was  that 
of  a  faith  which  overcomes  the  world,  of  self-denying  love,  of  high  aims, 
and  of  royal  dignity.     By  the  power  of  his  spirit  he  kept  together  the 
Catholic  Church  of  the  East  during  the  frightful  persecutions  inflicted 
by  Valens,  the  Arian.     Perhaps  his  best  monument  was  the  foundation 
of  a  great  hospital  at  Cresarca,  to  which  ho  devoted  the  rich  revenues 
of  his  see,  living  himself  in  poverty.     His  writings  also  entitle  Basil 
to  a  distinguished  place  among  the  Fathers.     His  305  letters  are  a 
faithful  reflex  both  of  his  own  mind  and  of  those  stormy  times. — (Comp. 
W.  Close,  Bas.  d.  Gr.  nach  Leben  u.  Lehre  (Basil  the  Gr.,  his  Life  and 
Teaching).     Strals.  1835.  —  Bohringer,  Kirchengesch.  in  Biogr.,  vol.  I. 
2  (his  writings,  edited  by  J.  Gamier  and  P.  Maranus.     Par.  1721.     3 
Voll.  fol.) 


THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOLS  AND  TENDENCIES.    175 

(3).  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  was  born  at  Arianzus  about  the  year 
328.  Gregory,  his  father,  who  had  been  a  Hypsistarian,  was  converted 
through  his  pious  wife  Norma,  and  became  Bishop  of  Nazianzus. 
Gregory  the  Younger  became  the  assistant  and,  though  against  his 
will,  the  successor  of  his  father.  From  his  see  he  first  retired  into  the 
wilderness,  then  became  bishop  of  the  small  community  at  Constanti- 
nople which  had  remained  faithful  to  the  Nicene  creed  (the  church  of 
Anastasia,  where  he  delivered  the  celebrated  orations  which  procured 
for  him  the  designation  of  o  ^fo^oyoj),  and  was  nominated  Patriarch  by 
Theodosius  the  Great  in  380.  Driven  the  year  following  from  that  post 
through  the  envy  of  his  enemies,  he  returned  to  Nazianzus,  where  he 
died  in  391. —  (Comp.  C.  Ullmann,  Greg,  of  Naz.  the  Theol.  Darmst. 
1825,  and  Bohringer  ut  supra  I.  2  (best  ed.  of  his  writings  by  D. 
Clemencet.  Par.  1788.  2  Voll.  fob). 

(4.)  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  the  younger  brother  of  Basil.  He  excelled 
his  two  friends  in  philosophic  acumen  and  scientific  acquirements. 
His  theological  views  were  more  closely  connected  with  those  of  Origen 
than  theirs,  but  he  was  equally  zealous  in  opposing  Arianism.  Both 
among  his  cotemporaries  and  with  posterity  his  fame  has  scarcely  been 
less  than  that  of  his  friends.— (J.  Rupp,  Greg.  v.  Nyssa,  Leben  u.  Mein- 
ungen  (Greg,  of  Nyssa,  his  Life  and  Opinions). — Leipz.  1834  (best  ed. 
of  his  writings  by  Fronton  le  Due. — Par.  1615. — 2  Voll.  fob). 

(5.)  Though  Didymus  the  Blind  had  lost  his  sight  when  only  four 
years  old,  he  acquired  very  extensive  learning.  He  acted  as  catechist 
in  Alexandria,  where  he  died  about  the  year  395.  He  wrote  many 
works,  of  which,  however,  only  few  have  been  preserved.  An  enthusi- 
astical  admirer  of  Origen,  he  shared  some  of  the  extravagant  views  of 
that  Father ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  discussions  of  that  period  his 
theology  gradually  came  to  be  more  in  accordance  with  that  of  the 
Catholic  Church. 

(6.)  Synesius,  Bishop  of  Ptolemais  in  Egypt,  was  a  pupil  of  the 
celebrated  Hypaiia  (comp  |42, 3),  and  an  enthusiastic  disciple  of  Plato 
(ob.  about  430).  Happy  as  husband  and  father,  wealthy,  and  devoted 
to  the  study  of  philosophy,  he  felt  considerable  difficulty  in  accepting  a 
see.  He  openly  confessed  his  heterodoxy  in  respect  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  resurrection,  and  slated  his  determination  to  continue  in  the  married 
relation  even  after  his  consecration.  In  the  discharge  of  his  office  he 
was  equally  distinguished  by  zeal  and  by  undaunted  courage.  He 
composed  several  hymns  and  philosophical  tractates.  (His  works 
edited  by  Petavius.— Par.  1612.  fob). 

(7.)  Epipl  ANius,  Bishop  of  Salamis  in  Cyprus,  was  born  in  Palestine 
of  Jewish  parents,  and  trained  by  S.  Hilarion  and  his  monks  (ob.  403). 
As  bishop  he  was  a  pattern  of  faithfulness  and  devotedness,  being 
specially  distinguished  for  his  self-denying  care  of  the  poor.  But  the 
main  characteristic,  both  of  his  inner  and  outer  life,  was  zeal  for  eccle- 
siastical orthodox^.     He  was  honest,  truthful,  and  kindly,  but  some- 


176        SECTION   I.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

what  narrow-minded,  without  much  breadth  of  culture  or  knowledge 
of  the  world,  incapable  of  taking  a  comprehensive  view  of  matters, 
stubborn  and  very  credulous,  though  at  the  same  time  learned,  diligent, 
and  not  without  talent  or  acuteness.  His  monkish  teachers  had  filled 
his  mind  with  a  perfect  horror  of  heretics,  and  he  firmly  believed  that 
Origenism  was  the  source  of  the  Arian,  and  indeed  of  all  other  heresies. 
Comp.  I  51.  (His  works  edited  by  D.  Peiavius.  Par.  1622.  2  Voll.  fol.). 
(8.)  Cyrillus,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  the  nephew,  pupil,  and  suc- 
cessor of  Theopliilus.  The  bigoted  and  violent  measures  adopted  by 
Theophilus  were  not  without  their  influence  in  forming  the  character 
of  this  Father.  As  to  his  life  and  labours  comp.  \  52,  3.  (His  works 
edited  by  J.  Aubertus.     Par.  1638.     6  Voll.  fob). 

5.  The  Western  Church  insisted  on  the  necessity  of  carrying  Chris- 
tianity into  every  relationship  of  life,  of  fully  developing  its  dogmas, 
and  of  distinctly  expressing  and  guarding  them  against  all  innovations. 
Hence  it  became  the  great  focus  of  traditionalism.  But  as  yet  the 
connection  between  the  East  and  the  West  was  so  close,  that  many  of 
the  views  broached  in  the  East  found  at  least  partial  reception  in  the 
West  also,  and  led  to  many  discussions.  We  have,  therefore,  to  dis- 
tinguish four  directions,  which,  however,  frequently  coalesced.  The 
genuine  Latin  School,  following  in  the  wake  of  Tertullian  and  Cyprian, 
embodied  the  theology  of  the  West  in  its  most  distinctive  features. 
Among  the  representatives  of  that  party  we  reckon  Ambrose,  Augustine, 
and  Leo  I.  At  first  it  joined  the  New  Alexandrian  School  in  its  oppo- 
sition to  the  semi-Arian  followers  of  Origen,  and  the  Nestorian  lean- 
ings of  the  theologians  of  Antioch.  But  when,  by  their  one-sided 
views,  the  Alexandrians  themselves  verged  towards  heresy,  the  Western 
School  declared,  with  equal  decision,  in  favour  of  that  aspect  of  the 
truth  which  the  School  of  Antioch  represented.  Another  party  in  the 
West  owned  to  a  certain  extent  the  influence  of  Origen,  without,  how- 
ever, giving  up  the  distinctive  theological  characteristics  of  the  West. 
Among  these  divines  we  name  Hilary,  Jerome,  and  Rnjinus.  The 
practical  and  merely  intellectual  tendency  of  the  West,  which  was 
wanting  in  spiritual  depth,  gave  rise  to  Pelagianisin,  a  heresy  first 
broached  by  Pelagius,  a  British  monk  (comp.  \  53,  3).  Lastly,  a  fourth 
party,  the  Massilian  (or  semi-Pelagian)  theologians,  sought  to  leaven 
the  theology  of  the  West  with  ideas  derived  from  the  School  of  Antioch. 
This  school  was  founded  by  John  Cassianus  (comp.  §  85,  5). 

(1.)  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan  (ob.  397),  was  Governor  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Milan,  and  had  not  been  baptized  when  the  voice  of  a  child 
designated  him  as  bishop.  In  vain  he  resisted  the  offer.  He  was 
baptized,  distributed  his  property  among  the  poor,  and  eight  days 
afterwards  occupied  the  episcopal  see.  The  duties  of  his  nou  office  he 
discharged  with  a  zeal  truly  apostolic.  He  proved  a  father  of  the  poor, 
the  protector  of  those  who  were  oppressed,  an  unwearied  pastor,  and  a 
p  iwerful  opponent  both  of  heresy  and  of  heathenism.     The  eloquence 


THEOLOGICAL    SCHOOLS    AND    TENDENCIES.        177 

which  formerly  he  had  displayed  in  the  forum,  became  more  brilliant 
when  employed  in  the  service  of  Christ,  To  redeem  captives  he  would 
even  part  with  the  sacred  vessels  of  his  church.  To  affability  and 
gentleness  he  joined  a  firmness  which  neither  the  fear  of  men  nor 
threats  and  dangers  could  shake.  Theodosius  the  Great  venerated  him 
as  a  father,  and  openly  declared  that  he  was  the  only  bishop  who 
deserved  that  title.  His  claim  to  such  an  acknowledgment  he  proved 
in  a  conflict  with  this  emperor,  in  which  it  were  difficult  to  say  whether 
bishop  or  emperor  deserved  greater  admiration.  When,  in  a  fit  of 
passion,  Theodosius  had  committed  great  cruelties  among  the  rebellious 
Thessalonians,  the  bishop  publicly  refused  to  admit  him  to  the  altar 
till  he  had  done  public  penance.  Ambrose  was  a  zealous  advocate  of 
Monasticism,  and  in  his  sermons  extolled  the  merits  of  virginity  so 
much  that  many  mothers  prohibited  their  daughters  from  attending 
his  church. — (Com p.  Bohringer,  I.  Z.—Rudelbach,  chr.  Biogr.  I.  2  (best 
ed.  of  his  works  by  N.  le  Notary  and  J.  du  Frische.  Par.  1G8G.  2 
vols,  fol.) 

(2.)  Aurelius  Augustine  was  born  at  Tagaste  in  Numidia.  Hie 
pious  mother,  Monica,  had  early  led  him  to  Christ,  but  during  the  time 
he  studied  at  Carthage  he  lapsed  into  sensuality  and  worldliness.  The 
Hortensius  of  Cicero  again  awakened  in  him  a  longing  for  something 
higher  and  better  than  pleasure.  We  next  find  him  professing  rhetoric 
at  Carthage,  at  Rome,  and  at  Milan,  when  ambition,  worldliness, 
doubts,  and  higher  aspirations  led  him  in  turn  to  oscillate  between  the 
world  and  religion.  During  the  next  nine  years  he  held  Manichsean 
views.  Finding  himself  grievously  deceived  in  that  sect,  he  would 
have  wholly  given  himself  up  to  the  world,  if  he  had  not  for  a  time 
been  kept  back  through  the  influence  of  Platonism.  But  philosophy 
could  not  give  peace  to  his  soul.  At  last,  the  sermons  of  Ambrose 
(who  had  comforted  Monica  with  the  assurance  that  a  son  of  so  many 
prayers  and  tears  could  not  be  lost)  became  the  means  of  directing 
him  to  the  truth,  which  the  Spirit  of  God  applied  to  his  heart  and  con- 
science. Ambrose  administered  baptism  to  him  in  387.  Immediately 
afterwards  Augustine  gave  up  his  employment  as  rhetorician,  returned 
to  Africa,  became  first  a  presbyter,  and  in  39G  Bishop  of  Hippo  Regius 
in  Numidia,  where  he  died  in  430.  Augustine  was  the  greatest  and 
most  influential  among  the  Fathers.  He  combined  in  a  rare  degree 
acuteness  with  breadth  of  mind,  clearness  and  depth  with  dialectic 
versatility,  Christian  experience  with  simplicity  of  faith,  and  strength 
of  mind  with  energy  of  will.  His  writings  bear  upon  almost  all  the 
departments  of  theology,  and  may  be  characterized  as  forming  an  era 
in  theological  literature.  This  remark  applies  especially  to  his  eluci- 
dation of  the  doctrines  of  the  Trinity  (comp.  §  50,  6),  and  of  those  of 
sin  and  grace  (comp.  \  53).  In  his  "  Confesuiones"  he  lays  before  the 
Lord  the  whole  of  his  past  life,  indicating  in  a  spirit  cf  deepest  humility, 
and   of   holy,  prayerful  solemnity,  both  its  errors  and  His  gracious 


178        SECTION    I. —  SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

leadings:  in  his  " Retractiones "  he  displayed  the  same  conscientious- 
ness  in  regard  to  his  writings. — (Comp.  Bohringer,  I.  3. —  C.  Bindemann, 
S.  Augustine,  3  vols.  Berl.  1844.  69. — K.  Braune,  Monica  and  Augus- 
tine. Grim.  1846  (his  works  ed.  by  Th.  Bamplin  et  P.  Constant.  Par. 
1G79.  11  Voll.  fol.,  and  frequently  since). 

(3.)  Leo  I.,  the  Great,  Bishop  of  Rome.  440-461.  Even  -when  a 
deacon  he  was  the  most  prominent  person  in  Rome.  Elevated  to  the 
see  of  the  capital,  he  found  a  fitting  sphere  for  the  exercise  of  talents 
of  a  peculiarly  high  order.  From  the  energy  and  consistency  with 
which  he  advocated  the  idea  of  the  primacy  of  Rome,  he  may  be  re- 
garded as  really  the  founder  of  its  spiritual  supremacy  (comp.  g  46,  3). 
With  vigorous  hand  he  guided  the  Church  ;  he  introduced  reforms  or  a 
better  organization,  restored  discipline  and  order,  advocated  orthodox 
views,  refuted  heretics,  and  even  conciliated  the  barbarians  (Attila452, 
Genseric  455).  His  sermons  and  letters  have  been  preserved  (best  ed. 
by  the  brothers  Ballerinii.  Venet,  1753.  3  Voll.  fol.).— (Comp.  Bohr- 
inger I.  4;  E.  Perthel,  Leo's  I.  Leben  u.  Lehre.     Vol.  I.     Jen.  1843.) 

(4.)  Hilary,  Bishop  of  Poitiers  {oh.  368),  was  the  Athanasius  of 
the  West.  His  zealous  opposition  to  Arianism  was  punished  with  four 
years  of  exile.  After  his  return  he  undertook  a  journey  to  Italy,  in 
order,  if  possible,  to  convert  Auxentius,  Bishop  of  Milan,  the  leader  of 
the  Arians  in  Italy.  But  this  prelate  avoided  the  encounter  through 
means  of  an  imperial  ordinance,  which  enjoined  Auxentius  to  leave 
Italy.  He  was  specially  distinguished  for  the  philosophical  acumen 
with  which  he  defended  this  doctrine.  (Best  ed.  of  his  writings  by  P. 
Constant.  Paris,  1693.  fol. ;  and  by  Sc.  Maffei.  Veron.  1730.  2  Voll.  fol.) 

(5.)  Jerome,  a  native  of  Stridon  in  Dalmatia  (ob.  420).  His  life  and 
labours  were  devoted  partly  to  the  East  and  partly  to  the  West.  He 
was  the  most  learned  among  the  Fathers  of  his  time,  a  zealous  advocate 
of  monasticism,  of  asceticism,  and  work-righteousness.  His  character 
was  not  without  its  blemishes,  among  which  we  reckon  vanity,  ambi- 
tion, jealousy,  passionateness,  bigotry,  and  a  peculiarly  acrimonious 
mode  of  polemics.  He  resided  successively  in  Gaul,  Italy,  Syria, 
Egypt,  Constantinople,  Rome,  and  Palestine.  Damasvs,  Bishop  of 
Rome,  honoured  him  with  his  implicit  confidence,  and  commissioned 
him  to  revise  the  "Itala"  (comp.  §  34,  3).  His  many  and  successful 
efforts  to  recruit  the  number  of  monks  and  virgins  from  among  the 
youthful  nobility  of  Rome  raised  so  many  enemies  that  he  was  at  last 
obliged  to  leave  the  city.  He  returned  to  the  East  in  385,  and  settled 
at  Bethlehem,  where  he  founded  a  monastery,  over  which  he  presided 
till  his  death,  with  only  an  interruption  of  two  years,  during  which  he 
had  to  withdraw  from  the  persecution  of  his  enemies.  At  one  time  he 
had  been  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  Origen  ;  but  fear  of  being  stig- 
matized as  a  heretic  afterwards  led  him  to  take  a  position  directly  anta- 
gonistic to  that  school  (comp.  \  51,  2).  His  contributions  to  exegesis, 
especially  hii   translation  of  the  Bible  —  the  Vulgate,  as  it  is  called  — 


THEOLOGICAL    SCHOOLS    AND    TENDENCIES.        179 

proved  of  greatest  service  to  the  Church.  (Best  edition  of  his  works 
by  D.  Vallarsi.  Veron.  1734.  11  Voll.  4.)— (Comp.  F.  Lauchert  and  A. 
Knoll,  Hist,  of  S.  Jerome.  Rottw.  1840.) 

(6.)  Rufinus  of  Aquileia  (ob.  410)  had  from  his  youth  been  the  inti- 
mate friend  of  Jerome,  in  whose  vicinity  he  settled  (on  the  Mount  of 
Olives,  by  Jerusalem).  But  the  controversy  about  Origen  and  his 
writings  changed  this  friendship  into  the  bitterest  hostility  (comp.  |  51, 
2).  Rufinus  considered  it  the  mission  of  his  life  to  translate  the  wri- 
tings of  Origen,  and  of  others  of  the  Greek  Fathers,  in  order  to  make 
them  accessible  to  readers  in  the  West. 

6.  The  Theology  of  the  Sixth  and  Seventh  Centuries.  —  The  brightest 
period  of  theological  literature  had  gone  by.  Study  was  indeed  still 
carried  on,  and  the  writings  of  the  Fathers  were  assiduously  perused 
and  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  times ;  but  we  miss  every  trace  of 
genius  or  life,  of  creative  power  or  originality.  About  the  year  550 
John  Philoponus,  a  Monophysite  at  Alexandria,  wrote  a  commentary  on 
Aristotle,  and  applied  to  theology  the  categories  of  that  philosophy. 
After  that  Platonism,  which,  from  its  idealism,  had  hitherto  been  chiefly 
in  vogue  with  those  Fathers  who  cultivated  philosophical  studies,  gra- 
dually gave  place  to  the  fuller  and  more  developed  forms  of  the  Aristo- 
telian philosophy.  Already  the  theology  of  the  Greeks  assumed  the 
type  of  scholasticism.  But  along  with  this  tendency  a  theosojMc  mys- 
ticism also  appeared,  founded  chiefly  on  spurious  writings  of  Dionysius, 
which  embodied  the  neo-Platonic  ideas  that  had  lately  been  broached. 
The  writings  of  Maximus,  the  confessor,  exhibit  a  mixture  of  areopogite 
mysticism  with  the  dialectics  of  Aristotle.  In  the  West,  the  troubles 
connected  with  the  breaking  up  of  the  Roman  Empire  contributed  to 
and  hastened  on  the  decay  of  theological  literature.  Still,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  sixth  century,  flourished  some  theologians  who 
recalled  better  times  ;  among  them,  in  Africa,  Fulgent  ius  of  Ruspe  ;  in 
Gaul,  Ccesarius  of  Aries.  In  Italy,  Boethius  and  Cassiodorus  gained 
immortal  fame  by  cultivating  and  preserving  classical  and  patristic 
lore  at  a  time  when  it  seemed  threatened  with  complete  extinction. 
Gregory  the  Great  closed  the  series  of  Latin  Fathers  in  the  strict  sense 
of  that  term. 

(1.)  The  spurious  writings  of  Dionysius  the  Areopagite  (Acts  xvii. 
34)  first  made  their  appearance  about  the  year  532,  and  among  the 
monophysite  sect  of  the  Severians.  Most  probably  the  real  author  of 
these  compositions  belonged  to  that  party,  and  lived  about  that  time 
(comp.  \  48,  5).  They  met  with  little  opposition,  and  soon  passed  as 
genuine.  (Best  ed.  by  B.  Corderius.  Antv.  1634.  2  Voll.  fob;  transl. 
into  German,  and  with  dissertations,  by  Engelhardt.  Sulzb.  1823.  2 
vols.) 

(2.)  Maximus  Confessor  was  the  most  acute  and  profound  thinker 
of  his  time,  and  favo  '.rably  distinguished  by  firmness,  adherence  to 


180        SECTION    I.  —  SECOND    PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

his  convictions,  and  courage,  at  a  time  when  such  qualities  -were  rare. 
At  first  private  secretary  to  the  Emperor  Heraclius,  he  afterwards  be* 
came  monk  and  abbot  of  a  monastery  near  Constantinople,  where  ha 
contended  and  suffered  for  duothelete  orthodoxy  (comp.  \  52,  8).  He 
died  in  exile  in  662.  (Best  ed.  of  his  writings  by  Fr.  Combefisius. 
Par.  1675.  2  Voll.  fol.) 

(3.)  Fulgentius,  Bishop  of  Ruspe,  was  exiled  by  Thrasimund,  King 
of  the  Vandals,  on  account  of  his  zeal  for  Catholic  doctrine  (ob.  533). 
He  was  one  of  the  ablest  defenders  of  the  views  of  Augustine.  (Opp. 
ed.  J.  Sirmond.  Par.  1G12.)  His  life  was  written  by  Fulgentius  Fer- 
randus,  his  excellent  pupil,  who  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  contro- 
versy about  "the  Three  Chapters"  (comp.  £  52,  6). 

(4.)  CjEsarius,  Bishop  of  Aries  (ob.  542),  was  one  of  the  most  pro- 
minent and  deserving  men  of  his  time,  and  specially  distinguished  for 
practical  usefulness  in  the  Church,  and  for  able  advocacy  of  Augus- 
tinian  views. 

(5.)  Boethius  occupied  high  offices  under  Theoderic,  King  of  the 
Ostrogoths.  His  enemies  charged  him  with  treason,  in  consequence  of 
which  he  was  thrown  into  prison  and  executed  in  524.  While  in  con- 
finement, he  wrote  his  work,  "  de  consolatione  philosophic," —  a  book 
very  popular  in  the  middle  ages,  but  which  of  late  has  given  rise  to 
doubts  whether  the  writer  had  been  a  Christian,  although  legend  has 
even  transformed  him  into  a  Christian  martyr.  The  theological  wri- 
tings attributed  to  him  are  spurious.  In  point  of  form,  his  philosophy 
agrees  with  that  of  Aristotle ;  in  point  of  substance,  with  that  of 
Plato. 

(6.)  Aurelius  Cassiodorus  retired,  after  fifty  years'  public  service 
under  Odoacer  and  Theodoric,  into  the  monastery  of  Vivarium  in  Lower 
Italy,  which  he  had  founded,  and  where  he  died  in  565,  at  the  advanced 
age  of  nearly  one  hundred  years.  To  his  conduct  in  office,  Italy  was 
indebted  for  the  blessings  of  an  excellent  administration ;  to  his  learned 
researches  and  retirement  from  the  world  the  literary  history  of  Europe 
owes  the  preservation  of  what  of  classical  and  patristic  lore  still  re- 
mained at  the  time. 

(7.)  Gregory  I.,  the  Great,  Bishop  of  Rome,  590-614.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Church  numbers  him  (with  Ambrose,  Jerome,  and  Augustine) 
among  the  four  great  Fathers  ("doctores  ecclesiae").  Although  his 
theological  writings  were  not  distinguished  by  great  depth  or  origin- 
ality, he  deserves  the  appellation  of  Great  on  account  of  his  successful 
labours.  With  a  remarkable  strength  of  purpose  he  combined  mildness 
and  gentleness,  and  with  humility  and  unfeigned  piety  a  full  conscious- 
ness of  what  became  his  position  as  the  supposed  successor  of  Peter. 
But  with  all  his  knowledge,  circumspectness,  and  liberality,  he  was 
full  of  monkish  prejudices,  and  clung  tenaciously  to  the  traditionalism 
of  the  Roman  Church  in  respect  of  forms  and  dogmas.  He  lived  in 
the  most  retired  and  simple  manner,  as  a  strict  ascotic,  spending  all 


THEOLOGICAL     LITERATURE.  181 

his  property  and  income  in  deeds  of  charity.  His  lot  -was  cast  in  trou- 
bled times,  when  the  throes  of  a  new  historical  period  were  felt  over 
Europe.  All  the  more  precious,  therefore,  was  it  that  Providence  had 
called  such  a  man  to  act  as  spiritual  father  and  guide  of  the  Western 
Church.  He  was  a  strenuous  advocate  of  monasticism  and  of  all  simi- 
lar institutions ;  nor  can  posterity  feel  otherwise  than  grateful  for  it, 
since,  at  that  troubled  period  of  transition,  monasticism  was  almost 
the  sole  depositary  and  centre  of  intellectual  culture  and  of  spiritual 
aspirations.— (Comp.  Th.  Lau,  Gregor  d.  Gr.,  nach  s.  Leben  u.  s.  Lehre. 
Leipz.  1845  ;  G.  Pfahler,  Greg.  d.  Gr.  u.  s.  Zeit,  Vol.  I.  Frkf.  1852. 
(Opp.  ed.  Sammarthanus.  Par.  1705.  4  Voll.  fol.) 

§48.   THEOLOGICAL  LITERATURE. 

1.  Exegefical  Theology.  —  As  yet  the  critical  study  of  the  text  of 
Scripture  had  not  been  commenced.  Jerome  himself  was  only  a  trans- 
lator. In  regard  to  the  Old  Testament,  the  LXX.  was  considered  a 
satisfactory  version,  and  its  divergences  from  the  Hebrew  text  were  set 
down  to  Jewish  interpolations.  With  the  exception  of  Jerome,  the 
Fathers  were  entirely  ignorant  of  Hebrew.  The  allegorical  mode  of  inter- 
tation  was  that  most  in  favour.  The  school  of  Antioch,  however, 
adopted,  both  in  theory  and  practice,  the  historical  and  grammatical 
mode  of  interpretation.  Diodonis  of  Tarsus  disputed  the  propriety  of 
the  method  of  Origen  in  a  tractate  (Ti{  biwpopa  ^tupiaj  xai  dja^yoptaj), 
which  has  not  been  handed  down.  In  the  same  strain  wrote  his  pupil, 
Theodoras  of  Mops,  (de  allegoria  et  historia) ;  while  Gregory  of  Nyssa 
defended  the  opposite  view  in  his  Procem.  in  Cant.  Cant.  The  first 
attempt  at  a  work  on  IIermeneutics  was  made  by  Tychonius,  aDonatist 
(Regulae  VII.  ad  investigandam  intelligentiam  ss.  Scr.),  which,  how- 
ever, is  far  inferior  to  the  tractate  of  Augustine  on  the  same  subject, 
entitled,  "  de  doctrina  Christiana."  In  Book  I.  Augustine  gives  a  sum- 
mary of  the  "  analogia  fidei,"  as  the  ultimate  standard  for  the  interpre- 
tation of  special  points;  the  two  following  books  detail  the  canons  of 
interpretation ;  while  Book  IV.  explains  how  the  truth  thus  ascertained 
was  to  be  communicated  to  the  people.  The  "  liber  formularum  spiri- 
tualis  intelligentiae,"  by  Eucherius,  a  Gaul  (ob.  450),  is  a  practical 
manual  for  allegorical  interpretation.  The  Eijayuyjj  tr^  ^ttaj  ypa^s, 
by  Adrianus,  a  Greek,  is  a  kind  of  hermeneutical  manual.  —  For  the 
study  of  the  Introduction  to  the  Scriptures,  the  Procemia  of  Jerome 
were  of  some  service.  Theodorus  of  Mops,  denied  the  genuineness  of  the 
superscriptions  to  the  Psalms,  and  the  canonicity  of  Chronicles,  Esther, 
and  the  General  Epistles.  Junilius,  an  African,  was  the  first  (about 
560)  to  attempt  a  scientific  Introduction  to  the  study  of  the  Bible,  in  a 
work  entitled,  Libri  II.  de  partibus  div.  legis  ;  the  "  Institutio  div.  lite- 
rarum,"  by  Cassiodorus,  was  mainly  designed  for  popular  use.  —  The 
TWixa,  or  Bibl.  Geography,  of  Eusebius,  preserved  in  Latin,  as  recast 
16 


182         SECTION    I.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 092  A.  D.). 

by  Jerome  (de  situ  et  nominibus  loc.  Hebr.),  and  the  tractate  of  Epipha- 
tints,  rtepL  /xctpoiv  xai  sra^uw  (on  measures  and  weights),  may  be  re- 
garded as  contributions  towards  the  study  of  Biblical  Antiquities. — 
The  most  celebrated  and  fertile  among  the  allegorical  Commentators 
of  the  East  was  Cyril  of  Alexandria.  The  school  of  Antioch,  on  the 
other  hand,  furnished  a  succession  of  able  interpreters  of  the  historical 
meaning  of  the  Scriptures.  Among  them  we  mention  Eustathivs  of 
Antioch,  ob.  3G0  (whose  writings  have  been  lost),  Eusebius  of  Emisa, 
ob.  3G0  (writ,  lost),  Diodorus  (writ,  lost),  Thcodorus  of  Mops,  (consider- 
able fragm.  preserved),  Chrysostom  (Homilies  and  Comment.),  and 
Tkeodoret.  Theodorus  referred  most  of  the  Messianic  predictions  to 
cotemporaries  of  the  prophets— to  Ilezekiah,  Zerubabel,  etc.— and  pro- 
nounced the  Song  of  Songs  "  libidinose  pro  sua  mente  et  lingua  niere- 
tricia."  The  exegesis  of  Theodoret  was  much  more  trustworthy  ;  the 
Song  of  Songs  he  regarded  as  an  allegory.  Chrysostom  combined 
with  grammatical  commentation  a  deep  practical  tendency.  The  same 
remark  applies  to  the  commentaries  of  Ephrosm,  written  in  Syriac. 
All  the  Western  divines  —  Hilary,  Ambrosz,  the  Ambrosiasler  (a  com- 
mentary on  the  Epistles  of  Paul  by  Hilarius,  an  unknown  writer,  which 
is  found  among  the  works  of  Ambrose),  Jerome,  and  Augustine  —  more 
or  less  adopted  the  allegorical  mode  of  interpretation  ;  although  Jerome, 
on  principle,  applied  himself  also  to  grammatical  commentation.  Pela- 
gius  was  the  only  writer  who  busied  himself  exclusively  with  the 
literal  meaning  (of  the  Epistles  of  Paul).  After  the  sixth  century, 
independent  exegetical  investigations  were  almost  entirely  given  up, 
and  theologians  contented  themselves  with  making  compilations  from 
the  commentaries  and  homilies  of  the  Fathers  (Catence).  This  species 
of  composition  originated  in  the  East  with  Procojrius  of  Gaza  (in  the  sixth 
cent.),  and  with  Anastasius  Sinaita  (in  the  seventh  cent.)  ;  in  the  West, 
with  Primasius  of  Adrumetum,  about  5G0.  Only  Gregory  the  Great 
possessed  sufficient  originality  and  confidence  in  himself  to  write  an 
original  commentary  (Expositio  in  1.  Jobum  s.  Moralium  libri  24). 

2.  Historical  Theology.  —  The  study  of  General  Church  History  was 
especially  cultivated  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  (comp.  §4,  1). 
The  history  of  the  rise  and  of  the  various  forms  of  heresy  was  traced 
by  Epiphanius  (nwdpior  or  Ki^ion-ov — i.e.,  medicine-chest  —  xo.ro.  aipe- 
oswi'  80),  by  Theodoret  (Alpinxyjf  xaxouv^ias  irtito^,  s.  hseretic.  fabulae), 
by  Leontius  of  Byzance  (about  the  year  GOO:  L.  de  sectis)  ;  —  among 
Latin  writers,  by  Augustine  (de  haeresibus),  by  Philastrius,  ob.  397  (de 
han-esibus),  and  by  the  author  of  the  "  Pradestinatus"  (comp.  g  53,  5). — 
Many  biographies  of  eminent  Fathers,  dating  from  that  period,  have 
also  been  preserved.  Jerome  was  the  first  to  compose  something  like  a 
theological  literary  history  in  the  form  of  biographies  (Catalogus,  s.  de 
viris  illustr.).  This  work  was  continued  by  Gcnnadius  of  Massilia, 
Palladius  (Hist.  Lausiaca,  i,  e.,  dedicated  to  Lausus),  Theodoret  (<}>ao- 


THEOLOGICAL     LITERATURE.  183 

>foj  latopCa,  s.  hist,  religiosa),  and  Rvfinua  (Hist,  erernitica  s.  Vitas  Pp.), 
collected  the  accounts  circulating  about  the  great  monastic  saints. 
But  even  the  writings  of  Gregory  the  Great  (Dialogorum  Libri  IV.  de 
vita  et  miraculis  Pp.  Italicorum),  and  of  Gregory  of  Tours  (Libri  VII. 
de  miraculis),  are  couched  in  the  tone  of  later  legends,  and  exhibit 
immense  credulity  and  love  of  the  miraculous.  The  correspondence  of 
the  Fathers,  which  in  many  instances  has  been  preserved  and  handed 
down,  is  of  great  importance  as  an  authority  on  all  subjects  connected 
with  the  history  of  their  times.  The  Cyclus  paschalis  of  Dionysius 
Exiguus  (comp.  $  43,  3),  which  gave  rise  to  the  TEra  Dionysiaca,  still 
in  use,  forms  an  important  contribution  to  the  science  of  Ecclesiastical 
Chronology.  In  Ecclesiastical  Statistics  the  Tortoypa^ia  %pioti.o,vixr]  of 
Cosmas  Indicoplevstes,  a  Nestorian,  who  as  a  merchant  had  travelled  a 
good  deal  in  the  East  (about  the  year  550),  deserves  attention.  —  The 
rtavtoha.TCri  laropla.  s.  Chronicon,  by  Eusebius,  in  two  books  —  of  which 
the  second  was  recast  in  Latin  by  Jerome  —  was  designed  to  illustrate 
the  connection  between  Biblical  and  profane  history.  The  original  of 
this  tractate  has  been  lost,  but  a  complete  Armenian  translation  of  it 
has  lately  been  discovered.  At  the  suggestion  of  Augustine,  Orosius, 
a,  Spaniard,  wrote  a  secular  history  for  the  purpose  of  proving  that  the 
decline  of  the  Roman  Empire  was  not  attributable  to  Christianity  (Hist, 
adv.  Paganos,  Libri  "VII.). 

3.  Apologetics. —  The  controversial  tractate  of  Julian  (comp.  §  42,  4) 
was  answered  by  Cyril  of  Alexandria  (rfpoj  tct  rov  iv  a£«'oij  'lovXiuvov), 
by  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  ('Koyot-  otrfKittvtixoi,  s.  Invectivos  in  Jul.),  and 
by  Chrysostom  (in  his  oration  on  S.  Baby  las).  Ambrose  and  Prudentiua 
the  poet  (see  below,  Note  8)  wrote  against  the  design  of  Symmachus 
(comp.  §  42,  3).  The  insinuations  of  Zosimus,  Eunapius,  and  others 
were  met  by  the  history  of  Orosius,  and  by  Augustine  in  his  dogmatical 
and  apologetical  work,  "  de  civitate  Dei," — by  far  the  ablest  apology 
put  forth  by  the  ancient  Church.  For  the  same  purpose,  Salvianus,  a 
Gaul,  composed  eight  books,  "  de  gubernatione  Dei."  John  Philoponvs 
replied  to  the  objections  of  Proclus  against  the  Christian  doctrine  of 
creation.  The  controversy  with  the  Jews  was  carried  on  by  Chrysostom, 
Augustine,  and  Gregentius,  Bishop  of  Taphar  in  Arabia,  who.  in  pre- 
sence of  a  vast  concourse,  for  four  days  carried  on  a  discussion  with 
Herban,  a  Jew.  Apologetic  works  of  a  more  general  character  were 
composed  by  Eusebius  of  Csesarea  (the  "  Prosparatio  evangelica,"  in 
fifteen  books,  and  the  "  Demonstratio  evangelica,"  in  twenty  books), 
by  Athanasius  (two  books,  xa,ta  'Ex^r-vuv — Book  II.  bearing  also  the 
title,  rtfpi  trfi  evav$pu>7trtGtu>s  tov  ®ioi>  Aoyov),  by  Gregorij  of  Nyssa  (rtpoj 
"Exxrjvai  ix  tHiv  xoivuiv  ivvoiuv),  by  Theodoret  (de  curandis  Grsecor.  afi'ec- 
tionibus),  and  by  Eirmicus  Maternus  (de  errore  profanarum  religg.  ad 
Constantium  et  Constantinum.     Comp.  \  42,  4). 

4.  But  by  far  the  greatest  energy,  talent,  acuteness,  and  research 


184        SECTION    I. — SECOND    PERIOD    (.323—692   A.  D.). 

was  displayed  in  the  Polemical  writings  of  that  period,  which  wa? 
directed  partly  against  old  and  partly  against  recent  heresies. — (Comp. 
below,  the  history  of  Theol.  Controv.) 

5.  Dogmatics.  —  The  precedent  of  Origen  in  constructing  a  general 
theological  system  was  not  followed.  But  theologians  addressed  them- 
selves to  the  elucidation  of  Christian  doctrines  for  practical  purposes, 
especially  for  the  instruction  of  catechumens.  Among  such  works  we 
reckon  those  of  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  ob.  386  (twenty-three  addresses  to 
catechumens,  of  which  the  last  five  treat  of  the  Christian  mysteries) ; 
of  Gregory  of  Nyssa  (Oratio  catech.  magna) ;  of  Epiphanius  (to  defend 
Catholic  truth  against  Arianism)  ;  of  Augustine  (in  the  last  books  of 
the  "civitas  Dei,"  in  Book  I.  de  doctrina  Christ.,  and  in  the  "  enchi- 
ridium  ad  Laurentium  ")  ;  of  Fulgentius  of  Ritspe  (de  regula  versa 
fidei)  ;  and  of  two  semi-Pelagian  writers,  Gennadius  (de  fide  sua),  and 
Vincentius  Lirinensis,  ob.  450  (Commonitorium  pro  cath.  fidei  antiqui- 
tate  et  universitate,  comp.  $  53,  5).  The  tractates  written  on  special 
topics,  more  particularly  for  controversial  purposes,  greatly  contributed 
to  the  elucidation  of  certain  dogmatical  questions.  The  works  of  the 
Pseudo-Dionysins  ($  47,  6),  in  which  the  main  elements  of  Christianity 
were  represented  as  a  theosophic  and  gnostic  mysticism,  understood 
only  by  the  initiated,  acquired  a  place  of  very  great  importance.  Their 
author  distinguished  between  a  ^toXoyCa  xara>patixrj,  in  which  truth 
was  presented  under  the  garb  of  a  symbol,  of  history,  or  of  the  tra- 
ditionary teaching  of  the  Church,  and  a  ^tsoXoyta,  artofyatixr;,  which 
dispensed  with  such  media,  and  in  which  the  initiated  rises  by  con- 
templation or  the  ecstatic  state  to  an  immediate  view  of  things  divine. 
The  writer  also  discussed  at  considerable  length  the  different  grades 
among  heavenly  beings,  of  which  he  supposed  the  earthly  hierarchy 
was  a  type.  His  system  was  based  on  Neo-Platonism,  and  derived 
only  its  terminology  and  forms  from  the  theology  of  the  Church.  This 
mysticism  assumed  a  higher  and  decidedly  Christian  cast  in  the  hands 
of  Max i 'inn s  Confessor,  who  in  numerous  writings  attempted  to  combine 
these  speculations  with  orthodox  views. 

0.  Ethics  and  Asceticism.  —  The  tractate  of  Ambrose,  "de  officiis 
ministrorum,"  was  specially  designed  for  the  clergy,  while  that  of 
Gregory  the  Great  (expositiones  in  1.  Jobum  s.  Moralium  LI.  24)  dis- 
cussed moral  questions  generally.  Special  tractates  were  frequently 
devoted  to  particular  topics,  especially  to  those  connected  with  asceti- 
cism. Among  them  we  instance  Chrysostom's  four  books,  "de  Sacer- 
dotio,"  and  John  Cassian's  tractate,  "de  institutis  coenobiorum,  LI.  12," 
and  the  "  Collationes  Patrum,  25"  (comp.  £  53,  5). 

7.  Practical  Theology.  —  The  most  distinguished  preachers  of  that 
age  were  Macarius  the  Great,  an  hermit,  ob.  390  (distingui&hed  for 
fervour  and  a  profound  mysticism,  in  which  he  approximated  the  views 


THEOLOGICAL     LITERATURE.  185 

of  Augustine),  Basil  the  Great,  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  Ephrcem  (the 
Ohrysostom  of  the  Syrians),  above  all,  John  Chrysostom  (the  twenty- 
one  orations,  "de  statuis,"  delivered  when  the  Antiochians  had  thrown 
down  the  statue  of  Theodosius  I.,  are  specially  noteworthy),— Ambrose, 
Augustine,  Leo  the  Great,  Ccesarius  of  Aries,  and  Gregory  the  Great. 
The  fourth  book  of  Augustine's  "doctr.  christ."  may  be  considered  as 
a  kind  of  Jtomiletics.  On  the  catechetical  writings,  cornp.  g  59,  4;  on 
eccles.  law,  $  43,  3. 

8.   Christian  Poetry.— When  first  Christianity  made  its  appearance, 
the  poetic  inspiration  of  antiquity  had  already  vanished  from  among 
the  people.     But  the  Gospel  possessed  energy  sufficient  to  revive  the 
ancient  spirit.     Despite  the  decay  of  taste  and  language  at  the  time, 
it  evoked  a  new  school  of  poetry,  which  will  bear  comparison  with 
classical  poetry  in  point  of  depth  and  ardour,  if  not  in  purity  and 
elegance  of  form.    The  Latins,  to  whom  Christianity  was  chiefly  matter 
of  experience,  of  the  heart  and  inner  life,  were  more  distinguished  in 
this  branch  than  the  Grecians,  who  regarded  the  Gospel  rather  as  an 
object  of  knowledge  and  of  speculation.    For  further  information  about 
Hymns  comp.  §  59,  2;  about  the  controversial  poetry  of  Arius,  I  50, 
1,  6.     The  most  celebrated  among  Greek  Christian  poets  were  Gregory 
of  Nazianzus  (especially  the  satirical  "Carmen  de  vita  sua"),  Nonnus 
of  Panopolis,  Eudocia,  the  wife  of  Theodosius  II.  (author  of  a  canto 
on  the  History  of  Jesus,  consisting  of  Homeric  verses,  and  of  poetic 
paraphrases  of  portions  of  Scripture),  and  Paulus  Silentiarius  (author 
of  a  poetical  description  of  the  Church  of  Sophia,  built  bv  Justinian  I., 
and  of  the  Ambon  of  that  church— chiefly  of  archaeological  interest). 
Among  Latin  Christian  poets  we  mention  Juvencus,  a  Spaniard,  who 
flourished  about  330  ("Hist,  evangelica,"  in  four  books,  the  first  Chris- 
tian epos,  which  is  distinguished  for  elevation  of  sentiment,  simplicity 
and  the  absence  of  oratorical  turgidity);   Prudentius,  likewise  a  Spa- 
niard (ob.  413),  perhaps  the  ablest  among  ancient  Christian  poets  (L 
penstephanon,  or  fourteen  hymns  in  honour  of  the  martyrs ;  Apotheosis' 
a  poem  in  honour  of  Christ's  Divine  nature;  Hamartigenia ;  Psycho- 
niachia,  contra  Symmachum,  comp.  g  47);  Pauliuus,  Bishop  of  Nola  in 
Campania,  ob.  431  (thirty  poems,  of  which  fifteen  are  in  honour  of 
Felix  the  Martyr) ;  Sedulius  (Mirabilia  divina,  being  a  poetical  version 
ol  Old  and  Jvew  Testament  history,  a  "hymnus  acrostichus"  on  the 
Life  of  Jesus) ;  Prosper  Aquiianicns  (de  libero  arbitrio  c.  ingratos   an 
indignant  expostulation  addressed  to  those  who  despised  grace,  comp. 
§53,  5);  Antus,  Bishop  of  Vienne,  ob.  523  (de  mundi  principio)  •  and 
Venantius  Fortunatus,  Bishop  of  Poitiers,  who  flourished  'n  the  sixth 
century  (LI    IV.  de  vita  Martini,  a  description  of  a  journey  on  the 
Moselle,  etc.).  J 

16* 


186         SECTION    I.  —  SECOND    P  ERI  O  D   (323— 692  A.  D.) 

IV.  DOCTRINAL  CONTROVERSIES  AND  HERESIES. 
§49-   GENERAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  DOCTRINES. 

During  the  preceding  period,  Christian  truth  had  chiefly 
developed  subjectively,  and  hence  assumed  various  directions. 
But  now  the  altered  state  of  outward  affairs  pointed  out  the 
necessity,  increasingly  felt,  of  arranging  the  doctrines  which  had 
already  been  formulated,  of  combining  and  giving  them  solemn 
ecclesiastical  sanction.  The  tendency  to  scientific  development 
also,  which  was  inherent  in  Christianity,  increasingly  asserted  its 
power  and  influence.  Accordingly  the  different  types  of  doctrine 
were  no  longer  confined  to  particular  countries ;  through  the 
Intercourse  between  the  various  branches  of  the  Church,  opposing 
views  were  marshalled  in  hostile  array ;  the  court,  the  people, 
and  the  monks  took  part  in  these  controversies,  and  the  Church 
became  the  scene  of  violent  contests  which  endangered  its  unity 
and  purity.  These  dangers  called  for  a  combined  defence  of  the 
truth,  by  which  all  error  should  be  eliminated  as  heresy  —  a 
result  which,  through  the  presence  of  the  Spirit  with  the  Church, 
was  ultimately  always  accomplished,  though  not  without  con- 
siderable struggles. 


'oe>' 


1.  The  Dogmatic  Controversies  of  that  period  had  their  bright  and 
their  dark  side.  Occasionally,  indeed,  truth  was  made  subservient  to 
personal  ambition  and  to  self-seeking  ;  instead  of  contending  only  with 
.spiritual  weapons,  state  interference,  court  intrigues,  and  popular  pas- 
sions were  not  unfreauently  called  into  requisition  ;  in  the  ardour  for 
pure  doctrine,  holiness  of  life  was  sometimes  lost  sight  of;  differences, 
which  might  have  been  adjusted  if  the  passions  of  controversialists  had 
not  been  at  play,  became  grounds  of  separation  ;  subordinate  points 
acquired  an  undue  importance,  etc.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  must 
be  admitted  that  the  destiny  of  Christianity,  to  become  the  religion  of 
the  whole  world,  rendered  it  necessary  that  its  dogmas  should  receive 
the  most  close,  scientific,  and  consistent  examination  ;  that,  accordingly, 
the  Church  had  to  engage  in  certain  contests  in  order  to  put  aside  all 
errors ;  that  Christianity  would  not  have  been  able  so  firmly  to  meet 
the  shock  of  barbarism,  which  it  had  soon  to  encounter  in  its  contact 
with  those  nations  which  subverted  the  Roman  Empire,  if  the  unity 
of  the  Catholic  Church  had  not  been  so  well  guarded  by  strict  defini- 
tions of  doctrine;  and,  lastly,  that  if  Christian  truth  had  not  been  so 
fully  'ind  strictly  formulated,  the  admission  of  heathen  nations  into  the 


THE    TRINITARIAN     CONTROVERSY.  187 

Church,  and  the  partial  importation  of  their  pagan  modes  of  thinking, 
would  have  become  the  source  of  much  greater  dangers  than  those 
which  were  actually  encountered. 

2.  The  Heresies  of  the  preceding  period  were,  in  great  measure, 
syncretistic  ($  26)  ;  those  of  the  period  under  review,  evolutionary, — 
i.  e.,  in  the  development  of  Christian  doctrine,  they  sprung  from  an 
exclusive  advocacy  and  from  exaggerated  views  of  one  particular  aspect 
of  the  truth,  which,  by  this  process,  became  changed  into  error;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  orthodoxy  sought  to  view  truth  under  all  its  aspects, 
and  to  harmonize  its  different  bearings.  Only  echoes  of  the  syncre- 
istic  heresies  of  a  former  period  were  still  heard  ($  54).  The  revolu- 
tionary form  of  heresy  had  as  yet  appeared  only  in  isolated  instances 
(§  G2).  Catholic  doctrine  might  be  represented  as  an  unhealthy 
excrescence  —  either  unjustly,  in  which  case  the  Church  would  be 
interrupted  or  disturbed  in  the  exercise  of  its  proper  and  necessary 
life-functions ;  or  justly,  but  in  such  a  manner  that,  in  the  general 
charge,  truth  was  not  properly  distinguished  from  error,  and  that, 
in  reality,  the  attempt  was  made  to  remove  the  one  along  with  the 
other. 

I  50.   THE   TRINITARIAN   CONTROVERSY   (318—381). 

Comp.  /.  A.  Stark,  Versuch  e.  Gesch.  d.  Arianism.  (Hist,  of  Arian.). 
Berl.  1783.  —  Ad.  Mulder,  Athanas.  d.  Gr.  u.  seine  Zeit.  2d  edition. 
Mayence  1844.  2  vols. — F.  Chr.  Baur,  d.  chr.  Lehre  von  d.  Dreieinigk. 
(The  Chr.  Doctr.  of  the  Trinity).  3  vols.  Tiibg.  1844.  —  J.  A.  Dorner, 
d.  Lehre  von  d.  Person  Christi  (The  Dogma  about  the  Person  of  Christ). 
2  vols.  2d  ed.  Stuttg.  1845,  etc.—  //.  Eider,  Gesch.  d.  chr.  Philos. 
Vol.  II. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  formed  the  subject  of  the  first — o? 
Arian — controversy.  In  it  the  discussion  chiefly  turned  upon  the 
nature  and  essence  of  the  Logos,  who  in  Christ  had  become  incar- 
nate, and  about  his  relation  to  the  Father.  Since  the  contro- 
versy between  Dionysius  0f  Alexandria  and  his  namesake  of 
Rome  (§  40,  6),  the  view  that  the  Son  was  of  the  same  essence 
and  equal  with  the  Father,  had  gained  adherents  in  Alexandria 
also,  and  given  rise  to  a  new  school  (§  47,  4).  But  an  appre- 
hension— excited  by  the  teaching  of  Snbellius  and  Paul  of  Samo- 
sata  (§  40,  7) — lest  this  doctrine  should  lead  to  M  on  arc  hi  an  ism, 
influenced  many  to  retain  the  views  known  as  Subordinatianism. 
The  School  of  Lucian,  the  Antiochian  (§  39,  6  ;  47,  1),  especi- 
ally furnished  able  opponents  to  homoousian  principles.  Origen 
had  held  these  two  apparently  antagonistic  views  (subordination 


188        SECTION    I.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.) 

and  eternal  generation  from  the  substance  of  the  Father),  comp. 
§  40,  5.  But  now  they  were  no  longer  combined.  One  party 
rejected  subordination,  maintained  the  doctrine  of  eternal  gene- 
ration, and  completed  their  system  by  admitting  the  homoousia 
of  Christ ;  another  held  subordinatian  views,  and  carried  them 
as  far  as  heteroousianism.  A  third  party — chiefly  followers  of 
Origen — attempted  to  reconcile  these  antagonisms,  by  a  sort  of 
intermediate  view,  known  under  the  term  of  u/xoiovoia.  During 
the  course  of  these  controversies,  which  for  almost  a  whole  cen- 
tury agitated  the  Christian  world,  the  Divine  Personality  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  was  established  as  a  logical  and  theological  deduction 
from  orthodox  principles.  After  many  contests,  the  homoousia 
of  the  Son  and  that  of  the  Holy  Ghost  were  ultimately  acknow- 
ledged as  the  orthodox  view  of  the  Church. 

1.  First  Victory  of  Homoonsian  Principles  (318  —  325).  —  Arius,  a 
pupil  of  Lucian,  and  from  313  a  presbyter  at  Alexandria,  an  acute  but 
not  a  profound  thinker,  was,  in  318,  charged  by  two  presbyters  — 
adherents  of  Western  views — with  having  promulgated  opinions  incom- 
patible with  the  Divinity  of  the  Saviour.  Arius  had  publicly  taught 
that  the  Son  had,  before  the  commencement  of  time,  but  not  from  all 
eternity  (ije  oti  ovx  fy),  been  created  out  of  nothing  (xria/xa,  i%  ovx  ovtav) 
by  the  Will  of  the  Father  (^a^wi  &ov),  in  order  that  the  world  might 
be  called  into  existence  through  Him;  He  also  maintained  that,  as 
Christ  was  the  most  perfect  created  image  of  the  Father,  and  had  car- 
ried into  execution  the  Divine  purpose  of  creation,  He  might  be  called 
£e6j  and  Xoyos,  though  not  in  the  .proper  sense  of  these  terms.  Alex- 
ander, who  at  that  time  filled  the  see  of  Alexandria,  was  devotedly 
attached  to  the  doctrines  of  the  eternal  generation  of  the  Son,  and  of 
His  equality  with  the  Father.  He  convoked  a  synod  (321),  which  con- 
demned the  views  of  Arius,  and  deposed  him  from  his  office.  But  the 
populace,  which  looked  upon  him  as  an  ascetic,  and  many  of  the  bishops, 
who  shared  his  opinions,  took  his  part.  He  also  implored  the  protec- 
tion of  foreign  prelates, — among  them,  that  of  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia, 
a  former  fellow-pupil,  and  of  the  influential  Eusebius  of  Ccesarea.  The 
former  of  these  prelates  pronounced  in  his  favour,  while  the  latter 
declared  his  views  at  least  harmless.  Arius  spread  his  opinions  among 
the  people  by  means  of  hymns  adapted  to  various  conditions  of  life  (tc 
millers,  sailors,  travellers,  etc.).  The  controversy  led  to  a  schism  which 
extended  wellnigh  over  the  whole  East.  In  Alexandria  passions  rar 
so  high,  that  the  heathens  made  it  the  subject  of  ridicule  on  the  stage. 
Constant! nc  the  Great  received,  with  much  displeasure,  tidings  of  these 
disputes.  He  issued  an  order  —  of  course  without  success — that  such 
"  useless  discussions"  should  be  discontinued.     But  Hosius,  Bishop  oi 


THE     TRINITARIAN     CONTROVERSY.  189 

Cordova,  who  came  to  Alexandria  as  bearer  of  this  imperial  ordinance, 
iearned,  during  his  stay  in  that  city,  the  real  state  of  matters,  and  the 
importance  of  the  controversy.  On  his  return,  he  convinced  the  Em- 
peror that  this  was  not  a  trivial  dispute.  Constantine  now  summoned 
'a  General  Council  at  Nice  (325),  which  was  attended  by  himself  and 
by  318  bishops.  The  majority  of  members,  headed  by  Eusebius  of 
Ccesarea,  were  followers  of  Origen,  and  occupied  a  kind  of  intermediate 
position;  nor  was  the  party  of  Arius,  which  was  led  by  Eusebius  of 
Nicomedia,  inconsiderable.  The  Homoousians  were  in  a  decided  mino- 
rity ;  but  the  enthusiastic  eloquence  of  the  youthful  Deacon  Aihanasius, 
whom  Alexander  had  brought  with  him,  and  the  influence  of  the  Em- 
peror, procured  them  the  victory.  The  Homoousian  formulas  (ix  t^i 
ovcitas  tov  rtarpoj,  ytn^uj  oi)  rtot^nj,  ^oovortaj  *<?  rfarpt)  were  inserted 
into  the  Creed,  Arius  was  excommunicated,  and  his  writings  con- 
demned. Fear  of  being  deposed,  and  a  desire  for  peace,  induced  many 
to  subscribe  Avho  were  not  convinced.  Only  Arius  himself,  and  two 
Egyptian  bishops,  Theonas  and  Secundus,  refused  to  submit,  and  were 
exiled  into  Illyria.  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia  and  Theognis  of  Nice,  who 
subscribed  the  creed,  but  not  the  formula  of  condemnation,  were  also 
banished  (to  Gaul). 

2.  Victory  of  Eusebianism  (328-356).  —  The  concord  brought  about 
by  subscription  to  the  Nicene  Creed  was  neither  real  nor  lasting.  The 
remonstrances  of  Cvnstanlia,  the  sister  of  the  Emperor,  when°on  her 
death-bed,  and  the  advice  of  some  of  the  leading  prelates,  induced 
Constantine  to  revert  to  his  first  opinions  regarding  this  controversy. 
Arius  made  a  confession  of  his  faith,  couched  in  general  terms,  and 
was  recalled  from  exile  along  with  his  fellow-sufferers  (328).  Soon 
afterwards  the  Emperor  ordered  him  to  be  restored  to  his  office  (330). 
But  Aihanasius,  who  in  the  meantime  had  succeeded  to  the  see  of 
Alexandria  (328),  declared  himself  unable  to  comply  with  this  demand. 
The  Emperor  threatened  to  depose  the  bishop  ;  till,  in  a  personal  inter- 
view, the  latter  made  so  deep  an  impression,  that  Constantine  yielded. 
But  the  enemies  of  Athanasius,  especially  those  Meletians,  (g  38,  4)  in- 
stigated by  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  were  continually  representing  him 
to  the  Emperor  as  one  that  fomented  discord  and  rebellion.  Ultimately, 
a  synod  convoked  at  Tyre  (335),  and  consisting  entirely  of  Arians,  was 
charged  with  a  new  investigation  of  these  questions.  Athanasius 
appealed  against  the  sentence  of  deposition  pronounced  against  him, 
which,  however,  was  confirmed  by  another  synod,  that  met  at  Con- 
stantinople ;  and  the  Emperor  banished  him  to  Treves  (336).  Despite 
the  protest  of  the  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  Arius  was  now  to  have 
been  solemnly  restored  to  church-communion  in  the  capital  of  the 
empire,  when  he  suddenly  died  the  evening  before  the  day  of  his 
restoration  (at  an  age  of  upwards  of  80  years).  Soon  afterwards  Con- 
Btantme  also  died  ;  and  Constantine  II,  immediately  on  his  accession, 
restored  Athanasius,  who  was  enthusiastically  received  by  his  flock. 


190        SECTION    I.  —  SECOND    PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

But  Constaniius  favoured  the  Arians,  and  his  sentiments  were  shared 
by  the  court  and  capital.     In  every  street  and  market,  in  every  shop 
and  house,   these   questions  were   now  discussed.     The   majority  of 
bishops  in  the  East,  headed  by  Eusebius  of  Cmsarea,  in  their  desire  to 
find  an  intermediate  position,  adopted  the  expression  Ojuoiovaioj ;    the 
Arian  party  was  led  by  Eusebius  of  Nicom.,  who  since  338  was  Bishop 
of  Constantinople  (ob.  341).     Common  opposition  to  the  adherents  of 
the  Nicene  Creed  formed  a  bond  of  union  between  these  two  parties 
(the  Eusebians).    The  West  was  entirely  in  favour  of  the  Nicene  Creed. 
In  340  the  Eusebians  held  a  council  at  Aiitioch,  which  sat  for  several 
davs.     It  once  more  deposed  Athanasius,  and  in  his  room  elected  Gre- 
gorins,  a  rude   Cappadocian.     Athanasius   fled   to   Rome,  where   his 
orthodoxy  and  innocence  were  solemnly  acknowledged  by  a  council 
under  Bishop  Julius  (341).    A  new  council  in  Antioch  (341),  summoned 
to  consecrate  a  Church,  prepared  successively  four  symbols,  each  ap- 
proximating as  closely  as  possible  to  that  of  Nice,  (to  conciliate  the 
West),  but  carefully  evading  the  Ojuooumoj.     To  restore  harmony,  Con- 
staniius, at  the  suggestion  of  Constans,  his  brother,  convoked  a  general 
Council  at  Sardica  in  Illyria  (343).     But  as  the  Latins  admitted  Atha- 
nasius to  a  seat  and  vote,  without  paying  any  regard  to  his  deposition 
by  the  Council  of  Antioch,  the  Eastern  bishops  immediately  withdrew, 
and  held  a  separate  council  at  Philijipopolis  in  Thracia.     In  Sardica, 
where  important  privileges  were  assigned  to  Julius,  Bishop  of  Rome 
(comp.   ?46,   2),   the  Nicene  Creed  was   confirmed,   and  Athanasius 
restored  to  his  see.     Even  before  that,  Gregorius,  who,  by  his  violence 
and  acts    of  oppression,  had    incurred    additional    unpopularity,   was 
murdered   by   the   populace   of  Alexandria.     Athanasius  was   again 
welcomed  with  enthusiasm  by  his  flock.     But  after  the  death  of  Con- 
stans (350),   Constaniius  once   more  favoured  the  Arian  party.     The 
latter  assembled  in  council  at  Sirmium  in  Pannonia  (351)  ;  but  forbear- 
ino-  directly  to  attack  Athanasius  himself,  they  confined  their  opposi- 
tion, in  the  first  place,  to  a  friend   and  adherent  of  the   Bishop  of 
Alexandria.     In  his   zeal   for   Nicene  views,   Marcellus,  Bishop  of 
Ancyra,  had  fallen  into  Sabellianism.     Already,  in  336,  the  Synod  of 
Constantinople  had  deposed  him,  and  deputed  Eusebius  of  Caesarea  to 
refute  his  tenets.    But  he  continued  to  enjoy  the  protection  of  the  West, 
and  of  the  Council  of  Sardica,  till  Photinus,  Bishop  of  Sirmium,  a 
pupil  of  Marcellus,  promulgated  what  undoubtedly  were  Monarchian 
views  (|  40).     These  opinions  had  been  declared  heretical,  not  only  by 
the  Council  of  Antioch,  but  by  that  of  Milan  also  (346),  the  members 
of  which  adhered  to  the  Nicene  Creed.     Photinus  was  deposed  by  the 
Council  of  Sirmium,  and,  along  with  his,  the  tenets  of  Marcellus  were 
also  condemned.     But  even  this  did  not   satisfy  the  Eusebians.     As 
soon  as  Constantius  had  vanquished  Magnentius,  the  usurper,  and  was 
thus  unembarrassed   in  his   actions,   he   called   two  synods   at   their 
request,  one  at  Arelaie  in  Gaul  (353),  another  at  Milan  (355),  by  which 


THE    TRINITARIAN    CONTROVERSY.  191 

Atlianasius  was  anew  condemned.  They  prevailed  on  Constantius  tc 
issue  an  ordinance,  enjoining  all  Western  bishops  to  subscribe  the 
condemnation  of  Atlianasius.  Those  who  resisted  were  deposed  and 
banished  —  among  them,  Liberties,  Bishop  of  Rome,  Hosius  of  Cordova, 
Hilarius  of  Poitiers,  Eusebius  of  Yereelli,  and  Lucifer  of  Calaris. 
Another  Cappadocian,  of  the  name  of  Georgius  —  not  less  violent  than 
his  countryman  and  predecessor  —  was  to  be  installed  by  force  as 
Bishop  of  Alexandria.  Having  calmly,  and  with  dignity,  finished  the 
celebration  of  the  worship  in  which  he  was  engaged,  Atlianasius 
managed  to  escape  to  the  monks  in  the  Egyptian  desert  (356).  Thus 
victory  seemed  throughout  the  Roman  Empire  to  have  decided  in 
favour  of  Homoiousianism. 

3.  Homoiism  (357-3G1). — But  soon  the  Eusebians  began  to  dispute 
among  themselves.     The  extreme  party,  headed  by  Aetins,  a  deacon 
at  Antioch,  and  Eunomius,  Bishop  of  Cyzicus,  went  so  far  as  to  main- 
tain that  the  Son  was  unlike  the  Father  (dco^oioj),  from  which  the  party 
received  the  name  of  Anomoiles  or  Exucontians,  (i%  ovx  6vtu>v).     The 
Homoiousiaus,  who  were  now  designated  as  Semi-Arians,  prepared  to 
contest  this  point.     They  were  led  by  Basilius,  Bishop  of  Ancyra,  and 
countenanced  by  the  Emperor  Constantius.     Ultimately,  however,  the 
intrigues  of  Ursacius  and  Valens,  the  two  court  bishops,  who  at  heart 
were  Arians,  proved  successful.     With  consent  of  the  Emperor,  they 
held  a  second  council  at  Sirmium  (357),  where  it  was  resolved  wholly 
to  discard  the  unbiblical  term  oWa,  which  had  been  the  cause  of  all 
these  dissensions,  not  to  enter  upon  any  definitions  about  the  nature  of 
God,  which  was  incomprehensible,  and  to  unite  in  simply  asserting 
that  the  Son  was  similar  to   the   Father  (cytoioj  —  hence   their  name 
Homoiites).     Two   of  the    exiled    bishops  —  Hosius   of    Cordova    and 
Liberius  of  Rome  —  purchased  permission  to  return  to  their  sees  by 
subscription  to  this  formula.     But  the  other  Latin  bishops,  in  a  synod 
at  Agennum,  again  declared  their  adherence  to  the  Nicene  Creed  ;  while 
the  Semi-Arians  met  at  Ancyra  under  the  presidency  of  Basilius,  and 
reaffirmed  the  Confession  of  Antioch.     The  latter,  also,  found  access 
to  the  Emperor,  who  had  their  confession  ratified  by  a  third  synod  at 
Sirmivm  (358),  and  compelled  the  bishops  of  the  court  to  subscribe  it. 
Even  Jjiberius  of  Rome,  softened  by  an  exile  of  two  years'  duration, 
gave  his  signature,  and  was  allowed  to  return  to  Rome.     Thereupon, 
the  bishops  of  the  court  compromised  with  the  Semi-Arians  upon  the 
following  formula: — tbv  Tlov  o/xoiov  tilt  riarpc  tlvtu  xata  rtuvta  u>$  ai 
ayiai  ypa$ou  Xtyovacv .     The  Emperor  was  so  much  pleased  with 
this   formula,   that   he   resolved   to    have  it  sanctioned  by  a  general 
council.     To  prevent  a  combination  between    the    Homoiousians  and 
the  Homoousians   of  the  West,  Ursacius   and  Valens  persuaded  the 
Emperor  to  summon  two    councils  instead  of  one,  of  which  that  of 
Seleucia  was  destined  for  the  East,  and  that  of  Rimini  (359)  for  the 
West.     Both  councils  rejected  the  rew  formula;  the  one  in  favour  of 


192         SECTION   I SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

the  creed  of  Antioch,  the  other  in  favour  of  that  of  Nice.  But  Ursacius 
managed  by  intrigues  to  bring  the  bishops  to  submission.  For  two 
years  the  prelates  were  detained  at  Seleucia  and  at  Rimini,  a*  it  were 
in  exile ;  while  their  delegates,  after  travelling  about  for  half  a  year, 
were  unable  to  obtain  an  audience  of  the  Emperor.  Thus  coerced,  they 
at  last  subscribed  the  new  formula.  Those  who  refused  to  submit 
(Aetius  and  Eunomius)  were  persecuted  as  disturbing  the  peace  of  tho 
Church.  Eomoiism  now  became  the  acknowledged  creed  of  the  empire. 
But  the  death  of  Constantius  (3G1)  speedily  put  an  end  to  this 
temporary  prevalence  of  error. 

4.  Final  Ascendency  of  the  Nicene  Creed  (361-381). — Julian  gave 
equal  rights  to  all  parties,  and  recalled  the  exiled  bishops,  so  that  in 
some  churches  there  were  two  or  even  three  bishops  at  one  and  the 
same  time.    Athanasius  also  returned  to  his  see.    He  convoked  a  synod 
at  Alexandria  (3G2)  for  the  purpose  of  restoring  ecclesiastical  order, 
and,  despite  the  protest  of  the  narrow-minded  Lucifer  of  Calaris,  with 
equal  moderation  and  prudence,  received  into  church-fellowship  those 
bishops  who  had  been  misled  into  Arian  views,  but  repented  of  their 
error.     The   success  which   attended  the  endeavours  of  Athanasius, 
determined  the  Emperor  once  more  to  send  him  into  exile,  on  pretence 
that  he  was  the  occasion  of  disturbances.     Jovian,  the  successor  of 
Julian,  favoured  the  Nicene  party,  and  allowed  Athanasius  to  return 
to  his  see  (304)  ;  while,  at  the  same  time,  he  also  extended  toleration 
to  the  Arians.     But  Valens,  to  whom  Valentinian  I.,  his  brother,  com- 
mitted the  government  of  the  East,  was  a  zealous  Arian  (364-378).   He 
persecuted  with  equal  cruelty  both  Athanasians  and  Semi-Arians,  a 
proceeding  which  led  to  an  approximation  between  these  two  parties. 
Athanasius  was  obliged  to  flee  ;  but  after  the  lapse  of  four  months  was 
allowed  to  return,  and  to  spend  the  remainder  of  his  life  without  fur- 
ther molestation.     He  filled  the  episcopal  see  for  forty-five  years,  of 
which  twenty  were  spent  in  exile  (ob.  373).    The  persecutions  of  Valens 
were,  however,  kept  in  check  by  the  urgent  representations  of  Valen- 
tinian, his  brother,  and  by  the  dignified  and  energetic  resistance  of 
eminent  prelates,  especially  of  the  three  great  Cappadocians.     The 
intrigues  of  the  Empress  Justina  in  the  West,  during  the  minority  of 
her  son,  Valentinian  II.,  were  frustrated  through  the  watchfulness  of 
Ambrose  of  Milan.     The  soldiers  who  were  to  take  possession  of  his 
church,  and  to  hand  it  over  to  the  Arians,  met  with  passive  but  success- 
ful resistance,  in  finding  the  edifice  occupied  by  a  congregation  engaged 
in  prayer  and  the  singing  of  psalms.  —  Tlieodoshis  I.  the  Great,  a  Spa- 
niard (379-395),  who  for  a  short  period  ruled  over  the  East  and  West, 
banished  Arianism  from  the  empire.     He  appointed  Gregory  of  Nazi- 
anzus,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.     It  was  intended  that  this  prelate 
should  preside  over  the  Second  General  Council  of  Constantinople 
(381).     But  as  his  authority  was  impugned  on  the  ground  that  he  had 
changed  his  see  (comp.  \  4*5),  he  laid  down  his  office,  and  Gregory  of 


THE  TRINITARIAN  CONTROVERSY.       193 

Nyssa  presided  in  his  stead.  The  Nicene  Creed  was  enlarged  by  the 
addition  of  a  formula  affirming  the  equality  of  the  Holy  Spirit  with 
the  Father  and  the  Son.  From  that  time  the  Arians  were  only  allowed 
to  hold  their  worship  outside  the  city.  Somewhat  later  all  their  churches 
in  the  empire  were  taken  from  them. 

5.  The  Pneumatomachoi  (302-381).  —  According  to  Arius  and  his 
adherents,  the  Holy  Ghost  was  the  first  being  created  by  the  Son.  But 
even  zealous  advocates  of  the  homoousia  of  the  Son  were  undecided  on 
this  doctrine.  In  the  Nicene  Creed  nothing  beyond  a  xai  d$  nvsv/xa 
iyioi'  was  inserted ;  and  Hilary  of  Poitiers  hesitated  to  enter  upon  fuller 
particulars,  from  fear  of  going  beyond  the  teaching  of  Scripture.  But 
Athanasius  (at  the  Synod  of  Alex,  in  302),  Didymus  the  Blind,  and  the 
three  Cappadocians,  consistently  carried  out  their  theological  princi- 
ples, and  by  their  authority  succeeded  in  bringing  their  party  to  admit 
also  the  homoousia  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  Semi-Arians  who  had 
adopted  the  Nicene  Creed  —  and  among  them  especially  Macedonius, 
formerly  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  whom  the  Homoiists  had  deposed — 
felt  extremely  reluctant  to  adopt  this  view  {Macedonians,  Pneumatoma- 
choi). The  second  cecum.  Council  (381)  sanctioned  the  homoousia  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  by  adding  to  the  expression  sij  Tlv.  aytoi/,  the  words  to 
xvpiov,  to  ^ioojiovov,  to  ix  tov  Ilarpoj  ix7topiv6(j.eioii,  to  avv  Ilatpi  xai  Tiw 
evfnpoixvvovfie vov  xai  ovvbo^a^ofii  i>ov . 

0.  Literature  of  the  Controversy. — Arius  himself  explained  his  views 
in  a  semi-poetical  tractate  ©casta  (of  which  Athanasius  has  preserved 
fragments).  His  principles  were  zealously  defended  by  Asterius,  a 
sophist  (whose  writings  have  been  lost).  Philostorgius,  the  historian, 
attempted  to  show  from  history  that  they  were  conformable  to  the 
views  of  the  apostles  and  of  the  early  Church.  Eusebius  of  Cces.  wrote 
two  tractates  in  defence  of  Semi-Arianism,  against  Marcellus  (xata 
Mapxixy.ov  and  rtspi,  trfi  ixxtyataatixrjs  $ioXoyias).  The  drtoa.oy^T'txdj  by 
En  nom  ius  has  been  lost.  Foremost  among  the  opponents  of  Ariauism 
stands  Athanasius  —  Oratt.  IV.  c.  Arianos ;  hist.  Arianorum  ad  mona- 
chos ;  Epist.  de  decretis  Nicsenis ;  Epist.  de  Synodis  Arimini  et  Seleucise 
habitis ;  'Artokoy^tixdj  rtpdj  roiij  'ApsiaVovj,  etc.  Basil  the  Great,  wrote 
four  books  against  Eunomius;  the  Ilepi  tov  ayiov  Ili>sv/j.ato; ;  and  the 
Ad  Amphilochium  (against  the  Pneumatomachoi)  ; — Gregory  of  Naz., 
five  Xoyoi  ^foxoyixot  (\  47,  4) ;  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  twelve  a.dyoi  avtvp^tixoi 
xata  Evvbfuov, —  Didymus  the  Blind,  three  books  de  Trinitate;  —  Epi- 
phanius  the  'Ayxvpordj  (§  78,  5)  ;  —  Cyril  of  Alex.,  a  $r>aavp6s  rfspt  tvjt 
ayi'a?  xai  o^toovrrJaj  TptciSoj ;  —  Chrysoslom  delivered  twelve  orations 
against  the  Anomoites ;  Theodoret  wrote  Dialogi  VII.  de  s.  Trinit. 
Ephrcem  Syriis,  also,  frequently  controverted  in  his  sermons  the  views 
of  the  Arians.  Among  Latin  writers  the  most  distinguished  contro- 
versialists were:  Lucifer  of  Calaris  ("Ad  Constantium  Imp.  LI.  II. 
pro  Athan.,"  in  which  he  denounces  the  Emperor  aa  an  apostate,  as 
17 


194         SECTION     I. SECOND     PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

Antichrist  and  Satan;  the  "  moricmlum  pro  filio  Dei;"  the  "De  non 
conveniendis  cum  hoereticis)  ;  Hilary  of  Pidavinm  ("De  Trinitate,  LI. 
XII.;"  "  de  Synodis  s.  de  fide  Orientalium ;"  "Contra  Constantium 
Aug.  ;"  "Contra  Auxentium,"  §  47,  5)  ;  Phcebadius,  Bishop  of  Agen- 
nuin  about  359  ("  c.  Arianos") ;  Ambrose  ("  de  fide  ad  Gratianum  Aug. 
LI.  V.")  ;  Augustine  ("  c.  sermonem  Arianorum  ;"  "  Collatio  cum  Max- 
imino  Arianorum  Episc. ;"  "  c.  Maximinum");  Fulgent  ius  of  Ru.^je 
("c.  Arianos,"  and  three  books  addressed  to  Trasimund,  the  Arian 
King  of  the  Yandals). 

7.  Later  Development  of  Nicene  Views. —  Even  the  formula  adopted 
by  the  second  Council  of  Constantinople  was  not  entirely  free  from  all 
traces  of  Subordinatianism.  At  least  the  expression,  rlj  ^foj,  as  applied 
to  the  Father  exclusively,  might  give  rise  to  misunderstanding.  Augus- 
tine completely  removed  any  uncertainty  still  hanging  over  this  doctrine 
("de  trinitate  LI.  XV.").  But  as  yet  the  personality  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  and  His  relation  to  the  Son,  had  not  been  defined  with  sufficient 
accuracy.  Tins  afterwards  gave  rise  to  the  schism  between  the  Eastern 
and  the  Western  Church.  In  this  respect  also  Augustine  correctly 
taught  that  the  Holy  Spirit  proceeded  both  from  the  Father  and  the 
Son.  Among  those  who  advocated  these  truths,  Fulgentius  of  Ruspe 
("de  s.  trinit.")  deserves  special  mention.  The  so-called  (pseudo-) 
Athanasian  Creed,  or  Symbolum  Quicitnque  (from  the  word  with  Avhich 
it  commences),  dates  probably  from  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury. It  originated  in  Spain,  and  simply  inserted  the  words,  "  qui 
procedit  a  Patre  Filioque." 

I  51.  OMGENISTIC  CONTROVERSIES  (394-438). 

The  controversies  about  the  Trinity  were,  in  due  course,  fol- 
lowed by  discussions  about  the  person  of  Christ  (§  52).  Before 
these  took  place,  another  question,  however,  engaged  the  atten- 
tion of  the  Church.  Although  the  Origenistic  controversy  was 
a  personal  dispute  rather  than  a  discussion  of  importance  to  the 
Church  generally,  it  served  to  confirm  the  impression  that  Origen 
had  really  been  a  heresiarch. 

1.  The  Monks  of  the  Scetian  and  of  the  Nitrian  Desert.  —  The  most 
strenuous  advocates  of  Nicene  views  (Afhanasius,  the  three  great  Cap- 
padocians,  Didymus,  Hilary,  etc.)  had  held  Origen  in  great  repute. 
But  as  the  Arians  continually  appealed  to  his  authority,  the  more 
narrow-minded  opponents  of  Arianism,  especially  those  in  the  West, 
and  the  monks  of  the  Scetian  Desert  in  Egypt,  headed  by  Pachomius, 
gradually  began  to  suspect  the  orthodoxy  of  Origen.  By  and  by  they 
denounced  the  speculations  of  that  Father  as  the  source  of  every 
heresy,  and  came  to  entertain  grossly  anthropomorph*c  views  of  God 


ORIGENISTIC     CONTROVERSIES.  195 

and  of  Divine  things.  Epiphanius,  Bishop  of  Salamis  (£  47,  4),  was 
trained  in  their  school.  In  direct  opposition  to  these  monks,  others, 
who  inhabited  the  mountains  of  Nitria,  were  enthusiastic  admirers  of 
Origen,  and  adopted  a  lofty  spiritualism,  coupled  with  a  devout  and 
contemplative  mysticism. 

2.  Controversy  in  Palestine  and  Italy  (394-399). — In  Palestine,  John, 
Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  two  Latins,  Jerome  and  Rufinus,  were 
ardent  admirers  of  Origen  (§  47,  5).     But  when,  in  the  year  394,  two 
strangers  from  the  West  expressed  their  astonishment  about  this,  Je- 
rome, anxious  to  retain  his  reputation  for  orthodoxy,  immediately  pre- 
pared to  denounce  the  errors  of  Origen.    Meantime,  the  Scetian  monks 
had  also  called  the  attention  of  the  aged  and  over-zealous  Epiphanius 
to  the  existence  of  a  nursery  of  heresy  in  Palestine.     He  immediately 
took  ship,  and  employed  the  pulpit  which  John  had  kindly  opened  to 
him  for  delivering  a  vehement  denunciation  of  Origenistic  views.    Upon 
this,  John  preached  against  anthropomorphism.     Epiphanius  anathe- 
matized these  views,  but  insisted  that  John  should  pronounce  similar 
sentence  against  Origenistic  principles.     On  the  refusal  of  the  latter, 
Epiphanius  indignantly  left  Jerusalem,  renounced,  with  Jerome  and 
the  monks  at  Bethlehem,  church-communion  with  John  and  Rufinus, 
and  even  interfered  with  the  episcopal  functions  of  John,  by  ordaining 
a  presbyter  for  the  monks  at  Bethlehem.     All  this  gave  rise  to  an 
angry  controversy,  which  was  with  difficulty  settled  through  the  inter- 
ference of  Theophilus  of  Alexandria,  who  for  that  purpose  deputed 
Isidore,  one  of  his  presbyters.     Jerome  and  Rufinus  became  reconciled 
at  the  steps  of  the  altar  (39G).     The  latter  soon  afterwards  returned  to 
the  AVest.     He  translated  the  work  of  Origen  nipt  dp^wv,  leaving  out  a 
few  of  the  most  objectionable  passages ;  but  was  so  indiscreet  as  to 
hint  in  the  preface  that  even  the  orthodox  Jerome  was  an  admirer  of 
Origen.     When  informed  of  this  by  friends  at  Rome,  Jerome  wrote 
in  unmeasured  terms  against  Origenistic  views  and  against  the  friend 
of  his  youth.  —  At  the  same  time  he  made  a  literal  translation  of  the 
rtfpt  dp^wf.     Rufinus  rejoined,  and  the  dispute  became  the  more  bitter 
the  longer  it  continued.     Siricius,  Bishop  of  Rome,  extended  his  pro- 
tection to  Rufinus;  but  his  successor,  Atiastasius,  summoned  him  to 
answer  for  his  errors.     Instead  of  appearing  in  person,  Rufinus  sent  a 
written  defence ;  but  was  formally  condemned  for  Origenistic  heresy 
(399).     He  retired  to  Aquileia,  where  he  continued  to  translate  the 
writings  of  Origen  and  of  other  Greek  Fathers. 

3.  Controversy  in  Alexandria  and  Constantinople  (399-438). —  Theo- 
philus, Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  a  luxurious,  imperious,  and  violent 
prelate,  had  till  the  year  399  favoured  the  cause  of  the  Nitrian  monks, 
and  even,  during  the  Easter  of  that  year,  spoken  in  a  harsh  and  con- 
temptuous manner  of  the  heresy  of  the  Anthropomorphists.  Indignant 
at  this,  a  number  of  monks  armed  themselves  with  rods,  attacked  the 


19G        SECTION    I.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (323—692   A.  D.). 

Bishop,  and  obliged  him  to  pronounce  an  anathema  against  Origen. 
Soon  afterwards  he  lost  the  support  of  others,  formerly  his  friends. 
Isidore,  an  aged  and  venerable  presbyter,  and  the  so-called  "Jour  full 
brethren,"  of  whom  two  acted  as  treasurers  to  his  church,  iefused  to 
entrust  him  with  the  moneys  of  orphans  and  other  trust  funds,  and 
escaped  from  his  vengeance  to  their  colleagues  in  the  mountains  of 
Nitria.     Accordingly,  so  early  as  the  year  399,  Theophilus  anathema- 
tized Origen  at  an  endemic   synod   held   in   Alexandria;   and  in  401 
published  a  furious  manifesto  against  Origenistic  views.     The  honest 
but  narrow-minded  Epiphanius  hastened  to  express  his  approbation, 
and  Jerome  translated  the  document  into  Latin.     Military  force  was 
employed  to  break  up  the  establishments  in  Nitria,  and  to  expel  the 
monks.     Followed  by  the  accusing  letters  of  their  bishop,  the  latter 
sought  protection  with  John  Chrysostom  at  Constantinople ;  but  Theo- 
philus rejected  with  disdain  the  intercession  of  that  prelate.     For  the 
sake  of  peace,   Chrysostom  was  now  anxious  to  withdraw  from  the 
contest.     But  the  monks  had  meantime  found  access  to  the  Empress 
Evdoxia,   at  whose   intercession   Arcadius,   the   Emperor,   summoned 
Theophilus  to  appear  before  a  synod  to  be  held  at  Constantinople,  over 
which  Chrysostom  was  to  preside.    Theophilus  was  almost  beside  him- 
self with  rage.     By  a  misrepresentation  of  the  facts  of  the  case,  he 
succeeded  in  enlisting  the  aid  of  Epiphanivs.     Filled  with  zeal  and 
prejudices,  the  honest  old  man  hastened  to  Constantinople,  when,  on 
learning  the  real  state  of  matters,  he  immediately  withdrew  with  the 
remark:   "I  leave  to  you  the  court,  and  dissimulation."     But  Theo- 
philus knew  how  to  get  on  with   the  court  and  with  dissimulation. 
During  the  interval  Chrysostom  had,  by  his  faithfulness,  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  the  Empress.    Calculating  upon  this,  Theophilus  arrived 
at  Constantinople,  accompanied  by  a  large  suite  ;  and  at  the  imperial 
country-seat   of  Drys    (Oak),    near   Chalcedon,    organized   a   council 
(Synodn.t  ad  Qiteraini)  — in  403 —  which  declared  Chrysostom  guilty 
of  immorality,   of  heterodox  views,   and  of  treason.     The   Emperor 
banished  the  obnoxious  preacher,  who,  after  appeasing  the  popular 
fury  excited  by  this  measure,  quietly  allowed  himself  to  be  carried 
away.     But  an  earthquake,  which  took  place  the  following  night,  and 
the   increasing   popular   excitement,    induced   the   Empress   to   send 
messengers  and  recall  the  exile.    After  an  absence  of  only  three  days, 
he  was  brought  back  to  the  capital  in  triumph.     Theophilus  fled  to 
Alexandria.     Soon  afterwards,  however,  when  Chrysostom  had  again 
incurred  the  anger  of  the  Empress  for  denouncing  in  a  sermon  the 
noisy  inauguration  of  her  statue,  he  expressed  himself,  on  the  anni- 
versary  of   St.  John,    in    the    following    unguarded    language:    nduv 
Hpco&c'as  paivrtM,   ndxiv  tapdaairai,  rtaXiv   irti   jilvaxi  tr\v   xtfyoXrp  tov 
'luawov  lr}iii  toiQeiv.     Theophilus  was  now  certain  of  success;  his 
party  knew  how  to  fan  the  flame  at  court.     During  Easter  404,  armed 
men  burst  into  the  rhuish  of  Chrysostom,  and  dragged  him  to  Cucusua 


THE    PERSON    OF    CHRIST.  197 

jo  Armenia,  into  exile.  He  bore  undauntedly  the  fatigues  of  the 
journey,  the  rigour  of  the  climate,  and  the  vicinity  of  robbers.  He 
kept  up  continuous  pastoral  intercourse  with  his  flock,  and  addressed 
to  them  a  consolatory  tractate :  "On  -ebv  lavrbv  fir[  abixovvta.  ov5?i.$  rtapa- 
J3xa4eu  bvvarao.  Nor  did  his  zeal  for  the  mission  among  the  Goths  flag. 
In  vain  Innocent  I.,  Bishop  of  Rome,  and  Bonorius,  the  Emperor  of 
the  West,  interceded  for  him.  In  407  he  was  sent  to  a  still  more  dreary 
place  of  exile  —  at  Pityus,  on  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea.  But  he 
succumbed  to  the  fatigues  of  that  journey,  and  died  by  the  way,  utter- 
ing his  favourite  motto  :  Ao?a  *£  £fw  ndve^v  tvexev.  A  large  portion 
of  his  flock  at  Constantinople  refused  to  acknowledge  the  authority  of 
Arsacius,  his  successor;  and,  despite  persecutions,  continued  as  a 
separate  body  (by  the  name  of  Johniies)  until  Theodosius  II.,  in  438, 
caused  the  bones  of  their  loved  pastor  to  be  brought  to  the  capital,  and 
solemnly  deposited  in  the  imperial  burying  vaults.  Among  these  per- 
sonal disputes,  the  Origenistic  controversy  had  for  a  time  been  lost 
sight  of,  but  was  soon  afterwards  renewed  (§  52,  6). 

§52.   DISCUSSIONS  ABOUT   THE   PERSON  OF   CHRIST. 

Comp.  Walch,  Ketzerhist,  (Hist,  of  Heres.).  Vols.  V.-IX.  —  Domer, 
Person  Christi.  Vol.  I. —  Raur,  Dreieiriigk.  (on  the  Trinity).  I.  II. 

If,  in  the  discussions  about  the   Trinity,  the   question   of  the 
eternal  existence  and  of  the  Divine  nature  of  Christ  had  been 
agitated,  His  historical  manifestation  as  the  incarnate  Son  of 
God,  the  connection  between  the  Divine  nature  of  the  Logos 
and   the   human   nature  of  the   Son   of  Mary,   and   the   mutual 
relation  of  these  two  became  now  the  leading  subjects  of  inquiry. 
These  questions  had  in  part  been  raised  during  the  Arian  con- 
troversy.     For  while  the   Church  had,  against  Anus,  defended 
the  absolute  Divinity  of  Christ,  it  also  maintained,  in  opposition 
to    Apollinaris,    His    perfect   humanity.     The    discussion    now 
assumed  three  new  phases.     In  the  Nestorian  controversy,  the 
Church  defended  the  unity  of  the  person  of  Christ  against  the 
views   of  the   Antiochians,   whose  distinction   between   the   two 
natures  of  the  Saviour  almost  amounted  to  separation  into  two 
persons.     In  the  Monophyaite  controversy,  the  opposite  or  neo- 
Alexandrian  error,  which,  in  view  of  the  unity  of  Christ's  person, 
lost  sight   of  the   distinctness   of   His   natures,    was   set   aside. 
Lastly,  in   the   Mortothelele  controversy,  an   erroneous  mode  of 
viewing  the  union  of  the  two  natures  —  when  their  distinctness 
was    admitted   in  words,  but  denied  in   fact,  by  assuming  tho 


108         SECTION    I.  —  SECOND    PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.)  . 

existence  of  only  one  will  —  was  disavowed.  Thus  the  contro- 
versies about  the  Trinity  and  the  person  of  Christ  —  both  of 
which  sprung  up  in  the  East  —  were  closely  connected. 

1.  The  Apollinaristic  Con/rovers;/  (362-381).  — Older  Modalists,  aa 
Beryllus  and  Sabellius,  had  already  taught  that,  at  the  incarnation, 
the  Logos  had  assumed  only  a  human  body.  Marcellus  held  the  same 
tenet  (§  50,  2)  ;  Arius  also,  though  opposed  to  him  in  other  respects, 
had  maintained  this  view,  in  order  to  avoid  the  inference,  that  in 
Christ  two  creatures  were  combined.  Athanasius,  on  the  other  hand, 
held,  with  Origen,  that  the  human  soul  of  Christ  had  been  the  neces- 
sary bond  of  connection  between  the  Logos  and  the  body,  and  the 
medium  through  which  the  Logos  acted  upon  the  body.  Hence,  at  the 
Synod  (if  Alexandria,  in  362,  the  perfect  humanity  of  the  Lord  was 
declared  the  orthodox  dogma  on  the  subject.  Apollinaris,  Bishop  of 
Laodicsea,  a  very  talented  and  highly  educated  man,  who  had  sent  a 
deputy  to  this  Council,  although  disapproving  of  the  idea  of  a  aafia. 
'j.-\vxov,  denied  the  perfect  humanity  of  Christ.  Starting  from  the 
view  that  man  was  composed  of  three  parts,  he  maintained  that  Christ 
had  only  assumed  a  aCj/xa  and  a  ^vxv  a>.oyo;,  and  that  the  Divine  Logos 
Himself  occupied  the  place  of  the  ^v^rj  *.oyixrt  (<5  voi>$).  He  imagined 
that  a  contrary  opinion  would  render  it  necessary  to  assume  two  per- 
sonalities in  Christ,  and  that  Christ  would  thus  be  represented  as 
merely  an  av§pu7to$  tv$so{ ;  he  also  believed  that  only  on  his  principles 
would  it  be  possible  to  maintain  the  perfect  sinlessness  of  Jesus.  But 
Athanasius  and  the  two  Gregories  regarded  these  views  as  incom- 
patible with  the  full  idea  of  the  incarnation  and  of  the  atonement. 
The  second  (Ecum.  Council  (381)  rejected  the  vIcavs  of  Apollinaris,  who 
some  time  before  had,  along  with  some  adherents,  left  the  communion 
of  the  Church. 

2.  Antagonism  between  the  different  Theological  Schools  (381-428). — 
The  Arian  controversy  had  issued  in  the  general  recognition  of  the 
perfect  Divinity,  the  Apollinaristic  in  that  of  the  perfect  humanity,  of 
the  Saviour.  But  the  relation  between  these  two  natures,  implied  in 
their  union,  had  not  yet  been  accurately  defined.  According  to  Apolli- 
naris,  the  Divinity  was  so  closely  united  with  the  (partial)  humanity 
of  the  Saviour,  that  in  reality  there  ceased  to  be  two  natures.  By  a 
"communicatio  idiomatum,"  what  was  predicated  of  one  nature  was 
transferred  to  the  other,  so  that  the  body  of  Christ  was  deified,  and 
hence  adored  ;  but  the  predicates  of  being  born,  suffering,  and  dying, 
were  also  applied  to  His  Divinity.  Although  the  Alexandrian  School 
rejected  the  peculiar  tenets  of  Apollinaris  about  the  imperfect  humanity 
of  Christ,  predilection  for  what  was  mystical,  inconceivable,  and  trans- 
cendental, led  it  into  kindred  views.  In  opposition  to  Arianism,  these 
divines  laid  special  emphasis  on  the  Divinity  of  Christ,  and  maintained 
sn  i'woais  tyvaixr  of  the  two  natures.     According  to  them,  it  was  only 


THE     PERSON     OF     CHRIST.  199 

lawful  to  speak  of  two  natures,  before  the  union  of  these  two  natures, 
and  in  absiracto, — after  the  incarnation,  and  in  concrete,  we  could  only 
speak  of  one  nature,  that  of  the  God-man.  Hence  Mary  was  generally 
designated  as  "  the  Mother  of  God,"  ^sotozoj.  Athanasius  expressly 
States :  ov  8vo  <J>u<jeis,  fiiav  Ttpo^xvvrjtrjv  xal  [it,av  a,7tpOixvvr]Tov,  d.XXa  jinai/ 
tyvocv  tov  $tov  Aoyov  aaapxiofxivrjv  xo.l  rtpojxvrov1uii'»7i'  fxita,  trti  aapxoj  avrcw 
uia  7tpoixwrt3ii.  The  Cappadocians  spoke  indeed  of  two  natures  (<m.o 
xo.1  a\%o),  but  held  that  they  were  mingled  (cvyzpast-s,  xaraut;^-),  that 
there  was  a  "  ovi 6patj.Hv  "  of  the  two  natures  into  one,  a  /u-staTtotr^rjOit, 
of  the  oapl  rtpo?  rrtv  ^tot'^ra. — In  opposition  to  Apollinaris,  the  School 
of  Antioch  insisted  on  the  perfect,  immutable,  and  continuous  humanity 
of  Christ,  both  during  and  after  its  conjunction  with  His  Divinity. 
These  divines  only  admitted  a  wiu^euj.  or  svuiais  o%ttixrt  (in  virtue  of 
which  the  two  natures  had  entered  into  that  particular  relationship  — 
cyjoH  —  by  which  they  co-existed  and  co-operated).  Such  expressions 
as  £foto*o;,  £s6s  iyiwr^iv,  ^soj  tna^fv,  they  regarded  as  absurd,  if  not 
blasphemous.  They  acknowledged,  indeed,  that  the  <ja'p£  of  Christ 
should  be  adored,  but  only  in  respect  of  its  being  the  organ  through 
which  the  Logos  had  accomplished  the  work  of  redemption,  not  as  if 
itself  had  become  endowed  with  the  properties  of  Divinity.  These 
views  were  most  fully  and  consistently  propounded  by  Tkeodorus  of 
Mops.  He  regarded  the  history  of  the  God-man  as  typical  of  the  history 
of  redemption.  Christ  had  taken  upon  Himself  our  humanity,  with 
its  sinful  affections  and  propensities.  But  He  had  overcome  the  latter; 
and,  by  continuous  contests  and  victory,  elevated  His  human  nature 
to  that  absolute  perfection  which,  by  the  working  of  His  Spirit,  we 
also  shall  reach,  and  that  in  exactly  the  same  manner.  He  expressly 
guarded  himself  against  the  objection  that  his  system  implied  a  two- 
fold personality  in  Christ.  The  Saviour  was  not  a?.?.oj  xm,  ax>.oj,  but 
cbao  xal  a7.Xo,  since,  at  the  incarnation,  His  human  nature  had  lost  its 
personality  and  independence.  Each  of  these  schools  presented  one 
aspect  of  the  truth;  satisfactorily  to  exhibit  the  truth  in  its  entireuess, 
it  was  necessary  to  combine  them.  But  instead  of  uniting  them,  these 
views  were  carried  out  in  the  most  one-sided  manner,  till  they  issued 
in  positive  error.  Thus  two  heresies  sprung  up,  against  which  the 
Church  had  first  to  protest,  in  order  afterwards  to  combine  the  truths 
which  they  had  embodied,  though  in  a  distorted  form.  This  office  was 
performed  by  the  Theology  of  the  West.  In  opposition  to  Antiochian 
views,  it  ranged  itself  on  the  side  of  the  Alexandrians,  at  one  time 
even  to  the  full  extent  of  its  one-sided  representations.  Thus  Julius 
of  Rome  expressly  maintained  /xiav  fyvaiv  rov  Aoyov  aiaapx^uii-av.  But 
gradually  this  error  was  removed.  Augustine,  for  example,  still  uses 
the  expression  mixture:  but,  in  point  of  fact,  he  correctly  indicated 
the  relation  between  the  two  natures,  quite  in  accordance  with  what 
the  Church  at  a  later  period  declared  the  orthodox  view.  Again,  when 
the  errors  of  the  Alexandrians  were  under  discussion.  Western  divine? 


200        SECTION    I.  —  SECOND    PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

took  the  opposite  side,  and  combined  what  was  true  in  the  two 
antagonistic  schools  {Leo  the  Great).  —  It  is  remarkable  that  this  dis- 
cussion originated  in  the  West.  But  it  was  so  speedily  suppressed  as 
to  leave  no  trace  behind.  Leporius,  a  monk  in  the  south  of  Gaul,  had 
expressed  himself  about  the  union  of  the  two  natures  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  theologians  of  Antioch.  In  426  he  went  to  Africa,  was 
opposed  by  Augustine,  and  at  once  recanted. 

3.   The  Nestorian  Controversy  (428-444).— In  428  Nestorius,  a  monk 
of  Antioch,  and  a  most  eloquent  man,  was  appointed  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople.    He  was  honest  and  pious,  but  rash,  destitute  of  experi- 
ence, and  harsh  towards  heretics.     The  position  of  the  inexperienced 
monk  was  sufficiently  difficult.     He  had  to  contend  against  the  hatred 
of  an  unsuccessful  rival  for  his  see,  with  the  jealousy  of  the  Patriarch 
of  Alexandria,  who  besides  regarded  him  as  a  representative  of  the 
School  of  Antioch,  and  with  the  suspicions  of   Ctflestine,  Bishop  of 
Home,  whom  lie  had  provoked  by  extending  protection  to  fugitive  Pela- 
gians ($  53,  4).     Anastasius,  a  presbyter  whom  Nestorius  had  brought 
with  him,  objected  to  the  frequent  use  of  the  term  S-sorozoj,  and  preached 
against  it.     Nestorius  took  his  part  both  against  the  people  and  the 
monks ;   and  when  some  of  the  latter  offered  the  Patriarch  personal 
insults,  he  caused  bodily  chastisement  to  be  administered  to  them,  and 
at  a  National   Synod   condemned  the  views  of  his  opponents  (429). 
Cyril,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  now  entered  the  lists  in  defence  of  the 
teaching  of  his  school.     He  gained  for  his  views  Calestine,  Bishop  of 
Borne,  Memnon,  Bishop  of  Ephesus,  and  Jiivenalis,  Bishop  of  Jerusa- 
lem, and  at  court  Pulcheria,  sister  of  the   Emperor  (Theodosius  II., 
408-450);  while  the  Empress  Eudocia  and  the  Syrian  bishops  took  the 
part  of  Nestorius.     All  attempts  at  reconciliation  were  frustrated  by 
the  unyielding  disposition  of  the  two  patriarchs.     Coelestine  of  Rome 
called  upon  Nestorius  to  recant  within  ten  days  (430) ;  and  at  a  synod 
held  in  Alexandria  (430),  Cyril  issued  twelve  Anafiiematismoi,  to  which 
Nestorius  replied  by  a  similar  edict.     These  measures  served  to  em- 
bitter both  parties.     To  settle  the  question,  the  Emperor  convoked  a 
third  cecumenical  Council  at  EpnESUs  in  431.    The  Emperor  himself 
was  decidedly  in  favour  of  Nestorius ;  the  imperial  representative  at 
the  Council  was  a  personal  friend  of  the  Patriarch,  and  part  of  the 
Imperial  Guard  attended  Nestorius  to  Ephesus.     But  Cyril  appeared 
witli  a  large  suite  of  bishops,  and  a  strong  body-guard  of  servants  and 
sailors,    prepared,    if   necessary,   to  demonstrate   with   their  fists    the 
soundness  of  his  arguments.     At  the  same  time,  Memnon  of  Ephesus 
had  excited  the  clergy,  the  monks,  and  the  people  of  Asia  Minor  on 
the  subject.     As  the  deputies  from  Rome  and  the  Syrian  bishops  (the 
former  probably  of  set  purpose)  did  not  appear  at  the  proper  time, 
Cyril,  without  waiting  for   their  arrival,  opened   the  Council,  which 
consisted  of  200  bishops.     Nestorianism   was  condemned,    Nestorius 
excommunicated  and  deposed,  and  the  Anathematismoi  of  Cyril  recog- 


THE     PEBSON     OF     CHRIST.  201 

nized  as  a  test  of  ecclesiastical  orthodoxy.  The  deputies  from  Rome 
acknowledged  the  authority  of  the  Council ;  not  so  the  imperial  repre- 
sentative and  the  Syrians,  who  immediately,  on  their  arrival,  held  a 
counter-council,  over  which  John  of  Antioch  presided,  and  which  ex- 
communicated Cyril  and  Memnon.  Nestorius  voluntarily  retired  into 
a  monastery.  Meantime,  the  populace  of  Constantinople,  instigated 
by  Pulcheria,  rose  in  favour  of  Cyril.  The  Emperor  deposed  the  three 
leaders  in  the  dispute  —  Nestorius,  Cyril,  and  Memnon, — and  gave  his 
authority  to  a  sort  of  intermediate  formula,  drawn  up  by  Theodoret, 
which  admitted  the  correctness  of  the  term  §eotoxos,  but  also  main- 
tained an  dfjuy^uroj  swoffty.  But  Cyril  and  Memnon  continued  in  their 
sees.  While  they  signed  the  formula  of  Theodoret,  John  subscribed 
the  condemnation  of  Nestorius  (433).  The  latter  remained  deposed 
and  a  prey  to  his  enemies.  Torn  from  his  asylum  and  maltreated,  he 
died  (440)  in  misery.  But  the  compromise  of  the  two  leaders  was 
rejected  by  their  followers.  The  Syrian  Church  was  indignant  about 
the  manner  in  which  their  patriarch  had  betrayed  the  cause  in  the 
person  of  Nestorius.  Jo/ui  proceeded  to  depose  all  his  opponents  —  a 
fate  which  had  almost  befallen  even  the  noble-minded  Theodoret.  But 
in  his  case  the  Patriarch  agreed  to  dispense  with  a  formal  condemna- 
tion of  the  person  of  Nestorius  in  consideration  of  an  ample  rejection 
of  his  teaching. — The  Egyptians  also  accused  their  patriarch  of  having 
surrendered  orthodox  views.  But  this  prelate  endeavoured,  by  in- 
creased zeal,  to  make  up  for  his  former  compliance.  He  laboured — not 
without  success— to  bring  the  anathema  of  the  Church  upon  the  leaders 
of  the  School  of  Antioch.  Rabulas,  Bishop  of  Edessa,  one  of  his  adhe- 
rents, dispersed  the  theological  school  at  Edessa,  which  at  the  time  was 
presided  over  by  the  celebrated  presbyter  Ibas.  After  the  death  of 
Rabulas  (430)  this  school  again  attained  its  former  celebrity.  Mean- 
time, Theodoret  and  Cyril  hurled  violent  tractates  against  each  other, 
till,  in  444,  th*  death  of  the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  put  an  end  to 
the  controvei ay.  Ibas  translated  the  writings  of  Theodoret  into  Syriac, 
and  addressed  —  in  favour  of  these  views  —  a  tractate  to  Maris,  Bishop 
of  Hardashir  in  Syria,  which  the  Nestorians  afterwards  regarded  as  a 
kind  of  confession  of  faith.  Thomas  Barsumas,  Bishop  of  Nisibis, 
spread  Nestorianism  in  the  Persian  Church.  In  489,  the  School  of 
Edessa  was  again  broken  up,  by  command  of  the  Emperor  Zeno. 
Teachers  and  students  migrated  into  Persia,  where  they  founded  a 
school  in  Nisibis,  which  for  a  long  time  enjoyed  considerable  celebrity. 
At  last,  at  a  synod  held  in  Seleucia  in  498,  the  Persian  Church  wholly 
separated  from  the  orthodox  Church  in  the  Roman  Empire,  and  adopted 
the  name  of  Chaldean  Christians.  Their  Patriarch  bore  the  title  of 
Yazelich  (xa^o?  ixo$) .  From  Persia  the  Nestorian  Church  spread  tc 
India,  where  i."s  adherents  were  called  Thomas-Christians. 

4.    The   Monophysite    Controversy.      A.   Eutychianitm    (444-451). — 
Cyril  was  succeeded  by  Dioscurus,  a  man  of  much  inferior  talent,  but 


202         SECTION    I.  —  SECOND    PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

of  much  greater  violence  and  tyranny  than  even  the  opponent  of  Nes- 
tonus.  In  Constantinople,  an  aged  Archimandrite,  called  Eutyches, 
openly  taught  that,  after  His  incarnation,  Christ  had  only  had  one 
nature,  and  that,  since  the  body  of  Christ  was  that  of  the  Deity,  it 
could  not  have  been  of  the  same  substance  with  ours.  Theodoret  wrote 
against  him  a  tractate,  entitled  'Epanarjjs  rjtoi,  noXv,uop$o$,  in  which  be 
characterized  the  teaching  of  Eutyches  as  a  combination  of  various 
heresies.  Dioscurus  now  interfered,  and  prevailed  on  the  Emperor 
Theodosius  II.,  whose  Minister  of  State  and  wife  (Eudocia)  he  had 
gained,  to  adopt  strict  measures  against  the  Syrians,  and  especially 
against  Theodoret,  who  was  forbidden  to  travel  beyond  the  bounds  of 
his  diocese.  The  Antiochians,  on  the  other  hand,  laid  an  accusation 
against  Eutyches  before  the  Patriarch  Flavian,  at  a  synod  held  in  Con- 
stantinople (448).  Eutyches  appeared,  attended  by  an  imperial  guard; 
but,  on  his  refusal  to  recant,  was  excommunicated  and  deposed.  Eu- 
tyches appealed  to  an  oecumenical  council,  and  at  the  same  time  to  Leo 
the  Great  of  Rome.  Flavian  also  appealed  to  Rome.  Leo  took  the 
same  view  as  Flavian ;  and  in  a  letter  to  that  prelate,  with  equal  acute- 
ness  and  precision,  defined  the  doctrine  about  the  two  natures  in  Christ. 
But  the  Emperor  summoned  an  oecumenical  council  to  Ephesus  (449), 
over  which  Dioscurus  was  to  preside,  at  which  Flavian  and  his  party, 
however,  were  not  to  vote,  and  from  which  Theodoret  was  wholly  ex- 
cluded. The  Council  proceeded  in  the  most  arbitrary  and  violent 
manner.  The  deputies  from  Rome  were  not  allowed  to  speak  ;  the 
doctrine  of  two  natures  was  condemned  ;  Flavian  and'  Theodoret  were 
deposed.  The  former  met  even  with  bodily  violence,  and  died  after 
the  lapse  of  only  three  days.  Leo  the  Great  energetically  protested 
against  the  decrees  of  this  "  Robber-Synod"  (latrocinium  Ephesiuum). 
But  meantime  Theodosius  had  quarrelled  with  Eudocia,  dismissed  his 
ministers,  and  made  his  peace  with  Pulcheria.  Accordingly,  the  body 
of  Flavian  was  carried  in  state  to  Constantinople,  and  buried  with  all 
honours.  Further  measures  were  arrested  by  the  death  of  Theodosius 
in  450.  He  was  succeeded  by  Pulcheria,  and  her  husband  Marcian. 
Another  cecumenical  council  (the  fourth)  was  now  convened  at  Chal- 
cedon  in  451,  which  deposed  Dioscurus  and  Eutyches,  and  condemned 
both  Nestorianism  and  Eutychianism.  The  Synodical  Epistle  of  Cyril 
and  the  Letter  of  Leo  were  made  the  basis  of  the  decrees  enacted  at 
Chalcedon,  which  affirmed,  "  that  Christ  was  true  God  and  true  man  ; 
that,  according  to  His  divinity,  lie  was  begotten  from  all  eternity,  and 
equal  to  the  Father ;  that,  according  to  His  humanity,  He  was  born 
of  Mary  the  Virgin,  and  mother  of  God ;  and  was  like  us  in  all  things, 
yet  without  sin  ;  and  that,  after  His  incarnation,  the  unity  of  His 
person  consisted  of  two  natures,  which  were  unmixed  (aovyxvrus)  and 
unchanged  latpF7ttu>s),  but  also  undivided  (d§tatpirwj)  and  not  separated 

(a*<.>:,.-rw$)." 

5.  B.  Imperial  Attempts  to  bring  aboid  a  Union  (451-519).  —  The 


THE     PERSON     OF     CHRIST.  2(8 

Alexandrian  theologians  left  the  Council  full  of  indignation  about  the 
defeat  which  they  had  sustained.  They  were  now  called  Monophysites, 
Indeed,  the  whole  Church  was  violently  agitated  by  these  questions. 
In  Palestine,  Theodosius,  a  monk,  secretly  aided  by  Eudocia,  the  widow 
of  the  Emperor,  incited  the  populace  to  rebellion.  In  Egypt  the  com- 
motion was  still  greater.  Timotheus  Aelurus  took  possession  of  the  see 
of  Alexandria,  and  expelled  Proferins,  the  orthodox  patriarch.  Simi- 
larly, Petrus  Fiillo  intruded  himself  into  the  bishopric  of  Antioch. 
These  tumults  were  only  suppressed  after  much  blood  had  been  shed. 
But  the  usurper  Basiliscus  published  an  edict  (Encyclion)  in  which 
both  the  Creed  of  Chalcedon  and  the  Epistle  of  Leo  were  condemned ; 
Monophysitism  was  declared  the  religion  of  the  State  (476) ;  and  Fullo 
and  Aelurus  were  reinstated  in  their  sees.  Soon  afterwards  Acacias, 
the  Patriarch  of  Constant.,  organized  a  counter-revolution  in  the  inte- 
rest of  the  Dyophysite  party  ;  Basiliscus  was  deposed ;  and  the  Empe- 
ror Zcno,  who  had  formerly  been  expelled,  again  mounted  the  throne 
(477).  About  that  time  Aelurus  died;  his  party  chose  Petrus  Mongus 
[bloesus)  his  successor  ;  but  the  Court  appointed  John  Talaja,  a  Dyo- 
physite, to  the  see.  But  when  the  latter  quarrelled  with  Acacius,  that 
patriarch  took  the  part  of  Mongus,  the  rival  of  Talaja.  The  two  pre- 
lates now  agreed  as  to  a  project  for  union,  which,  being  approved  by 
the  Emperor  Zeno,  obtained  in  482  legal  sanction  by  an  edict,  called 
the  IIen'oticon.  Nestorianism  and  Eutychiauism  were  still  con- 
demned; the  Anathematismoi  of  Cyril  were  confirmed;  the  "  Chalce- 
donese"  was  abrogated;  the  NicEeno-Constantinopolitanum  alone  en- 
joined as  the  orthodox  creed  ;  and  all  controverted  points  were  to  be 
carefully  avoided.  Of  course  both  parties  objected  to  such  a  union. 
The  strict  Monophysites  in  Egypt  separated  from  Mongus,  and  were 
now  designated  'Axtfa'koc.  On  the  other  hand,  Felix  II.  of  Rome,  as 
leader  of  the  Dj'ophysites,  renounced  all  church-communion  with  Aca- 
cius. This  Schism  between  the  East  and  the  West  lasted  for  thirty- 
five  years  (484—519).  The  Acoimetai  ($  44,  4)  were  the  only  party  in 
Constantinople  who  continued  in  communion  with  Rome.  The  Heno- 
ticon  was  only  abolished  when  Justin  I.  meditated  the  reconquest  of 
Italy,  since  the  schism  to  which  it  had  given  rise  was  prejudicial  to 
his  interests.  Its  adherents  were  now  deposed,  and  ecclesiastical  com- 
munion with  the  West  was  restored  (519). — (Comp.  also  the  third  part 
of  the  Eccl.  History  of  John,  Bishop  of  Ephesus,  by  Cureton.  Oxf. 
1853.) 

6.  C.  The  Decrees  of  Justinian  I.  (527-553).  —  Amid  these  tumults, 
Justinian  I.  began  his  long  and  —  so  far  as  political  matters  are  con- 
cerned —  glorious  reign  (527-565).  He  considered  it  his  great  mission 
to  establish  orthodoxy,  and  to  bring  back  the  heretics,  especially  the 
numerous  Monophysites,  to  the  bosom  of  the  Church.  But  the  good 
intentions  of  the  Emperor,  who  was  but  partially  conversant  with  these 
intricate  questions,  were  often  frustrated  by  the  intrigues  of  the  court 


204  SECTION    I. — SECOND   PERIOD    (323-C92  A.  D.). 

theologians  aid  the  machinations  of  the  Empress   Theodora,  -who  wai 
at  heart  a  Monophysite.     Justinian  first  interposed  in  the  Theopas- 
ciiite  Controversy.     Petnis   Fitllo  had  added  to  the   doxology  (the 
Trisagion  or   Ter-Sanctus)   the   expression:  ^soj  o  oravp^tij  St  ^iaj, 
which.had  been  inserted  into  the  Liturgy  of  Constantinople.     This  ex- 
pression the  Acoimetce  declared  to  be  heretical;  Hormisdas  of  Rome 
pronounced  it,  at  any  rate,  liable  to  misunderstanding,  and  needless. 
It  obtained,  however,  the  sanction  of  Justinian  (533).     Encouraged  by 
this  first  success,  Theodora  managed  to  procure  the  appointment  of 
Anthimus,  a  Monophysite,  to  the  see  of  Constantinople.     But  when 
Agapetus,  Bishop  of  "Rome,  brought  out  the  real  views   of  the   new 
patriarch,   he  was  again  deposed  from  his  office,  to  which  Mennas,  a 
friend  of  Agapetus,  succeeded  (536).     All  Monophysite  writings  were 
to  be  burned,  and  any  one  who  ventured  to  make  copies  of  them  was  to 
have  his  hands  cut  off.     Still,  Domitian    and   Theodoras  Ascidas,  two 
abbots  from  Palestine,  secret  Monophysites  and  devoted  followers  of 
Oiigen,  lived  at  court  in  great  favour.     In  order  to  put  an  end  to  their 
influence,  Mennas   again    condemned  —  at  a  National   Synod  held  at 
Constantinople  in  541  — the   arch-heretic  and  his  writings.     But  the 
court  theologians  subscribed  this  sentence  without  hesitation,  and  only 
concocted  the  more  zealously  with  Theodora  measures  of  reprisal.    For 
some  time  past  Justinian  had  been  concerned  about  the  state  of  public 
feeling  in  Egypt,  which  was  the  granary  of  the  empire.     He  deemed 
it  necessary  to  do  something  to  allay  the  excitement  among  its  Mono- 
physite population.     Theodora  persuaded  him  that  the  Monophysites 
would  easily  be  appeased  if,  along  with  the  writings  of  Diodorus,  the 
father  of  Nestorianism,  the  controversial  tractates  of  Theodoret  against 
Cyril,  and  the  letter  of  Ibas  to  Maris  (the  so-called  "tria  capitula"), 
were   also   condemned.     Accordingly,  the  Emperor  issued  in  544  an 
edict  to  that  effect,  and  insisted  that  all  bishops  should  subscribe  it. 
Only  those  in  the   East   complied.     But  in  the  West  resistance  was 
offered  on  all  sides,   and   the  so-called    Controversy  of  the   Three 
Chapters  commenced.     Vigilius  of  Rome,  a  creature  of  Theodora,  who 
had  secretly  promised  his  co-operation,  was  afraid  to  face  the  storm  in 
the  West,  and  broke  his  word.     Justinian  had  him  brought  to  Con- 
stantinople (547),  and  there  obliged  him  to  make  a  written  declaration 

the  so-called  Judicatum  —  in  which  he  approved  the  condemnation 

of  the  three  chapters.  The  Africans,  led  by  Eeparatus  of  Carthage, 
now  excommunicated  the  successor  of  Peter,  and  courageously  defended 
the  Fathers  whose  writings  had  been  attacked  [Fuhjentius  of  Ruspe 
wrote  "Pro  tribus  capitt. ;  Facundus  of  Hermiana,  "  Defensio  III. 
capitt.  ;"  and  Liberates,  a  deacon  of  Carthage,  a  "  Brcviarium  causa) 
Nestorian.  et  Eutychianorum,"  which  is  a  leading  authority  in  the 
history  of  these  controversies).  At  length  Justinian  summoned  a  fifth 
(ECUMENICAL  Council  to  Constantinople  (553),  which  confirmed  all 
the  edicts  of  the  Imperor..   Vigilius  wrote  a  "  constitutum  ad  Imp.," 


THE     PERSON     OF     CHRIST.  205 

in  whi.-h  he  rejected  the  teaching  of  the  three  capitula,  but  refused  to 
condemn  their  writers.  A  period  of  imprisonment,  however,  induced 
him  to  yield  in  554.  He  died  on  his  return  to  his  see  in  555.  Pelagius, 
his  successor,  formally  acknowledged  the  decrees  of  Constantinople ; 
and  North  Africa,  North  Italy,  and  Illyria  separated  from  the  see  of 
Peter,  which  had  so  basely  succumbed.  Only  Gregory  the  Great  suc- 
ceeded—  not  without  much  trouble  —  in  gradually  healing  this  schism. 

7.  D.  The  Monophysite  Churches.  —  Justinian  had  not  attained  his 
object.  The  Monophysites  refused  to  return  to  the  Church  so  long  as 
the  decrees  of  Chalcedon  remained  in  force.  But  they  suffered  even 
more  from  endless  internal  divisions  than  from  the  persecutions  of  the 
orthodox  State  Church.  First  of  all,  Julianus  and  Sevei'us,  the  two 
leaders  of  the  party  in  Alexandria,  disputed.  The  Severians  ((j^apro- 
Xarpat)  held  that  the  body  of  Christ  had  been  subject  to  decay  (<}>^opa), 
while  the  Julianists  (a^apooxr;tai)  denied  it.  This  discussion  was 
followed  by  many  others. — The  Monophysites  numbered  most  adherents 
in  Egypt.  From  dislike  to  the  Greek  Catholics,  they  excluded  th'e 
Greek  language  from  their  ecclesiastical  forms,  and  chose  a  Coptic 
patriarch  of  their  own.  They  even  favoured  the  conquest  of  Egypt 
by  the  Saracens  (640),  who,  in  gratitude  for  such  services,  expelled 
the  Catholic  patriarch.  From  Egypt  their  views  spread  into  Abyssinia. 
Armenia  had  in  536  surrendered  to  the  Persians,  when  the  Monophy- 
sites in  that  country,  hitherto  ojipressed  under  Byzantine  domination, 
obtained  full  liberty.  In  Syria  and  Mesopotamia  the  indefatigable 
activity  of  Jacobus  Zanzalus,  a  monk  (commonly  termed  el  Baradai, 
from  the  circumstance  of  his  going  about  in  the  disguise  of  a  beggar) 
preserved  the  existence  of  the  Monophysite  Church  during  the  perse- 
cutions of  Justinian.  From  this  their  leader  the  Syrian  Monophysites 
were  called  Jacobites;  while  they  designated  the  Catholics  as  Melchites 
(Royalists).  The  patriarch  of  the  party  resided  at  Guba  in  Mesopo- 
tamia; his  suffragan  at  Tagrit  had  the  title  of  Maphrian  —  i.  e.,  fruit- 
bearing.  The  Armenian  Monophysites  were  ruled  by  the  Patriarch 
of  Ashtarag,  who  took  the  title  of  Catholicos.  The  Abyssinian  Church 
was  under  the  direction  of  a  metropolitan,  designated  as  Abbuna. 

8.  The  Monothelele  Controversy  (633-680).  —  Increasing  difficulties 
in  the  State  made  union  with  the  Monophysites  more  and  more  desi- 
rable. Accordingly,  the  Emperor  Heraclius  (611-641)  was  advised  to 
attempt  a  reconciliation  of  the  two  parties  by  means  of  an  intermediate 
formula,  which  bore  that  Christ  had  accomplished  His  work  of  redemp- 
tion by  one  manifestation  of  His  will  as  the  God-man  {/iiq,  ^fa^pixJJ 
ti'tpytia).  Several  Catholic  bishops  sanctioned  this  formula,  which  had 
already  been  propounded  by  the  Pseudo-Dionysius  (g  47,  6).  On  this 
basis,  the  Patriarchs  Sergius  of  Constantinople  and  Cyrus  of  Alexandria, 
in  633,  agreed  to  unite,  when  most  of  the  Severians  returned  to  the  State 
Church.    Honorius  of  Rome  was  also  in  favour  of  this  movement.     But 

13 


206         SECTION    I. SECOND    PERIOD    (."23 — 092    A.  D.). 

the  monk  Sophronius,  who  soon  afterwards  became  Patriarch  of  Jeru- 
salem  (634),  was  decidedly  opposed  to  a  union  which,  in  his  opinion, 
necessarily   led    back  to  Monophysite    views.     Soon    afterwards    the 
capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Saracens   (in  G37)  deprived  him,  how- 
ever, of  the  means  of  making  opposition.     In  638  the  Emperor  issued 
an  edict  —  the  Ecthesis  —  designed  to  put  an  end  to  all  discussion,  and 
which  gave  the  sanction  of  law  to  the  Monothelete  view.     Maximus,  a 
monk  (#  47,  G),  now  entered  the  lists  in  defence  of  discarded  orthodoxy. 
He  betook  himself  to  Africa,  where,  since  the  time  of  Justinian,  the 
Confession  of  Chalcedon  had  been  most  zealously  upheld.     Thence  he, 
along  with  some  African  divines,  launched  controversial  tractates.     In 
Rome  also  a  reaction  in  favour  of  the  old  sentiments  had,  after  the  death 
of  Honorius  (638),  taken  place.     The  real  aim  of  these  attempts  at 
union  —  to   retain   Syria  and  Egypt  —  was  not  attained.     In  638  the 
Saracens  took  Syria,  and  in  640  Egypt.     Still,  for  the  sake  of  consist- 
ency, the  court  persevered.     But  difficulties  daily  increased.     Already 
Africa  and  Italy  were  in  open  rebellion,  both  politically  and  ecclesias- 
tically.    At  last  the  Emperor  Constans  II.  (642-668)  resolved  to  abolish 
the  Ecthesis.     In  room  of  it  he  published,  in  648,  another  law  —  the 
Tvpos — by  which  the  status  quo  previous  to  the  Monothelete  movement 
was  to  be  restored  ;  and  divines  were  enjoined  neither  to  propound  the 
dogma  of  one  nor  that  of  two  wills.     But  at  thejtrst  Lateran  Synod, 
held  at  Rome  in  649,  Martin  I.  condemned,  in  the  strongest  terms,  both 
the  Ecthesis,  the  Typos,  and  those  who  had  issued  them.     These  acts 
of  the  Synod  were  transmitted  to  the  Emperor.     The  Emperor  replied 
by  ordering  Olympius,  the  Exarch  of  Ravenna,  to  make  the  bold  pre- 
late a  prisoner.     He  did  not  obey  ;  but  his  successor  sent  the  Pope  in 
chains  to  Constantinople,  where  he  was  declared  guilty  of  treason,  and 
banished  to  Cherson.     Martin  I.,  who  in  his  exile  literally  suffered  from 
hunger,   died  after  six  months  (655).     Even  more  dreadful  was  the 
punishment  awarded  to  Maximus,  who  was  cruelly  scourged,  had  his 
tongue  torn  out,  his  hand  cut  off,  and  was  in  that  state  banished  into 
the  country  of  the  barbarous  Lacians,  where  he  died  in  662,  at  the 
advanced  age  of  eighty.     These  barbarous  measures  seemed  for  a  time 
successful,  and  every  opposition  ceased.     But  under  the  reign  of  Con- 
stantinus  Pogonnalus  (668-685)  the  two  parties  prepared  for  another 
contest.    The  Emperor  resolved  to  put  an  end  to  it  by  convoking  a  uni- 
versal council.     Pope  Agatho  held  a  splendid  council  at  Rome  in  679; 
where  it  was  resolved  not  to  abate  one  iota  from  the  decrees  of  the 
Lateran  Synod.    Armed  with  these  resolutions,  and  an  autograph  lettei 
of  the  Pope's,  the  legates  from  Rome  appeared  at  the  Sixth  (Ecume- 
nical Council  at  Constantinople  in  680  (called  also  the  Coucil.  Trulla- 
mint  I.,  from   the  peculiar  shell-like  shape  of  the  hall  Trullus,  in  the 
imperial  palace,  where  it  met).     As  in  Chalcedon  the  Epistle  of  Leo, 
60  .now  the  definitions  of  Agatho  [Svb  tyvaixa  ^stoj/ttara  dStaipf'rwj.  atfirt- 
fwj,  afAtpLOT^s,   dai-yaju-rws,  ovx  vritvavti.a.  uXhu  iriuy-iiov  to  di^pwrtn'oi   xcu 


THE     DOCTRINE     OF     REDEMPTION.  207 

\)Ttotaaa6jxivov  tu}  £««)  were  made  the  basis  of  the  decrees.  Nay,  the 
Synod  went  so  far  as  to  transmit  to  the  Pope  an  account  of  its  trans- 
actions, and  to  request  him  to  ratify  its  decrees.  Still  the  Greeks 
managed  to  put  some  wormwood  into  the  Pope's  cup,  by  prevailing 
upon  the  Council  to  anathematize  Pope  Honorius  along  with  the  other 
representatives  of  the  Monothelete  heresy.  —  After  that,  Dyotheletism 
was  universally  received  as  orthodox  doctrine.  Monotheletism  continued 
only  in  that  portion  of  Asia  which  the  arm  of  the  State  Church  was 
unable  to  reach.  The  scattered  adherents  of  these  views  gathered 
around  the  monastery  of  S.  Maro  on  Mount  Lebanon,  and  made  its 
abbot  their  ecclesiastical  chief.  They  took  the  name  of  Maronites,  and 
preserved  their  ecclesiastical  and  political  independence  both  against 
the  Byzantines  and  against  the  Saracens. 

I  53.    CONTROVERSIES   CONNECTED   WITH   THE   DOCTRINE 
OF   REDEMPTION    (412—529). 

Comp.  Walch,  Hist.  d.  Ketz.  IV.  V.  —  Fr.  Wiggers,  prag.  Darstell. 
des  Augustinism.  u.  Pelagianism.  (Pragm.  Sketch  of  Aug.  and  Pelag.). 
Berlin  1821,  1833.     2  Volls. 

Although  the  controversies  about  the  Trinity  and  the  Person 
of  Christ  had  originated  and  were  most  zealously  carried  on  in 
the  East,  they  also  exercised  considerable  influence  in  the  West ; 
and  when,  ultimately,  they  issued  in  favour  of  orthodoxy,  this 
result  was  mainly  due  to  the  influential  advocacy  of  the  see  of 
Rome.  But  even  before  the  commencement  of  the  controversy 
about  the  Person  of  Christ,  a  discussion  had  sprung  up  in  the 
West,  which  continued  for  upwards  of  a  century,  but  failed  to 
enlist  more  than  a  merely  passing  and  indirect  interest  in  the 
East.  This  discussion  concerned  the  fundamental  doctrines  of 
Sin  and  of  Grace.  While  Pelagians  maintained  the  efficacy  of 
unaided  human  liberty,  and  semi- Pelagians  the  co-operation  of 
Divine  grace  with  human  freedom,  Augustine  and  his  party 
insisted  on  the  operation  of  Divine  grace  as  a  one  efficacious  in 
the  work  of  salvation.  Victory  ultimately  remained  with  the 
party  of  Augustine. 

1.  Preliminary  History.  —  The  entire  corruption  of  human  nature, 
and  the  need  of  Divine  grace  in  Christ  in  order  to  redemption,  had  from 
the  first  been  generally  admitted  in  the  Church.  But  a  considerable 
period  elapsed  before  it  was  authoritatively  and  finally  settled  whether, 
and  in  how  far,  the  moral  freedom  of  man  had  been  weakened  or  lost 
through  sin,  and  what  was  the  relation  between  human  activity  and 
Divine  grace.  In  their  controversies  with  the  Gnostics  and  Manicha^anj 
the  Fathers  were  led  to  lay  the  greatest  possible  emphasis  on  the  doc- 


208   SECTION  I.  —  SECOND  PERIOD  (.'523—692  A.  D.)  . 

trine  of  human  freedom.  Some  of  them  went  so  far  even  as  to  deny 
innate  sinfulness  —  an  error  which  was  not  a  little  encouraged  hy  the 
views  concerning  "Creationism"  then  prevailing.  This  tendency  ap- 
peared most  prominently  among  the  older  Alexandrian  writers.  —  The 
Nco- Alexandrian  School,  on  the  other  hand,  sought  to  trace  the  universal 
prevalence  of  sin  to  the  fall  of  Adam,  but  failed  to  carry  out  this  view 
so  far  as  the  principle  of  hereditary  or  innate  sinfulness.  Accordingly, 
this  school  afterwards  kept  by  the  statements  formerly  made  by  Alex- 
andrian writers,  who  traced  salvation  to  a  Synergism,  or  the  co-opera 
tion  of  human  freedom  with  Divine  grace.  The  theologians  of  Aniioch, 
in  their  anxiety  to  assign  a  place  to  the  operation  of  the  human  will, 
while  admitting  the  necessity  of  Divine  grace,  reduced  the  doctrine  of 
original  sin  to  that  of  hereditary  evil.  Thus  Chrysostom  allowed 
that  the  children  which  Adam  begat  after  ho  had  become  mortal  must 
also  have  been  subject  to  death ;  but  he  failed  to  perceive  that  after  his 
sin  his  descendants  must  also  have  been  sinful.  The  first  man,  he 
held,  had  brought  into  the  world  sin  and  misery,  which  Ave  confirmed 
and  continued  by  our  sins.  If,  in  the  exercise  of  his  free  will,  man 
only  did  his  part,  grace  would  certainly  not  be  withheld.  In  short,  the 
East  was  unanimous  in  decidedly  rejecting  anything  like  Predestina- 
rianisin. — It  was  otherwise  in  the  West,  where  the  "  Traducianisin"  or 
"  Generationism"  of  Tertullian  (tradux  animte  tradux  peccati)  prepared 
the  way  for  the  doctrine  of  original  sin,  and  for  the  views  of  Augustine 
concerning  grace.  Even  Tertvllian,  proceeding  on  the  fact  that  from 
his  birth  a  man  had  an  unconquerable  inclination  towards  sin,  spoke 
very  distinctly  about  a  "  vitium  originis."  Cyprian,  Ambrose,  and  Hi- 
lary, held  the  same  views.  Still,  even  these  Fathers  were  not  quite 
free  from  Synergistic  views.  By  the  side  of  passages  which  savour  of 
extreme  Predestinarianism,  Ave  find  others  in  which  great  stress  is  laid 
on  the  co-operation  of  man  in  conversion.  Augustine  Avas  the  first  to 
carry  these  principles  to  their  fullest  consequences,  and  taught  that 
the  operation  of  God  was  alone  efficacious  in  salvation  (Divine  Moner- 
gism) ;  Avhile  Pelagius  perverted  the  Synergism  propounded  by  former 
authorities  into  a  Monergism  on  the  part  of  man,  which  had  not  been 
mooted  before  him. 

2.  Doctrinal  Views  of  Augustine.  —  During  the  first  period  of  his 
Christian  experience,  and  Avhile  antagonism  to  the  Manichaian  system 
occupied  so  prominent  a  place  in  his  thinking,  Augustine  also  regarded 
faith  as  a  free  act  of  the  human  will.  He  deemed  it  requisite  that,  to 
a  certain  extent,  the  human  will  should  co-operate  in  conversion,  and 
hence  denied  that  man  was  entirely  helpless  and  undeserving  of  any 
good.  But  a  deeper  experience  ($  47,  5)  obliged  him  to  acknowledge 
the  natural  inability  of  man  to  contribute  in  any  way  towards  the 
acquisition  of  salvation,  and  to  trace  both  faith  and  conversion  entirely 
to  tin'  grace  of  God.  These  views  became  thoroughly  formed,  and  Avere 
completely  developed,  during  the  controversy  with  the  Pelagians.    The 


THE     DOCTRINE     OF     REDEMPTION.  209 

following  are  the  leading  outlines  of  the  doctrinal  system  of  Augustine. 
Originally  man  had  been  a  free  agent,  created  in  the  image  of  God, 
capable  of,  and  destined  for,  immortality,  holiness,  and  blessedness  ; 
but  also  free  to  sin  and  to  die.  In  the  exercise  of  his  freedom,  he  had 
to  make  a  choice.  If  he  had  chosen  to  obey  the  Lord,  the  possibility 
that  he  might  not  sin,  and  hence  not  die,  would  have  become  an  impos- 
sibility to  sin  or  to  die  (the  "  posse  non  peccare  et  mori"  a  "  non  posse 
peccare  et  mori").  But  by  the  wiles  of  the  enemy  he  fell,  and  it 
became  impossible  for  him  not  to  sin  and  not  to  die  ("non  posse  non 
peccare"  and  "non  mori").  All  the  distinguishing  features  of  the 
Divine  image  were  now  lost,  and  man  was  only  capable  of  an  external, 
civil  righteousness  (justitia  civilis)  and  of  being  redeemed.  But  in 
Adam  all  mankind  have  sinned,  since  he  constituted  all  mankind.  By 
generation  the  nature  of  Adam,  as  it  was  after  the  fall,  with  its  sin 
and  guilt,  with  its  death  and  condemnation — but  also  with  its  capability 
of  redemption — has  passed  upon  all  his  posterity.  Divine  grace  avails 
itself  of  what  remains  of  the  image  of  God  in  man,  which  appears  in 
his  need  and  capability  of  redemption.  But  grace  alone  can  save  man, 
or  give  him  eternal  blessedness.  Hence  grace  is  absolutely  necessary — 
it  constitutes  the  commencement,  the  middle,  and  the  close  of  the 
Christian  life.  It  is  imparted  to  man  not  because  he  believes,  but  in 
order  that  he  may  believe ;  for  faith  also  is  the  work  of  God's  grace 
Grace,  having  first  aivakened  a  man  through  the  latv  to  a  sense  of  his 
sin  and  desire  after  salvation,  next  leads  him  by  the  Gospel  to  believe 
in  the  Saviour  ("gratia  prasveniens").  Grace  then  procures  pardon 
of  sin  by  the  appropriation  of  the  merits  of  Christ  through  faith,  and 
imparts  to  man  the  powers  of  a  divine  life  by  bringing  him  into  living 
communion  with  Christ  (in  baptism).  Our  free-will  towards  that  which 
is  good  being  thus  restored  ("gratia  operans"),  henceforth  manifests 
itself  in  a  devoted  life  of  holy  love.  But  the  old  man  with  his  inclina- 
tion towards  sin,  is  not  wholly  destroyed  even  in  those  who  are  rea-ene- 
rated.  In  the  contest  between  the  new  and  the  old  man,  believers  are 
continuously  aided  by  Divine  grace  ("gratia  cooperans").  The  last 
act  of  grace,  which,  however,  is  not  accomplished  in  this  life,  consists 
in  the  entire  removal  of  all  sinful  inclinations  ("  concupiscentia"),  and 
in  transformation  into  perfect  likeness  to  Christ  by  the  resurrection 
and  eternal  life  ("non  posse  peccare"  and  "mori"). — But  this 
thoroughly  evangelical  view  of  nature  and  of  grace  Augustine  developed 
into  the  unevangelical  doctrine  of  an  absolute  predestination.  Expe- 
rience, he  argued,  showed  that  all  men  were  not  converted  and  saved. 
But  as  man  could  not  in  any  way  contribute  to  his  conversion,  this 
must  ultimately  be  traced  back,  not  to  the  conduct  of  man,  but  to  an 
eternal  and  unconditional  decree  of  God  (decretum  absolutum),  accord- 
ing to  which  He  had  resolved,  to  the  praise  of  His  grace,  to  deliver 
some  of  the  human  family,  which  lay  entirely  under  sentence  of  con- 
demnation (the  "massa  perditionis"),  and,  to  the  nraise  of  His  justice 
18* 


210         SECTION    I.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

to  leave  the  rest  to  the  condemnation  which  they  had  deserved.  Thia 
choice  depended  alone  on  the  all-wise  hut  secret  good  pleasure  of  the 
Divine  will,  and  not  upon  our  faith,  which  indeed  was  also  a  gift  of 
<  rod.  It  is  indeed  written  :  "  God  wills  that  all  men  should  be  saved," 
but  this  only  means — "  all  who  are  predestinated."  As  the  reprobate 
("  reprobati")  are  unable  in  any  way  to  obtain  grace,  so  the  elect  can- 
not resist  it  ("  gratia  irresistibilis").  Hence  continuous  perseverance 
in  grace  ("donum  perseverance")  was  the  only  sure  evidence  of  elec- 
tion. Augustine  held  that  even  the  best  among  the  heathen  could  not 
be  saved  (although  he  thought  that  there  were  various  degrees  in 
their  punishment),  and  that  children  who  died  unbaptizcd  could  not 
go  to  heaven.  The  apparent  contradiction  between  this  statement  and 
his  other  assertion,  "contemtus,  non  defectus  sacramenti  damnat,"  was 
removed  by  an  appeal  to  the  eternal  decree  of  God,  who  suffered  not 
the  elect  to  die  without  having  received  this  sacrament. 

3.  Pelagivs  and  his  System. —  Far  different  from  the  Inner  history 
of  Augustine  was  that  of  Morgan  or  Pelagius,  a  British  monk  of 
respectable  acquirements  and  of  moral  earnestness,  but  without  depth 
of  mind  or  capacity  for  speculation.  At  a  distance  from  the  struggles 
and  trials  of  life,  having  no  experience  of  inward  temptations,  nor 
strong  tendency  to  outward  and  manifest  sins,  destitute,  moreover,  of 
deeper  Christian  experience,  his  ideal  of  religion  consisted  in  a  kind 
of  monastic  asceticism.  His  dislike  to  the  views  of  Augustine  about 
the  total  corruption  of  human  nature,  and  its  entire  inability  to  con- 
tribute in  any  way  towards  conversion  or  sanctiiication,  was  increased 
by  the  knowledge  that  some  careless  persons  had  made  them  an  excuse 
for  carnal  security  and  moral  indolence.  This  circumstance  confirmed 
him  in  the  idea  that  it  was  much  better  to  preach  a  moral  law,  the 
demands  of  which,  as  he  thought,  men  were  able  to  fulfil,  provided 
they  were  in  earnest  about  it.  During  his  stay  at  Home,  about  the 
year  410,  he  commenced  to  diifuse  these  views.  The  following  are  the 
leading  outlines  if  his  system.  Man  had  originally  been  created  liable 
to  physical  death  ;  eternal,  not  physical  dcatii,  was  the  consequence 
and  the  punishment  of  sin.  The  fall  of  Adam  had  not  caused  any 
change  in  the  moral  nature  of  man,  nor  did  its  influence  extend  to  the 
posterity  of  Adam.  Every  man  came  into  the  world  exactly  as  God 
had  created  our  first  father,  ?'.  c,  without  either  sin  or  virtue.  In  the 
exercise  of  his  yet  undiminished  freedom,  he  was  left  to  choose  the  one 
or  the  other.  The  universal  prevalence  of  sin  depended  on  the  power 
of  seduction,  of  evil  example,  and  of  custom;  but  perfectly  sinless  per- 
sons may,  and  indeed  actually  have  existed.  The  grace  of  God  made 
it  more  east/  for  man  to  attain  his  destiny.  Hence  grace  was  not  abso- 
lutely hut  relatively  necessary,  on  account  of  the  actual  prevalence  of 
sin.  Grace  consisted  in  spiritual  enlightenment  through  revelation,  in 
the  forgiveness  of  sins  as  the  manifestation  of  Divine  indulgence,  and 
in  the  strengthening  of  our  moral  powers  by  bringing  the  incentives 


THE     DOCTRINE     OP     REDEMPTION.  211 

of  th  )  law  and  the  promise  of  eternal  life  to  bear  upon  them.  The 
grace  of  God  was  designed  for  all  men ;  but  man  must  deserve  it  by 
making  sincere  endeavours  after  virtue.  Christ  had  become  incarnate 
m  order,  by  His  perfect  doctrine  and  example,  to  give  us  the  most 
powerful  incentive  to  amend  our  ways,  and  thus  to  redeem  us.  As  by 
sin  we  imitate  Adam,  so  ought  we  by  virtue  to  imitate  Christ.  Baptism 
he  held  to  be  necessary  (the  baptism  of  infants  "  in  remissionem 
fdurorum  peccatorum  ").  Infants  who  had  died  without  this  sacra- 
ment enjoyed  an  inferior  degree  of- blessedness.  The  same  inconsistent 
adherence  to  Church  views  appears  in  hio  admission  of  the  received 
doctrines  concerning  revelation,  miracles,  prophecy,  the  Trinity,  and 
the  divinity  of  Christ.  If  Pelagius  had  carried  his  principles  to  all 
their  legitimate  consequences,  he  would  no  doubt  have  discarded  from 
his  system  all  that  is  supernatural. 

4.  The  Pelagian  Controversy  (412-431). — From  the  year  409  Pelagius 
resided  at  Pome,  where  he  made  a  convert  of  Ccelestius,  a  man  of  much 
greater  talent  and  learning  than  himself.  By  their  zeal  for  morality 
and  asceticism  the  two  gained  high  repute  at  Rome ;  and  continued  to 
diffuse  their  principles  without  let  or  hindrance.  In  411  they  went  to 
Cartilage,  whence  Pelagius  passed  into  Palestine.  Coelestius  remained 
at  Carthage,  and  became  a  candidate  for  the  office  of  presbyter.  His 
errors  were  now  for  the  first  time  discussed.  Paulinus,  a  deacon  from 
Milan,  who  happened  to  be  at  Carthage,  laid  a  formal  accusation 
against  him  ;  and  when  he  refused  to  recant,  a  provincial  synod,  held 
at  Carthage  in  412,  excommunicated  him.  In  the  same  year  Augustine 
published  his  first  c  ntroversial  tractate:  "De  peccatorum  meritis  et 
remissione  et  de  baptiamo  parvulorum.  LI.  III.  ad  Marcellinum." — In 
Palestine,  Pelagius  joined  the  followers  of  Origen.  Jerome,  whom  he 
had  at  any  rate  offended  by  a  disparaging  opinion  of  his  literary 
labours,  opposed  his  views,  and  declared  them  a  logical  sequence  of 
the  Origenistic  heresy  (Ep.  ad  Ctesiphontem  —  Dialog,  e.  Pelag.  LI. 
III.)  ;  and  Paulus  Orosius,  a  young  presbyter  from  Spain,  denounced 
him  at  a  synod  held  at  Jerusalem  (415),  under  the  presidency  of  John, 
the  bishop  of  that  see.  But  the  Synergistic  orientals  could  not  be  con- 
vinced of  the  dangerous  character  of  these  views,  which,  besides,  were 
somewhat  disguised  by  their  author.  Another  accusation  laid  by  two 
Gallican  bishops  before  the  Synod  of  Diospolis  (415),  held  under  the 
presidency  of  Eulogius,  Bishop  of  Cassarea,  ended  in  the  same  manner. 
Upon  this,  Augustine  ("de  gestis  Pelagii")  showed  to  the  divines  of 
Palestine  that  they  had  been  deceived  by  Pelagius.  Orosius  also 
published  a  controversial  tractate  ("Apologeticus  c.  Pel.'')  ;  while,  on 
the  other  side,  Theodorus  of  Mops,  wrote  five  (now  lost)  letters  (probably 
directed  against  Jerome).  The  Africans  now  took  part  in  the  contro- 
versy. Two  synods  —  held  at  Mileve  and  at  Carthage  (41G)  — renewed 
the  former  condemnation  of  these  doctrines,  and  laid  their  chara-es 
before  Innocent  I.  of  Rome,  who  approved  of  the  conduct  of  the  African 


212        SECTION    I.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

Church.  Pelagius  now  transmitted  a  confession,  in  -which  his  views 
were  carefully  disguised,  while  Ccelestius  appeared  personally  at  Rome. 
But  Innocent  had  died  before  his  arrival  (417).  Zosimus,  his  successor 
—  perhaps  a  Greek  divine,  at  any  rate  an  indifferent  theologian  — 
having  been  gained  by  Coelestius,  addressed  bitter  reproaches  to  the 
African  Church,  against  which  the  latter  energetically  protested.  Soon 
afterwards,  however,  the  Emperor  Honorius  issued  (in  418)  a  "sacrum 
scriptum ','  against  the  Pelagians,  while  a  General  Synod,  held  at  Car- 
thage in  418,  condemned  their  views  in  even  stronger  terms  than 
before.  These  circumstances  induced  Zosimus  also  to  condemn  them 
("epistolatraetatoria"). Eighteen  Italian  bishops — among  them  Julianas 
of  Eclanum,  the  ablest  defender  of  Pelagianism  —  refused  to  sign  this 
document,  and  were  banished.  They  requested  and  obtained  an  asylum 
from  Nestorius,  Bishop  of  Constantinople.  But  this  connection  was 
fatal  both  to  the  bishop  and  his  proteges.  Coelestine,  Bishop  of  Borne, 
took  the  part  of  the  opponents  of  Nestorius  in  the  controversy  about 
the  person  of  Christ  (§  52,  3)  ;  while  the  Eastern  Church,  at  the  (Ecu- 
menical Council  of  Ephesus  in  431,  condemned,  along  with  Nestorius, 
also  Pelagius  and  Ccelestius,  without,  however,  entering  upon  a  defini- 
tion of  the  doctrine  in  question.  To  this  result  the  efforts  of  Marius 
Mercator,  a  learned  layman  from  the  West,  who  resided  at  Constanti- 
nople, had  greatly  contributed.  He  had  composed  two  "  Commoni- 
toria"  against  Pelagius  and  Ccelestius,  and  a  controversial  tractate 
against  Julianus  of  Eclanum.  Nor  had  Augustine  been  idle  during 
the  interval.  In  413  he  wrote  "  De  spiritu  et  litera  ad  Marcellinum  ;" 
in  415,  "De  natura  et  gratia"  against  Pelagius.  and  "  De  perfectiono 
justitiae  hominis  "  against  Coelestius  ;  in  410,  "  De  gestis  Pelagii :"  in 
418,  "De  gratia  Dei  et  de  peccato  originali  LI.  II.  c.  Pelag.  et  Ccel. :" 
in  419,  "  De  nuptiis  et  concupiscentia  LI.  II."  (in  answer  to  the 
objection  that  his  system  cast  contempt  upon  the  Divine  institution  of 
marriage)  ;  in  420,  "  C.  duas  epistolas  Pelagianorum  ad  Bonifaeium  I." 
against  the  apologies  of  Julianus  and  his  friends)  ;  in  421,  "  LI.  VI. 
c.  Julianum  ;"  and  somewhat  later  an  "  Opus  imperfectum  c.  secun- 
dam  Juliani  responsionem." 

5.  The  Semi- Pelagian  Controversy  (427-529).  — Gross  Pelagianism 
had  been  refuted,  but  extreme  inferences  from  the  principles  of  Augus- 
tine in  reference  to  the  doctrine  of  Predestination  excited  fresh  discus- 
sions. The  monks  at  Hadrumetum,  in  North  Africa,  had  gone  on 
evolving  sequences  from  this  doctrine,  until  some  had  fallen  into  per- 
plexity and  despair,  some  into  security  and  unconcern,  Avhile  others 
deemed  it  requisite  to  avoid  these  and  other  consequences  by  ascribing 
to  human  activity  a  certain  amount  of  merit  in  the  acquisition  of  sal- 
vation, ruder  these  difficulties,  the  abbot  of  that  monastery  addressed 
himself  to  Avgustine,  who  endeavoured  to  remove  the  scruples  and 
mistakes  of  the  monks  in  two  tractates  (a.  427) :  "  De  gratia  et  libero 
arbitrio"  and  "De  correptione  et  gratia."     But  about  the  same  time 


THE     DOCTRINE     OF     REDEMPTION.  213 

an  entire  school  of  divines  in  Southern  Gaul  protested  against  the  doc- 
trine of  Predestination,  and  maintained  the  necessity  of  asserting  that 
human  freedom  to  a  certain  degree  co-operated  with  Divine  grace,  so 
that  sometimes  the  one,  sometimes  the  other,  initiated  conversion.    This 
school  was  headed  hy  Johannes  Cassianns  (ob.  432),  a  pupil  and  friend 
of  Chrysostom,  and  the  founder  and   president  of  the  monastery  at 
Massilia.      His   adherents  were  called  Massilians  or  Semi-Pelagians. 
Cassianus  himself  had,  in  the  13th  of  his  "  Collationes  Patrum"  (§  48, 
6),  controverted   the  views  of  Augustine,   without,  however,  naming 
that  Father.     The  ablest  of  his  pupils  was  Vmcentius  Lirinensis  (from 
the  monastery  of  Lirinium),  who,  in  his  "  Commonitorium  pro  catho- 
lics) tide   antiquitate    et  universitate,"  laid  down  the  principle,  that 
Catholic  doctrine  consisted  of  all  "  quod  semper,  ubique  et  ab  omnibus 
creditum  sit."     Tried  by  this  test,  of  course  the  teaching  of  Augustine 
was  not  Catholic.     The  second  book  of  his  tractate  —  which  has  been 
lost — controverted  Augustinianism,  and  was,  probably  on  that  account, 
suppressed.     Hilary  and  Prosper  Aquitanicus —  two  laymen  in  Gaul 
($  48,  8) — devoted  adherents  of  Augustine,  wrote  to  inform  him  of 
these  proceedings.     The  Bishop  of  Hippo  now  composed  two  tractates 
against  the  Massilians  ("De  praedestinatione   Sanctorum"  and  "  De 
dono  perseverantias").     Death  put  an  end  to  further  controversy  on  his 
part  (430).     But  Hilary  and  Prosper  took  up  the  cause.     When  Cozles- 
tine,  Bishop  of  Rome,  to  whom  they  applied  for  redress  (in  431).  gave 
a  reply  in  terms  which  might  mean  anything  or  nothing,  Prosper  him- 
self entered  the  lists  by  an  able  tractate,  "  De  gratia  dei  et  libero  arbi- 
trio  contra  Collatorem,"  in  which,  however,  he  involuntarily  smoothed 
off  the  extreme  points  in  the  system  of  Augustine.     This  remark  ap- 
plies even  in  higher  degree  to  the  able  work  "  De  vocatione  gentium," 
which  perhaps  was  composed  by  Leo  the  Great,  afterwards  a  pope,  but 
at  that  time  only  a  deacon.     The  other  party  (Arnobius  the  younger?) 
published  a  remarkable  tractate,  entitled  "  Praedestinatus,"  in  which 
a  supposed  follower  of  Augustine  expresses  his  views  about  predesti- 
nation, carrying  them  to  a  most  absurd  length,  of  course  in  a  manner 
never  intended  by  the  Bishop  of  Hippo.     (Book  I.  gives  a  description 
of  ninety  heresies,  of  which  Predestinarianism  is  the  last ;  Book  II. 
furnishes,  by  way  of  proof,  this  pretended  tractate  by  a  Predestinarian; 
and  Book  III.  contains  a  refutation  of  it.)    A  Semi-Pelag.  synod,  which 
met  at  Aries  in  475,  obliged  Lucidus,  a  presbyter  and  a  zealous  advo- 
cate of  the  doctrine  of  Predestination,  to  recant ;  and  Fanstus,  Bishop 
of  Rhegium,  transmitted  to  him,  in  name  of  that  Council,  a  contro- 
versial tractate,  "  De  gratia  Dei  et  humanas  mentis  libero  arbitrio." 
In  the  same  year  a  synod  held  at  Lugdunum  (in  475)  sanctioned  Semi- 
Pelagianism.     Although  the  tractate  of  Faustus  was  moderate,  and, 
so  to  speak,  intermediate  between   extreme  views  on  both   sides,  it 
caused  very  great  commotion  among  a  community  of  Scythian  monks 
\i  Constantinople  (520).     Through  Possessor,  Bishop  of  Carthage,  they 


214        SECTION    I.  —  SECOND    PE.UOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

complained  to  Hbrmisdas,  who,  however,  replied  in  general  and  indefb 
nite  terms.  The  African  divines  in  Sardinia,  whom  the  Vandals  had 
banished  from  their  sees,  now  took  up  the  cause.  They  held  a  council 
in  523  ;  and,  in  their  name,  Fulgentius  of  Rvspe  composed  a  very  able 
defence  of  Augustinian  views  ("  De  veritate  pranlestinationis  et  gratiae 
Dei  LI.  III."),  which  made  an  impression  even  in  Gaul.  At  the  same 
time,  Avitus  of  Vienne  and  Ccesarius  of  Aries,  two  excellent  Gallican 
bishops,  undertook  the  advocacy  of  moderate  Augustinianism.  At  the 
Synod  of  Arausio  (Oranges),  in  529,  these  views  were  generally  ac- 
knowledged as  orthodox  truth.  Augustine's  principles  about  original 
sin,  the  entire  worthlessness  of  all  human  works,  and  the  absoluto 
necessity  of  grace,  were  admitted  to  the  fullest  extent ;  faith  was  de- 
clared to  be  the  eifect  of  grace  alone,  while  the  predestination  of  the 
"  reprobate"  was  defined  as  merely  foreknowledge,  and  predestination 
to  sin  entirely  rejected  as  blasphemous.  A  synod  held  at  Valencia 
(529)  in  the  same  year  confirmed  the  decrees  of  Oranges,  which  also 
received  the  approbation  of  Boniface  II.  of  Home  in  530. 


?  54.  REVIVAL  OF  FORMER  SECTS. 

The  Montanists  (Tertnlliauists)  and  Novatians  continued  to 
exist  till  the  fifth  or  sixth  century.  During  the  fifth  century 
Manichcei&m  still  counted  numerous  adherents  both  in  Italy  and 
in  North  Africa.  Gnostic  and  Maniclmean  tendencies  reappeared 
in  Spain  under  the  name  of  Priscillianism,  and  (towards  the 
close  of   this  period)  in  Armenia  under  that  of  Paulicianism 

(§  71,  1). 

1.  Manichceism.  —  The  most  prominent  representative  of  this  heresy 
in  the  West  was  Faustus  of  Mileve,  an  African,  who  composed  a  num- 
ber of  controversial  tractates  against  Catholic  doctrine.  Augustine, 
who  had  at  first  been  misled  by  him,  wrote  against  him  the  thirty-three 
books  "  c.  Faustum,"  the  most  comprehensive  of  his  numerous  works 
against  the  Manichaeans. — Since  the  reignof  Valentinianl.,  the  emperors 
frequently  issued  strict  edicts,  decreeing  punishment  upon  the  members 
of  that  sect.  In  Africa  also  they  were  persecuted  by  the  Vandals. 
Huneric  (since  477)  transported  whole  shiploads  of  them  to  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe.  At  the  time  of  Leo  the  Great  (ob.  4G1)  the  party 
numbered  many  adherents  in  Rome.  On  inquiry,  it  turned  out  that 
they  held  antinomian  principles,  and  secretly  indulged  their  lusts.  But, 
notwithstanding  the  rigour  employed  against  them,  the  sect  had  many 
secret  adherents  even  during  the  middle  ages. 

2.  Priscillianism  (380-563). — (Comp.  Sal.  van  Fries,  diss.  crit.de  Pris- 
cillianistis  eorumque  fatis  doctr.  moribus.  Illtraj.  1745. — /.  H  li.  Lab' 


'REVIVAL     OF     FORMER     SECTS.  215 

Jcert,  de  haeresi  Priscill.  Han.  1840. — /.  M.  Mandernach,  Gesch.  des 
Priscillianism.  Trier  1851.) — Marcus,  an  Egyptian,  is  said,  in  the  fourth 
century,  to  have  brought  the  germs  of  Gnostico-Manichsean  views  to 
Spain.  Priscillian,  a  wealthy  and  educated  layman,  adopted  these 
principles,  and  elaborated  them  into  a  dualistic  system,  in  which  the 
"  emanation  theory"  occupied  a  prominent  place.  Marriage  and  the 
use  of  flesh  were  interdicted ;  but  it  is  said  that,  under  the  guise  of  a 
strict  asceticism,  the  sect  secretly  cherished  antinomian  views,  and 
indulged  in  licentious  orgies.  At  any  rate,  it  sanctioned  both  lying 
and  perjury,  hypocrisy  and  dissimulation,  for  the  purpose  of  spreading 
and  protecting  its  principles. — Gradually  Priscillianism  extended  over 
the  whole  of  Spain,  where  even  some  of  the  bishops  became  converts 
to  it.  The  glimmering  fire  was  fanned  into  a  flame  by  the  intemperate 
zeal  of  Idacius,  Bishop  of  Emerida.  A  Synod  held  at  Saragossa  in  380 
excommunicated  the  sect,  and  commissioned  Ithacius,  Bishop  of  Sos- 
suba,  a  very  violent  and  also  an  immoral  man,  to  carry  its  decrees  into 
execution.  In  connection  with  Idacius,  he  procured  from  the  Empe- 
ror an  edict  threatening  all  Priscillians  with  exile.  But  Priscillian's 
bribe  brought  about  a  repeal  of  this  edict,  and  an  order  for  the  arrest 
of  Ith.,  which  the  latter  escaped  by  flight  into  Gaul.  Here  he  gained 
over  Maximus,  the  usurper  (the  murderer  of  Gratian),  who,  to  obtain 
their  possessions,  applied  the  torture  to  some  of  the  sect,  and  caused 
Priscillian  and  some  of  his  adherents  to  be  beheaded  at  Treves  (385). 
This  was  the  first  instance  in  which  heretics  were  punished  with 
death.  Martin,  the  noble-minded  Bishop  of  Tours,  to  whom  the  Em- 
peror had  promised  to  employ  mild  measures,  hastened  to  Treves,  and 
renounced  communion  with  Ithacius  and  all  those  bishops  who  had 
consented  to  the  sentence  of  death.  Ambrose  also,  and  other  bishops, 
expressed  their  disapprobation.  Maximinius  was  thus  induced  to 
institute  the  military  inquisition  against  them.  But  the  glory  of 
martyrdom  heightened  the  enthusiasm  of  the  sect,  and  their  principles 
rapidly  spread  among  the  barbarians  who,  in  409,  invaded  Spain.  In 
a  "  Commonitorium  de  errore  Priscillianist,"  addressed  to  Augustine 
(in  415),  Paulus  Orosius  (§  53,4)  earnestly  implored  the  assistance  of 
that  Father ;  but  other  cares  and  controversies  prevented  him  from 
energetically  taking  part  in  this  discussion.  Greater  success  attended 
the  endeavors  of  Leo  the  Great,  whose  aid  was  invoked  thirty  years  later 
by  Turmbius,  Bishop  of  Astorga.  In  accordance  with  the  instruction 
of  that  Pontiff,  a  "Concilium  HLspanicum  "  in  447,  and  at  a  subse- 
quent period,  the  Council  of  Braga  in  563,  adopted  efficient  measures 
for  the  suppression  of  this  heresy.  After  that  professed  Priscillianism 
seems  to  have  disappeared,  but  the  principles  of  the  sect  continued  in 
secret  tradition  for  many  centuries. 


216         SECTION   I.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

V.  WORSHIP,  LIFE,  DISCIPLINE,  AND  MANNERS. 

I  55.  WORSHIP  IN  GENERAL. 

When  Christian  worship  was  secured  by  Constantine  against 
persecution,  it  developed  extraordinary  wealth  of  forms  and 
material,  an  indescribable  fulness  of  ceremonial  beauty  and  glory. 
But  as  yet  doctrinal  controversies  absorbed  public  attention  too 
much,  to  leave  time  or  space  for  submitting  ritual  questions  to 
the  ordeal  of  discussion  and  examination.  Hence  the  special 
manner  of  conducting  public  worship  was  in  each  case  very  much 
left  to  be  regulated  by  the  spirit  of  the  times,  and  by  national 
peculiarities.  Still,  the  common  spirit  of  the  Church  gave  to 
this  ecclesiastical  development  a  great  uniform  direction,  and  the 
differences  which  at  first  obtained  gradually  disappeared.  Only, 
such  were  the  national  differences  between  the  East  and  the  West, 
that  even  the  continual  efforts  made  after  catholic  unity  could 
not  efface  these  characteristics  from  public  worship. 

The  right  relation  between  doctrine  and  worship  doubtless  is,  that 
the  latter  should  be  regulated  and  determined  by  the  former.  Such 
was  the  case  at  the  commencement  of  this  period.  But  afterwards  the 
relationship  was  reversed;  and  the  unevangelical  views  so  generally 
entertained  may,  in  no  small  measure,  be  traced  to  this  aberration. 
The  change  took  place  principally  during  the  time  of  Cyril  of  Alex. 
It  is  quite  natural  that,  when  the  principles  of  that  school  about  the 
close  interconnection  between  the  Divine  and  the  human  prevailed, 
they  should  also  have  been  embodied  in  public  worship.  But  as  yet 
these  views  were  one-sided,  and  liable  to  be  perverted  into  error.  The 
labours  of  Leo  and  Theodoret  were  indeed  so  far  successful  as  to  exclude 
from  Church  doctrines  the  monophysiie  element.  But  already  it  had 
struck  its  roots  so  deeply  in  public  worship,  that  its  presence  was  not 
even  recognized,  far  less  removed.  During  the  following  periods  it 
gradually  increased  (in  the  worship  of  saints,  of  images,  of  relics  — 
in  pilgrimages,  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  etc.),  and  exercised  the  most 
pernicious  influeuce  on  the  development  of  the  doctrines  which,  as 
yet,  had  not  been  accurately  defined  (for  example,  those  about  the 
Church,  the  priesthood,  the  sacraments,  especially  that  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  etc.) 


TIMES    OF    WORSHIP    AND    FESTIVALS.  217 


§56.    TIMES   OF   PUBLIC   WORSHIP   AND   FESTIVALS. 

Cnifr.  G.  B.  Eisenschmidt,  Gesch.  d.  Sonn-  and  Festtage  (Hist,  of 
the  Lord's  Day  and  of  Feast  Days).  Leipz.  1793. — J.  G.  Muller,  Gesch. 
d.  christ.  Feste.  Berl.  1843. — Fr.  Strauss,  d.  evang.  Kirchenjahr  (The 
Eccles.  Year  of  Evang.  Ch.).  Berl.  1850.  —  E.  Eanke,  d.  kirchl.  Peri- 
kopensystem.  Berl.  1847.— M.  A.  Nickel  (Rom.  Cath.),  d.  heil.  Zeiten 
u.  Feste  in  d.  kath.  K.  (Sacred  Seasons  and  Fest.  in  the  Cath.  Church). 
Mayeiice  1836.  6  vols.  —  H.  Alt,  d.  chr.  Cultus.  Abth.  II.,  Das  Kir- 
chenjahr mit  s.  Festen.     Berl.  1858. 

The  idea  of  a  weekly  and  au  annual  cycle  in  commemoration 
of  the  great  facts  of  salvation,  had  been  entertained  even  during 
the  previous  period  (§  31).  But  gradually  the  idea  of  this 
weekly  cycle  gave  way  before  a  richer  and  fuller  development  of 
that  of  the  Christian  year.  From  the  first  essential  differences 
prevailed  in  this  respect  between  the  East  and  the  West ;  the 
former  embodied  rather  the  Jewish-Christian,  the  latter  the  Gen- 
tile-Christian tendency.  But  during  the  fourth  century  many  of 
these  divergences  were  removed,  and  the  three  great  cycles  of 
Christian  festivals  were  celebrated  in  the  same  manner  by  both 
Churches.  During  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  however,  the 
former  differences  again  reappeared.  The  Eastern  Church  in- 
creasingly yielded  to  its  early  inclination  for  Jewish-Christian 
forms  of  worship  ;  while  the  Western  Church,  in  conformity  with 
its  Gentile-Christian  tendency,  adopted  the  natural  year  as  a 
basis  for  the  ecclesiastical.  Hence  the  ecclesiastical  year  of  the 
West  obtained  fuller  organization,  and  became  more  closely 
intertwined  with  popular  life.  But  even  in  the  West,  the  in- 
creasing tendency  towards  the  worship  of  saints  prevented  the 
full  carrying  out  of  the  idea  of  the  Christian  ecclesiastical  year. 

^  1.  The  Weekly  Cycle.  —  So  early  as  the  year  321  Constantine  the 
Great  enacted  a  law,  that  neither  public  business  nor  work  of  any  kind 
should  be  done  on  the  Lord's  Day.  Somewhat  later  he  interdicted  military 
exercises  on  that  day.  His  successors  extended  this  inhibition  to  public 
spectacles.  Besides  Sunday,  the  Jewish  Sabbath  also  was,  for  a  long 
time,  observed  in  the  East  by  meeting  for  worship,  by  the  intermission 
of  fasts,  and  by  prayer  in  the  standing  posture  ;  fasting  was  only 
allowed  on  the  Sabbath  of  the  Great  AVeek.  Wednesday  and  Friday, 
the  "  dies  stationum,"  were  kept  in  the  East  as  fast  days.  In  the  West, 
the  fast  on  Wednesdays  was  abrogated,  and  in  its  room  that  on  the 
Jewish  Sabbath  introduced. 
19 


218         SECTION    I.  —  SECOND    PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.)  . 

2.  Horce  and  Ember-Days.^ During  the  fifth  century  the  number  of 
fixed  hours  for  prayer  (the  3d,  6th,  and  9th  during  the  day,  comp.  Dan. 
vi.  10,  13;  Acts  ii.  15,  iii.  1,  x.  9)  increased  to  eight  {harm  canonical; 
Matutina  at  3  o'clock  in  the  morning,  Prima  at  6,  Tertia  at  9,  Sexta 
at  12,  Nona  at  3,  Vespers  at  6,  Completoria  at  9,  and  Mesonyction  or 
Vigils  at  12).  But  in  order  to  obtain  the  sacred  number  7  (after  Ps. 
cxix.  164),  the  two  horce  of  the  night  were  generally  combined  into 
one.  The  horae  were,  in  all  their  strictness,  observed  only  by  monks 
and  the  clergy. —  In  accordance  with  this  arrangement  of  prayer,  onco 
every  three  hours,  the  year  was  divided  in  the  West  into  terms  of  three 
months  (qvaluor  tempora,  quarterly),  each  marked  by  a  fast.  Theso 
periods  were  (according  to  Joel  ii.)  to  be  signalized  by  repentance, 
fasting,  and  almsgiving.  The  arrangement  in  question  was  completed 
by  Leo  the  Great  (ob.  461).  The  Ember-days  fell  at  the  commencement 
of  Quadragesima,  during  the  week  after  Pentecost,  and  in  the  middle 
of  the  seventh  and  of  the  tenth  month  (September  and  December). 
They  were  observed  by  a  strict  fast  on  the  "Wednesday,  the  Friday,  and 
the  Saturday,  and  by  a  Sabbath  vigil. 

3.  The  Calculation  of  Easter.  —  The  Council  of  Nice  (325)  decided 
in  favour  of  the  Roman  mode  of  Easter  observance,  as  opposed  to  that 
of  Asia  Minor  (§31,  1).  The  adherents  of  the  latter  formed  a  separate 
sect  (Quartodecimani).  The  Council  decided  that  the  first  day  of  full 
moon  after  the  vernal  equinox  should  he  regarded  as  the  14th  of  Nisan, 
and  that  the  Feast  of  the  Resurrection  should  be  celebrated  on  the 
Sunday  following,  yet  so  as  to  avoid  its  coincidence  with  the  Jewish 
Passover.  The  annual  astronomical  calculation  of  the  feast  was  en- 
trusted to  the  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  in  which  city  astronomical  study 
was  extensively  cultivated.  This  prelate  issued  an  annual  circular 
(liber  paschal 'is)  — commonly  at  Epiphany  —  in  which  he  intimated  to 
the  other  churches  the  result  of  his  calculations,  and  generally  also 
took  occasion  to  discuss  some  question  that  was  mooted  at  the  time. 
The  Roman  mode  of  calculation  differed  in  some  respects  from  that 
common  in  Alexandria.  At  Rome  they  calculated  according  to  a  cycle 
of  84,  and  not  of  19  years  ;  the  18th,  and  not  the  21st  of  March,  was 
regarded  as  the  day  of  the  spring  equinox  ;  and  if  the  full  moon  hap- 
pened on  a  Saturday,  Easter  was  celebrated,  not  the  day  afterwards,  but 
eighl  days  after  it.  At  last,  in  525,  Dionysius  Exiguus  brought  about 
a  permanent  agreement  between  Rome  and  Alexandria  in  the  celebra- 
tion of  Easter. 

!.  The  Easter  Cycle  of  Festivals.  —  With  the  commencement  of  Qua< 
dragesima  the  whole  appearance  of  public  life  underwent  a  change, 
Public  amusements  were  prohibited,  criminal  investigations  arrested, 
and  the  noise  of  traffic  in  streets  and  markets  ceased  as  far  as  possible. 
In  the  East,  fasting  was  intermitted  on  Sundays  and  Saturdays;  in  the 
West,  only  on  Sundays.     On  this  account,  Gregory  the  Great  fixed  the 


TIMES    OF    WORSHIP    AND    FESTIVALS.  219 

Wednesday  of  the  seventh  week  before  Easter  as  the  commencement 
of  Quadragesima.     This  day  was  called  "  Caput  jejunii,"  and  "Dies 
cinerum" — -Ash  Wednesday  —  from  the  practice  of  sprinkling  ashes 
on  the  heads  of  the  faithful,  in  remembrance  of  Gen.  iii.  19.     On  the 
Tuesday  before  that  fast,  the  people  were  wont,  by  extravagant  festivi- 
ties {Carnival,  Carni  vale.),  to  make  up  for  the  coming  fasts.     About 
the  same  time  the  Easter  cycle  was  enlarged  in  the  West,  so  as  to 
embrace  two  additional  weeks,  and  commenced  on  the  ninth  Sunday 
before  Easter  (Septuagesima).    The  Hallelujah  of  the  mass  then  ceased, 
marriages  were  no  more  consecrated  (tempus  clausum),  and  monks  and 
priests  already  commenced  to  fast.    Quadragesima  attained,  as  it  were, 
its  climax  during  the  last  or  the  so-called  Great  Week,  which  commenced 
on  Palm  Sunday  (toprr;  run  (3atwv),  and  closed  with  the  Great  Sabbath, 
the  favourite  time  for  administering  baptism.     The  Thursday  when  the 
Lord's  Supper  had  been  instituted,  and  the  Friday  on  which  the  Sa- 
viour had  been  crucified,  were  more   particularly  observed.      Public 
worship  celebrated  during  the  night  {Easter  vigil)  formed  a  transition 
from  these  fasts  to  the  rejoicings  at  Easter.     This  solemnity  was  deep- 
ened by  the  prevalence  of  an  old  tradition,  that  Christ  would  again 
return  during  that  night.     The  morning  of  Easter  was  ushered  in  with 
the  joyful  salutation,  "The  Lord  is  risen;"  to  which   response  was 
made,  "Yea,  truly  He  is  risen."     The  festivities  of  Easter  closed  only 
on  the  following  Sunday  (pascha  clausum,  dm'rtaa^a).     On  that  day 
those  who  had  been  baptized  on  the  Great  Sabbath  wore  for  the  last 
time  their  white  garments.     Hence  this  Sunday  was  called  "  Dominica 
in  albis,"  also  "  Quasimodogeniti,"  from  the  first  words  in  1  Pet.  ii.  2 — 
among  the  Greeks,  xaivrj  xvpiax-q.     The  rejoicings  of  Easter  extended 
over  the  whole  term  of  Quinquagesima,  or  the  period  between  Easter 
and  Pentecost.     A  solemn  vigil  preceded  both  Ascension-day  and  Pen- 
tecost, and  the  latter  closed  with  a  Pentecost-octava  (celebrated  by  the 
Greeks  as  the  xvpiaxrt  «w  dyuor  naptvpr^navtuv,  and  by  the  Latins  —  at  a 
much  later  period — as  the  Feast  of  the  Holy  Trinity).  —  These  festive 
"Octavo;"  were  kept  in  imitation  of  the  "solemn  assembly"  at  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles,  Lev.  xxiii.  36. 

5.  The  Christmas  Cycle  of  Festivals. — The  first  mention  of  Christmas 
observance  (natalis  Christi,  yn-t^xta)  occurs  in  the  Western  Church 
about  3G0.  Twenty  or  thirty  years  afterwards,  it  was  also  introduced 
in  the  East.  We  account  for  the  late  introduction  of  this  festival  by 
the  circumstance  that  the  ancient  Church  failed  to  set  value  on  the  day 
of  Christ's  birth,  and  placed  it  rather  in  the  background  as  compared 
with  the  day  of  His  death  (|  31).  But  Chrysostom  already  designates 
it  as  the  /xrjtpoTtoXii  naa^v  *w  soprwv.  From  the  first,  the  25th  Decem- 
ber was  commonly  regarded  as  the  day  on  which  Christ  was  born. 
The  Christmas  festival  was  fixed  for  that  day,  not  on  account  of,  but 
iespite,  the  heathen  Saturnalia  (in  remembrance  of  the  Golden  A"-e, 
fro>n  the  17th-24th  December),  the  Sigillaria  (on  the  24th  December, 


220        SECTION    I.  —  SECOND    PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

when  children  received  presents  of  dolls  and  figures  made  of  earthen- 
ware or  wax  —  sigilla),  and  the  Brumalia  (on  the  25th  December,  dies 
natalis  invicti  solis,  the  Feast  of  the  Winter  Solstice).     At  the  same 
time  it  was  regarded  as  far  from  an  accidental  occurrence  that  Christ, 
the  Eternal  Sun,  had  appeared  on  that  day.     Christmas  commenced 
also  with  a  Vigil,  and  terminated  with  an  Octava,  which  during  the 
sixth  century  became  the  "  festum  circumcisionis."     In  contrast  with 
the  excesses  of  the  heathen  at  the  New  Year,  the  ancient  Church  set 
this  day  apart  for  humiliation  and  fasting.     The  Feast  of  Epiphany 
was  introduced  in  the  West  in  the  fourth  century,  when  it  obtained 
its  peculiar  Gentile-Christian  import  as  a  commemoration  of  the  admis- 
sion of  Gentiles  into  the  Church  (Luke  ii.  21).    (Referring  to  Ps.  lxxii. 
10,  Tertullian  had  represented  the  Magi  as  kings;  the  number  three 
indicated  threefold  gifts.    In  GOO  a.  d.  Bede  gave  their  names  :  Casper, 
Melchior,  and  Balthasar.)    In  other  places  this  feast  was  also  supposed 
to  commemorate  the  first  miracle  of  Christ  at  the  marriage  in  Cana. — 
Since  the  sixth  century,  the  period  preceding  Christmas  was  observed 
as  "  the  Advent."     In  the  Latin  Church  this  season  commenced  on  the 
fourth  Sunday  before  Christmas  ;  in  the  Greek,  on  the  14th  November, 
and  comprehended  six  Sundays  and  a  fast  of  forty  days  —  a  practice 
which  was  also  introduced  in  some  of  the  Western  churches. 

6.  The  last  festival  of  our  Lord  —  introduced  late  in  the  East  —  was 
that  of  the  Transfiguration  (Aug.  6th),  which  the  Latin  Church  only 
adopted  in  the  fifteenth  century. — For  Saints'  dags,  and  feasts  in  honor 
of  the  Virgin,  comp.  \  57. 

7.  The  Ecclesiastical  Year.  —  In   the   East,  the   symbolical  relation 
between  the  natural  and  the  ecclesiastical  year  was  ignored,  except  so 
far  as  implied  in  the  attempt  to  give  to  the  Jewish  feasts  a  Christian 
adaptation.    To  some  extent,  indeed,  Western  ideas  had  been  imported 
in   reference  to  the  great  festivals,    such   as   Christmas,   Easter,  and 
Pentecost,  but  not  in  connection  with  the  ordinary  Sun  and  feast-days. 
At  first  the  ecclesiastical  year  in  the  East  commenced  with  Easter, 
afterwards  with  Quadragesima  or  with  Epiphany,  and  ultimately  in 
September,  as  under  the  Old  Dispensation.    The  year  was  divided  into 
four  parts,  according  to  the  "lectio  continua"  of  the  Gospels,  and  the 
Sundays  obtained  corresponding  names.     The  xvpiaxr;  H^tiq  rol  Mai"- 
£a<,'oi>  took  place  immediately  after  Pentecost.  —  The  Latin  Ecclesias- 
tical Year  commenced  in  Advent,  and  was  divided  into  a  "  Semestre 
Domini"  and  a  "  Semestre  ecclesiae."     But  the  idea  underlying  this 
arrangement    was   only  carried   out   in   reference   to   the    "  Semestre 
Domini"   (Christmas,  Easter,  and  Pentecost,  with  the  Sundays  which 
they  included,  indicating  the  commencement,  the  development,  and  the 
completion  of  the  history  of  redemption).    In  reference  to  the  "  Semestre 
ecclesiae,"  only  the  commencement  of  a  symbolical  arrangement  was 
made.     Thus  the  "  Feast  of  Peter  and  Paul,"  on  the  29th  June,  repre- 


WORSHIP   OF   SAINTS,    RELICS,    AND    IMAGES.      221 

sented  the  foundation  of  the  Church  by  the  apostles;  the  feast  of 
Lanreiifiiis  (g  23,  5)  the  martyr,  on  the  10th  August,  the  contest  await- 
ing the  "Church  militant;"  and  the  Feast  of  Michael  the  archangel, 
on  the  29th  September,  the  complete  success  of  the  "Church  triumph- 
ant." That  these  feasts  were  intended  to  form  the  basis  of  three  cycles 
of  festivals,  we  gather  from  the  circumstance  that  the  Sundays  after 
Pentecost  had  been  arranged  as  Dominicae  post  Apostolos,  post  Lau- 
rentii,  post  Angelos.  But  the  idea  was  not  developed  ;  the  frequency 
of  saints'  days  not  only  made  this  arrangement  impossible,  but  rendered 
it  even  necessary  to  encroach  on  the  "  Semestre  Domini."  The  prin- 
ciple of  attempting  to  Christianize  the  worship  of  the  heathen  was 
authoritatively  sanctioned  by  Gregory  the  Great,  who  in  601  instructed 
the  Anglo-Saxon  missionaries  to  transform  the  heathen  tern  pes  into 
churches,  and  the  pagan  into  saints'  festivals  or  martyr-days,  "ut  durse 
mentes  gradibus  vel  passibus  non  autem  saltibus  eleventur."  Saints 
now  took  the  places  of  the  old  gods,  and  the  ecclesiastical  was  made 
in  every  respect  to  correspond  with  the  natural  year,  only  in  a  Chris- 
tianized form. 

§57.    THE   WORSHIP   OF   SAINTS,   OF   RELICS,    AND   OF 

IMAGES. 

Since  persecutions,  and  with  them  martyrdom,  had  ceased, 
an  extraordinary  asceticism  could  alone  entitle  to  the  honours 
of  canonization.  In  awarding  this  distinction,  popular  opinion 
carried  the  day.  Tims  the  number  of  saints  increased  every 
year ;  saints  who  had  long  been  forgotten  were  discovered  by 
means  of  visions,  while,  in  the  absence  of  historical  reminiscences, 
tradition  supplied  names  and  facts  in  rich  abundance.  The  more 
men  felt  the  lukewarmness  and  worldliness  of  their  own  religious 
experience,  as  compared  with  the  strength  of  faith  displayed  by 
the  first  witnesses  for  the  truth,  the  higher  did  the  mariyrs  rise 
in  popular  veneration.  Altars  and  churches  were  erected  over 
their  graves  (memories  /.laptvpiat),  or  else  their  bones  deposited 
in  the  churches  (travslaliones).  Newly  erected  churches  were 
consecrated  by  their  names,  and  persons  called  after  them  in 
baptism.  The  days  of  their  martyrdom  were  observed  as  festi- 
vals, introduced  by  vigils,  and  celebrated  by  agapes  and  obla- 
tions at  their  graves.  Ecclesiastical  orators  extolled  them  in 
enthusiastic  language,  and  poets  sung  of  them  in  their  hymns. 
Nothing  could  equal  the  zeal  with  which  their  bones  were 
searched  out,  or  the  enthusiasm  with  which  men  gazed  on  them, 
or  pressed  forward  to  touch  them.  Every  province,  nay,  every 
19* 


222         SECTION    I.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.) 

town,  had  its  tutelary  saint  (Patronus).  In  the  East,  the  Invo 
cation  of  Saints  originated  with  the  three  great  Gappadocians ; 
in  the  West,  with  Ambrose.  These  Fathers  maintained  that  the 
saints  participated  in  the  omnipotence  and  omniscience  of  the 
Peity.  Augustine  alone  held  that  the  angels  were  the  medium 
through  which  the  saints  learned  the  invocations  of  the  devout. 
In  the  various  liturgies,  the  former  practice  of  praying  for  the 
saints  was  now  converted  into  entreaty  for  their  intercession. 
The  common  people  regarded  this  worship  as  taking  the  place 
of  that  of  heroes  and  of  the  Manes.  But  theological  writers 
earnestly  insisted  on  the  distinction  between  "  adoratio  "  and 
"invocatio,"  Jiarpfia  and  SouXk'o,,  of  which  the  former  was  due  to 
God  alone.  The  worship  of  l\Iarij  arose  at  a  period  subsequent 
to  that  of  the  martyrs,  and  chiefly  in  connection  with  the 
Nestoriau  controversy.  Soon,  however,  it  acquired  much  greater 
importance  than  that  of  the  saints.  Faint  traces  of  a  ivorslnp 
of  angels  occur  even  in  Justin  and  Origen  ;  but  this  species  of 
service  was  neglected  for  that  of  the  saints.  The  zeal  for  pil- 
grimages  was  greatly  quickened  after  the  visit  of  the  Empress- 
mother  Helena  (in  326)  to  the  holy  places  in  Palestine,  where 
she  erected  splendid  churches.  Some  of  the  most  eminent 
Fathers,  however,  disapproved  of  these  tendencies.  The  worship 
of  images  commenced  during  the  time  of  Cyril  of  Alexandria. 
It  was  specially  cultivated  in  the  East.  Western  divines  —  and 
even  Gregory  the  Great  —  admitted  pictures  only  for  decoration, 
for  popular  instruction,  and  for  quickening  the  devotional  feel- 
ings. The  worship  of  relics,  on  the  other  hand,  spread  more 
extensively  in  the  West  than  in  the  East. 

1.  Saints'  Days.  —  So  early  as  the  fourth  century,  the  octave  of 
Pentecost  was  celebrated  in  the  East  as  "  the  Festival  of  all  (he  Martyrs" 
(§  56,  4).  In  the  West,  Pope  Boniface  IV.  instituted,  in  610,  a  "festum 
omnium  Sanctorum"  for  the  Pantheon,  which  the  Emperor  Pliocas  had 
presented  to  the  Holy  See,  and  which  was  transformed  into  a  church 
of  (he  most  blessed  Virgin  and  of  all  the  martyrs.  T>ut  this  festival 
(on  November  1st),  was  not  generally  observed  till  the  ninth  century. 
The  large  number  of  canonized  saints  rendered  it  possible  to  dedicate 
every  day  in  the  calendar  to  one  or  more  saints.  Generally,  the 
anniversary  of  their  death  was  selected  for  that  purpose;  in  the  case 
of  John  Hie  Baptist  alone  an  exception  was  made  in  favour  of  his  birth- 
day (natalia  S.  Joannis).  From  its  relation  to  Christmas  (Luke  i.  26), 
this  festival  was  fixed  lor  the  24th  June  ;  and  the  contrast  of  the  season 
in  which  these  two  feasts  occurred,  reminded  the  Church  even  in  this 


WORSHIP     OF     SAINTS,    RELICS,    AND     IMAGES.      223 

respect  of  John  iii.  30.  So  early  as  the  fifth  century,  the  29th  August 
was  also  observed  as  afestirm  decollationis  S.  Joannis.  The  second  day 
of  Christmas  was  the  Feast  of  St.  Stephen,  the  proto-rnartyr  (the  first- 
gathered  fruit  of  the  Incarnation)  ;  the  third  day  was  devoted  to  the 
memory  of  the  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved  ;  the  fourth,  to  that  of  the 
infants  at  Bethlehem  (festum  iunocentum),  as  the  "  flores"  or  "  primitiae 
martyrum."  The  Feast  of  the  Maccabees  —  in  commemoration  of  the 
woman  and  her  seven  sons  who  suffered  under  Antiochus  Epiphanes — ■ 
was  already  celebrated  in  the  fourth,  and  only  discontinued  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  Among  the  festivals  in  honour  of  the  apostles,  that 
"  of  Peter  and  Paul" —  in  memory  of  their  martyrdom  at  Rome  (29th 
June)  —  was  generally  observed.  Besides  this,  two  other  "festa 
cathedra;  Petri"  were  observed  at  Rome  —  one  on  the  18th  January,  in 
commemoration  of  Peter's  accession  to  the  "Cathedra  Romana,"  the 
other  on  the  22d  February,  iu  remembrance  of  his  occupation  of  the 
"  Cathedra  Antiochena."  For  some  time  the  saints'  days  were  sc 
arranged  that  those  devoted  to  the  patriarchs  were  fixed  before 
Christmas,  those  of  later  saints  of  the  Old  Testament  dispensation 
during  Quadragesima,  those  of  the  apostles  and  first  preachers  after 
Pentecost ;  then  followed  the  martyrs,  after  them  the  later  confessors, 
and,  lastly,  the  "  Virgines,"  as  the  type  of  the  Church  in  a  state  of 
perfection. 

2.  The  Worship  of  Mary.  —  The  Virgin,  "blessed  among  women," 
and  who  by  the  Holy  Spirit  had  predicted :  "  From  henceforth  all 
generations  shall  call  me  blessed,"  was  from  the  first  regarded  as  the 
highest  ideal  of  maidenhood.  Hence  the  veneration  which  the  ea/ly 
Church  paid  to  virginity,  centred  in  that  of  her  person.  Side  by  side 
with  the  contrast  between  Adam  and  Christ,  Tertullian  placed  that 
between  Eve  and  Mary.  In  the  fourth  century,  the  "  perpetua 
virginitas  b.  Marise"  was  already  an  article  of  faith.  Ambrose  applied 
Ezek.  xliv.  2  to  her,  and  spoke  of  her  having  given  birth  "  utero 
clauso  ; "  while  the  second  Trullan  Council  (692)  declared  aXoxwtov 
tbv  ix  Trj<;  HapSivov  $eiov  toxov  dvat.  If  Iremeus,  Tertullian,  Origen, 
Basil,  and  Chrysostom  had  still  acknowledged  her  sinful.  Aiiffustine  no 
longer  numbered  her  among  sinners :  "  Unde  enim  scimus,  quid  ei  plus 
gratite  collatum  fuerit  ad  vincenduni  omni  ex  parte  peccatuni !  "  But 
for  a  considerable  period  no  further  progress  was  made  towards  actual 
worship  of  the  Virgin.  This  was  partly  due  to  the  circumstance,  that 
she  had  not  shai'ed  the  glory  of  martyrdom,  and  partly  to  the  idolatrous 
and  heathenish  worship  paid  her  by  the  Cotti/ridians  —  a  female  sect 
in  Arabia  dating  from  the  fourth  century  —  who  offered  to  her  bread- 
cakes  (in  imitation  of  the  heathen  worship  of  Ceres).  Epijihanms, 
who  opposed  that  sect,  maintained:  r-qv  6s  Mapi'a;'  ovSelj  rci^xwua^Ku, 
ovre  ayys?.ot,  ^wpouffc  5o|o?  oyiav  roiavrrtv.  On  the  Antidicoinarianites, 
comp.  g  02.  But  through  the  victory  of  the  doctrine  that  Mary  was 
the  mother  of  God,  in  the  Nestorian  controversy,  Mariolatry  became 


224        SECTION    I.  —  SECOND    PERIOD    (.323— 692  A.  D.). 

again  more  general  in  the    Church.     In  the   fifth   century,  the  25th 
March  was  celebrated  as  the  Feast  of  the  Annunciation,  (incarnat  onis, 
soprjj  toD  ivayyiXispoi,  rov  aortaspov).    In  the  West,  the- Feast  of  Purifica- 
tion (according  to  Luke  ii.  22)  was  observed  on  the  2d  February.     It 
was   also   called   Feast   of    Candlemas,  from    the    solemn   offering  of 
candles  then  mad".     When,  in  542,  the  empire  was  visited  with  earth- 
quakes and  pestilence,  Justinian  instituted  the    "  festum    occursus," 
(loptij  trti  vrtartdvtTji),  with  special  reference  to  the  meeting  with  Simeon 
and  Anna   (Luke   ii.   25).     Both  these    might   still   be   regarded    as 
festivals  of  our  Lord.     From  a  desire  to  have  a  series  of  feasts  in 
honour  of  the  Virgin  corresponding  to    those  in  commemoration  of 
Christ,  the  Feast  "of  the  Ascension  of  Mary"  (rtar^yvpi?  xojuajascoj,  f. 
assumptions,  dormitionis  M.)  was  introduced  at  the  close  of  the  sixth, 
and  during  the  seventh  century  that  of  the  Birth  of  Mary.     These 
festivals  were  celebrated  on  the  15th  August  and  the  3th  September. 
The  former  was  founded  on  a  legend  —  first  broached  by  Gregory  of 
Tours,  (ob.  595)— to  the  effect  that,  immediately  on  her  decease,  angels 
had  raised   the   "  Mother  of  God,"  and  carried   her  to  heaven.— (Cf. 
§105,2;  113,  1). 

3.  The  Worship  of  Angels. — So  early  as  the  second  century,  the  idea 
of  tutelary  angels  for  nations,  towns,  and  individuals  occurs,  based  on 
Deut.  xxxii.  8  (according  to  the  version  of  the  LXX.) ;  Dan.  x.  13,  20, 
21,  xii.  1 ;  Matt,  xviii.  10  ;  Acts  xii.  15.  Ambrose  already  insisted  on 
the  invocation  of  angels.  But  when  the  Phrygian  sect  of  "Angelici" 
carried  this  practice  to  idolatrous  adoration  of  angels,  the  Council  of 
Laodicea  (in  the  fourth  century)  condemned  their  views,  and  Epipha- 
nius  numbered  the  sect  among  heretics.  Pretended  apparitions  of 
Michael  the  archangel  led,  in  the  fifth  century,  to  the  institution  of  the 
"  Feast  of  St.  Michael"— on  the  20th  September— which  was  celebrated 
in  honour  of  all  the  angels,  and  designed  to  express  the  idea  of  the 
Church  triumphant. 

4.  The  Worship  of  Images  (comp.  \  35).— The  dislike  and  the  jealousy 
ot  art  which  characterized  the  early  Church  had  not  wholly  disappeared 
even  in  the  fourth  century.     Eusebius  of  Gasmen  speaks  of  a  statue  at 
Paneas  (?  14,  2),  and  other  representations  of  Christ  and  of  the  apos- 
tles, as  an  I^ixjj  murW.     He  seriously  reproved  Constaniia,  the  Em- 
peror's sister,  for  expressing  a  desire  to  possess  a  likeness  of  Christ, 
and  called  her  attention  to  the  second  commandment.    Asterius,  Bishop 
of  Amasa  in    Pont  us   [ob.  410),  censured  the  custom  of  rich  persons 
wearing  on  their  dresses  embroidered  representations  of  events  in  Gos- 
pel history,    and  recommended   such   persons  rather  to  bear  Christ  in 
their  hearts.       Epiphanius,  in  his  zeal,  tore  in  pieces  a  painted  curtain 
that  hung  in  a  village  church  in  Palestine,  and  suggested  that  the  body 
of  a  poor  person   should  he  wrapped  in  it.     But  gradually  the  Grecian 
love  of  art  and  the  popular  feeling  carried  the  victory  over  legal  rigor- 


WORSHIP    OF    SAINTS.    RELICS,    AND    IMAGES.      225 

ism  and  abstract  spiritualism.  In  this  respect  also  the  age  of  Cyril 
became  the  period  of  transition.  Already  in  the  fifth  century,  miracles 
were  said  to  be  performed  by  certain  pictures  of  Christ,  of  the  apos- 
tles, and  of  "  the  Mother  of  God."  This  gave  rise  to  a  real  worship 
of  images,  by  lighting  before  them  tapers,  kissing  them,  bowing,  pros- 
tration, burning  incense  before  them,  etc.  Soon  every  church  and 
church-book,  every  palace  and  cottage,  was  filled  with  pictures  of 
Christ  and  of  saints,  commonly  drawn  by  monks.  Countless  miracles 
occurred  in  connection  with  them.  This  delusion,  however,  spread  not 
so  rapidly  in  the  West  as  in  the  East.  Thus  Augustine  complained  of 
the  worship  of  images,  and  insisted  that  Christ  should  be  sought  in  the 
Bible,  and  not  in  images ;  and  although  Gregorij  the  Great  reproved 
the  iconoclastic  zeal  of  Seremts,  Bishop  of  Massilia,  himself  would 
tolerate  pictures  in  churches  "ad  instruendas  solummodo  mentes  nesci- 
entium."  The  Nestorians,  who  were  entirely  opposed  to  the  use  of 
pictures,  denounced  Cyril  as  the  originator  of  this  new  idolatry. — (Cf. 
§60,4;  66.) 

5.  The  Worship  of  Relics  (Cf.  g  36,  4).— The  worship  of  relics  (tetyuu) 
originated  partly  in  a  pious  impulse  common  to  mankind,  partly  in  the 
honours  which  the  early  Church  was  wont  to  pay  the  martyrs.  The 
religious  services  celebrated  on  the  graves  of  martyrs,  the  erection  of 
memorials  to  them,  and  the  depositing  of  their  bones  in  churches,  may 
be  regarded  as  the  commencement  of  this  practice.  By  and  by  no  altar 
or  church  was  reared  that  possessed  not  its  own  relic.  Gradually,  as 
the  small  number  of  known  martyrs  no  longer  sufficed  to  supply  the 
increasing  number  of  churches  with  relics,  their  bones  were  distributed. 
Places  where  relics  hitherto  unknown  lay,  were  miraculously  pointed 
out  in  dreams  and  visions.  The  catacombs  now  became  mines  of  relics, 
of  which  the  genuineness  was  proved  by  signs  and  wonders.  So  early 
as  386,  Theodosius  I.  was  obliged  to  interdict  the  traffic  in  relics. 
Among  them  were  reckoned  not  only  bones,  but  garments,  utensils, 
and  especially  the  instruments  with  which  the  martyrs  had  been  tor- 
tured. Their  application  restored  the  sick,  exorcised  demons,  raised 
the  dead,  averted  the  plague,  detected  crimes,  etc.  The  persons  thus 
benefited  were  in  the  habit  of  expressing  their  gratitude  by  setting  up 
commemorative  tablets,  or  offering  silver  and  gold  casts  of  the  diseased 
member  which  had  been  miraculously  healed.  In  defence  of  this 
species  of  veneration,  some  appealed  to  2  Kings  xiii.  21 ;  Sir.  xlvi.  14; 
Acts  xix.  12.  — According  to  a  legend  —  which  was  generally  credited 
in  the  fifth  century—  Helena  had,  in  32G,  discovered  the  true  cross  of 
Chris/,  as  well  as  those  of  the  two  malefactors.  This  story  was  first 
attested  by  Ambrose,  Rufinus,  and  Chrysostom  ;  Eusebius  and  the 
Bordeaux  pilgrim  of  the  year  333  know  nothing  of  it.  The  true  cross 
was  recognized  from  the  others  through  a  miraculous  cure  (raising  of 
the  dead)  performed  by  means  of  it.  The  devout  Empress  presented 
one  half  of  the  cross  to  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  sent 


226         SECTION    I.  —  SECOND    PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

the  other  half  along  -with  the  nails  to  her  son,  who  inserted  the  wood 
in  a  statue  of  his  own,  and  set  the  nails  in  his  diadem  and  in  the  reins 
of  his  horse.  Pious  pilgrims  were  allowed  to  carry  with  them  splinters 
of  that  portion  of  the  wood  which  was  left  at  Jerusalem,  and  thus  par- 
ticles of  the  true  cross  were  carried  into  and  worshipped  in  all  lands. 
At  a  comparatively  late  period,  it  was  said  that,  in  honour  of  the  dis- 
covery of  the  cross,  a  cffavpuxjt^oj  jy^ipa  had  been  celebrated  (on  the 
14th  September)  in  the  East  so  early  as  the  fourth  century.  From  the 
time  of  Gregory  the  Great,  a  festuin  inventionis  S.  Crucis  was  kept 
throughout  the  West  on  the  3d  May.  The  Feast  of  the  Elevation  of 
the  Cross  was  instituted  by  the  Emperor  Seraclius  (14th  Sept.)  to  com- 
memorate the  defeat  of  the  Persians,  who  were  obliged  to  restore  the 
holy  cross  (629),  which  they  had  taken  away.  This  festival  was  also 
introduced  in  the  West. 

6.  Pilgrimages  (Cf.  /.  Marx,  d.  Wallf.  in  cl.  kath.  K.  Trier  1842).— 
Pilgrimages  to  sacred  places  likewise  spring  from  a  prevalent  human 
want.  Many'were  eager  to  follow  the  example  set  them  by  Helena  in 
326.  Even  the  conquest  of  Palestine  by  the  Saracens  in  the  seventh 
century  could  not  arrest  the  zeal  of  pilgrims.  Not  only  the  sacred 
localities  in  Palestine,  but  Mount  Sinai,  the  tombs  of  Peter  and  Paul 
at  Rome  (limina  Apostolorum),  the  grave  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours  (ob. 
400),  and  even  the  place  where  Job,  the  type  of  Christ,  had  suffered 
(in  Arabia),  were  favourite  places  of  pilgrimage.  —  This  zeal  for  pil- 
grimages, especially  on  the  part  of  monks  and  of  women,  was  most 
strenuously  opposed  by  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  who,  in  a  letter  on  the  sub- 
ject, in  the  strongest  language  indicated  the  danger  accruing  both  to 
genuine  religion  and  to  morality  from  this  practice.  Even  Jerome 
moralized:  "  Et  de  Hierosobymis  et  de  Britannia  a?qualiter  patet  aula 
coelestis."  Chrysostom  and  Augustine  also  objected  to  the  excessive 
merit  attached  to  such  acts  of  devotion. — (Cf.  g  89,  4 ;  105,  3.) 


\  58.  ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  SACRAMENTS. 

The  Church,  had  not  at  this  period  definitely  settled  either  the 
number  or  the  import  of  the  Sacraments  (jxvarnpia).  The  term 
was  indiscriminately  applied  both  to  the  doctrines  of  salvation  in 
so  far  as  they  transcended  the  intellect  of  man,  and  to  those  rites 
of  worship  through  which,  in  a  manner  incomprehensible,  be- 
lievers received  and  appropriated  redemption.  From  the  first,  it 
was  admitted  that  Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  were  the 
principal  sacramental  means  of  grace.  But  so  early  as  the  third 
century,  anointing  and  laving  on  of  hands  was  distinguished 
froir  baptism,  regarded   as  a  special  sacrament  —  that  of  Con- 


ADMINISTRATION     OF     THE     SACRAMENTS.       227 

firmation  (xp'-oh-*)  —  and   in  the  West  administered  separately 
from  the  initiatory  Christian  rite  (§  32).     The  idea  of  a  special 
order  of  Christian  priesthood  as  of  Divine  institution  (§  30),  led 
theologians   to   regard  Ordination    as   a   sacrament  (§  45,   3). 
When  the  Pelagians  charged  Augustine  that  his  views  of  origi- 
nal sin  and  of  concupiscence  implied  that  the  Divine  ordinance 
of  marriage  was  in  itself  sinful,  he  rejoined  by  characterizing 
the  ecclesiastical  solemnization  of  marriage  (§  61,  2)  as  a  sacra- 
ment, appealing  in  proof  to  Eph.  v.  32.      Thus  marriage  was 
represented  as  nature  sanctified  by  grace.     The  Pseudo-Diony- 
sius  enumerated  (in  the  sixth  cent.)  six  sacraments,  viz.  :  Bap- 
tism, Confirmation,  the  Lord's  Supper,  the  Anointing  of  priests, 
that  of  monks,  and  that  of  the  dead  (t^v  xsxoLfiyjfih^v).     As  to 
extreme  unction,  comp.  §  61,  3. 

1.   The  Administration  of  Baptism  (Cf.  \  32). — During  this  period  it 
was   still  common  to   delay  baptism,    either  from  indifference,   from 
superstition,  or  from  doctrinal  prejudices.    These  motives  also  operated 
against  the  practice  of  infant-baptism,  which  had  long  been  recognized, 
not  only  as  lawful,  but  as  necessary.     Gregory  of  Nyssa  wrote  :  "npoj 
•fouj  |3paSi>*orraj  ft?  to  Bcirtf to^ta  ; "  —  the  other  Fathers  equally  opposed 
this  abuse.     In  accordance  with  the  view  of  Terhdlian,  baptized  lay- 
men, but  not  women,  were  allowed  to  administer  baptism  in  case  of 
extreme  necessity  (in  periculo  mortis).     The  practice  of  having   God- 
parents became  general ;  and  the  Code  of  Justinian  treated  this  rela- 
tionship as  a  spiritual  affinity,  and  an  impediment  to  marriage.     The 
following  were  the  ceremonies  common  at  baptism.    The  catechumens, 
who  had  kept  their  heads  veiled,  unveiled  them  on  the  day  of  baptism — 
the  former  to  shut  out  any  object  that  might  distract,  and  also  to  sym- 
bolize  spiritual  self-retirement.     Exorcism,  was   pronounced  over  the 
candidates  for  baptism  ;  next,  the  officiating  priest  breathed  on  them 
(John  xx.  22),  touched  their  ears,  saying:  Ephpliata!  (Mark  vii.  34), 
and  made  the  sign  of  the  cross  on  their  forehead  and  breast.    In  Africa 
salt  (Mark  ix.  50)  was  given  them  ;  in  Italy  a  piece  of  money,  as  sym- 
bol of  the  talent  of  baptismal  grace  (Luke  xix.  12,  etc.).    The  assump- 
tion in  baptism  of  a  new  name  indicated  entrance  into  a  new  life.    The 
person  baptized  renounced  the  devil,  turning  at  the  same  time  toward 
the  west,  and  saying :  'Artoracso^ou  aov  Sarara  xa.1  rtaay  tvj'  Xarpsia  aov, 
and  again  to  the  east,  with  the  words:  HvvtaaaofiaC  oot,  Xpiurs.     The 
practice  of  sprinkling  was  confined  to  the  "  baptismus  Clinicorum." 
The  person  baptized  was  three  times  immersed;  in  the  Spanish  Church 
only  once,  to  mark  even  in  this  their  antagonism  to  Arian  views. 

2.  Hitherto  the  Doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper  (comp.  \  33)  had  not 
been  discussed  in  Synods,  and  the  views  of  individual  Fathers  on  the 


228         SECTION    I. SECOND    PERIOD    (323—692    A.  D.). 

subject  wore  exceedingly  vague  and  undetermined.  All  of  them  spoke 
of  it  as  of  a  very  sacred  and  awful  mystery,  and  felt  convinced  that 
the  elements  of  bread  and  wine  became,  in  a  supernatural  manner, 
connected  with  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  Some  regarded  this  con- 
nection as  spiritual,  and  in  the  light  of  a  dynamic  influence  ;  others 
viewed  it  in  a  realistic  manner,  and  as  an  actual  communication  of 
these  substances  to  the  elements ;  but  most  theologians  had  not  fully 
decided  either  for  one  or  other  of  these  views.  Almost  all  described 
the  miracle  which  took  place  in  this  sacrament  as  a  ^tTaj3oX»j,  trans- 
figuratio  —  an  expression,  however,  which  they  also  employed  in  con- 
nection with  the  baptismal  water  and  the  anointing  oil.  The  school 
of  Origen  —  especially  Eusebivs  of  Caesarea  and  the  Pseudo-Dionysivs, 
also  Athauasivs  and  Gregory  Nazianzen,  though  in  a  less  decided 
manner  —  adopted  the  spiritualistic  view.  In  the  West,  it  was  advo- 
cated by  Augustine  and  his  school,  and  even  by  Leo  the  Great.  The 
principles  of  Augustine  on  Predestination  led  almost  of  necessity  to 
this,  since  only  believers,  i.e.,  the  elect,  could  partake  of  this  heavenly 
food.  Not  unfrequently,  however,  that  Father  also  made  use  of 
language  which  savours  of  the  opposite  view.  Among  the  advocates 
of  the  realistic  interpretation,  some  took  the  dyophysite  (consubstantia- 
tion),  others  the  monophysite  (tran substantiation)  view  of  the  sacra- 
ment. A  decided  tendency  to  transubstantiation  is  exhibited  in  the 
writings  of  Cyril  of  Jems.,  of  Chrysostom,  of  Hilary  of  Pict.,  and  of 
Ambrose.  The  view  of  Gregory  of  Nyssa  was  somewhat  peculiar.  He 
held,  that  as  during  the  terrestrial  life  of  Christ  food  and  drink,  by 
assimilation,  became  the  substance  of  His  body,  so  the  bread  and  wine 
were,  by  an  act  of  Divine  Omnipotence,  in  the  consecration,  changed 
into  the  glorified  corporeity  of  Christ,  which  became  assimilated  with 
our  body  when  we  partook  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  divergences  on 
this  question  appeared  more  distinctly  after  the  Nestorian  Controversy, 
although  Theodoret  and  Pope  Gelasius  (ob.  496)  were  the  only  theolo- 
gians who  fully  applied  their  general  dyophysite  views  in  reference  to 
this  sacrament.     The  former  sajrs :   ftivn  yap  inl  tr^  rtpottpaj  ovoJas,  and 

the  latter:  Esse  non  desinit  substantia  vel  natura  panis  et  vini 

Hoc  nobis  in  ipso  Christo  Domino  scntiendum  (in  regard  to  the  Person 
of  Christ),  quod  in  ejus  imagine  (as  to  the  Lord's  Supper)  profitemur. 
But,  in  all  probability,  the  mass  of  the  people  had  long  before  learned 
to  regard  this  uira^o^y-  as  a  genuine  change  of  substance.  The  popular 
view  next  passed  into  the  prayer-books.  We  find  it  in  the  Gallican  and 
Syrian  liturgies  of  the  fifth  century,  in  language  which  cannot  be  mis- 
understood. Even  after  the  Council  of  Chalccdon  had  sanctioned 
dyophysite  views  as  orthodox,  the  tendency  to  resolve  the  human  in 
Christ  into  the  Divine  still  continued  ;  and  towards  the  close  of  this 
period  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  was  generally  entertained. 

3.    The   Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.    (Comp.   |  33,  4).  —  Even   during  the 
fourth  century  tho   body  of  Christ  presented  by  consecration  in  the 


ADMINISTRATION     OF     THE     SACRAMENTS.      229 

Lord's  Supper,  had  been  designated  a  sacrifice,  though  only  in  the 
sense  of  being  a  representation  of  the  one  sacrifice  of  Christ.  But 
gradually  this  view  of  a  sacramental  feast  in  remembrance  of  the 
sacrifice  of  Christ  gave  place  to  Chat  which  made  the  Eucharist  an  un- 
bloody, but  real  repetition  of  this  sacrifice.  The  change  in  question 
was  much  promoted  by  the  ancient  custom  of  connecting  with  this 
sacrament  intercession  for  the  living  and  the  dead,  and  more  especially 
by  that  of  celebrating  the  memory  of  the  latter  by  oblations  and  par- 
taking of  the  Lord's  Supper,  in  order  thus  to  express  that  communion 
in  the  Lord  lasted  beyond  death  and  the  grave  (§  35).  Such  interces- 
sions would  naturally  appear  much  more  powerful,  if  the  sacrifice  of 
Christ,  which  alone  could  give  them  efficacy,  was  on  every  such  occa- 
sion really  repeated  and  re-enacted.  Other  causes  also  contributed  to 
this  result.  Among  them  we  reckon  the  rhetorical  figures  and  the 
language  of  preachers,  who  applied  to  the  representation  terms  which 
really  characterized  the  one  sacrifice  of  Christ  alone  ;  the  notion  about 
a  regular  priesthood,  which  soon  led  to  that  of  sacrifices;  the  spread 
of  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  and  the  tendency  to  regard  the 
sacrament  as  of  magical  efficacy.  The  idea  that  the  Lord's  Supper  was 
a  sacrifice  became  completely  established  after  the  introduction  of  the 
doctrine  of  Purgatory  as  a  place  of  punishment  —  before  the  resurrec- 
tion—  where  venial  sins,  which  had  not  been  atoned  for  during  life, 
might  be  expiated.  This  doctrine,  which  was  not  received  in  the  East, 
was  first  propounded  by  Augustine,  although  not  without  some  mis- 
givings, and  without  any  reference  to  the  sacrifice  of  the  Eucharist. 
But  Ccesarius  of  Aries  and  Gregory  the  Great  carried  it  to  all  its  con- 
sequences. The  "  oblationes  pro  defunctis,"  which  had  long  been  in 
use,  now  assumed  the  character  of  "  masses  for  their  souls ;  "  the  object 
being  no  longer  that  the  living  should  partake  of  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ,  and  thereby  indicate  their  communion  with  the  departed,  but 
that  the  atoning  sacrifice  should  be  repeated  for  the  spiritual  benefit  of 
the  deceased  —  i.e.,  in  order  that  the  sufferings  of  purgatory  might 
thereby  be  alleviated  and  abridged.  Similarly,  men  had  also  recourse 
to  the  atoning  efficacy  of  the  eucharistic  sacrifice  for  the  removal  of 
earthly  ills,  sufferings,  and  accidents,  in  so  far  as  these  were  regarded 
as  punishments  of  sin.  For  these  purposes,  it  was  deemed  sufficient  if 
the  sacrificing  priest  alone  partook  of  the  Eucharist  (missce  solitaries, 
private  masses).  At  last  the  flock  ceased  to  partake  of  the  commu- 
nion at  ordinary  seasons  of  worship,  and  only  joined  in  it  at  certain 
festivals. 

4.  The  Dispensation  of  the  Supper.  —  After  the  general  introduction 
of  infant-baptism,  the  strict  distinction  between  the  "  missa  catechu- 
menorum"  and  the  "missa  fidelium"  ($  33,  1)  ceased.  In  the  Eastern 
and  North  African  branches  of  the  Church,  Infant- Communion  remained 
in  use;  in  the  "West  it  was  interdicted,  in  accordance  with  1  Cor.  xi. 
28,  29.  The  " communio  sub  una"  (scil.  specie)  was  regarded  aa 
20 


230         SECTION    I.  —  SECOND    PERIOD    (.323— 692  A.  D.)  . 

Manichasan  heresy.  In  Northern  Africa  it  was  in  exceptional  case* 
allowed  in  the  case  of  children,  because  a  little  girl  had,  from  dislike 
to  wine,  on  one  occasion  spit  it  out.  So  early  as  the  sixth  century,  the 
communion  was  taken  only  once  a  year  in  the  East ;  but  in  the  West 
the  Councils  insisted,  even  in  the  fifth  century,  that  it  should  be  taken 
every  Lord's  day,  and  that  those  who  failed  to  partake  of  it  at  least 
on  the  three  great  festivals  should  be  excommunicated.  The  elements 
were  still  furnished  by  the  members  of  the  Church,  —  the  bread  being 
that  in  common  use,  hence  generally  leavened.  This  practice  continued 
in  the  East;  it  was  otherwise  in  the  West,  where  unleavened  bread 
was  used  in  the  Eucharist.  The  colour  of  ihe  wine  was  regarded  as 
matter  of  indifference;  at  a  later  period  white  wine  was  preferred, 
because  the  red  left  some  colouring  matter  in  the  cup.  It  was,  how- 
ever, deemed  necessary  to  mix  the  wine  with  Water,  either  in  allusion 
to  John  xix.  34,  or  to  the  two  natures  in  Christ.  Only  the  Armenian 
Monophysites  used  undiluted  wine.  The  bread  was  broken.  It  was  a 
common  practice  in  the  East  to  carry  to  the  sick  bread  dipped  in  wine, 
instead  of  bringing  the  elements  separately.  At  a  later  period,  in 
churches  also  both  elements  were  given  together  in  a  spoon.  The  con- 
secrated elements  were  called  Eulogia,  in  allusion  to  1  Cor.  x.  16. 
What  of  the  elements  remained  unused  (7tfp«T<rfvow?cu)  was  distributed 
among  the  clergy.  At  a  later  period,  only  so  much  as  was  requisite  for 
the  communion  was  consecrated,  and  what  of  the  oblations  had  been 
left,  without  being  consecrated,  was  blessed  and  divided  among  non 
communicants  (den,' 8  up  a).  The  old  practice  of  sending  consecrated 
elements  to  distant  churches  or  bishops,  in  token  of  church  communion, 
was  in  the  fourth  century  interdicted  by  the  Council  of  Laodicea. 

\  59.   ADMINISTRATION  OF  PUBLIC  WOBSIIir. 

In  public  worship  it  was  prohibited  to  read  from  any  non- 
canonical  book  (§  34).  Until  the  fifth  century,  the  common 
practice  was  to  read  continuously  through  the  Bible  (lectio  con- 
tinue). In  the  Latin  Church  it  was  customary  always  to  read 
two  portions  of  Scripture  —  one  from  the  Gospels,  the  other  from 
the  Apostles  or  Prophets.  The  Apostolical  Constit.  prescribed 
three  portions  (Proph.  Apost.,  Evans.)  ;  similarly  the  Gallican 
and  the  Spanish  Church;  the  Syrian  four  (Praxapostolus,  etc.). 
As  the  idea  of  an  ecclesiastical  year  was  developed,  t lie  lectio 
continua  gave  place  to  a  lectio  propria — i.  c,  to  a  selection  of 
Lessons  adapted  to  each  festival.  These  selections  were  in  the 
West  called  Lectionaria.  Among  them,  that  termed  "Comes," 
or  "  Liber  comilis"  (of  which  tradition  assigned  the  arrange- 
ment to  Jerome),  was,  after  some  modification  and  enlargement. 


ADMINISTRATION    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP.  231 

generally  adopted  throughout  the  West.  In  the  East,  where 
the  lectio  continua  remained  much  longer  in  use,  the  lectionaria 
were  only  introduced  during  the  eighth  century.  Commonly 
the  Lector  read  from  the  desk  ;  but  the  Gospel  was,  by  way  c 
distinction,  frequently  read  by  the  deacon.  From  similar  motives, 
candles  were  often  lit  at  that  part  of  the  service.  —  The  text  of 
the  sermon  was  generally  taken  from  the  section  of  the  Bible 
that  had  been  read.  Preaching  was  considered  the  special  work 
of  the  bishop,  who  might,  however,  devolve  it  upon  a  presbyter 
or  a  deacon.  Monks  were  only  allowed  to  preach  in  the  streets, 
in  market-places,  or  from  the  tops  of  roofs,  columns,  or  trees. 
The  bishop  delivered  the  sermon  from  his  episcopal  ^pow? ; 
frequently,  however,  he  stood  at  the  end  of  the  chancel,  in  order 
to  make  himbelf  better  heard.  Augustine  and  Chrysostom,  for 
this  purpose,  generally  preached  from  the  reading-desk.  In  the 
East,  where  the  sermon  often  lasted  for  hours,  and  the  preacher 
strained  after  theatrical  effect,  great  prominence  was  given  to 
the  homiletic  part  of  worship.  The  practice  of  expressing 
approbation —  especially  in  Greece  —  by  waving  of  handkerchiefs 
and  clapping  of  hands  (xpdroj,  acclamatio)  must  have  proved 
very  disturbing.  In  the  West,  the  sermon  consisted  commonly 
of  a  brief  and  unadorned  address.  Extempore  sermons  were 
more  acceptable  than  memorized  ones.  The  practice  of  reading 
sermons  was  of  very  rare  occurrence  ;  even  the  reciting  of  a 
discourse  committed  to  memory  was  not  popular.  After  the 
example  of  Constantine,  his  successors  in  the  empire  not  unfre- 
quently  delivered  sermons,  although  not  in  the  churches.  —  In 
siw/ing  they  mainly  used  psalms,  hymns,  and  doxologies.  The 
Gnostics  (§  28,  9),  Arians  (§  50,  1),  Apollinarians,  and  Donatists, 
often  succeeded  in  spreading  their  opinions  by  means  of  hymns. 
To  meet  these  insidious  attacks,  the  Church  felt  it  desirable  to 
introduce  orthodox  instead  of  these  heretical  productions.  The 
Council  of  Laodicea  (360)  indeed  interdicted  the  use  of  ^aXfioi, 
iScwrtjcoi  in  churches,  probably  to  prevent  the  spread  of  heterodox 
compositions.  But  this  prohibition  was  not  obeyed  in  the  West; 
and  when  the  rivalry  of  the  Arians  at  Constantinople  obliged 
Chrysostom  to  allow  processions  at  night,  he  introduced  hymns 
in  these  services.  The  practice  of  going  in  processions  com- 
menced at  an  earlier  period  than  that  of  Chrysostom,  and  was 
first  introduced  at  funerals  and  marriages.  Since  the  fourth 
century  processions  were  also  held  at  the  installation  of  bishop? 


232         SECTION    I.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (323-692A.fi.). 

or  of  relics,  at  feasts  of  thanksgiving,  and  especially  during 
seasons  of  public  danger  or  calamity  (rogationes,  supplicationes, 
litanise).  Through  the  influence  of  Mamertus,  Bishop  of  Vienna 
(450),  and  Gregory  the  Great,  processions  became  a  regulai 
ceremony  which  recurred  at  stated  times,  when  the  Gospels, 
costly  crucifixes  and  banners,  torches  and  burning  candles,  relics, 
pictures  of  the  Virgin  and  of  saints,  were  carried  about,  and 
psalms  or  hymns  sung.  The  religious  services  on  these  occasions 
were  called  Litanies.  They  consisted  of  prayers,  and  of  the 
invocation  of  saints  and  angels,  to  which  the  people  made 
response,   "  Ora  pro  nobis  1 " 


1.   Use  of  the  Scriptures.  —  The  doubts  previously  entertained  about 
the  authenticity  of  certain  portions  "of  the  New  Testament  (§  34,  2) 
gradually  ceased.     The  Council  of  Laodicea  omitted  from  the  canon 
only  theBook  of  Revelation,  manifestly  from  its  dislike  to  and  dread 
of  Millenarianism  (§  40,  8).     The  Council  of  Hippo  (393)  settled  the 
canon,  which  has  since  been  received,  including  the  Old  Testament 
Apocrypha  in  it.  —  The  inconvenient  practice  of  "  Scriptio  continua," 
hitherto  common  in  the  copies  of  the  Bible,  was  abolished  by  Euthalius, 
a  deacon   of  Alexandria,  who    introduced   a  new   plan,  according  to 
which  every  line  (oyJ^oj)  contained  only  so  much  as  could  —  without, 
of  course,  interfering  with  the  sense  —  be  read  without  a  pause.     An 
attempt,  previously  made,  to  arrange  the  various  books  into  chapters 
had,  however,  failed  to  produce  uniformity.— At  the  request  of  Dama- 
sus,  Bishop  of  Rome,  Jerome   emendated  the  corrupted  text  of  the 
"I/ala"  {I  34,  3),  and  then  prepared  a  Latin  translation  from  the 
Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament,  which,  along  with  the  emendated  version 
of  the  New  Testament,  was  generally  adopted  by  the  Western  Church, 
and  bears  the  name  of  the  Vulgata.     At  the  suggestion  of  Philoxenus, 
Bish.  of  Maburg,  Polycarp  furnishes   the  monophysite  Syrians  a  new 
but  slavishly  literal  translation  of  the  N.  T.  (508).     Bish.  Paula,  of 
Tela,  added  the  0.  T.  from  the  lxx.  (617).     The  Fathers,  more  espe- 
cially Chrysostom,  insisted  that  the  laity  should  diligently  peruse  tue 
Scriptures.    Still  the  helief  spread,  that  study  of  the  Bible  was  mainly 
the  business  of  the  clergy  and  of  monks.     The  second  Trull.  Council 
(G92)  denounced  severe  punishments   against  all  who  presumed  to  in- 
terpret the  Scriptures  otherwise  than  the  Fathers  had  done. 

2.  Eymnology. —  To  supplant  the  hymns  of  Harmonius  and  Barde- 
sanes,  the  Syrian  Gnostics,  which  had  in  so  many  cases  served  to  pro- 
mote error,  Ephraim  Syrus  (ob.  378)  composed  a  number  of  orthodox 
hymns,  which  soon  became  very  popular.  lie,  Isaac  the  Great  (in  the 
fifth  .cnt.),  and  Jacob  of  Sarug  (in  the  sixth  cent.),  were  the  three 
most  celebrated  ecclesiastical  poets  of  the  Syrian  Church.    Their  com- 


ADMINISTRATION    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP  233 

positions  were  allowed  to  be  used  in  public  worship.  Gregory  of  Nazi- 
anius,  and  Synesius  of  Ptolemais,  wrote  orthodox  hymns  in  the  Greek 
language  ;  but  the  interdict  of  the  Council  of  Laodicea  prevented  their 
introduction  into  public  worship.  But  the  most  eifective  hymns  were 
those  composed  by  members  of  the  Latin  Church.  With  Hilary  of 
Pictavium  (ob.  368)  commenced  a  series  of  religious  poets  (embracing 
Ambrose,  Augustine  Codius  Sedulius  from  Ireland,  Ennodius,  Bishop  of 
Pavia,  Prudentius,  a  Spaniard,  Fortunatus  of  Pictavium,  Gregory  the 
Great),  who  have  left  a  number  of  hymns,  remarkable  alike  for  their 
beauty,  their  depth  and  devoutness,  their  power  and  simplicity. — (Comp. 
H.  A.  Daniel  thes.  hymnolog.  4  vols.  Halle  1841,  etc. — F.  J.  Mone,  lat. 
Hymueu.  Freib.  1853.) 

3.  Psalmody  and  Hymnody. — The  former  practice  of  congregational 
psalm-singing  (in  sympliony)  gradually  ceased,  when  regular  clerical 
"Cantores"  ($  30,  1)  began  to  be  employed.     Indeed,  the  Council  of 
Laodicea  prohibited  it  entirely,  although  their  ordinance  failed  to  secure 
general  obedience.     The  practice  of  anti-phonal  or    alternate  singing 
was  much  in  vogue.     Notwithstanding  the  increasing  attempts  of  the 
clergy  to  exclude  the  people  from  participating  in  the  services  of  the 
Church,  the  laity  continued  for  a  long  time  the  practice  of  hypophonous 
chants,  which  consisted  of  responses  to  the  intonation,  the  reading,  and 
the  prayers  of  the  clergy,  and  of  the  so-calied  Acroteleutia,  or  responses 
to  the  psalms   sung  by  the  clergy.     The   practice   of  chanting   the 
prayers,  lessons,  and  consecrations,  dates  from  the  sixth  century.    The 
earliest  church-music  was  simple  and  inartificial.     But  the  rivalry  of 
heretics  obliged  the  Church  to  pay  greater  attention  to  the  require- 
ments of  art.      Chrysostom  already  inveighed  against  the  secular  and 
theatrical  melodies    introduced  in  churches.     The  practice  of  instru- 
mental accompaniment  was  longer  and  more  tenaciously  resisted,  and 
even  singing  in  parts  was  not  allowed  at  that  period.     The  Western 
Church  bestowed  great  attention  on  the  cultivation  of  psalmody.     Syl- 
vester, Bishop  of  Rome,  instituted  in  330  a  school  for  the  training  of 
professional  church-musicians.     Ambrose  of  Milan  introduced  a  new 
kind  of  psalmody  (Cantns  Ambrosianus),  which,  for  melody,  modula- 
tion, aptness,  and  simplicity,  far  surpassed  any  that  had  formerly  been 
known.     Augustine   speaks    in   enthusiastic  terms  of  the  impression 
which  it  had  made  upon  him,  but  at  the  same  time  expresses  a  fear 
lest  the  sweetness  of  the  music  should  captivate  the  senses,  and  weaken 
the  influence  of  the  word  on  the  mind.     His  apprehension  proved  well- 
grounded;  and  in  the  sixth  century  the  "  Cantus  Ambrosianus"  had 
almost  entirely  lost  its  ecclesiastical  character.     Under  these  circum- 
stances, Gregory  the  Great  introduced  a  new  style  of  church  music  (the 
Cantus  Eomanus,  firmus,  choralis),  for  which,  in  order  to  have  it  in- 
serted in  a  hymn-book  (antiphonarium),  he  devised  a  special  kind  of 
notation  called  neumce  (either  from  rtvev/xa  to  indicate  the  tone,  or  from 
20* 


234        SECTION    I.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

vein*  to  designate  the  notation  of  tones), — a  curious  compound  of  points, 
strokes,  and  little  hooks.  The  Gregorian  music  was  Bymphonious,  slow, 
and  measured,  without  rhythm  or  time.  While  in  this  respect  it  re- 
sembled the  church  music  anciently  in  use,  the  greater  art  which  it 
displayed,  and  the  richer  modulations  it  contained,  indicate  also  consi- 
derable progress.  Although  destitute  of  the  liveliness  and  freshness 
characteristic  of  the  Ambrosian,  it  introduced  in  its  place  a  style  more 
solemn  and  dignified,  and  better  adapted  for  worship.  It  was  a  more 
serious  objection  that  the  Gregorian  music  could  only  be  performed  by 
a  well-trained  clerical  choir  (hence  cantus  choralis),  for  whose  instruc- 
tion Gregory  accordingly  founded  a  great  Singing  School  at  Borne. 
Thus  the  people  were  deprived  of  the  part  they  had  formerly  taken  in 
the  public  services  of  the  Church.— (Comp.  J.  N.  Forkel,  allg.  Gesch.  d. 
Musik.  2  vols.  Leipz.  1790.— B.  G.  Eiesewetter,  Gesch.  d.  abendl.  Musik. 
Leipz.  1834.  —  Fr.  Brendel,  Gesch.  d.  Musik  in  Ital.,  Deutschl.  und 
Frankr.  Leipz.  1855.  2  vols.  —  J.  E.  Eauser,  Gesch.  d.  chr.  Kirchen 
gesangs  (Hist,  of  Chr.  Ch.  Mus.).  Quedl.  1834.— Dr.  Burney,  Hist,  of 
Music— D.  Antony,  Arch.  Lehrb.  d.  Greg.  K.  Ges.  Minister  1829.) 

4.   The  Liturgy.  —  All  the  numerous  liturgies  which  appeared  since 
the  fourth  century  were  framed  after  the  common  type  of  the  liturgy 
in  the  Apostolical  Constitutions  (g  33,  1).     The  following  are  the  prin- 
cipal orthodox  liturgies  of  that  period  :— 1.  That  of  Jerusalem,  ascribed 
to  the  Apostle  James;  2.  That  of  Alexandria,  assigned  to  the  Apostle 
Mark  (g  17)  ;  3.  That  of  Byzantium,  framed  by  S.Basil,  and  condensed 
and  recast  by  Chrysostom,  which  by  and  by  was  generally  adopted  in 
the  orthodox  churches  of  the  East,     The  following  are  the  oldest  and 
principal  liturgies  used  in  the  West:  — 1.  The  Galilean  Masses,  dating 
from  the  fifth  cent.  (edit,  by  Mone,  Frkf.  1850) ;  2.  The  Milan  Liturgy, 
ascribed  to  Barnabas,  but  probably  introduced  by  Ambrose ;  3.  That 
of  Borne,  or  of  S.  Peter,  elaborated  successively  by  Popes  Leo  the  Great 
(ob.  461),  Gelasius  I.   [ob.  496),  and   Gregory  the   Gr.   {ob.  004).  which 
was  gradually  introduced  throughout  the  West.     It  consisted  of  the 
Sacramentarium  (or  mass-prayers),  the  Antiphonarium  (or  hymn-book), 
the  Lectionarium,  and    the    "Ordo  Romanus"    (or  Directions  for  the 
Celebration  of  the  Mass).     These  were,  at  a  later  period,  combined 
together  in  the  Missale  Romanian.  —  In  the  Greek  Liturgy,  vespers, 
matins,  and  the  principal  worship  of  the  day,  were  intended   to  form 
three  parts  of  a  great  religious  drama,  representing  the  entire  course 
of  the  history  of  redemption,  from  the  creation  to  the  ascension  of  the 
Lord.     The  principal  events  of  this  history  were  also  symbolized  by 
the  Lighting  and  extinguishing  of  tapers,  by  locking  and  opening  the 
doors  of  the  sanctuary,  by  burning  incense  and  by  other  oblations,  by 
the  successive  putting  on  of  the  various  priestly  robes,  by  processions 
and  gestures  of  the   clergy,  by  certain  rites   in   connection  with  the 
sacramental  elements,  etc."    The  text  of  the  liturgy  (the  intonations, 


ADMINISTRATION    OF    PUBLIC    WORSHIP.        235 

responses,  prayers,  reading,  singing),  which  accompanied  these  cere- 
monies, was  considered  of  secondary  importance,  and  only  formed  a 
running  commentary  to  the  great  drama  enacted. — The  liturgy  of  the 
Latin  Church,  on  the  other  hand,  was  more  dogmatic  than  dramatic  in 
its  character.  It  was  intended  rather  to  exhibit  how  the  sinner  shared 
in  the  benefits  of  salvation,  than  objectively  to  present  the  story  of 
grace.  Conscious  of  his  guilt  and  need,  the  sinner  approached  the 
altar  of  the  Lord,  where  he  sought  and  found  consolation  and  instruc- 
tion, pardon  and  grace.  Hence,  in  the  Latin  Liturgy,  the  word  consti- 
tuted the  main  part  of  the  service;  the  symbolical  part  being  entirely 
subordinate,  and  only  designed  to  afford  an  outward  representation  of 
the  truths  conveyed.  The  liturgy  consisted  of  certain  fixed  portions 
which  recurred  whenever  mass  was  celebrated,  and  of  others  which 
were  adapted  to  the  calendar  and  to  the  peculiar  character  of  each  fes- 
tival. The  most  important,  indeed  the  central  part  in  the  liturgy,  was 
the  Canon  of  the  Mass,  which  consisted  of  the  formulas  employed  in 
the  consecration  of  the  Eucharist,  and  of  the  sacrificial  prayers  con- 
nected with  it. — Among  liturgical  works,  considerable  interest  attaches 
to  the  so-called  Diptycha  (from  6tj  and  rftiJacu,  bis  plicare),  or  writing 
tablets  covered  with  wax.  They  were  a  kind  of  official  registers  con- 
taining the  names  of  those  persons  who  were  to  be  objects  of  special 
liturgical  intercession.  They  were  divided  into  hittrvxa-  tTtioxortuv, 
which  contained  the  names  of  the  foreign  bishops  with  whom  church- 
fellowship  was  maintained  ;  8ifttv%a  ^vtuv,  or  registers  of  the  mem- 
bers of  a  particular  church,  and  of  those  who  made  offerings ;  aud 
lastly,  hmrvxa  vexpiliv. 

5.  Symbolical  Rites.  —  During  the  whole  of  this  period  it  was  still 
the  custom  to  give  the  brotherly  kiss.  When  entering  the  church,  it 
was  the  practice  to  kiss  the  door  or  the  threshold  ;  before  reading  the 
liturgy,,  the  priest  kissed  the  altar,  similarly  the  lector  the  gospel. 
Relics  and  images  were  also  kissed.  When  making  confession  of  sin, 
it  was  customary  to  strike  one's  breast.  Every  ecclesiastical  rite  was 
accompanied  by  the  sign  of  the  cross,  which  was  also  frequently  made 
at  home  on  any  solemn  occasion.  The  practice  of  washing  one's  hands, 
when  entering  church,  dates  from  a  very  early  period ;  but  sprinkling 
with  holy  icafer  was  not  introduced  till  the  ninth  century.  The  custom 
of  lighting  candles  in  churches  is  of  very  ancient  date  ;  that  of  burning 
incense  originated  late  in  the  fourth  century.  Before  that  period,  it  was 
supposed  to  attract  evil  spirits  who  fed  upon  the  incense,  although 
afterwards  it  was  represented  as  the  most  potent  means  of  exorcising 
them.  The  practice  of  consecrating  churches,  and  of  holding  an  annual 
festival  in  commemoration  of  it,  is  mentioned  in  the  writings  of  Ease- 
bins  (tyxcui'Liov  ioprai).  At  the  time  of  Ambrose,  the  possession  of 
some  relic  was  a  necessary  condition  for  this  ceremony. 


236        SECTION    I.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 


2  60.    PLACES   OF   WORSHIP  AND   WORKS   OF   ART. 

Cojip.  C.  Schnaase,  Gesch.  d.  bildenden  K'unste  (Hist,  of  Art).  Dlis- 
seld  184-1.  3  vols. — Fr.  Kugler,  Handb.  d.  Kunst-Gesch.5th,  ed.  Stuttg. 
1872. — Bellermann,  Munter,  and  Kinkel  (§  35). — L.  Stiegliiz,  Gesch.  d. 
Baukunst  (Hist,  of  Archit.).  2d  ed.  Numb.  1837. — Fr.  Kugler,  Gesch. 
d.  Baukunst.  Stuttg.  1855. — J.  Kreuser,  d.  chr.  Kirchenbau,  Bonn  1851. 
2  vols. — A.  H.  Springer,  die  Baukunst  d.  chr.  M.  A.  (Arch,  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages).  Bonn  1854. —  C.  Schiller,  Ueberblick d. Entwickelungsgangea 
d.  Kirehenarcb.it.  (Survey  of  the  Progress  of  Develop,  in  Eccl.  Arch.). 
Braunsch.  1856. — Fr.  Kugler,  Handb.  d.  Gesch.  d.  Malerei  (Mem.  of 
the  Hist,  of  Paint.).  2d  ed.  Berl.  1847.— N.  Sorg,  Gesch.  d.  chr.  Malerei, 
Regensb.  1853. — F.  Laib  u.  J.  Schwarz,  Studien  u.  d.  Gesch.  d.  christl. 
Altars.     Stuttg.  1858.     4to. 


e* 


The  form  in  which  heathen  temples  —  destined  only  to  hold 
the  statues  of  the  gods  —  were  constructed,  was  in  every  respect 
unsuited  to  the  purposes  of  Christian  churches.  But  the  forensic 
basilica,  or  public  market,  and  judgment  hall  of  the  Romans 
afforded  an  excellent  model  for  church  architecture.  Not  only 
might  their  form  (with  some  modifications)  be  adopted,  but  even 
their  name,  provided  it  were  understood  as  applying  to  Christ, 
the  eternal  King.  In  later  church  edifices  the  Byzantine  cupola 
was  often  substituted  for  the  flat  roofs  of  basilicas. 

1.  The  basilica  presented  the  general  appearance  of  an  elongated 
quadrangle,  running  from  cast  to  west  longitudinally  divided  by  colon- 
nades into  three  spaces  or  naves,  but  so  that  the  middle  nave  was  at 
least  twice  as  broad  as  either  of  the  side  naves.  The  central  nave  ter- 
minated in  a  semicircular  niche  [xoyx*li  o-^ii  concha,  absida),  which 
bulged  out  from  the  eastern  or  narrow  back  wall.  This  niche  was 
separated  from  the  central  nave  by  a  kind  of  railing  (xvyx%ihts,  can- 
celli)  and  a  curtain  [xa.taTcira.nna.,  velum),  and  was  also  called  /3j^ua 
(from  jGcu'i'cj),  because  it  was  a  few  steps  elevated  above  the  central  nave. 
Since  the  fifth  century  the  pillars  of  the  nave  were  not  continued  to  the 
eastern  wall.  Thus  a  vertical  nave  was  formed,  which  was  also  raised 
and  connected  with  the  j3^a.  This  vertical  nave,  the  central  nave, 
and  the  niche  at  the  eastern  end,  gave  to  the  ground-plan  of  the  church 
the  significant  appearance  of  a  cross.  At  the  entrance,  to  the  west, 
there  was  a  vestibule  which  ran  along  the  entire  breadth  of  the  naves. 
The  church  consisted,  therefore,  of  three  divisions.  The-  Bema  was 
allotted  to  the  clergy.  Close  by  the  wall,  and  in  the  deepest  recess  of 
the  niche,  stood  the  elevated  scat  of  the  bishop  (^povoj,  cathedra).  On 
either  side  of  it  were  the  lower  seats  (avr^poioi,)  of  the  presbyters,  while 
the  altar  itself  occupied  the  centre  of  the  niche  or  stood  immediately 


CHURCHES     AND     WORKS     OF     ART.  237 

in  front  of  it.  The  bema  was  also  called  Sytot;  advtov,  leparuoi,  sacra- 
rium,  sanctuarium,  from  its  being  occupied  by  the  clergy  and  by  th6 
altar  ; — the  name  of  Choir  appears  only  in  the  middle  ages.  The  bones 
of  martyrs  were  commonly  kept  in  a  subterranean  crypt  underneath 
the  apsis  or  bema  (the  so-called  memoria,  confessio).  —  The  baptized 
laity  assembled  in  the  threefold  —  in  rare  cases,  fivefold  —  nave,  of 
which  the  name  was  partly  derived  from  its  oblong  shape,  but  chiefly 
from  the  symbolical  connection  between  a  ship  and  the  church.  The 
worshippers  were  arranged  according  to  sex,  age,  and  rank.  In  the 
East  a  separate  and  elevated  space  along  the  naves  (iittpiLa)  was  allo- 
cated to  females.  In  the  central  nave  and  near  the  chancel  stood  the 
reading-desk  or  Ambon.— The  Vestibule  (rtpdraoj,  vestibulum)— called 
also  the  vd&rfe  or  ferula,  from  its  elongated  form— was  allotted  to  cate- 
chumens or  penitents.  In  the  space  before  the  vestibule  (a^piw,  a.i>%r\, 
atrium,  area,  which  was  not  roofed  till  a  later  period  of  history)  a 
basin  was  placed  for  washing  the  hands.  The  vestibule  and  side-naves 
rose  only  to  the  height  of  the  columns  ;  they  were  shut  in  by  ceiled 
woodwork,  and  covered  with  a  simple,  sloping  roof.  But  the  central 
and  the  cross  naves  were  carried  up  by  walls  which  rested  upon  the 
columns,  and  rose  far  above  the  side-roofs.  They  were  covered  with  a 
bilateral  obtuse-angled  roof,  sloping  down  towards  the  side-naves.  The 
columns  were  joined  together  by  arches,  to  render  them  sufficiently 
strong  to  support  the  wall  resting  on  them.  The  walls  of  the  central 
and  of  the  vertical  nave,  which  rose  above  the  side-roofs,  were  pierced 
by  windows. — The  ground-plan  of  the  basilica  still  remained  the  same 
as  before ;  but  above  the  central  nave  of  the  church,  upon  immense 
pillars  connected  together  by  arches,  the  principal  cupola  rose  like  a 
firmament,  often  to  a  stupendous  height, — a  number  of  smaller  or  semi- 
cupolas  being  generally  connected  with  it.  The  great  Church  of  St. 
Sophia  at  Constantinople  presented  the  most  magnificent  specimen  of 
this  style  of  architecture.  It  was  so  magnificent  that,  when  it  was 
completed  (537),  Justinian  I.  exclaimed:  Nevixrjxd  as  laXofiJiv. 

2.  Several  Side-Buildings  (i^eSpai.)  stood  within  the  wall  that  enclosed 
the  principal  ecclesiastical  edifice,  and  were  connected  with  it.  Of 
these  the  baptistries  {tfaTftiorripia,  ^narr^ia,  xoXv/x3y^pa,  piscine,  John 
v.  2;  ix.  7)  were  the  most  important.  After  the  model  of  the  Roman 
baths,  they  were  built  in  the  shape  of  a  rotunda ;  the  baptismal  basin 
stood  in  the  middle,  and  was  surrounded  by  a  colonnade.  Frequently 
a  large  antechamber  was  provided,  in  which  the  catechumens  were 
wont  to  receive  religious  instruction.  When  infant-baptism  became 
general,  separate  baptistries  were  no  longer  necessary,  and  instead  of 
them  stone  fonts  were  placed  in  the  cl  urches  (towards  the  north,  at 
the  principal  entrance).  In  large  churches,  the  treasures,  vessels, 
robes,  books,  archives,  etc.,  were  kept  in  separate  buildings.  The 
rtTuxotpotyHa,  optyavorpotytla,  yrjpoxofj.ua,  Qptfyorpotyua  (foundling  hospitals), 
voaoxofiua,,  ^vobozua,  were  buildings  used  for  charitable  purposes.    The 


238  SECTION    I. — SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

burying-place  (xoi/.i*]trlpt,oi>,  cimeterium,  dormitorium,  area)  was  also 
commonly  within  the  wall  enclosing  the  church.  When  bells  came  into 
use,  towers  were  reared  beside  (not  on)  the  churches,  frequently  even 
apart  from  them. 

3.  Ecclesiastical  Furniture. — The  principal  object  in  the  church  was 
the  altar,  which,  since  the  fifth  century,  was  generally  constructed  of 
stone,  plated  with  silver  or  gold.     Behind  the  altar,  which  was  open 
on  all  sides,  stood  the  officiating  priest  facing  the  congregation.     In 
the  West,  the  introduction  of  "  missas  solitarise"  rendered  it  necessary 
to  have  more  than  one  altar  in  a  church  ;  in  the  Greek  Church  this 
was  prohibited.     Portable  altars  (for  missionaries,   during  war,  etc.) 
came  in  use,  when  it  began  to  be  deemed  necessary  to  have  the  altar 
consecrated.    For  this  purpose  the  Latins  used  a  consecrated  stone  slab, 
the  Greeks  a  consecrated  altar-cloth  (avn^voiov).    This  altar-cloth  (palla) 
was  regarded  as  essential,  and  the  "  denudatio  altaris"  as  a  sinful 
desecration.     On  liturgical  grounds  the  "palla"  was  removed  on  the 
Friday  and  Saturday  of  the  High  Week.     Different  from  this  cloth  was 
the  corporate  used  for  covering  the  oblations.     Upon  the  altar  stood 
the  ciborium,  a  canopy  resting  on  four  pillars,  to  which,  by  golden 
chainlets,  a  dove-shaped  vessel  was  attached,  which  contained  the  con- 
secrated elements  used  in  administering  the  communion  to  the  sick. 
At  a  later  period  the  "ciborium"  was  replaced  by  the  tower-shaped 
tabernaculum.     The  thuribulum  was  used  for  burning  incense,  the  cru- 
cifixes (cruces,  stationarii)  and  banners  (vexilla)  in  processions.     Seats 
for  the  people  were  ranged  in  the  nave,  but  not  in  the  narthex  or  vesti- 
bule.    The  reading-desk  (pulpitum,  kfi^v  from  di-ajSouVco)  stood  in  the 
central  nave  near  the  chancel.     Tradition  designates  Faulinus,  Bishop 
of  Nola  in  Campania  (ob.  431),  or  else  Pope  Sabinianus  (ob.  605),  as 
the  inventor  of  bells  (Noise,  campanse,  campanulas  —  so  called  because 
made   of  Campanian   brass,   which  was  considered  the  best).     Bells 
were  introduced  in  the  West  in  the  seventh,  and  in  the  East  in  the 
ninth  century.     Before  that  the  hours  of  worship  were  announced  first 
by  cursores  (  dw'Spo^ex. ),  then  by  the  sound  of  trumpets,  or  by  loud 
knocking  on  boards,  etc. 

4.  The  Fine  Arts.  —  According  to  the  rules  of  the  Greek  Church, 
only  the  face,  the  hands,  and  the  feet  were  allowed  to  be  represented 
naked  ;  but  this  restriction  applied  not  to  the  West.  An  attempt  was 
made  to  compensate  by  bright  colouring,  precious  materials,  and  gor- 
geous costumes  for  the  manifest  want  of  artistic  taste.  From  the 
tixovis  a%t (porto^roi  artists  copied  the  stereotyped  features  in  their  repre- 
sentations <>!'  Christ,  of  the  A'irgin,  and  of  the  Saints.  The  nimbus  or 
halo  (in  the  form  of  rays,  of  a  diadem,  or  of  a  circle)  was  first  intro- 
duced  in  the  pictures  of  the  Saviour.  Fresco  painting  was  principally 
used  for  adorning  the  catacombs  (fourth  to  sixth  cent.),  Mosaic  painting 
(Musivum,  yn^oatpdtta)  for  decorating  the  flat  walls  of  the  basilicas, 


LIFE,     DISCIPLINE,    AND     MANNERS.  239 

the  cupolas  and  niches.  Liturgical  books  were  illustrated  by  miniature 
paintings.  These  different  styles  of  painting  were  stiff  and  unnatural, 
although  elevated,  majestic,  and  unimpassioned  in  their  character. — 
The  ancient  Church  regarded  statuary  as  too  heathenish  and  sensuous 
for  religious  purposes ;  and  the  Greek  Church  ultimately  prohibited 
its  use  in  churches,  excluding  even  crucifixes.  But  in  the  West  this 
objection  was  not  entertained,  although  even  there  Christian  statues 
were  of  rare  occurrence.  Less  scruple  seems  to  have  been  felt  in  regard 
to  bas-reliefs  and  haut-reliefs  (avayXv^ai.) ,  especially  in  sarcophagi  and 
in  ecclesiastical  vessels. 

I  61.  LIFE,    DISCIPLINE,    AND   MANNERS. 

Comp.   C.  Schmidt  (g  36). 

When  Christianity  became  the  religion  of  the  State,  a  large 
number  of  unconverted  and  worldly  persons  made  a  profession  of 
Christianity  for  the  sake  of  the  temporal  advantages  which  it 
entailed.  This  influx  of  the  world  into  the  Church  necessarily 
exercised  a  most  detrimental  influence  ;  and  the  earnestness, 
power,  devotedness,  and  purity,  by  which  the  ancient  heathen 
world  had  been  conquered,  greatly  declined  in  consequence.  The 
world  and  the  Church  became  more  assimilated  and  conformed 
to  one  another  ;  discipline  became  lax  and  powerless ;  and  the 
general  decline  of  public  morals  made  rapid  progress.  The  hot 
discussions,  the  dissensions,  and  divisions  among  the  bishops  and 
the  clergy,  led  to  corresponding  effects  among  the  people.  Party 
spirit  and  bitterness  characterized  the  adherents  of  different 
views  ;  the  demoralization  of  the  court  exercised  its  pernicious 
influence  on  the  capital  and  the  provinces  ;  while  the  inroads  of 
the  barbarians  increased  the  general  decay.  Even  in  the  case 
of  those  who  sought  other  than  merely  earthly  things,  work- 
righteousness  and  bigotry  too  often  took  the  place  of  genuine 
piety  ;  while  the  great  mass  consoled  themselves  with  the  idea 
that  everybody  could  not  be  a  monk.  But,  despite  all  this,  the 
Gospel  still  acted  as  a  leaven  on  the  community.  Already  had  its 
spirit  penetrated  not  only  public  life,  the  administration  of  justice 
and  legislation,  but  also  family  life  and  popular  customs.  The 
claims  of  humanity  and  the  rights  of  men  were  acknowledged  ; 
slavery  became  more  and  more  restricted  ;  gladiatorial  games  or 
immoral  spectacles  ceased  ;  the  contracting  influences  of  national 
selfishness  gave  way  to  higher  motives  and  views.  Polygamy 
was  interdicted  ;  the  sanctity  of  marriage  was  preserved  ;  woman 


240        SECTION    I.  —  SECOND    PERIOD    (323—692  A.D.). 

came  to  occupy  her  proper  place  ;  and  the  vices  of  ancient  hea- 
thenism were  at  least  no  longer  regarded  as  the  healthy  and 
natural  conditions  of  public  life.  Even  those  who,  with  the  out- 
ward profession  of  Christianity,  remained  heathen  in  mind  and 
heart,  were  obliged  to  conform  to  the  practices  and  demands  of 
the  Church,  and  to  submit  to  its  discipline  and  customs.  If  the 
more  gloom;  aspects  of  this  age  are  sufficiently  appalling,  brighter 
sides  were  not  wanting,  nor  elevated  souls,  who  with  genuine 
piety  combined  deep  moral  earnestness  and  self-denial. 

1.  Ecclesiastical  Discipline. — (Comp.  J.  Morinvs  (Rom.  Cath.),  Comm. 
hist,  de  disc,  in  Admin.  Sacr.  Pcenit.  Paris  1G51.  —  H.  Klee  (Rom. 
Cath.),  d.  Beichte.  Hist.  krit.  Unters.  (Confession,  a  Hist,  and  Crit. 
Inq.).  Frkf.  1828. — J.  Stdudlin,  Beleucht.  d.  Buches  von  Klee  (Crit.  of 
the  Works  of  Klee).  Leipz.  1830. —  G.  E.  Steitz,  d.  rom.  Busssacram. 
(The  Rom.  Sacr.  of  Pen.).  Frkf.  1854.) — Ecclesiastical  discipline,  or 
excommunication  with  its  four  stages  through  which  penitents  had  to 
pass  (|  36,  2),  was  only  exercised  towards  those  who  were  guilty  of 
open  sins  which  had  occasioned  general  scandal.  To  remedy  this 
defect,  it  was,  even  in  the  third  century,  the  custom  to  appoint  a 
special  priest  for  penance  (rtpfo^ilrfpoj  txL  trjs  fittavoias,  presb.  poeniten- 
tiarius),  whose  duty  it  was  to  direct  the  exercises  of  penitents  guilty 
of  secret  sins,  which  they  voluntarily  confessed  to  him  under  the  seal 
of  secrecy.  But  when  (391)  a  female  penitent  of  this  class  was  seduced 
by  a  deacon  of  the  Church  of  Constantinople,  the  Patriarch  Nectarius 
abolished  the  office.  The  practice  continued,  however,  in  the  "West, 
till  Leo  the  Great  introduced  such  changes  in  the  mode  of  dealing  with 
penitents,  that  in  the  Western  Church  also  the  office  of  penance-priest 
ceased  to  be  of  importance.  He  prohibited  bishops  from  demanding 
public  confession  for  secret  sins,  and,  in  place  of  it,  introduced  private 
confession,  which  every  priest  was  entitled  to  hear.  Even  Jerome  still 
denounced  as  a  piece  of  pharisaical  arrogance  the  assumption,  that 
the  power  of  the  keys  (Matt.  xvi.  19)  implied  any  judicial  authority; 
and  although  Leo  the  Great  already  regarded  it  as  of  Divine  arrange- 
ment, "  ut  indulgentia  Dei  nisi  supp/icu/ionibus  sacerdotvm  nequeat 
obtincri,"  and  guaranteed  their  efficacy,  he  does  not  venture  to  claim 
any  judicial  power  for  the  Church.  Besides,  the  private  confession 
which  he  introduced  was  merely  designed  for  those  mortal  sins  which, 
having  been  publicly  committed,  would,  according  to  former  canons, 
have  required  public  penance. — But  the  practice  of  private  confession, 
as  a  regular  and  necessary  preparation  for  the  communion,  was  wholly 
unknown  at  that  period.  —  The  so-called  "libelli  poenitentiales "  indi- 
cated the  manner  of  dealing  with  penitents,  and  the  taxes  payable  in 
each  case.  The  oldest  of  these  compositions,  so  far  as  the  Greek 
Church  is  concerned,  was  compiled  by  Johannes  Jejunator,  Patriarch  of 


LIFE,    DISCIPLINE,    AND     MANNERS.  /41 

Constantinople  (ob.  595),  and  bore  the  title,  'AxoXov&a  xai  ■tu^n;  ini  twt 
i%otxo%oyovjxtvu>v. 

2.  Christian  Marriage.  —  The  excessive  value  attached  to  virginity 
led  to  low  views  of  marriage.  These  were  in  some  measure  counter- 
balanced by  the  notion  that,  by  priestly  consecration,  marriage  became 
a  sacrament  ($  58)  — an  idea  which  was  fully  developed  and  obtained 
ecclesiastical  sanction  during  the  middle  ages.  The  State  regarded 
marriage  between  a  free  person  and  a  slave  as  merely  concubinage ; 
but  the  Church  acknowledged  the  validity  of  such  unions.  Not  only 
consanguinity  and  affinity  (through  marriage),  but  adoption  into  a 
family,  and  even  the  spiritual  relationship  with  god-parents  through 
baptism  or  confirmation  (§  58,  1),  were  considered  valid  impediments 
to  marriage.  Augustine  sanctioned  the  marriage  of  cousins;  Gregory 
the  Great  interdicted  it  on  physiological  grounds,  and  only  allowed 
marriage  in  the  third  or  fourth  degree  of  consanguinity.  Gradually 
this  prohibition  was  extended  even  to  the  seventh  degree,  till,  in  1216, 
Innocent  III.  again  limited  it  to  relationship  in  the  fourth  degree. 
Mixed  marriages  (with  heathens,  Jews,  heretics)  were  held  sufficient 
ground  for  penance;  the  second  Trullan  Council  (692)  entirely  pro- 
hibited them.  Second  marriages  were  not  prohibited,  though  they 
were  visited  with  penance  for  one  or  two  years ;  but  many  canonists 
regarded  a  third  or  a  fourth  marriage  as  entirely  invalid.  Adultery 
was  universally  admitted  as  forming  a  sufficient  ground  for  divorce; 
many  divines  ranked  unnatural  lusts,  murder,  and  apostasy  in  the 
same  category.  In  416  the  Council  of  Mileve  (in  Africa)  interdicted 
persons  who  had  been  divorced — even  the  innocent  party — from  again 
marrying ;  and  Pope  Innocent  I.  gave  to  this  prohibition  the  character 
of  a  general  law.  Former  scruples  about  heathenish  customs  at  mar- 
riages (I  36,  1)  — such  as  the  use  of  a  marriage-ring,  the  veiling  of 
brides,  the  wearing  of  garlands,  carrying  of  torches,  having  bridesmen 
or  rtapa»w?>ot  —  were  no  longer  entertained. 

3.  Sickness,  Death,  and  Burial.  —  The  practice  of  anointing  the 
sick  (Mark  vi.  13  ;  James  v.  14),  as  a  means  of  miraculous  bodily  cure, 
prevailed  so  late  as  the  fifth  century.  In  a  decretal  dating  from  the 
year  416,  Innocent  I.  first  represented  this  custom  as  a  sacrament 
intended  for  the  spiritual  benefit  of  the  sick.  But  centuries  intervened 
before  it  was  generally  introduced  as  the  sacrament  oj  extreme  unction 
(unctio  infirmorum,  unctio  extrema,  evxi^-aiov).  It  occurred  later  by 
anointing  the  eyes,  ears,  nose,  mouth,  hands,  feet  and  right  side.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Areopagite  numbers  the  anointing  of  the  dead 
among  the  sacraments  ($  58).  The  practice  of  closing  the  eyes  of 
the  dead,  was  intended  to  convey  the  idea  of  sleep  in  the  hope  of 
a  blessed  awakening.  The  fraternal  kiss  betokened  that  Christian 
communion  lasted  beyond  the  grave  ;  but  the  practice  of  decorating 
the  corpse  with  a  garland,  in  token  of  victory,  was  not  in  general  use 

21 


242         SECTION    I. SECOND    PERIOD    (323— C92  A.  D.). 

Synods  had  repeatedly  to  prohibit  the  custom  of  pouring  the  conse- 
crated elements  into  the  mouth  of  dead  persons,  or  of  laving  them  in 
the  coffin;  violent  outbursts  of  grief,  the  rending  of  garments,  putting 
on  of  sackcloth  and  ashes,  the  employment  of  mourning  women,  the 
carrying  of  cypress  branches,  etc.,  were  considered  as  heathen  customs, 
implying  that  those  left  behind  had  not  learned  to  cherish  the  hope 
of  immortality.     Similarly,  burial  feasts  celebrated  at  night  were  dis- 
approved, although  it  was   customary,  by  daylight,  to  carry  torches, 
lamps,  and  palm  or  olive  branches  in  the  funeral  procession.     Julian 
and  the  Vandals  interdicted  this  practice.    During  the  fourth  and  fifth 
centuries  the  catacombs  were  the  favourite  place  of  burial;  where  these 
were   wanting,   special   cemeteries   were   set   apart,   generally  in  the 
vicinity  of  churches  (?  60,  2).     Emperors  and  bishops  alone  enjoyed 
the   privilege  of  being  buried   in   churches.     In   the  fourth   century 
agaves  and  the  Eucharist  were  still  celebrated  at  the  grave.     After- 
wards mourning  feasts  were  substituted  for  these  solemnities,  which 
were  gradually  discontinued  on  account  of  the  abuses  to  which  they 
led.    The  rite'3  of  burial  closed  with  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  priestly 
benediction. 

I  62.  HERETICAL  REFORMERS. 

Comp.   (Valch,  Ketzerhist.  Vol.  III. ;  Dr.  Gill;/,  Vigilantius  and  his 
Times.     London  1844. 

In  the  fourth  century  a  spirit  of  opposition  to  prevailing 
ecclesiastical  views  and  tendencies  sprang  up.  This  opposition 
was  neither  general,  sustained,  lasting  in  its  consequences,  nor 
even  healthy.  While  contending  against  the  worldly  spirit  that 
had  intruded  into  the  Church,  some  fell  into  the  opposite  extreme 
of  fanatical  severity  ;  while  others,  in  their  protest  against  real  or 
supposed  superstition  and  work-righteousness,  occasionally  ended 
in  cold  rationalism.  The  former  remark  applies  more  especially 
to  theDonatists(§  63),  and  to  the  sect  of  the  Audians,  founded 
in  340  by  Udo  or  Audius,  a  layman  from  Syria,  who,  on  the 
ground  that  the  Church  and  its  ministers  should  return  to  apos- 
tolic poverty  and  humility,  abstained  from  all  fellowship  with  the 
members  of  the  degenerate  Church.  Audius  entertained  also 
grossly  anthropomorphistic  views,  and  shared  the  opinions  of  the 
Quartodecimani.  Another  sect  of  the  same  class,  the  Apos- 
tolici,  in  Asia  Minor,  declared  marriage  and  property  to  be 
sinful.  In  the  opposite  class  of  more  rationalistic  opponents  to 
ecclesiastical  notions,  we  reckon  the  ANTinicoMARTANiTrs  in 
Arabia,  Helvidius  of  Rome  (380),  and  Bonosus,  Bishop  of 
Sardica  (390),  who  all  opposed  the  "  perpetua  virginitas"  o< 


schisms.  243 

Mary  f§  57,  2).  Aerius,  a  presbyter  of  Sebaste  in  Armenia, 
was  the  first,  in  360,  to  protest  against  the  false  estimate  placed 
on  good  works.  He  disapproved  of  prayers  and  oblations  for 
the  dead,  controverted  the  obligation  and  the  meritoriousness  of 
fasts,  and  denied  that  bishops  were  of  superior  rank  to  presbyters. 
For  these  opinions  he  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Eustathius,  his 
bishop  (§  44,  5).  Persecuted  from  place  to  place,  his  adherents 
sought  refuge  in  caves  and  woods.  Substantially  similar  were 
the  views  of  Jovinian,  a  monk  of  Rome,  who  in  389  opposed, 
in  a  systematic  manner  and  on  dogmatic  grounds,  the  eccle- 
siastical system  of  his  time,  especially  monasticism,  asceticism, 
celibacy,  and  fasts.  Sarmaiio  and  Barbatianus,  two  monks  of 
Milan  (about  396)  —  perhaps  pupils  of  Jovinian  —  shared  his 
views.  The  opposition  of  Vigilantius  (400)  to  the  worship  of 
relics,  the  invocation  of  saints,  miracle-mongering,  vigils,  the 
celibacy  of  priests,  and  the  prevailing  externalism  in  religion 
generally,  was  so  violent  as  to  pass  all  bounds  of  prudence  and 
moderation.  The  Church  resisted  with  equal  violence  and 
passion.  Epiphanius  wrote  against  the  Audians,  the  Apos- 
tolici,  the  Antidicomarianites,  and  the  Aerians  ;  Ambrose  refuted 
Bonosus  and  the  followers  of  Jovinian  ;  Jerome  poured  a  torrent 
of  the  bitterest  invective  upon  Helvidius,  Jovinian,  Vigilantius  ; 
Augustine  alone  showed  a  more  becoming  spirit  in  opposing  the 
tendencies  of  Jovinian,  which  in  their  ultimate  conclusions 
pointed  in  the  same  direction  as  his  own  views  about  the  doctrine 
of  grace 

5  63.  SCHISMS. 

The  Novation  and  the  Meletian  (Egyptian)  schisms  (§  38,  3,  4) 
continued  even  at  this  period.  In  connection  with  the  Arian 
controversy  three  other  schisms  occurred  in  the  orthodox  Church, 
among  which  the  Meletian  schism  in  Antioch  was  the  most  im- 
portant. But  by  far  the  most  extensive  and  dangerous  was  the 
Donatist  schism  in  Northern  Africa.  On  the  Johnite  schism  in 
Constantinople,  comp.  §  51,  3.  During  this  period  the  frequent 
divergences  in  doctrine  (§  50,  7),  government  (§  46),  worship 
(§  55),  and  discipline  between  the  Eastern  and  the  Western 
Church,  proved  fuel  for  the  subsequent  conflagration  (§  67). 
Thus  the  imperial  device  for  bringing  about  a  union  between 
those  who  took  different  sides  in  the  Monophysite  controversy 
led  to  a  schism  between  the  East  and  the  West,  which  lasted  for 


244        SECTION     I.  —  SECOND     PERIOD    (:!23— 692  A.  D .)  . 

thirty-five  years  (§  52,  5) ;  while  want  of  firmness  on  the  part  ot 
Pope  Vigilius  divided  the  West  for  fifty  years  into  two  parties 
(§52,  6).  The  schism  between  the  East  and  the  West,  occa- 
sioned by  the  Monothelete  union  (§  52,  8),  was  not  of  long  con- 
tinuance. But  soon  afterwards  the  great  schism  between  the 
Eastern  and  Western  Churches  commenced.  The  fifth  and  the 
sixth  (Ecumenical  Councils  had  not  entered  on  questions  con- 
nected with  church  government,  worship,  or  discipline.  This 
omission  was  supplied  by  the  Second  Trullan  Council,  held  at 
Constantinople  in  692,  which  on  that  account  was  called  the  Con- 
cilium quinise.xtum.  Some  of  the  canons  of  this  Synod  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  later  incurable  and  pernicious  disruption  in  the 
Catholic  Church. 

1.  Schisms  in  Consequence  of  the  Avian  Controversy.  I.  The  Meletian 
Schism  at  Antioch  (361-413).  —  In  360  the  Arians  of  Antioch  chose 
Mehlius  of  Sebaste,  formerly  an  Eusebian,  but  afterwards  an  adherent 
of  the  Nicene  Confession,  their  bishop.  But  his  inaugural  discourse 
convinced  them  of  their  mistake  about  his  views,  and  they  deposed  him 
after  the  lapse  of  only  a  few  days.  Meletius  was  next  chosen  bishop 
of  the  homoousian  congregation  at  Antioch.  The  appointment  of  one 
who  had  been  an  Arian  was,  however,  resisted  by  a  part  of  the  people, 
headed  by  Paulinus,  a  presbyter.  Athanasius  and  the  Synod  of 
Alexandria,  a.  d.  362  (§  50,  4),  used  every  influence  to  heal  this  schism. 
But  Lucifer  of  Calaris,  whom  the  Synod  for  this  purpose  deputed  to 
Antioch,  took  the  part  of  the  opposition,  and  ordained  Paulinus  counter- 
bishop.  The  schism  was  only  healed  when,  in  413,  Alexander,  the 
Meletian  bishop,  an  excellent  man,  resigned  of  his  own  accord,  in  order 
to  restore  harmony.  —  II.  On  his  return  to  Alexandria,  Lucifer  pro- 
tested against  any  recognition  of  those  Arians  and  semi-Arians  who 
had  renounced  their  errors.  He  founded  a  sect  called  the  Luciferites, 
which  entertained  the  views  about  ecclesiastical  purity  formerly  ad- 
vocated by  Novatian.  The  party  continued  till  the  fifth  century. 
(Comp.  Hieronym.  dial.  adv.  Luciferit.  —  III.).  The  schism  of  Dama- 
sus  and  Ursinus  at  Rome  was  occasioned  by  the  unfaithfulness  of 
Liberals,  Bishop  of  Rome  (§  50,  2,  3),  in  consequence  of  whose  conduct 
a  small  number  .of  steady  adherents  of  the  Nicene  Creed  at  Rome 
separated  from  the  Church.  At  the  death  of  Liberius  (306),  they  chose 
Ursinus  as  his  successor;  while  the  other  party  elected  Damasus.  The 
latter  laid  siege  to  the  church  of  Ursinus,  and  137  dead  bodies  covered 
its  precincts  before  it  could  be  taken.  Valentinian  1.  banished  Ursinus; 
and  Gratian  even  published  an  edict  which  constituted  Damasus  both 
a  party  and  a  judge,  in  adjudicating  upon  all  the  bishops  implicated 
in  this  schism. 


schisms.  245 

2.  The  Donatist  Schism  (311-415).— (Comp.  F.  RibbecJc,  Donatus  u. 
Aug.  Elberf.  1858).  —  Montanist  views  were  still  widely  entertained  in 
North  Africa.     Accordingly,  when  the  Diocletian   persecution  broke 
out,  many  came  forward,  needlessly  and  of  their  own  accord,  to  seek 
the  honour  of  martyrdom.    Mensurius,  Bishop  of  Carthage,  and  Ccecili- 
ann.s,  his  archdeacon,  were  opposed  to  this  species  of  fanaticism.    When 
asked  to  deliver  up  the  sacred  writings,  they  had  in  their  stead  handed 
to  the  magistrates  some  heretical   tractates.     This   sufficed   for  their 
opponents  to  denounce  them  as  traditores.     When  Mensurius  died  in 
311,  his  party  chose  Caecilian  his  successor,  and,  to  foil  the  intrigues 
of  their  opponents,  had  him  hurriedly  consecrated  by  Felix,  Bishop  of 
Aptunga.     Nothing  daunted,  the  other  party,  which  was  headed  by 
Lucilla,  a  wealthy  and  bigoted  widow,  denounced  Felix  as  a  traditor, 
and  on  that  ground   declared  the   consecration   invalid,  and  elected 
Majorinus,  a  lector,  counter-bishop.     Soon    afterwards    (in  313)    this 
office  devolved  on  Donatus,  whom  his  adherents  have  called  the  Great, 
—  a  man  of  undoubted  energy.     From  Carthage  the  schism  gradually 
spread  over  North  Africa.     The  peasants,  who  were  burdened  with 
excessive  taxation  and  heavy  socage,  took  the  part  of  the  Donatists. 
From  the  first,  Constantine  the  Great  declared  against  the  Donatists. 
To  their  complaints  the  Emperor  replied  by  committing  the  investiga- 
tion of  this  controversy  both  to  a  clerical  commission  at  Rome  (313), 
under  the  presidency  of  Melchiades,  Bishop  of  that  see,   and  to  the 
Synod  of  Aries  (314).     The  decision  of  these  two  bodies  was  equally 
unfavourable  to  the  Donatists,  who  appealed  from  them  to  the  Emperor 
personally.     The  case  was  heard  at  Milan,  after  which   Constantine 
confirmed   the   finding   0f    the    Synod    (310).     These   decisions   were 
followed  by  severe  measures  (such  as  depriving  them  of  churches), 
which,  however,  only  served  to  increase  their  fanaticism.    Milder  means 
proved  equally  ineffectual.     Under  the  reign  of  Constans  affairs  took  a 
more  serious  turn.     Fanatical  ascetics,  belonging  to  the  dregs  of  the 
population,  took  the  name  of  "  milites  Christi,"  "Agonistici,"  and  went 
begging  about  the  country  [circumcettiones),  exciting  the  peasants  to 
revolt,    preaching   liberty   and    fraternity,    and    committing   pillage, 
murder,  and  incendiarism.     The  religious  movement  had  now  assumed 
the  appearance  of  a  political  rising.     While  an  imperial  army  sup- 
pressed this  rebellion,  pecuniary  relief  from  the  imperial  treasury  was 
offered  to  those  Donatists  who  were  suffering  from  extreme  want.    But 
Donatus  rejected  the  money  with  scorn,  and  the  rebellion  broke  out 
anew.     Very  severe  measures  were  then  adopted  against  the  rebels, 
and  every  Donatist  church  was  closed  or  taken  away.     Under  the  rei<m 
of  Julian,  these  churches  were  restored  to  their  former  owners,  and  the 
bishops  who  had  been  banished  were  recalled.     The  Donatists  were 
now  allowed  to  retaliate,  as  opportunity  offered,  upon  the  Catholics. 
But  the  successors  of  Julian  again  enacted  severe  laws  against  the 
sectaries,    who   had   meantime    split   into   several   parties.     Oulatus 
21  *  ' 


246         SECTION    I.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

Bishop  of  Mileve,  wrote  against  them,  towards  the  close  of  the  fourth 
century,  a  tractate:  De  schismate  Donatistarum.  After  a.  400,  Augus- 
tine was  indefatigable  in  his  endeavours  to  heal  this  schism,  and  the 
Donatists  were  invited  to  return  into  the  Church  on  very  gentle  terms. 
The  circumstance  that  many  of  the  more  moderate  closed  with  these 
overtures,  only  increased  the  fanaticism  of  the  others.  They  refused 
the  repeated  offer  of  Augustine  to  meet  them  in  public  discussion.  At 
first  Augustine  had  maintained  that  any  constraint  in  matters  of  belief 
was  improper.  But  their  unyielding  stubbornness,  and  the  dangerous 
tendency  of  their  fanaticism,  at  last  induced  him  so  far  to  modify  his 
opinion  about  the  unlawfulness  of  constraint  in  matters  of  belief,  as  to 
declare  that  even  force  might  be  employed  to  restore  these  wanderers 
to  the  Church  and  to  salvation  ("cogite  intrare."  Luke  xiv.  23).  A 
synod,  held  at  Carthage  in  405,  applied  to  the  Emperor  Honorivs  to 
take  measures  against  those  who  continued  their  obstinate  resistance. 
Accordingly,  lines  were  imposed,  churches  taken  away,  and  clergymen 
exiled.  As  Augustine  still  insisted  on  a  public  discussion,  the  Donatists 
were  obliged  by  the  Emperor  to  accede.  The  Collatio  cum  Donatistis, 
held  at  Carthage  in  411,  lasted  for  three  days,  and  was  attended  by 
279  Donatist  and  28G  Catholic  bishops.  It  was  chiefly  conducted  by 
Pctilian  and  Primian,  who  were  opposed  by  Augustine  and  by  Aurelian 
of  Carthage.  The  imperial  commissioners  assigned  the  palm  to  the 
Catholic  party.  The  Donatists  appealed  in  vain.  In  414  the  Emperor 
deprived  them  of  their  civil  rights,  and  in  415  forbade  their  religious 
meetings  under  pain  of  death.  The  Vandals,  who  conquered  Africa 
in  429,  equally  persecuted  Catholics  and  Donatists.  Their  common 
Bufferings  tended  to  bring  the  two  parties  again  together.  —  The  Dona- 
tists laid  it  down  as  a  fundamental  principle,  that  a  sacramental  action 
(such  as  baptism  or  ordination)  was  invalid  if  performod  by  a  person 
who  either  was,  or  deserved  to  be,  excommunicated.  Like  the  Nova- 
tians,  they  insisted  on  absolute  purity  in  the  Church,  although  they 
allowed  that  penitents  might  be  readmitted  to  the  communion  of  the 
Church.  Their  own  churches  they  regarded  as  pure,  while  they  de- 
nounced the  Catholics  as  schismatics,  who  had  no  fellowship  with 
Christ,  and  whose  sacraments  were  therefore  invalid  and  nail.  On 
this  ground,  they  rebaptized  their  proselytes.  The  part  which  the 
State  took  against  them,  and  the  prevailing  confusion  between  the 
visible  and  the  invisible  Church,  led  them  to  broach  the  view  that 
State  and  Church  —  the  kingdom  of  God  and  that  of  the  world  —  had 
nothing  in  common,  and  that  the  State  should  not  in  any  way  take 
notice  of  religious  questions.     (Cf.  Walch,  V.  IV. —  Ilcfele,  V.  I.). 

3.  As  the  Concilium  Qninwextum  in  G92  was  intended  to  be  oecu- 
menical, the  Pope  sent  legates  to  it,  who  signed  its  decrees.  But  the 
Greeks  had  not  forgotten  the  success  achieved  at  the  last  oecumenical 
council  by  the  see  of  Rome  (§  52,  8).  On  this  ground  six  decrees, 
diametrically  opposed  to  the  practice  of  Rome,  were  introduced,  along 


CHRISTIAN     MISSIONS     IN     THE     EAST.  247 

with  a  number  of  others  against  which  no  objection  could  be  raised 
Thus,  1)  In  enumerating  the  authentic  sources  of  church  law,  almost 
all  the  Latin  councils  and  the  decretals  of  the  popes  were  omitted. 
The  validity  of  all  the  eighty-five  canones  apost.  was  also  acknow- 
ledged, while  the  see  of  Rome  only  admitted  that  of  the  first  fifty  ;  — 
2)  The  Romish  practice  of  insisting  on  the  celibacy  of  presbyters  and 
deacons  was  denounced  as  unwarrantable  and  inhuman.  Comp.  \  45, 
4:  —  3)  Fasting  on  Saturdays  during  Quadragesima  was  prohibited. 
Comp.  |  56,  4. — 4)  The  28th  canon  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  which 
settled  that  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  held  the  same  rank  with 
his  colleague  of  Rome,  was  re-enacted  (|  40)  ;  —  5)  The  Levitical  pro- 
hibition of  eating  blood  and  things  strangled  was  declared  to  apply  to 
Christians  also  (contrary  to  the  views  of  the  Church  of  Rome)  ; — 6) 
All  representations  of  Christ  under  the  figure  of  a  lamb  (which  were 
quite  common  in  the  West)  were  strictly  prohibited.  —  When  Pope 
Sergius  forbade  the  promulgation  of  these  decrees  in  the  churches  of 
the  AVest,  the  Emperor  Justinian  II.  commanded  to  seize  this  prelate, 
and  send  him  prisoner  to  Constantinople.  But  the  army  rebelled 
in  favour  of  the  Pope,  and  soon  afterwards  Justinian  himself  was 
dethroned  (695). 


VI.  THE  CHURCH  BEYOND  THE  BOUNDARIES  OF  THE 
ROMAN  EMPIRE. 

I  64.   CHRISTIAN  MISSIONS  IN   THE   EAST. 

During  this  period  missionary  work  was  almost  exclusively 
carried  on  by  the  Western  Church.  Its  practical  spirit  and  aims 
specially  fitted  it  for  such  labours,  while  the  contiguity  of  the 
barbarous  nations  which  invaded  the  empire  (§  76  etc.)  afforded 
ample  scope  and  opportunity  for  them.  On  the  other  hand, 
instances  of  regular  and  organized  missionary  activity  were  of 
rare  occurrence  in  the  East.  But  other  and  indirect  means  also 
offered  of  spreading  the  Gospel  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  especially  by  means  of  fugitive  Christians,  of  prisoners 
of  war,  of  political  embassies,  and  particularly  of  commercial 
intercourse  with  the  far  East  and  South.  The  anchorites, 
monks,  and  Stylites  who  had  settled  on  the  borders  of  the 
empire,  or  in  the  deserts  beyond  them,  frecpiently  produced  a 
deep  impression  on  the  barbarians  around,  who  flocked  to  see 
them,  and  listened  to  the  sermons  or  witnessed  the  deeds  of  these 
fantastic  saints. 


248        SECTION    I.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

1.  The  Ethiopic  Abyssinian  Church.  —  In  316  one  Meropius  of  Tyre, 
and  all  his  ship's  crew,  were  murdered  while  engaged  in  exploring  the 
countries  south  of  Egypt.  His  two  nephews,  Frumentius  and  Aedesins, 
alone  escaped  the  slaughter.  Having  gained  the  favour  of  the  Abys- 
sinian king,  they  were  entrusted  with  the  education  of  Aizanas,  the 
heir  to  the  crown.  Frumentius  was  afterwards  consecrated  by  Atha- 
nasius,  Bishop  of  those  countries.  Aizanas  was  baptized,  and  the 
church  rapidly  extended  from  Abyssinia  to  Ethiopia  and  Nubia.  The 
Bible  was  translated  (it  is  said  by  Frumentius)  into  the  vernacular  (the 
Geez).  This  community,  like  its  mother-church  in  Egypt,  adopted 
Monophysite  views  (g  52,  7).  Many  Jewish  and  former  customs  of  the 
country  were  retained,  such  as  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath  along 
with  that  of  the  Lord's  day,  the  prohibition  of  certain  kinds  of  meat, 
and  circumcision  —  even  in  the  case  of  females. 

2.  The  Persian  Church.  —  In  Persia  the  Gospel  had  struck  root  in 
the  third  century.    During  the  fourth  century  and  after  it,  the  Church 
was  exposed  to  protracted  and  terrible  persecutions,  which  continued 
partly  through  the  intrigues  of  the  fanatical  Magi,  and  partly  in  con- 
sequence of  the  wars  between  Persia  and  the  Roman  Empire,  which, 
as  being  waged  against  a  Christian  power,  entailed  on   the  native 
Christians  suspicions  of  secret  sympathy  with  the  enemy.     The  first 
great  persecution  took  place  under  the  reign  of  Shapur  ( Sapores)  II. 
in  343.     It  lasted  fur  thirty-five  years,  during  which  it  is  said  no  less 
than  10,000  priests,  monks,  and  nuns  were  executed,  while  the  number 
of  martyrs  among  the  laity  exceeded  all  computation.     This  persecu- 
tion ceased  only  a  short  time  before  the  death  of  Shapur,  when  that 
monarch  proclaimed  general  toleration.    During  a  period  of  forty  years 
rest,  the  Persian  Church  began  to  flourish  anew,  when  the  fanatical 
zeal  of  Abdas,  Bishop  of  Susa,  who  ordered  a  heathen  temple  to  be 
pulled  down   (in  418)  occasioned  a  fresh  persecution,  which   attained 
its  highest  pitch  under  the  reign  of  Behram  V.  (Varanes),  (since  420). 
For  thirty  years  the  most  cruel  modes  of  death  were  devised  against 
Christians.    At  last  the  generous  conduct  of  Acacius,  Bishop  of  Amida 
in  Mesopotamia,  who  disposed  of  the  property  of  his  church,  and  with 
the  money  redeemed  a  number  of  Persian  prisoners  of  war,  whom  he 
sent  back  to  their  own  country,  induced  the  king  to  put  a  stop  to  this 
persecution.     When   the  Nestorians  were    expelled    from  the  Roman 
Empire  they  found  protection  and   toleration  in   Persia;  but  in  465, 
under  the  reign   of  King  Firm   (Pherozes),    they  instigated  another 
persecution  against  the  Catholics.     In  498  the  whole  Persian  Church 
declared   in    favour  of  Nestorianism   (?  52,  3).     From  that  period  it 
enjoyed  rest,  and  for  centuries  flourished,  giving  proof  of  its  vigour 
both  by  learned  labours  (the  School  of  Nisibis)   and  by  successful 
missionary  exertions  among  the  tribes  of  Asia.     Meantime  the  wars 
with    the    Byzantines    continued;    and    in    016    Cosru    11.    (Chosroes) 
penetrated  as  far  as  Chalcedon,  committing  fresh  cruelties  against  tho 


CHRISTIAN     MISSIONS     IN     THE     EAST.  249 

(Cath.)  Christians  who  inhabited  the  conquered  provinces.  At  last 
the  Emperor  Heradius  took  courage  and  met  his  foe.  In  628  the 
Persians  were  totally  routed  (g  57,  5),  and  in  051  the  Khalifs  took 
possession  of  Persia. 

3.   The  Armenian    Church.  —  As  early  as  the  time   of  Tertullian, 
flourishing  communities  of  Christians  existed  in  Armenia.     But  Twi- 
ddles III.  (since  286)  violently  persecuted  these  Christians.    Under  his 
reign  the  Apostle  of  Armenia,  Gregorins  Illuminator,  the  son  of  a 
Parthian   prince,  carried  on  his  labours  with  much  success.     When 
only  two  years  of  age,  his  nurse  had  rescued  him  from  the  destruction 
inflicted  upon  all  his  kindred.     Subsequently  he  had  been  carried  to 
Cappadocia,  where  he  was  educated  a  Christian.    Gregory  even  gained 
the  king  himself,  and  made  the  whole  country  professedly  Christian. 
At  his  death,  the  Church  which  he  had  founded  enjoyed  a  state  of 
great  prosperity.     He  was  successively  followed   in   the  patriarchal 
office  by  his  grandson  Hvsiy,  his  great-grandson  Nerses,  and  by  Isaac 
the  Great,  a  still  later  descendant,  whose  administration  fell  in  troublous 
times,  when  the  Byzantine,  the  Persian,  and  other  princes  contended 
for   the   possession   of  the   country.     St.  Mesrop,   the   colleague   and 
(from  440)  the  successor  of  Isaac,  constructed  an  Armenian  alphabet, 
am1  Translated  the  Bible  into  the  vernacular.     Undes  the  patriarchate 
of  his  successor  Joseph,  the  famous  religious  war  with  Persia  broke 
out,   for   the    purpose    of  obliging    the   Armenians  to   return  to  the 
religion  of  Zoroaster.    The  bloody  battle  fought  by  the  river  Dechmud, 
in  451,  terminated  in  favour  of  the  Persians.     The  Armenians,  how- 
ever, maintained  their  profession  of  Christianity,  despite  the  persecu- 
tions to  which  they  were  exposed.     In  651  this  country  also  became 
subject  to  the  rule  of  the  Khalifs.  —  The  Armenian  Church  remained 
free  from  Nestorian  errors ;  but  it  adopted  Monophysite  tenets,  which 
were  imported  from  that  portion  of  Armenia  which  was  under  Byzan- 
tine   sway.     At  a  synod   held   at  Feyin   in   527,    the    Confession    of 
Chalcedon  was  rejected.—  Gregory  had  awakened  in  Armenia  a  desire 
for  literary  and  scientific  pursuits,   and  when  Mesrop  furnished  an 
alphabet,  the  golden  age  of  Armenian  literature  commenced  (in  the 
fifth  century).     Almost  all  the  classics  and  the  Greek  and   Syriiin 
Fathers  were  translated  into  Armenian,  and  numerous  original  authors 
inaugurated  a  native  literature.     Thus  Agathangelos  wrote  the  history 
of  the   conversion   of  Armenia ;    Moses  of  Chorene,   a  history  of  his 
country;  Esniy,  an  able  controversial  tractate  ("the  Destruction  of 
the  Heretics")   directed   against  the  heathen,  the  Persians,  the  Mar- 
cionites,  the  Manicheans,  etc. 

4.  The  Iberians  (who  inhabited  what  is  now  called  Georgia  and 
Grusia)  received  the  Gospel  through  the  instrumentality  of  Nunia,  an 
Armenian  female  slave,  by  whose  prayers  some  marvellous  cures  had 
been  performed.     From  Iberia  the  truth  spread  among  the  Lazians  (a 


250        SECTION    I. —  SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

tribe  inhabiting  the  modern  Colchis),  and  to  their  neighbours  the  Abas- 
gians.  Even  in  the  East  Indies,  Theophilus  of  Phi  (an  island  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Arabian  Gulf)  found  isolated  Christian  churches  so 
early  as  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century.  Sent  by  his  fellow-citizens 
as  a  hostage  to  Constantinople,  he  was  there  educated  an  Arian  priest. 
When  afterwards  he  returned  to  his  own  country,  he  successfully  la- 
boured as  a  missionary  in  the  East  Indies.  From  Persia,  Nestorianism 
spread  in  the  Indian  Church  (g  52,  3).  In  the  sixth  century.  Cosmas 
Indicopleustes  still  found  three  Christian  congregations  in  the  East 
Indies.  The  labours  of  Theophilus  extended  also  to  Arabia,  where, 
through  his  preaching,  the  King  of  the  Eomerites,  in  Yemen,  became  a 
convert.  But  when,  in  the  sixth  century,  Dhu-Nowas  (Dunaan),  a 
Jew,  mounted  the  throne  of  Yemen,  a  fearful  persecution  of  Christians 
immediately  commenced.  At  last  Eleesban,  King  of  Abyssinia,  inter- 
posed to  put  a  stop  to  these  cruelties  ;  the  Jewish  ruler  was  killed,  and 
Christians  reigned  over  Yemen,  until  in  61G  Cosru  II.  made  it  a  pro- 
vince of  Persia.  Anchorites,  monks,  and  Stylites  laboured  successfully 
among  the  nomadic  tribes  of  Arabia. 


\  65.  THE  MOHAMMEDAN  COUNTER-MISSIONS. 

Comp.  G.  Weil,  Mohammed  d.  Prophet,  Leben  u.  Lehre  (Life  and 
Teach,  of  Moh.  the  Proph.).  Stuttg.  1843.—/.  Pollinger,  Moham.  Reli- 
gion nach  ihr.  innern  Entw.  u.  ihr.  Einfl.  auf  d.  Leben  d.  Volker  (The 
Relig.  of  Mob.  in  its  Intern.  Develop,  and  External  Infl.  on  the  Na- 
tions). Regensb.  1838.  —  A.  Mbhler,  d.  Verh.  d.  Islam  zum  Christth. 
(Rel.  between  Isl.  and  Christ.)  Regensb.  1839.— IF.  Irving,  Mahomed. 
—Prideaux,  Life  of  Mahomet.— Sale,  Koran.— Forster,  Mahometanism 
Unveiled. — /.  v.  Hammer- Par ■gstall,  Mah.  d.  Prophet, 

In  611,  Abul  Kasem  Mohammed  of  Mecca  laid  claim  to  the 
office  of  a  prophet,  and  instituted  a  new  religion,  composed  of 
Jewish,  of  Christian,  and  of  Arab  heathen  elements,  in  which 
sensual  happiness  and  strict  Monotheism  were  sought  to  be  com- 
bined. His  labours,  however,  only  acquired  importance  after  he 
had  been  obliged  to  flee  from  Mecca  to  Yaljreb  (Medina)  —  the 
Heirah,  15th  July  622.  In  630  lie  took  Mecca,  consecrated  the 
old  heathen  Caaba  as  the  great  temple  for  the  new  religion 
(Inlam,  hence  Modem),  and  composed  the  Korctn,  consisting  of 
114  Suras,  which  Abu-Bekr,  his  father-in-law,  collected.  Before 
he  died,  all  Arabia  had  adopted  his  creed,  and  was  subject  to 
his  sway.  As  he  persuaded  his  adherents  that  the  spread  of 
their  new  religion  by  force  of  arms  was  the  most  sacred  duty, 
and  inspired  them  with  wild  enthusiasm,  his  successors  were  able 


MOHAMMEDAN     COUNTER- MISSIONS.  251 

to  take  one  province  after  another  from  the  empire,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  introduce  Mohammedanism  in  place  of  Christianity. 
Within  a  short  period  (633-G51)  Syria,  Palestine,  Egypt,  and 
Persia  were  conquered  ;  North  Africa  in  107  ;  and,  lastly,  Spain 
in  711.  But  the  farther  progress  of  the  Infidels  was  in  the  mean 
time  arrested.  Twice  they  laid  siege  to  Constantinople  (669- 
676  and  717-718)  without  success;  while  the  victory  which 
Charles  Martell  gained  over  them  at  Tours  (in  732)  effectually 
arrested  their  march  westwards.  Their  influence  had,  however, 
operated  most  detrimentally  upon  the  Church  in  Asia,  and  the 
three  patriarchal  sees  of  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem 
were  completely  subject  to  their  will.  Although  Christians  were 
allowed  to  reside  in  the  conquered  provinces  on  payment  of  a 
capitation-tax,  fear  and  the  desire  after  the  worldly  advantages 
held  out  by  a  change  of  faith,  gained  for  Islamism  a  large  num- 
ber of  proselytes. 

1.  Rigid  Monotheism  constitutes  the  fundamental  idea  of  Islamism. 
Abraham,  Moses,  and  Jesus  were  considered  divinely-commissioned 
prophets ;  Mohammed,  the  last  and  greatest  of  prophets,  whom  both 
Moses  and  Christ  had  predicted,  was  commissioned  to  restore  to  pristine 
purity  their  doctrine,  which  both  the  Jews  and  the  Christians  had  cor- 
rupted. At  the  end  of  time,  Christ  would  return,  destroy  Antichrist, 
and  establish  Islamism  as  the  universal  religion.  The  doctrines  of  the 
Trinity  and  of  the  Incarnation  were  included  among  the  alleged  per- 
versions of  the  teaching  of  Jesus.  Special  stress  was  laid  on  the  doc- 
trine of  Divine  providence,  which  was  prominently  brought  forward, 
and  distorted  into  the  most  extreme  fatalism.  The  Moslem  required 
not  an  atonement ;  belief  in  one  God,  and  in  Mohammed  as  His  pro- 
phet, was  sufficient  to  insure  the  Divine  favour,  while  good  works  would 
procure  an  inexhaustible  fulness  of  everlasting  happiness,  consisting  in 
the  highest  sensual  enjoyments.  In  its  constitution  Mohammedanism 
contemplated  a  kind  of  theocracy,  in  which  the  Prophet,  and  the  Kha- 
lifa, his  successors,  were  to  act  as  the  vicegerents  of  the  Deity  upon 
earth.  Hence  State  and  Church  were  regarded  as  absolutely  identical. 
The  rites  of  religion  consisted  of  prayers,  fasting,  and  ablutions.  Along 
with  the  Koran,  the  Sunna,  or  traditionary  sayings  of  the  Prophet,  are 
regarded  as  of  Divine  authority.  The  sect  of  the  Shiites  differs  from 
that  of  the  Sunnites,  in  that  the  former  recognize  not  the  authority  of 
the  first  three  Khalifs  and  of  the  traditional  sayings  of  the  Prophet 
handed  down  by  them.  The  Ssuji's  are  a  mystical  sect  which  origin- 
ated at  a  later  period.  The  Wechabites  (a  sect  dating  from  the  twelfth 
century)  form,  so  to  speak,  the  Puritans  of  Islamism. 


252         SECTION   I.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (323— 692  A.  D.). 

2.  Service  performed  by  Mohammedanism  in  the  Providence  of  God.^ 
Obviously  Islamism  was  the  instrument  of  judgment  upon  the  degene- 
rate polity  and  Church  of  the  East.     But  it  also  served  some  positive 
purpose,  which  appears  from  its  relation  to  heathenism.     It  was  the 
special  mission  of  Mohammedanism  to  put  an  end  to  idolatry  (Polythe- 
ism).    Neither  the  Prophet  nor  his  successors  tolerated  heathenism. 
Accordingly,  a  great  number  of  wild  tribes  in  Asia  and  Africa  were 
converted  from  the  most  degrading  and  demoralizing  idolatry  to  the 
worship  of  one  God,  and  raised  to  a  certain  stage  of  civilization  and 
moralitj',  which  they  would  have  been  unable  to  attain  if  left  to  them- 
selves.   As  they  were  thereby  brought  nearer  to  Christianity,  Moham- 
medanism proved,  in  its  own  way,  "  a  schoolmaster  to  Christ."     Per- 
haps its  rigid  Monotheism  may  also  have  been  intended  to  form  a  kind 
of  breakwater  against  both  African  Fetish-worship  and  Asiatic  Pan- 
theism.    But  Islamism  contains  the  germs  of  its  own  destruction.    Its 
confusion  of  religion  and  politics,  of  State  and  Church,  tends  to  fetter 
both,  and  thus  to  render  them  incapable  of  development,  renovation, 
or  transformation.     Herein  lay  the  strength,  herein  lies  also  the  weak- 
ness of  Islamism. 


THIRD    PERIOD 


OP 


ECCLESIASTICAL      HISTORY 

IN  ITS  ANCIENT  AND  CLASSICAL  FORM. 

FROM  THE   YEAR  692-1453. 

I.  MOVEMENTS  IN  THE  EASTERN  CHURCH  IN  CONJUNCTION  WITH 
SIMILAR  DEVELOPMENTS  IN  THE  WESTERN  CHURCH. 

g  66.  ICONOCLASTIC  CONTROVERSY  IN  THE  EAST  (726-842). 

Comp.  J.  Maimbourg  (a  Jesuit),  histoire  de  l'heresie  des  Iconoclastes. 
Par.  1679.  2  Voll.  12.  —  Fr.  Schlosser,  Gesch.  der  bilderstiirmendeu 
Kaiser  (Hist,  of  the  Iconod.  Emper.).  Frkf.  1812. — /.  Marx  (Rom. 
Cath.),  der  Bilderstreit  der  byzant.  Kaiser  (The  Iconocl.  Contr.  of  the 
Byz.  Emp.).  Trier  1839. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  eighth  century,  image-worship 
(§  57,  4)  had  attained  its  acme  in  the  East.  But  even  its  most 
zealous  advocates  were  obliged  to  admit  that  certain  abuses  were 
connected  with  it.  Tims,  for  example,  images  were  selected  to 
be  god-parents ;  part  of  the  colouring  with  which  they  had  been 
painted  was  scratched  off  and  mixed  with  the  sacramental  wine ; 
the  consecrated  bread  was  first  laid  upon  images,  that  so  the 
faithful  might  receive  from  the  hands  of  these  saints  the  body 
of  the  Lord,  etc.  Under  these  circumstances,  a  vigorous  empe- 
ror, whom  both  personal  feelings  and  political  considerations 
disposed  against  this  kind  of  Worship,  resolved  to  employ  all  the 
resources  which  a  strong  will  placed  at  his  disposal  to  put  a  stop 
to  this  widely-spread  idolatry.  The  contest  between  the  two 
opposing  parties  (the  slxovoxxdarai  and  the  sixovo'Kd* pat)  lasted  for 
more  than  a  century,  and  was  chiefly  carried  on  by  the  emperors 
and  the  army  on  the  one  side,  and  by  the  monks  and  the  people 
22  (253) 


254  SECTION    I THIRD    PERIOD    (692—1453  A.D.). 

on  the  other.  On  two  occasions  the  worship  of  images  was 
almost  entirely  and  forever  abolished  ;  but  both  times  was  it 
restored  by  an  empress. — The  Church  of  Borne  had  in  this  re- 
spect not  gone  so  far  as  that  of  the  East,  at  least  in  practice  ; 
but  in  theory  it  entertained  the  same  opinions,  and  in  the  contest 
between  the  two  parties  Rome  lent  the  whole  weight  of  its 
authority  to  those  who  upheld  image-worship.  On  the  views  of 
the  Frankish  Church  on  this  question,  comp.  §  92. 

1.  Leo  III.,  the  Isaurian  (717-741 ),  one  of  the  most  vigorous  of  Byzan- 
tine emperors,  having  in  718  repelled  the  attack  of"  the  Saracens  upon 
Constantinople,  deemed  it  necessary  to  adopt  further  measures  to  arrest 
the  spread  of  Mohammedanism.  The  worship  of  images,  which  Jews 
and  Moslems  equally  abhorred,  and  to  which  himself  was  opposed,  ap- 
peared to  him  one  of  the  principal  obstacles  to  the  conversion  of  the 
infidels.  Accordingly  he  issued  in  726  an  edict,  which,  in  the  first 
place,  only  ordained  that  the  images  should  be  placed  higher  up  on  the 
walls  of  churches,  in  order  to  prevent  the  people  from  kissing  them. 
But  all  peaceable  measures  against  this  favourite  mode  of  worship  were 
frustrated  by  the  determined  resistance  which  the  aged  Germanus,  Pa- 
triarch of  Constantinople,  the  populace  and  the  monks  offered.  In 
Palestine,  where,  under  the  protection  of  the  Saracens,  he  could  defy 
the  vengeance  of  the  Emperor,  Johannes  Damascenus,  the  ablest  theolo- 
gian of  that  age,  published  three  tractates,  in  which  he  defended  in 
enthusiastic  terms  the  worship  of  images.  Amidst  the  popular  excite- 
ment caused  by  this  controversy,  one  Cosmas  got  himself  proclaimed 
Emperor,  and  advanced  with  a  fleet  against  Constantinople.  But  Leo 
defeated  and  executed  his  rival;  and  in  a  second  edict  (of  date  730) 
ordered  the  entire  removal  of  images  from  every  church.  The  military 
who  were  charged  with  the  execution  of  this  ordinance  were  guilty  of 
many  fanatical  excesses,  and  the  popular  tumults  excited  by  these 
measures  were  not  quelled  without  much  bloodshed.  At  Rome,  how- 
ever, the  Emperor  was  powerless.  In  his  letters,  Pope  Gregory  II  spoko 
of  him  as  if  he  had  been  a  silly  school-boy;  while,  in  a  synod  held 
at  Home  in  732,  Gregory  III.  pronounced  an  anathema  against  all  oppo- 
nents of  image-worship.  The  fleet  which  the  Emperor  had  collected, 
with  a  view  of  chastising  the  bold  prelate,  was  destroyed  by  a  storm. 
Leo  avenged  himself  by  depriving  the  Pope  of  the  revenues  which  he 
derived  from  Lower  Italy,  and  by  taking  Illyria  from  the  see  of  Rome 
and  assigning  it  to  that  of  Constantinople. 

2.  Constantinus  V.  (741-775),  the  son  and  successor  of  Leo,  whom 
the  monks  in  their  hatred  nicknamed  Copronymus  and  Cdballinus,  a 
ruler  mid  general  as  distinguished  as  his  father,  was,  if  possible,  even 
mure  firmly  resolved  to  put  down  the  worship  of  images.    He  defeated 

Artabasdus,  his  brother-in-law,  who,  with  the  assistance  of  the  party 


ICONOCLASTIC  CONTROVERSY,         255 

of  image-worshippers,  had  raised  the  standard  of  revolt,  severely  chas- 
tised and  deprived  him  of  his  eyes.  As  the  popular  tumults  still  con- 
tinued, an  (ecumenical  Synod  was  summoned  to  give  ecclesiastical  sanc- 
tion to  the  principles  of  the  Emperor.  Accordingly,  about  350  bishops 
assembled  at  Constantinople  (754).  But  this  Synod  was  not  attended 
by  a  single  patriarch,  since  the  see  of  Constantinople  happened  to  be 
vacant  at  the  time,  and  Home,  which  had  anathematized  all  opponents 
of  images,  refused  to  send  legates  ;  while  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Je- 
rusalem were  under  the  domination  of  the  Saracens.  The  Council 
excommunicated  those  who  made  any  image  of  Christ,  declaring  that 
the  Eucharist  was  the  only  true  image  of  Christ,  and  pronounced  the 
most  sweeping  condemnation  against  every  kind  of  reverence  paid  to 
images.  These  decrees  were  mercilessly  enforced,  and  deeds  of  the  most 
cruel  violence  enacted.  Thousands  of  monks  were  scourged,  incarce- 
rated, transported,  driven  round  the  circus  for  the  amusement  of  the 
populace  with  nuns  in  their  arms,  or  obliged  to  marry ;  many  had  their 
eyes  put  out,  their  ears  or  noses  cut  off,  and  monasteries  were  converted 
into  barracks  or  stables.  Images  of  saints  were  not  even  tolerated  in  private 
houses.  Stephen  II.  of  Rome  protested  against  the  decrees  of  the  Council, 
and  Stephen  III.  issued  a  dreadful  anathema  against  all  opponents  of 
images  (in  a  Lateran  synod,  a.d.  7G9).  But  in  the  Byzantine  Empire 
both  monasticism  and  image-worship  were  almost  extirpated. 

3.  Leo  IV.  Chazarus  (775-780),  the  son  of  Constantine,  shared  the 
views  of  his  father,  but  wanted  his  energy.  His  consort  Irene  was, 
however,  a  zealous  image-worshipper.  When  Leo  discovered  this,  he 
would  have  taken  energetic  measures,  but  a  sudden  death  arrested  his 
interference.  Irene  now  made  full  use  of  the  opportunity  afforded  by 
the  minority  of  Constantine  VI.,  her  son,  to  restore  image-worship. 
She  convoked  another  Council  at  Constantinople  (786),  which  was 
attended  by  deputies  from  Pope  Hadrian  I.  (the  other. patriarchs,  who 
were  under  Saracen  dominion,  ventured  not  to  take  part  in  its  delibera- 
tions). But  the  Imperial  Guard  broke  into  their  place  of  meeting,  and 
dispersed  the  Council.  The  following  year  (787),  Irene  convoked  at 
Nice  another,  the  Seventh  (Ecumenical  Council.  Its  eighth  and  last 
meeting  was  held  in  the  Imperial  Palace  at  Constantinople,  —  the  Im- 
perial Guard  having,  in  the  meantime,  been  removed  from  the  capital. 
The  Council  annulled  the  decrees  of  754,  sanctioned  reverence  to  im- 
ages, inasmuch  as  prostration  or  inclination  before  pictures  was  to  be 
regarded  as  a  token  of  love  and  respect  due  to  the  original,  and  not  to 
be  confounded  with  that  adoration  (laroeia)  which  was  due  to  God 
alone. 

4  The  emperors  who  now  succeeded  shared  these  views.  But  as 
victory  attended  not  their  arms,  the  army,  which  still  held  opposite 
sentiments,  proclaimed  their  general  Leo  V.,  the  Armenian  (813-820), 
Emperor.    This  ruler,  though  a  decided  enemy  of  image-worship,  would 


256         SECTION    I.  —  THIRD    PERIOD    (692— 1453  A.  D.). 

still  have  adopted  moderate  and  cautious  measures,  but  was  baffled  hj 
the  soldiers,  who  gave  full  reins  to  their  fanaticism.     The  party  which 
advocated  image-worship  was  led  by  Theodorus  Studita,  Abbot  of  the 
Monastery  of  Studion,  a  man  of  unfeigned  piety  and  invincible  firmness, 
the  ablest  and  most  ingenious  defender  of  these  sentiments,  who  even 
in  exile  was  indefatigable  in  promoting  the  cause  he  had  at  heart  (ob. 
826).     Leo  was  killed  by  conspirators.     Michael  II.  Balbus  (820-829), 
his  successor,  at  least  allowed  the  worship  of  images  in  private.     But 
Theophilus,  his  son  (829-842),  made  it  the  aim  of  his  life  wholly  to 
extirpate   all   such   practices.     Once  more  a  woman,   Theodora,   the 
Dowager  Empress,  who,  after  the  death  of  Theophilus,  and  during  the 
minority  of  his  son,  administered  the  government,  convoked  a  synod  at 
Constantinople  (842),  which  again  introduced  the  worship  of  images 
into  churches.     Since  that  period,  opposition  to  this  practice  gradually 
ceased  in  the  Eastern  Church,  and  the  day  on  which  the  Synod  of  842 
had  enacted  the  decree  in  its  favour  (the  19th  Feb.)  has  since  been 
celebrated  as  the  "Feast  of  Orthodoxy." 

§07.    SCHISM    BETWEEN    THE    GREEK   AND   THE   ROMAN 
CHURCH,    AND   ATTEMPTS   AT   UNION    (857-1435). 

Comp.  Leo  Allatins,  de  eccl.  occid.  et  orient,  perpetua  consensione. 
Colon.  1099.  4to.  (The  author,  who  was  a  Greek  convert  to  the  Romish 
Church,  died  1009.)  —  L.  Maimbourg  (a  Jesuit),  Hist,  du  schisme  des 
Grecs.  Par.  1077.  4to.  —  /.  G.  Pitzijrios,  l'egl.  Orientale,  expose  hist, 
de  sa  separation  et  de  sa  reunion  avec  cello  deRome.  4  Voll.  Par.  1855, 

At  the  second  Trullan  Council  in  692  the  first  steps  had  been 
taken  towards  the  Great  Schism,  which    divided   the  Christian 
world  into  two  parties  (§  63,  3)  ;  in  867  Photius  gave  it  a  dog- 
matic basis  by  condemning  certain  doctrines  promulgated  at  Rome, 
while  in  1053  Michael  Gerularius  completed  the  separation  betweei 
the  two  churches.     The  difficulties  and  dangers  which  increas- 
ingly beset  the  Byzantine  rulers  induced  them  to  make  frequent 
attempts  to  bring  about  a  union.     But  the  negotiations  which 
ensued  either  were  unsuccessful,  or  the  proposed  union,  though 
agreed  upon  in  words,  was  not  carried  into  execution.     These 
fruitless  endeavours  only  ceased  when  the  Byzantine  Empire  fell 
not  to  rise  again  (a.d.  1453).     The  obstacles  in  the  way  of  heal- 
ing this  schism  consisted   not   in  any  importance  attaching  to 
diversity  of  ceremonial  observances,  which  might,  as  at  previous 
periods,  have  continued  without  interrupting  ecclesiastical  fellow 
ship,  nor   even   in   differences  of  doctrine  (with  regard  to   the 
expression  "filioque,"  §50,  6),  which  might  easily  have   been 


SCHISM    OF    GREEK   AND   ROMAN    CHURCHES.      257 

removed.  The  real  difficulty  lay  in  the  claim  to  primacy  in 
the  Church,  set  up  by  the  see  of  Rome,  and  which  the  Greeks 
could  only  resist  by  separating  from  all  fellowship  with  the 
Papacy. 

1.  Commencement  of  the  Schism  (8G7.) — (H.  hammer,  P.  Nikol.  I.  u 
d.  byzant.  Staatskirche  sr.  Zeit.  Berl.  1857.)  —  During  the  minority  of 
Michael  III.,  surnamed  the  Drunkard,  the  son  of  Theodora  ($  9G,  4), 
the  government  was  administered  by  Bardas,  the  uncle  of  that  prince 
(and  brother  of  the  Empress).  Ignatius,  who  at  the  time  was  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  and  himself  a  descendant  of  the  imperial  family,  had 
sharply  censured  the  dissoluteness  of  the  court,  and  in  857  even  refused 
to  admit  to  the  communion  the  all-powerful  Bardas,  who  lived  in  inces- 
tuous union  with  his  daughter-in-law.  For  this  oifence  the  prelate  was 
deposed  and  exiled.  Photius,  the  most  learned  man  of  his  age,  and 
hitherto  Prefect  of  the  Imperial  Guard,  was  named  his  successor,  to  the 
intense  disgust  of  the  friends  of  Ignatius,  who  rejected  with  scorn  all 
advances  and  proposals  of  peace.  Photius  now  convened  (in  859)  a 
synod,  which  confirmed  the  deposition  of  Ignatius,  and  even  excommu- 
nicated him.  But  no  consideration  could  induce  this  prelate  to  forego 
his  claims.  Anxious  to  procure  in  his  own  favour  the  influential  ver- 
dict, Photius  gave  to  Pope  Nicholas  I.  a  false  representation  of  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  case,  at  the  same  time  intimating  his  accession,  and 
requesting  fraternal  acknowledgment  and  intercession.  The  pontiff 
replied  that  he  must  first  investigate  the  case  ;  and  for  this  purpose 
deputed  two  legates,  Bhodoald  of  Porto,  and  Zacharias  of  Anagni. 
Gained  by  bribes,  the  representatives  of  Rome  gave,  at  a  council  at  Con- 
stantinople (801),  their  consent  to  the  deposition  of  Ignatius.  But 
when  more  impartial  witnesses  informed  Nicholas  of  the  real  state  of 
matters,  he  excommunicated  his  own  legates,  and  declared  Ignatius 
rightful  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  The  opposition  thus  excited 
against  Rome  in  Constantinople  became  intense,  when  shortly  after- 
wards Bulgaria  renounced  allegiance  to  the  Byzantine  Church,  and 
owned  that  of  the  Pope  ($  72,  3).  Photius  sent  an  encyclical  letter  (in 
867)  inviting  the  patriarchs  of  the  East  to  a  council,  and  accusing  the 
Church  of  Rome  of  various  heresies:  such  as  its  ordinance  of  fasting 
on  Saturdays  ;  its  permission  of  the  use  of  milk,  of  butter,  and  of  cheese 
during  the  week  of  Quadragesima  ;  its  injunction  of  clerical  celibacy; 
its  refusal  to  acknowledge  the  validity  of  the  chrisma  if  administered 
by  presbyters;  and  its  introduction  of  the  expression  "filioque"  ($  50,6), 
which  implied  the  existence  of  two  supreme  principles,  and  hence  a 
dualism.  These  heresies,  it  was  asserted,  the  Pope  now  intended  to 
introduce  into  Bulgaria.  The  Council  convened  in  867.  Three  monks, 
who  were  prompted  by  Photius,  figured  as  the  representatives  of  the 
patriarchs  whose  sees  were  in  Saracen  countries.  The  Pope  was  excom- 
municated and  deposed,  and  this  sentence  intimated  to  the  Western 
22* 


253         SECTION    I. — THIRD    PERIOD    (692-1453  A.  D.). 

churches.  Such  measures  were  far  from  indifferent  to  the  Pope,  who 
vindicated  himself  before  the  Frankish  clergy,  and  called  upon  them 
to  rebut  the  charges  of  the  Greeks.  They  readily  complied.  Among 
the  tractates  written  on  that  side  of  the  question,  that  of  Ratramnus, 
a  monk  at  Corbey,  was  by  far  the  ablest.  But  the  aspect  of  affairs 
soon  changed.  The  same  year  in  which  the  synod  had  met  (867)  the 
Emperor  Michael  was  assassinated,  and  Basil  the  Macedonian,  his  mur- 
derer and  successor,  joined  the  party  of  Ignatius,  and  requested  Pope 
Hadrian  II.  to  institute  a  new  inquiry.  A  synod  held  at  Constantinople 
in  8(39  (called  by  the  Latins  the  eighth  (Ecumenical  Council)  condemned 
Photius  and  restored  Ignatius.  The  council  itself  pronounced  no  deci- 
sion about  Bulgaria,  but  submitted  the  claims  of  the  rival  sees  to  the 
pretended  representatives  of  the  Saracen  Patriarchs  as  impartial  arbiters. 
They  of  course  decided  in  favour  of  the  Byzantine  Patriarch,  and  all 
remonstrances  on  the  part  of  the  Popes  proved  fruitless.  In  his  adver- 
sity Photius  comported  himself  in  a  manner  which  commanded  general 
respect.  For  several  years  he  was  imprisoned  in  a  monastery,  deprived 
of  all  intercourse  with  others,  and  even  of  his  books.  Still  he  made 
his  peace  with  Ignatius.  Basil  entrusted  him  with  the  education  of 
his  children,  and  after  the  death  of  Ignatius  in  877  again  elevated  him 
to  the  see  of  Constantinople.  But  the  anathema  of  an  oecumenical 
council,  which  still  rested  upon  him,  could  only  be  removed  by  another 
oecumenical  council,  to  which  Pope  John  VIII.  acceded  on  obtaining 
promise  of  having  Bulgaria  restored  to  his  see.  But  at  the  Council  of 
Constantinople  in  879  (called  by  the  Greeks  the  eighth  Oecumenical)  the 
legates  of  the  Pope  were  completely  deceived.  The  question  about 
Bulgaria  was  not  even  mooted,  the  council  of  8G9  was  anathematized, 
and  a  ban  pronounced  against  those  who  should  venture  to  make  any 
addition  to  the  creed.  The  Pope  revenged  himself  by  anathematizing 
the  Patriarch,  his  council,  and  all  his  adherents.  Although  Leo  the 
Philosopher,  the  successor  of  Basil,  in  88G  deposed  Photius,  it  was  only 
in  order  to  give  the  sec  to  an  imperial  prince.  Photius  was  confined 
to  a  monastery,  where  died  in  891. 

2.  The  Emperor,  Leo  the  Philosopher,  had  been  thrice  married,  with- 
out having  any  issue.  His  fourth  wife  he  only  wedded  after  he  had 
convinced  himself  that  the  same  objection  attached  not  to  her.  The 
Patriarch,  Nicholas  Myslicus,  who  refused  to  consecrate  this  marriage 
($  61,  2),  was  deposed.  A  synod  held  at  Constantinople  in  906,  con- 
ducted under  the  direction  of  the  legates  of  Pope  Sergius  III.,  approved 
both  of  the  Emperor's  marriage  and  of  the  deposition  of  the  Patriarch. 
But,  on  liis  death-bed,  Leo  repented  this  arbitrary  measure;  Alexander, 
his  brother  and  successor,  restored  the  Patriarch  Nicholas;  and  Pope 
John  X.  consented  to  be  represented  at  a  synod  held  in  Constantinople, 
in  920,  when  the  resolutions  of  the  Council  of  906  were  condemned, 
and  a  fourth  marriage  declared  to  lie  unlawful.  But,  in  return  for  thib 
compliance,   the  synod  did  not  make   any  concessions  to  the  Pope. 


SCHISM   OF   GREEK   AND   ROMAN    CHURCHES.        259 

Emperor  Basil  II.  entered  upon  fresh  negotiations.  For  n  immense 
sum  of  money,  Pope  John  XIX  agreed,  in  1024,  to  acknowledge  the 
Bishop  of  Constantinople  as  oecumenical  Patriarch  of  the  East,  and  to 
yield  every  claim  of  the  Cathedra  Petri  upon  supremacy  over  the  East- 
ern Church.  But  the  transaction  became  known  before  it  was  com- 
pleted ;  the  West  resounded  with  denunciations  of  this  second  Judas 
of  Rome,  and  the  Pope  was  obliged  to  break  oif  the  treaty. 

3.  Completion  of  the  Schism  in  1054. — However  frequent  the  anathe- 
mas which  Rome  and  Byzantium  had  fulminated  against  each  other, 
they  had  only  been  directed  against  patriarchs,  popes,  bishops,  or  their 
adherents  as  individuals,  not  against  the  churches  which  they  repre- 
sented. But  matters  now  assumed  a  different  appearance.  At  that 
time,  the  Emperor  Constantine  Mouomachns,  bent  on  certain  warlike 
undertakings,  anxiously  sought  the  friendship  of  the  Pope.  His  en- 
deavours Avere  frustrated  by  the  interference  of  Michael  Cerularius, 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  Leo  of  Achrida,  the  metropolitan  of 
Bulgaria,  who,  in  1053,  addressed  a  letter  to  John,  Bishop  of  Trani  in 
Apulia,  in  which  they  charged  the  Latins  with  the  most  grievous  here- 
sies, and  conjured  the  Western  bishops  to  renounce  their  errors.  To 
the  accusations  formerly  brought  by  Photius,  others  were  now  added, 
such  as  that  the  Western  Church  allowed  the  use  of  blood,  and  of 
things  strangled ;  that  it  prohibited  singing  the  Hallelujah  in  Lent ; 
above  all,  that  it  used  unleavened  bread  in  the  Eucharist  (§  58,  4)  —  a 
heresy  to  which  the  name  of  Azymite  was  given.  This  letter  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Cardinal  Humbert,  who  translated  and  laid  it  before 
Pope  Leo  IX.  A  bitter  epistolary  altercation  ensued.  The  Emperor 
made  every  effort  to  restore  peace.  At  his  request,  the  Pope  sent  three 
legates  (among  them  the  disputatious  Humbert)  to  Constantinople. 
These  envoys  only  fanned  instead  of  extinguishing  the  flame.  The 
Emperor  obliged,  indeed,  the  Abbot  of  Studium,  Nicholas  Pectoratus, 
to  burn,  in  presence  of  the  legates,  a  controversial  tractate  which  he 
had  written  ;  but  neither  threats  nor  force  could  induce  the  patriarch 
to  yield,  supported  as  he  was  both  by  the  people  and  the  clergy.  At 
last,  the  legates  placed  on  the  altar  of  the  Church  of  Sophia  a  formal 
writ  of  excommunication,  to  which  Michael  and  the  other  Eastern 
Patriarchs  in  1054  replied  in  a  similar  strain. 

4.  Attempts  at  Reunion.  —  The  Crusades,  instead  of  removing,  only 
increased  the  estrangement  between  the  two  churches.  Repeated 
negotiations  proved  unavailing.  At  a  synod  held  at  Bari  (in  the  Nea- 
politan territory)  in  1098,  Anselm  of  Canterbury,  who  at  the  time  lived 
an  exile  in  Italy,  convinced  the  Greeks  who  were  present,  that  the 
Latin  view  about  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  was  correct.  For 
the  same  purpose,  Peter  Chrysolanvs,  Archbishop  of  Milan,  delivered, 
in  1113,  a  long  oration  before  the  Emperor  at  Constantinople;  while, 
in  1135,  Anselm  of  Havelberg  held  a  disputation  on  this  subject  with 


2G0         SECTION    I. — THIRD    PERIOD    (692—1453   A.  D.). 

Niceias  of  Nicomedia.  The  aversion  and  dislike  of  the  Greeks  was 
greatly  deepened  hy  the  founding  of  a  Latin  Empire  at  Constanti  *>ple 
(1024—  10G1).  Michael  Pal^eologus,  who  drove  the  Latins  from  Con- 
stantinople, sought,  from  political  motives,  to  put  an  end  to  the  schism. 
But  in  these  efforts  he  was  opposed  by  Joseph,  the  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, and  by  his  librarian,  the  learned  John  Beccus.  While 
languishing  in  prison,  Beccus  became,  however,  convinced  that  the 
differences  between  the  two  churches  were  unimportant,  and  that  a 
reconciliation  would  be  possible.  This  change  of  views  procured  his 
elevation  to  the  patriarchate.  Meantime,  the  negotiations  had  so  far 
advanced,  that  a  General  Council  (called  by  the  Latins  the  fourteenth) 
was  summoned  to  meet  at  Lyons  in  1274.  The  imperial  legates  ac- 
knowledged the  primacy  of  the  Pope,  and  subscribed  to  a  Romish  Con- 
fession of  Faith.  In  return,  the  Eastern  Church  was  allowed  to  con- 
tinue its  use  of  the  Nicene  Creed  without  any  addition  thereto,  and  the 
peculiar  ecclesiastical  forms  which  it  had  hitherto  observed.  Beccus 
wrote  several  tractates  in  defence  of  this  union.  But  the  accession  of 
another  Emperor  led  to  his  removal ;  Joseph  was  restored,  and  the 
anion  of  Lyons  entirely  forgotten. 

5.  The  continual  advances  of  the  Turks  naturally  impressed  the 
Eastern  Emperors  with  the  necessity  of  securing  the  sympathy  and 
assistance  of  the  West,  through  reconciliation  and  union  Avith  the 
papacy.  But  these  efforts  were  frustrated  by  the  powerful  opposition 
of  the  monks,  supported  as  it  was  by  the  popular  clamour.  The  Patri- 
archs of  Alexandria,  Jerusalem,  and  Antioch,  were  also  hostile  to  such 
measures,  not  only  from  ancient  jealousy  of  the  pretensions  of  the  see 
of  Rome,  but  because  the  political  schemes  of  their  Saracen  masters 
obliged  them  to  oppose  the  wishes  of  the  Greek  Emperors.  At  last  the 
Emperor  Andronicus  III.  Pal^eologus  gained  over  the  Abbot  Bar- 
laam, who  had  hitherto  been  the  leader  of  the  Anti-Romish  party.  At 
the  head  of  an  Imperial  Embassy,  Barlaam  went  to  Avignon,  where  at 
that  time  Pope  Benedict  XII.  resided  (1339).  But  the  negotiations  led 
to  no  result,  as  the  Pope  insisted  on  absolute  submission,  both  in  respect 
of  doctrine  and  government,  and  would  not  even  consent  to  order  a  new 
inquiry,  though  it  were  only  for  the  sake  of  appearances.  Barlaam 
joined  the  Latin  Church  (comp.  \  69,  1),  and  died  as  Bishop  of  Giertece 
in  1348. — But  as  the  difficulties  of  the  Byzantine  Emperors  continually 
increased,  John  V.  Pal/eologus  made  fresh  advances.  He  joined  the 
Latin  Church  in  1369,  but  neither  did  he  prevail  on  his  subjects  to 
follow  his  example,  nor  the  Pope  on  the  Western  rulers  t^  send  assist- 
ance against  the  Turks. 


ve>" 


6.  Apparently  greater  success  attended  the  attempt  to  bring  abcut  a 
union  made  by  the  Emperor  John  VII.  Pal.koi.ogis.  He  had  gained 
for  his  views  Metrophanes,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  Bessarion, 
Archishop  of  Nice,  a  man  of  great  adroitness  and  learning,  but  a  tbo- 


THEOLOGICAL     SCIENCE.  261 

rough  infidel.  Accompanied  by  this  prelate  and  by  muiy  other  bishops, 
the  Emperor  appeared  in  person  at  the  papal  Council  of  Ferfara  in 
1438.  Pope  Eugen  IV.,  afraid  lest  the  Greeks  might  join  the  reform- 
atory Council  at  Bash,  seemed  willing  to  make  concessions.  When  the 
pestilence  broke  out  at  Ferrara,  the  Council  was  transferred  to  Flo- 
rence, where  in  1439  the  union  of  the  two  churches  was  really  accom- 
plished. The  supremacy  of  the  Pope  was  acknowledged ;  existing 
differences  in  the  rites  of  the  two  churches  were  to  be  mutually  tole- 
rated ;  dogmatic  divergences  were  accounted  for  on  the  ground  of  mis- 
understanding ;  and  both  churches  solemnly  declared  to  be  orthodox. 
But  another  doctrinal  difficulty,  besides  that  about  the  procession  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  had  meantime  sprung  up.  While  the  Greeks  admitted 
that  there  was  a  purgatory  in  which  venial  sins  were  expiated,  and 
from  which  souls  might  be  delivered  by  masses,  intercessions,  alms, 
and  good  works  ($  58,  3),  they  objected  to  the  idea  of  material  flames 
in  purgatory.  Besides,  while  the  Latins  held  that  those  who  died 
unbaptized,  or  under  mortal  sin,  were  immediately  consigned  to  eternal 
perdition,  and  that  the  pious  (after  the  expiation  of  venial  sins)  imme- 
diately entered  paradise,  the  Greeks  maintained  that  both  eternal  pun- 
ishment and  eternal  bliss  only  commenced  after  the  final  judgment. 
On  this  point  the  Greeks  now  yielded,  and  the  reunion  was  concluded 
amid  embraces  and  hymns  of  joy.  In  reality,  matters,  however,  con- 
tinued as  they  had  been.  A  powerful  party,  headed  by  Eugenicus, 
Archbishop  of  Ephesus,  had  been  merely  outvoted  at  Florence ;  it  now 
commenced  an  agitation  throughout  the  East  against  a  union  which 
existed  only  on  paper.  Melrophanes  was  nicknamed  M^rpocfw-o? ;  and 
in  1443  the  other  three  patriarchs  of  the  East  held  a  Synod  at  Jerusa- 
lem, in  which  they  anathematized  all  who  adhered  to  this  union.  Bes- 
sarion  joined  the  Church  of  Rome,  became  Cardinal  and  Bishop  of 
Tuscoli,  and  was  twice  on  the  point  of  being  made  Pope.  He  died  in 
1472. — But  the  period  had  arrived  when  the  Christian  Empire  of  the 
East  should  fall.  On  the  29th  May  1453,  Constantinople  was  taken  by 
the  Turks.  The  last  Emperor,  Constantine  XL,  fell  while  vainly  de- 
fending his  throne  against  tremendous  odds.8 


II.  INDEPENDENT  DEVELOPMENT  IN  THE  EASTERN  CHURCH. 

§  68.  THEOLOGICAL   SCIENCE   AND   LITERATURE. 

Comp.  Heeren,  Gesch.  d.  class.  Liter,  im  M.  A.  2  vols.  Gott.  1822. — 
W.  Gass,  Beitrage  zur  kirchl.  Literatur  u.  Dogmengesch.  d.  griech.  M. 
A.  (Contrib.  to  the  Eccles.  Liter,  and  to  the  Hist,  of  Dogm.  in  the  Gr. 
Ch.  during  the  Middle  Ages).  2  vols.  Bresl.  1844,  1849.     Comp.  also 


262  SECTION    I.  —  THIRD    PERIOD    (692— 1453  A.  D.)  . 

History  of  the  Byzantine  and  Greek  Empires,  by  G.  Finla;/,  LL  D.4 
Edinb.  and  London. — Smith's  Biographical  Diet.,  and  Wharton's  Ap« 
pend.  to  Cave. 

Iconoclasm  (726-842)  was  combined  with  hostility  to  science 
and  art  generally.  Hence,  during  that  part  of  the  middle  ages, 
the  Greek  Church  numbered  fewer  learned  men  and  writers  than 
at  any  other  period.  But,  about  the  middle  of  the  ninth 
century,  the  Byzantine  Church  seemed  suddenly  to  rouse  itself 
to  new  activity,  and  attained  a  stage  which  at  one  time  it  had 
appeared  incapable  of  again  reaching.  It  is  even  more  remarka- 
ble that  it  not  only  maintained  this  high  position  uninterruptedly 
during  six  centuries,  but  that  the  ardour  for  theological  study 
seemed  to  increase  in  proportion  as  political  prospects  became 
moie  dark  and  threatening.  A  special  characteristic  of  the 
literary  activity  of  that  period  is  the  revival  of  classical  studies, 
which  had  been  wellnigh  wholly  neglected  since  the  fifth  century. 
All  at  once  those  Greeks,  who  were  at  the  eve  of  intellectual  as 
well  as  of  political  decay,  seem  to  have  remembered  the  rich 
heirloom  which  their  heathen  ancestors  had  left  them.  These 
treasures  were  now  brought  forth  from  musty  libraries  where 
they  had  lain  concealed,  and  studied  with  a  diligence,  enthu- 
siasm, and  consciousness  of  their  value,  which  commands  admira- 
tion. The  Greeks  had,  however,  long  before,  lost  the  capacity 
of  producing  original  works  ;  their  energy  was  therefore  expended 
on  reproducing,  annotating,  or  explaining.  But  even  thus  the 
revival  of  classical  lore  exercised  comparatively  little  influence 
on  a  theology,  which  had  become  ossified  amid  traditionalism 
and  Aristotelian  formulas.  Where  these  bonds  were  broken, 
classical  studies  only  reintroduced  the  ancient  heathen  views  of 
men  and  matters. 

1.  It  appears  that  the  patronage  which  the  Khalifs,  since  the  close 
of  the  eighth  century,  bestowed  on  the  study  of  the  ancient  literature 
of  Greece,  fired  the  zeal  of  the  Eastern  literati,  and  led  to  the  revival 
of  classical  studies.  Of  course,  if  a  trace  of  national  feeling  were 
left  in  the  Byzantine  rulers,  they  could  not  lag  behind  their  Moslem 
rivals.  This  circumstance,  however,  does  not  entirely  account  for  the 
altered  state  of  matters.  No  doubt  Providence  itself  designed  it,  that 
these,  tin-  noblest  fruits  of  ancient  heathenism,  which  had  already 
served  such  good  purpose  in  training  and  preparing  the  Christian 
Fathers  for  their  task,  should  now  become  the  basis  of  modern  literature 
and  science.  —  To  Bardas,  the  guardian  and  colleague  of  Michael  III. 


THEOLOGICAL    SCIENCE.  26H 

> 

[l  67,  1),  however  infamous  his  conduct  had  been  in  othe.*  respects, 
belongs  the  merit  of  founding  schools,  and  employing  teachers  for  the 
prosecution  of  classical  studies.  Basil  the  Macedonian,  although  him- 
self destitute  of  learning,  respected  and  promoted  scientific  culture. 
Photius  was  chosen  tutor  to  the  children  of  that  Emperor,  and  imbued 
them  with  a  zeal  for  study,  which  in  turn  was  transmitted  to  their  de- 
scendants. Leo  the  Philosopher,  the  son,  and  Constantinus  Porphy- 
rogenneta,  the  grandson  of  Basil,  were  both  distinguished  for  their 
attainments.  When  the  dynasty  of  the  Macedonians  was  succeeded  by 
that  of  the  Comnenes  (since  1057),  scientific  pursuits  were  prosecuted 
with  even  greater  ardour.  Even  the  princesses  of  that  race  (such  as 
Eudocia  arid  Anna  Comnena)  distinguished  themselves  in  literature. 
Psellus  proved  to  this  family  what  Photius  had  been  to  that  of  the 
Macedonians.  Thessalonica  became  a  second  Athens,  and  rivalled 
Constantinople  in  the  pursuit  of  classical  study.  During  the  sixty 
years  when  Byzantium  was  the  seat  of  a  Latin  Empire,  the  barbarism 
and  ignorance  of  the  Crusaders  threatened  to  destroy  the  civilization 
fostered  by  the  Comnenes ;  but  when,  in  1261,  the  Palceologi  again  as- 
cended the  throne  of  the  East,  the  learned  studies  were  resumed  with 
renewed  ardour.  In  1453,  Constantinople  was  taken  by  the  Turks, 
when  a  large  number  of  Greek  literati  sought  refuge  in  Italy,  trans- 
ferring to  the  West  the  treasures  they  had  guarded  with  such  care. 

2.  Aristotle  and  Plato.  —  With  the  revival  of  classical  studies,  the 
treatises  of  Plato,  which  were  regarded  as  more  classical,  or  at  least  as 
more  purely  Grecian  than  those  of  Aristotle,  came  again  into  high 
repute.  But  as  Aristotle  was  still  considered  the  great  authority  in 
the  church  (§47,  6)  —  a  position  assigned  to  him  chiefly  through  the 
efforts  of  John  Damascenus — Platonism  continued  an  object  of  some 
distrust  to  theologians,  a  feeling  increased  by  the  circumstance  that  so 
many  admirers  of  classical  literature  had  lapsed  into  practical  heathen- 
ism. The  controversy  which  now  ensued  attained  its  highest  pitch 
during  the  fifteenth  century,  when  Gemistas  Pletho  used  every  effort 
to  dethrone  Aristotle  from  the  place  which  till  then  he  had  occupied  in 
the  esteem  of  the  learned.  He  insisted  that  all  should  acknowledge 
the  supremacy  of  "the  divine  Plato,"  and  confidently  predicted  that 
speedily  the  time  would  come  when  both  Christianity  and  Mahom- 
medanism  would  give  place  to  the  universal  sway  of  a  "  religion  of 
pure  humanity."  These  views  were  shared  by  his  numerous  pupils, 
among  whom  Bessarion  ($  67,  6)  was  the  most  distinguished.  On  the 
other  hand,  George  of  Trebizond  and  his  pupils  were  equally  enthu- 
siastic in  their  admiration  of  Aristotle.  Numerous  representatives  of 
these  two  schools  settled  in  Italy,  where  they  continued  their  con- 
troversies with  increased  bitterness  ($  120,  1). 

3.  Scholasticism  and  Mysticism.  —  The  application  of  the  Aristotelian 
method  to  the  study  of  dogmatics,  which  John  Philoponus  first  in- 
troduced, and  John  Damascenus  brought  into  general  vogue,  gave  rise 


2G4         SECTION    I.  —  THIRD    PERIOD    (692— 1453  A.  D.)  . 

to  a  peculiar  mode  of  treating  this  science,  which,  though  wanting  in 
the  depth,  variety,  and  acuteness  that  characterized  the  scholasticism 
of  the  middle  ages,  resembled  it  in  many  respects.  But  at  the  same 
time  another  and  very  different  tendency  made  its  appearance.  Mysti- 
cism, of  Avhich  the  traces  are  already  found  in  the  writings  of  the 
pseudo-Areopagite  (§48,  5),  was  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  discipline 
and  retirement  of  the  monasteries.  Among  its  numerous  representa- 
tives, Nicholas  Cabasilas  was  the  most  distinguished.  Those  mystics 
opposed  neither  the  teaching  nor  the  rites  of  the  Church.  On  the  con- 
trary, they  delighted  in  dwelling  on  all  that  had  a  symbolical  bearing, 
and  connecting  it  with  the  idea  of  a  sacrament.  No  ground,  therefore, 
existed  for  collision  between  the  Dialecticians  and  the  Mystics. 

4.   Theological  Sciences. — John  Damascenus  had,  at  the  commence- 
ment of  this  period,  grouped  into  a  system  according  to  the  dialectic 
forms  of  Aristotle,  the  conclusions  of  former  doctrinal  disquisitions. 
His  "  Ecdosis"  is  the  first  and  only  complete  work  on  Dogmatics  that 
emanated  from  the  ancient  Greek   Church.     Despite  the  failure  of 
attempts  at  union  with  the  Latin  Church,  which  indeed  only  issued  in 
wider  estrangement  on  controverted  points,  the  frequent  contact  with 
the  Latin  was  not  without  its  beneficial  influence  on  the  Greek  Church. 
The  Eastern  divines  profited  by  the  scholasticism  of  their  brethren  in 
the  West  so  far  as  to  apply  this  more  full  and  scientific  method  to  the 
treatment  of  doctrines  on  which  the  two  churches  were  agreed.      Con- 
troversy was  still  kept  up  with  the  Nestorians,  the  Monophysites,  and 
the  Monothelites,  while  the  pen  of  polemics  found  fresh  employment 
against  the  Gnostic  and  Manichean  sects,  which  at  this  period  again 
made  their  appearance,  as  also  against  the  schismatics  of  the  West, 
and  those  who  advocated  a  reunion  with  them.     The  altered  circum- 
stances of  the  times  also  led  to  a  revival  of  the  study  of  Apologetics. 
Not   only    was    Islamism    making    rapid    strides,    but   the    protection 
accorded  by  the  Saracens  to  the  synagogue  rendered  it  necessary  to 
defend  Christianity  against  the  attacks  of  the  Jews.   But  the  prevailing 
scholastic  and  traditional  theology  proved  incapable  of  coping  with  tbe> 
storms   which   the  judicial  providence   of  God   had  allowed  to  rise. 
Lastly,  the  revival  of  classical  study,  and  the  reappearance  in  its  train 
of  heathen   ideas,   obliged   theologians  to  be  again   on   their  guard 
against  ancient  superstitions  (Nicholas  of  Methone).     Independent  exe- 
getical  researches  were  now  no  longer  prosecuted  ;  but  the  "  Catenas" 
of  (Ecnmenivs,  of  Theophylact,  and  Euthymius  Zygadenus,  are  valuable. 
The  study  of  Ecclesiastical  History  was  entirely  neglected.     Nice- 
phorus  Callisli  was  the  only  writer  who  devoted  his  attention  to  this 
study  (in  the  fourteenth  century).    But  his  Eccl.  Hist.,  written  without 
taste  or  ability,  adds  nothing  to  our  knowledge  of  the  subject.     Of 
much  greater  value,  even  in  regard  of  Eccl.  Hist.,  are  the  numerous 
"  Scriptores  historian  Byzantinoe."     To  this  list  we  add  the  name  of 
Simeuii  Metraphrastes,  celebrated  in  his  day  as  a  writer  of  legends. 


THEOLOGICAL     SCIENCE.  265 

5.  John  Damascenus  was  by  far  the  ablest  theologian  of  the  eighth 
century.  For  a  considerable  time  he  was  employed  in  the  service  of 
the  Saracens,  and  died  in  760  as  Abbot  of  the  Monastery  of  S.  Sabas 
at  Jerusalem.  His  admirers  gave  him  the  title  of  Chnjsorrhoas;  the 
Iconoclasts,  who  at  the  Council  of  Constantinople  in  754  pronounced  a 
threefold  anathema  upon  him,  the  Saracen  by-name  of  Mansur.  His 
principal  work,  the  rirjyr;  yvJjanof,  procured  him  an  imperishable  fame, 
and  has  been  regarded  as  an  authority  in  the  Greek  Church.  Section  I. 
(xitydxia.  fyChotsofyixu)  forms  a  dialectic,  and  Section  II.  (rfspt  aiptatutv)  a 
historical  introduction  to  Part  III.  ( "ExSoais  axpifirj  tijs  dp$obo%ov  itLate<&s)', 
in  which  the  various  dogmas  as  propounded  by  the  Councils  and  the 
Fathers — especially  the  three  great  Cappadocians — are  systematically 
arranged  and  presented.  The  itpa  7iapd%%Y[Ka,  by  the  same  author, 
consist  of  a  collection  of  "  loci  classici,"  taken  from  the  writings  of  the 
Fathers  on  doctrinal  and  ethical  subjects,  and  arranged  in  alphabetical 
order.  He  also  wrote  controversial  tractates  against  various  heretics, 
and  composed  a  number  of  hymns  (best  cd.  by  le  Quien.  Par.  1712.  2 
vols.  fob).  —  Among  the  numerous  works  of  Photius  (§  67,  1),  the 
"  Bibliotheca"  (MvpioQifaiov)  is  the  most  valuable.  It  contains  notices 
of,  and  extracts  from,  279  Christian  and  heathen  works,  of  which  the 
greater  part  have  not  otherwise  been  preserved  (best  ed.  by  Im.  Becker. 
Berol.  1824.  2  vols.  4).  Besides  his  controversial  tractates  against  the 
Latins  and  the  Paulicians,  the  Amphilochia  (or  replies  to  above  300 
theological  questions  submitted  to  him  by  Bishop  Amphilochius)  also 
deserve  notice,  and  his  Komoeanon  ($  43,  3),  which  has  ever  since 
formed  the  basis  of  the  canon  law  of  the  Greek  Church.  The  series 
of  distinguished  writers  who  nourished  under  the  Comnene  dynasty 
commenced  with  Michael  Constantius  Psellus,  teacher  of  philoso 
phy  at  Constantinople  (ob.  1106),  a  man  whose  acquirements  were 
equally  varied  and  deep.  Some  of  his  numerous  tractates  were  devoted 
to  theological  subjects,  though  he  acquired  not  fame  in  that  depart- 
ment. His  cotemporary,  T/ieophylact,  Archbishop  of  Achrida,  in  Bul- 
garia, has  left  us  very  able  commentaries,  or  rather  "  Catenas." 
Euthymius  Zygadenus,  a  monk  of  Constantinople,  at  the  commence 
ment  of  the  twelfth  century,  composed,  by  request  of  the  Emperor 
Alexius  Comnenus,  a  work  intended  to  refute  all  heresies  ("Dogmatic 
Panoply  of  the  Orthodox  Faith,"  in  twenty-four  books).  Although 
highly  praised  at  the  time,  it  is  a  mere  compilation,  whose  sole  merit 
lies  in  its  refutation  of  the  heretics  of  that  particular  period.  The 
exegetical  compilations  by  the  same  author  are  more  valuable.  Eifsta- 
thius,  Archbishop  of  Thessalonica  (ob.  1194),  was  the  most  prominent 
divine  of  the  twelfth  century.  He  has  long  been  famed  as  the  com- 
mentator of  Homer  and  Pindar ;  but  the  recent  edition  of  his  theological 
OpuDcula  (ed.  Tafel.  Frcf.  1839,  4),  proves  that  he  deserves  even  higher 
acknowledgment  as  a  Christian,  a  divine,  a  prelate,  and  a  reformer  of 
the  ecclesiastical  and  monkish  abuses  of  his  time  ($  70.  4).  At  the  same 
23 


2G6    SECTION  I.  —  THIRD  PERIOD  (692- .453  A.  D  J. 

period  flourished  Nicholas,   Bishop  of  Methone  in   Messenia,   who 
replied  to  the  attacks  of  Proclus  the  Neo-Platonist,  in  a  tractate  which 
forms  one  of  the  ablest  theological  works  of  that  age.     His  views  on 
the  doctrine  of  redemption  deserve  special  mention  as  resembling  those 
of  Anselm  of  Canterbury.    Nicetas  Acominatus  or  Chouiates,  a  states- 
man (ob.  1204),  was  another  distinguished  writer  of  that  period.     His 
"  Treasury  of  Orthodoxy,"  in  twenty-seven  books,  contains  a  vindica- 
tion of  orthodox  doctrine,  and  a  refutation  of  heretics,  much  more  able 
and  original  than  the  work  of  Euthymius  on  the  same  subject.    (Comp. 
DUmann,  "  Nic.  of  Methone,  Euthym.  Zygabenus  and  Nicetas  Cho- 
niates,"   in  the  "  Studien  u.  Krit."  for  1833,  P.  III.)  — During  the 
reign  of  the  Palceologi  (1250-1450),  theologians  were  chiefly  engaged 
in   advocating  or  opposing  the   attempts  made   at  reunion  with  the 
Latin  Church.     Nicholas  Cabasilas,  Archbishop  of  Thessalonica,  in 
the  fourteenth  century,  one  of  the  most  eminent  mystics  in  the  Church, 
deserves  special  mention.     His  principal  work,  lit pt  trti  iv  Xp«jr<I>  £u>;s, 
has  only  lately  been  rescued  from  oblivion  by  W.  Gass  ut  supra,  vol.  II. 
His  mysticism,  which  is  remarkable  for  its  depth  and  fervour,  breathes 
a   spirit   of  antagonism    to    the    prevailing   tendency   towards   work- 
rio-hteousness.    Still,  his  "  Expositio  Missse"  proves  that  he  shared  the 
predilection  of  Greek  Mystics  for  the  Liturgy.     At  a  somewhat  later 
period  (about  1400)  flourished  Simeon,  Archbishop  of  Thessalonica,  a 
prelate   equally  famed  for  classical   and   patristic  lore,   and  for  the 
manner  in  which  he  administered  the  affairs  of  the  Church.    His  great 
work,  "  Do  fide,  ritibus  et  mysteriis  ecclesiasticis,"  is  of  great  import- 
ance for  the  study  of  Greek  Mediacvalism.     Lastly,  we  may  mention 
Giegorius  Scholurius,  who  as  monk  bore  the  name  of  Gennadius,  the 
first  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  after  the  capture  of  that  city  by  the 
Turks.     At  the  Council  of  Florence  he  objected  to  the  proposed  union; 
in  the  philosophical  controversy  then  raging,  he  advocated  the  tradi- 
tional claims  of  Aristotle  against  Plato.     At  the  request  of  Sultan 
Mohammed  II,  he  composed  and  handed  to  that  monarch  a  "  Professio 
Fidei.''     (Coup.  Gass  ut  supra,  vol.  I.)9 

I  G9.   DOGMATIC   CONTROVERSIES  DURING  THE  TWELFTH 
AND  FOURTEENTH  CENTURIES. 

With  the  taste  for  intellectual  pursuits,  that  for  theological 
speculations  and  discussions  also  revived.  During  the  reign  of 
Manuel  Comnenus,  1143-1180,  the  question  was  raised,  whether 
Christ  had  offered  Himself  a  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  the  world 
to  the  Father  and  to  t he  Holy  Ghost  only,  or  also  to  the  Logos, 
l.  e.,  to  Himself.  At  a  synod  held  at  Constantinople  in  1156, 
the  latter  view  was  declared  to  be  the  orthodox.  Ten  years 
later,  a  controversy  arose  as  to  whether  the  saying  of  Christ, 


DOGMATIC    CONTROVERSIES.  267 

'■  My  Father  is  greater  than  I,"  referred  to  His  Divine  nature, 
to  His  human,  or  to  the  union  of  these  two  natures.  The  ques- 
tion was  discussed  by  persons  of  all  classes,  and  that  with  an 
earnestness  and  ardour  which  recalls  the  kindred  controversies  ia 
the  fourth  century  (§  50,  2).  At  last  the  view  of  the  Emperor, 
that  the  expression  referred  to  the  God-man,  carried  at  the 
Synod  of  Constantinople  in  1166.  Those  who  refused  to  sub- 
mit, had  their  property  confiscated  or  were  exiled.  A  third 
controversy  sprung  up  when  the  Emperor  Manuel  objected  to  the 
formula  of  solemn  abjuration,  "of  the  God  of  Mohammed,'1 
which  was  exacted  from  Moslem  converts.  In  vain  the  bishops 
proved  that  the  God  of  Mohammed  was  not  the  true  God  ;  the 
formula  had  to  be  altered. — Two  centuries  later,  the  Hesychastic 
eontroversy  broke  out,  which  bore  on  the  existence  and  reality 
of  an  uncreated  Divine  Light. 

The  Hesychastic  Controversy  (1341-1351). — The  monks  who  inhabited 
the  cloisters  on  Mount  Athos  in  Thessalia  were  deeply  imbued  with 
the  Areopagite  mysticism.  Following  the  directions  given  three  cen- 
turies before  by  Simeon,  Abbot  of  the  Mamas  monastery  at  Constanti- 
nople, these  monks  used  artificial  means  to  bring  themselves  into  a 
state  of  ecstatic  vision,  which  the  Areopagite  had  recommended  as  the 
highest  stage  of  genuine  mysticism.  For  this  purpose,  each  cowered 
alone  in  a  corner  of  his  cell,  his  chin  pressed  against  his  chest,  his 
eyes  immovably  fixed  on  the  pit  of  his  stomach,  and  restraining  his 
breath  as  much  as  possible.  By  and  by  they  fell  into  a  state  of  melan- 
choly, and  their  sight  became  dim  ;  but  by  persisting,  these  sensations 
gave  place  to  ineffable  delight,  till  at  last  each  saw  himself  wrapped  in 
a  bright  halo  of  glory.  They  called  themselves  "Quietists"  [qsvzdZw- 
ti;),  and  maintained  that  the  halo  which  shone  around  them  was  the 
same  uncreated  Divine  Light  that  on  Mount  Tabor  had  surrounded  the 
person  of  the  Saviour.  Barlaam  (§  67,  5),  who  had  just  returned  from 
his  unsuccessful  attempt  at  bringing  about  a  union  with  the  Latin 
Church,  designated  these  monks  as  "navel-souls"  (o^cad-^oi,),  and 
charged  them  and  their  defender  Gregory  Palamas,  afterwards  Arch- 
bishop of  Thessalonica,  with  Ditheism.  But  at  a  Council  held  at  Con- 
stantinople (in  1341),  the  members  of  which  were  hostile  to  the  efforts 
made  by  Barlaam  for  a  union  with  the  West,  the  doctrine  of  an  uncre- 
ated Divine  Light  was  approved,  and  a  distinction  made  betweon  this 
Divine  evipytt,a  and  the  Divine  ovffta.  To  escape  being  anathematized, 
Barlaam  made  recantation;  soon  afterwards  he  fled  to  Italy  and  joined 
the  Latin  Church.  But  Gregory  Acindynos,  a  pupil  of  Barlaam,  and 
Nicephorus  Gregoras,  the  historian,  continued  the  controversy  with  the 
Hfjsychasts.  Three  other  synods  (up  to  a.  d.  1351)  pronounced  iu 
favour  of  these  monks. 


2G8         SECTION    I. — THIRD    PERIOD    (692— 1453  A.  D.). 


I  70.  GOVERNMENT,  WORSHIP,  AND   LIFE. 

The  Byzantine  emperors  had  always  insisted  on  imposing  their 
own  views  or  desires  as  the  law  according  to  which  even  the  in- 
ternal affairs  of  the  Church  were  to  be  settled.  Being  anointed 
with  the  holy  Myron,  they  bore  the  character  of  priests  and  the 
title  of  ayvoi.  Besides,  since  the  time  of  Leo  the  Philosopher 
(§  68,  1),  most  of  the  emperors  had  been  more  or  less  versed  in 
theology.  Still,  the  office  of  Patriarch,  when  held  by  a  man  of 
character,  was,  despite  frequent  and  arbitrary  depositions  of 
those  who  occupied  the  See  of  Constantinople,  a  power  which 
even  the  despots  of  the  East  were  obliged  to  respect.  The  nume- 
rous monks  —  and  through  them  the  people  —  formed  a  mighty 
bulwark  around  the  Episcopal  Chair.  In  consequence  of  tho 
iconoclastic  controversies,  Theodorus  Studita  (§  66,  4)  had  or 
ganized  the  strict  churchmen  into  a  party,  which  strenuously 
resisted,  on  principle,  every  interference  of  the  State  in  ecclesi- 
astical affairs,  and,  among  others,  the  filling  up  of  ecclesiastical 
offices  by  the  secular  power.  But  these  efforts  were  only  at- 
tended with  partial  success.  The  monastic  institutions  had  been 
almost  entirely  annihilated  under  the  reign  of  the  Isaurian 
dynasty.  When  again  restored,  they  developed,  indeed,  and 
spread  in  proportion  to  their  former  decline,  but  rapidly  degene- 
rated in  every  sense  of  the  word.  The  Eastern  monks,  who  had 
not  the  great  mission,  devolving  on  their  brethren  in  the  West, 
of  Christianizing  and  civilizing  barbarous  nations,  wanted  the 
opportunities  of  revival,  of  strength,  and  of  purification,  which 
this  great  work  afforded  to  the  monks  of  the  Latin  Church. 
Still,  if  in  those  degenerate  times  we  were  to  look  for  instances 
of  stedfast  conviction,  of  firmness,  of  boldness,  and  of  moral 
earnestness,  we  should  in  all  likelihood  find  them,  if  anywhere, 
among  these  recluses.  The  modifications  which,  during  that 
period,  took  place  in  public  worship  were  unimportant,  although 
both  in  theory  and  practice  slight  alterations,  or  rather  amplifi- 
cations, were  introduced. 

1.  The  Arsenian  Schism  (1262-1312).— After  the  death  of  the  Em- 
peror Theodore  Lascaris  in  1259,  Michael  Palceologus  usurped  the 
guardianship  of  John,  the  imperial  Prince,  a  child  only  six  years  old, 
had  himself  crowned  co-Emperor,  and,  to  render  the  Prince  incapable 
of  reigning,  caused   his  eyes  to  be  put  out.     For  these  crimes,  the 


GOVERNMENT,    WORSHIP,    AND    MANNERS  269 

Patriarch  Arsenius  exommunicated  the  Regent ;  but  was  in  turn  de- 
posed and  banished  (12G2).  The  numerous  adherents  of  Arsenius 
refused  to  acknowledge  Joseph  (g  07,  4)  as  his  successor  in  the  See  of 
Constantinople.  They  separated  from  the  State  Church,  and  gradually 
their  admiration  of  the  exiled  patriarch  changed  into  violent  hatred  of 
the  prelate  who  occupied  his  place.  When  Joseph  died  (in  1283),  it 
was  agreed  to  submit  the  question  in  dispute  to  the  test  of  a  solemn 
ordeal.  Each  of  the  two  parties  threw  a  document,  which  embodied  a 
defence  of  their  views,  into  the  fire.  Of  course,  both  documents  were 
consumed  by  the  flames.  At  the  sight  of  this,  the  Arsenians,  who  had 
expected  a  miracle,  seemed  taken  aback,  and  proposed  to  fall  in  with 
the  opposite  party.  But  on  the  day  following,  they  revoked  their  con- 
cessions ;  and  the  schism  continued  until  in  1312,  when  the  Patriarch 
Niphon  solemnly  buried  the  bones  of  Arsenius  in  the  Church  of  St. 
Sophia,  and  suspended  for  forty  days  all  those  clerics  who  formerly 
had  declared  themselves  opposed  to  him. 

2.  Public  Worship.  —  In  the  Greek  Church  the  sermon  still  formed 
the  principal  part  in  the  public  services;  but  the  homiletic  productions 
of  that  period  are  not  of  a  character  to  deserve  special  notice.  In  the 
service  of  song,  a  revulsion  of  feeling  took  place ;  and  gradually  unin- 
spired hymns,  especially  those  in  honour  of  the  Virgin  and  of  the 
saints,  were  introduced  into  the  Church  services.  The  best  specimens 
of  this  kind  of  composition  date  from  the  eighth  century.  John  Damas- 
ceiins,  Cosmas  of  Jerusalem,  and  Theophanes  of  Nice,  were  regarded  as 
the  three  great  dyiot,  fiifa^oi.  The  number  of  the  sacraments  and  their 
import  had  not  yet  been  accurately  defined.  An  enumeration  of  seven 
sacraments — the  same  as  that  adopted  by  the  Latin  Church  during  the 
middle  ages — occurs  first  in  the  anti-protestant  "  Confessio  Orthodoxa" 
of  Petrus  Mogilas,  dating  from  a.  d.  1643.  In  contradistinction  to  the 
Western  Church,  the  Greeks  insisted  on  the  necessity  of  submersion  in 
baptism,  of  the  chrisma  in  baptism,  of  the  use  of  leavened  bread  in 
the  Eucharist,  and  of  giving  both  elements  to  the  laity.  John  Damas- 
cenus  still  defended  the  doctrine  of  consubstantiation  in  the  Eucharist, 
but  later  divines  adopted  that  of  transubstantiation.  Extreme  unction 
was  administered  in  the  Greek  Church  ;  but,  unlike  the  practice  in  the 
Church  of  Rome,  not  merely  to  those  who  were  in  articulo  mortis,  but 
even  to  persons  who  were  not  dangerously  ill,  while,  in  case  of  a  re- 
lapse, the  rite  was  repeated. 

3.  Monasticism.  —  The  most  renowned  monasteries  were  those  on 
Mount  Athos  in  Thessalia,  which  was  literally  covered  with  cloisters 
and  cells  of  hermits,  and  which  to  this  day  is  venerated  by  the  Greek 
Church  as  a  holy  mountain  and  place  of  pilgrimage.  The  monastery 
of  Studion  was  also  ($  44,  4)  still  in  high  repute.  —  But  the  Eastern 
monks  were  not  free  from  extravagances.  There  were  innumerable 
fitylites  who  spent  their  lives  on  the  top  of  trees  (Siidpltai,)  in  close 

23* 


270  SECTION    I.  —  THIRD   PERIOD    (692— 1453  A.  D.J. 

cages  built  upon  high  scaffoldings,  or  in  subterranean  caves.  Some 
took  a  vow  of  perpetual  silence,  while  many  wore  constantly  a  coat  of 
iron  (aitypovptvot.),  etc.  A  curious  species  of  religious  exercises  was 
that  in  which  the  Ecetes  (ixirai)  of  the  twelfth  century  indulged. 
These  monks  engaged,  along  with  nuns  who  held  similar  views,  in 
solemn  dances,  and  singing  of  hymns  to  the  praise  of  God,  in  imitation 
of  Ex.  xv.  20,  21.  They  were  sound  in  doctrine,  nor  do  they  appear 
to  have  been  charged  with  immorality ;  still,  Nicetas  Acominatus 
combatted  them  as  heretics. 

4.  Reformatory  Efforts. — At  the  commencement  of  the  twelfth  cent., 
Constantinus  Chrysomahis,  a  pious  monk  of  Constantinople,  and  ten 
years  afterwards  another  monk  called  Niphon,  combated  the  prevail- 
in"-  tendency  towards  externalism  and  work-righteousness.  Both  be- 
came  the  leaders  of  wide-spread  associations  of  clerics  and  laymen,  who, 
under  their  spiritual  direction,  cultivated,  as  mystics,  the  inner  reli- 
gious life,  but  set  lightly  by  outward  ecclesiastical  forms.  The  two 
monks  were  excommunicated.  The  Patriarch  Cosmas,  who  would  not 
admit  that  Niphon  was  a  heretic,  and  indeed  asked  him  to  share  his 
palace  and  table,  was  likewise  deposed  (in  1150).  The  reformatory 
efforts  made  by  Eustathius,  the  distinguished  Archbishop  of  Thessalo- 
nica  (§  08,  5),  were  entirely  free  from  direct  opposition  to  the  prevail- 
ing ecclesiastical  system,  and  hence  offered  no  ground  of  attack  to  his 
enemies.  He  inveighed  unsparingly  against  the  moral  and  religious 
decay  prevalent  among  the  people,  and  especially  against  the  hypo- 
crisy, the  vulgarity,  coarseness,  spiritual  pride,  and  ascetic  extrava- 
gances of  the  monks,  and  that  although  himself  was  enthusiastically 
devoted  to  Monasticism.  Two  centuries  after  him,  Nicholas  Cabasilas 
(§  68,  5),  a  man  of  like  spirit,  insisted  even  more  energetically  that 
the  state  of  the  heart  and  mind  was  the  test,  and  love  the  root,  of  all 
virtue. 

§71.   GNOSTIC   AND   MANICHJEAN   HERETICS. 

Comp.  Giesekr,  Unters.  ii.  d.  Gesch.  d.  Paulicianer  (Inquiry  into  the 
Hist,  of  the  Paulic),  in  the  "  Stud.  u.  Krit."  for  1827,  P.  l.  —  Engd- 
hardt,  d.  Bogomilen,  in  that  author's  "  Kirchengesch.  Abhandl."  Er- 
lang.  1832. 

So  late  as  the  seventh  century  traces  of  the  Gnostic  and  Mani- 
chsean  heresies  seem  to  have  lingered  in  Armenia  and  Syria, 
where  such  views  were  fostered  by  contiguity  to  the  Parsees. 
These  embers  were  in  G57  fanned  afresh  by  Constantinus  of  Ma~ 
nanalis  near  Samosata,  whose  doctrinal  views  were  almost  iden- 
tical with  those  of  Marcion  (§  28,  10).  The  Catholics,  whom 
this  sect  called  "  Romans,"  gave  them  the  name  of  Paulicians, 


GNOSTIC    AND    MANICH^EAN    HERETICS.  271 

because  they  only  acknowledged  the  apostolic  authority  of  Paul. 
But  they  designated  themselves  "  Christians,"  and  gave  their 
leaders  and  congregations  the  titles  of  the  companions  of  Paul, 
and  of  the  places  where  he  had  laboured.  Their  system  was  a 
mixture  of  Mysticism,  which  aimed  after  the  cultivation  of  the 
"inner  life,"  with  Dualism,  Demiurgism,  and  Docetism.  They 
insisted  on  strict,  though  not  on  excessive  asceticism,  opposed 
fasts,  and  allowed  marriage.  Their  form  of  worship  was  very 
simple,  and  their  church  government  modelled  after  that  of 
apostolic  times.  They  specially  protested  against  the  many 
ceremonies  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  against  the  religious 
honour  paid  to  images,  relics,  and  saiuts.  They  also  enjoined 
diligent  study  of  the  Scriptures,  but  rejected  what  they  called  the 
Judseo-Christian  Gospels  and  Epistles  of  the  N.  T. — Even  before 
the  Paulicians,  another  sect,  called  the  "Children  of  the  Sun," 
had  appeared  in  Armenia,  which  sought  to  combine  the  worship 
of  Ormuzd  with  certain  Christian  elements.  Reorganized  during 
the  ninth  and  tenth  cents.,  this  sect  acquired  fresh  influence. 
Like  the  Paulicians,  they  protested  against  the  abuses  in  the 
Catholic  Church.  —  The  same  remark  applies  also  to  the  Eu- 
chites,  a  sect  in  Thracia  (during  the  eleventh  cent.),  which,  like 
their  older  namesakes  (§  44,  5),  derived  their  name  from  engaging 
continuously  in  prayer,  a  practice  which  they  extolled  as  the 
indication  of  highest  perfection.  Their  Dualistic  and  Gnostic 
views  were  adopted  and  further  developed  by  the  Bogomiles 
(lovers  of  God,  friends  of  God),  a  sect  in  Bulgaria  (in  the  twelfth 
cent. ).  The  latter  maintained  that  two  principles  —  Satanael, 
the  elder,  and  Christ,  the  younger  Son  of  God  —  had  emanated 
from  the  Supreme  God.  Originally,  Satanael  had  also  been  a 
good  Mow  ;  but  having  revolted,  he  had  created  the  terrestrial 
world  and  man.  In  mercy  the  Supreme  God  had  breathed  into 
man  the  breath  of  his  own  Divine  life,  and  sent  Christ,  the 
younger  JEon,  for  the  purpose  of  completely  redeeming  him. 
The  sect  prohibited  marriage,  rejected  the  use  of  images  aud  the 
sign  of  the  cross,  but  attached  great  importance  to  fasting.  The 
only  portions  of  the  Old  Test,  which  they  received,  were  the 
writings  of  the  Prophets  and  the  Book  of  Psalms.  The  Gospel 
of  John  they  regarded  as  the  highest  revelation.  In  room  of 
the  water-baptism  they  substituted  that  of  the  Spirit,  and  also 
rejected  the  celebration  of  Eucharist ;  and  in  place  of  these  rites, 
laid  great  stress  on  prayer,  especially  on  the  Lord's  Prayer. — 


272  SECTION    I. — THIRD   rEIlIOD    (692— 1453  A.  D.). 

All  these  sects  were  charged  by  their  Catholic  opponents  with 
holding  Antinomian  principles,  and  with  indulging  in  orgiea 
and  unnatural  vices. 

1.  The  Pauticians  (G57-1115). — The  Catholic  controversial  writers  of 
the  ninth  cent,  traced  the  sect  of  the  Paulicians,  and  even  their  name 
(:=IIav?ioiwaw'oi,),  to  aManichoean  family  of  the  fourth  cent., —  Callinicu 
a  widow,  and  her  two  sons,  Paul  and  John.     But  later  investigations 
have  failed  to  discover  any  traces  of  Manichaean  tenets  in  their  system  ; 
and  the  only  historical  fact  established  is,  that  the  sect  was  founded  by 
Consianlinus  of  Mananalis,  who  took  the  name  of  Sylvanus  (the  com- 
panion of  Paul).    Their  first  community,  which  he  called  "  Macedonia," 
was  established  at  Cibossa  in  Armenia.     From  that  place  Constantinua 
undertook  missionary  journeys  in  all  directions.    The  Emperor  Constan- 
tinus  Pogonnatus  (6G8-685)  commenced  a  bloody  persecution  of  the 
Paulicians.     But  the  enthusiasm  with  which  Sylvanus  met  death  by 
stoning  made  so  deep  an  impression  on  Symeon,  the  imperial  represen- 
tative, that  he  also  joined  the  sect,  and  taking  the  name  of  Titv.i,  be- 
came its  leader.     In  690  he  mounted  the  stake  with  the  same  enthusi- 
asm as  Sylvanus.     Gegnesius,  his  successor  (surnamed  Timothevs),  waa 
summoned   to  Constantinople   under   the    reign  of  Leo  the  Isavrian. 
Subjected  to  an  examination  by  the  Patriarch,  he  succeeded  in  obtain- 
ing from  him  a  certificate  of  orthodoxy,  and  was  also  furnished  by  the 
Emperor  (who  sympathized  in  his  hostility  to  images)  with  a  letter  of 
protection.     The  sect,  however,  became  divided.     Baaiies,  one  of  their 
leaders,  was,  on  account  of  his  Antinomian  practices,  styled  "the  filthy" 
(5  j'urtapos).     But  about  801  a  new  reformer  arose  in  the  person  of  Ser~ 
givs  Tychicus,  who  late  in  life  was  converted  by  the  instrumentality  of 
a  pious  Paulician  female,  who  directed  his  attention  to  the  Bible.     Leo 
the  Armenian  (813-820)  organized  an  expedition  for  their  so-called  con- 
version.    Those  who  recanted,  were  again  received  into  the  Church, 
those  who  resisted  were  executed.     A  number  of  Paulicians  noAV  com- 
bined against  their  persecutors,  killed  them,  and  sought  refuge  in  Sa- 
racen territory,  where  they  founded  a  military  colony  at  Argaun  (Co- 
losse).     Thence  they  made   continual   incursions  into  the   Byzantine 
territory,  for  the  double  purpose  of  pillage  and  of  avenging  their  wrongs. 
The  sect  was  most  numerous  in  Asia  Minor.     Under  the  reign  of  the 
Empress   Theodora   (?  66,  4),   another  fearful   persecution  broke  out. 
Thousands  of  Paulicians  were  executed  ;  among  others,  an  officer  high 
in  command.     TTis  son  Carbeas,  who  had  also  been  an  officer,  now  col- 
lected about  'r>000  Paulicians,  by  whose   aid  he  hoped   to  avenge  the 
dentil   of  his   parent,  retired  with  them  to  Argaun,  and  acted  as  the 
military  chief  of  the  pai-ty.     Their  number  daily  increased   by  the 
accession  of  other  fugitives,  and  the  Khalifs  assigned  to  them  some  for- 
tified towns  on  the  frontier.     At  the  head  of  a  well-organized  army, 
Carboas   carried    fire   and    sword    into   the  Byzantine   territory,   and 


GNOSTIC    AND     MANICH^EAN    HERETICS.  273 

repeatedly  put  imperial  armies  to  flight.  At  last,  after  two  campaigns, 
Basil  the  Macedonian  annihilated  the  Paulician  army  in  a  narrow 
defile  (871).  The  political  power  of  the  sect  was  indeed  broken,  but 
it  continued  to  spread  both  in  Syria  and  Asia  Minor.  A  century  later 
(in  970),  the  Emperor  John  Tzimisces  transported  a  large  number  of 
them  to  Thraeia  to  guard  its  boundaries,  where  Philippopolis  became 
their  Zion.  Their  tenets  rapidly  spread  through  that  country.  Alexius 
Comnenus  again  addressed  himself  to  the  task  of  converting  them  to 
Catholic  views.  He  went  in  person  to  Philippopolis,  disputed  for  days 
with  their  leaders,  and  by  promises,  threats,  rewards,  or  punishments, 
as  each  case  required,  carried  his  purpose  (1115).  After  that,  the  sect- 
seems  to  have  become  extinct.  Those  who  continued  to  entertain  their 
views  probably  joined  the  Euchites  or  the  Bogomiles.  —  The  principal 
authority  for  the  history  of  the  Paulicians  is  the  "  Hist.  Manichasorurn" 
of  Petrus  Ciculus,  who,  as  imperial  ambassador,  had  lived  for  some  time 
among  the  Paulicians  of  Armenia. 

2.  The  so-called  "Children  of  the  Sun,"  or  Arevurdi's,  an  Armenian 
sect,  originated  in  the  ninth  cent,  with  Sembaf,  a  Paulician.  They  also 
bore  ^he  name  of  Thontrakians,  from  the  village  of  Thontrake,  where 
their  church  was  formed.  In  1002  no  less  a  personage  than  the  Metro- 
politan, Jacob  of  Harkh,  joined  them.  He  gave  a  more  distinctively 
Christian  cast  to  their  tenets,  journeyed  through  the  country  preaching 
repentance  and  inveighing  against  work-righteousness,  and  made  nu- 
merous converts  both  among  the  clergy  and  laity.  The  Catholics  of 
the  Armenian  Church  had  him  branded  and  imprisoned.  He  escaped, 
but  was  ultimately  killed  by  his  opponents. 

3.  At  the  commencement  of  the  eleventh  cent,  the  Euchites  (Messa- 
lians,  Enthusiasts)  attracted  the  attention  of  the  Government,  their 
opinions  having  widely  spread  in  Thraeia.  Their  tenets  about  two 
Sons  of  God,  Satanael  and  Christ,  are  in  some  respects  akin  to  that 
form  of  Parsee  Dualism  which  represents  the  two  antagonistic  princi- 
ples, Ormuzd  and  Ahriman,  as  proceeding  from  Zeruane  Akerene,  the 
one  Supreme  and  Eternal  Source.  The  seeds  of  this  heresy  may  have 
been  brought  to  Thraeia  when  the  Emperor  Tzimisces  transported  the 
Paulicians  to  that  province.  The  Byzantine  Government  sent  a  deputy 
to  arrest  the  progress  of  this  heresy  (perhaps  Michael  Psellus  ($  68,  5), 
whose  6id\oyos  rtipi  ivepysias  ha.ijx6vu>v  —  Ed.  N'-.remberg  1838  —  is  our 
only  authority  about  this  sect).  But  a  century  afterwards,  the  same 
tenets  were  again  broached  in  Bulgaria  by  the  Bogomiles  (^td^aoi), 
only  more  fully  developed,  and  assuming  the  form  of  more  direct  oppo- 
sition to  the  Catholic  Church.  The  Emperor  Alexius  Comnenus  had 
Basil,  the  chief  of  the  party,  brought  to  Constantinople,  and,  under 
pretest  of  intending  to  join  the  sect,  induced  him  to  communicate  its 
tenets.  But  while  Basil  unreservedly  opened  his  mind  to  the  monarch, 
as  he  thought  in  strict  confidence,  a  conclave  of  inquisitors  sat  cor- 


274    SECTION  I. — THIRD  PERIOD  (692—1453  A.  D.). 

coaled  behind  a  curtain,  and  noted  down  his  every  statement.  This 
first  scene  of  the  comedy  was  followed  by  another.  All  the  adherents 
of  Basil,  on  whom  the  Government  could  lay  hands,  were  condemned 
to  death.  Two  stakes  were  lighted,  to  one  of  which  a  cross  was  affixed. 
The  Emperor  now  entreated  them  at  least  to  die  as  Christians,  and  in 
sign  of  it  to  choose  the  stake  at  which  the  cross  had  been  erected. 
Those  who  complied  were  pardoned,  the  others  condemned  to  imprison- 
ment for  life.  Basil  alone  was  burnt  (1119).  Still  the  sect  was  not 
annihilated.  Many  of  the  Bogomiles  sought  refuge  in  monasteries, 
where  they  propagated  their  views  in  secret. — Indeed,  long  after  that, 
adherents  of  Manichcean  views  were  found  in  Bulgaria,  whence  they 
spread  their  views  in  the  West.  Our  principal  source  of  information 
about  the  Bogomiles  is  the  Panoplia  of  Euthymius  (§  G8,  5). 

I  72.  THE  ORTHODOX  SCLAVONIC-GREEK  CHURCHES. 

Comp.  /.  Ph.  FaJhncraycr,  Gesch.  d.  Halbinsel  Morea  im  M.  A.  (Hist, 
of  the  Penins.  of  Morea  during  the  M.  A.).  Stuttg.  1830.  Vol.  I.— P.J. 
Schqfarik,  slav.  Alterthumer  (Slav.  Antiq.).  Vol.  II.  Leipz.  1844;  that 
author's  kurze  Uebers.  d.  attest,  kirchenslav.  Liter.  (Brief  Survey  of 
the  Old  Slav.  Eccl.  Liter.).  Leipz.  1848.  —  Nestor's  Annalen,  transl. 
by  Scldozer.  Gb'tt.  1802.  5  vols.  —  Karamsin's  russ.  Gesch.,  transl.  by 
Hauenschild.  Riga  1820.  11  vols.— Ph.  S/rahf,  Gesch.  d.  russ.  K.  Halle 
1830.  Vol.  I.  (incompl.).  —  H.  J.  Sehmitt  (Rom.  Cath.),  krit,  Gesch.  d. 
neugriech.  u.  russ.  K.  Mayence  1840. —  Hefele,  d.  russ.  K.,  in  the  Tu- 
bing. Quarterly,  1853.  P.  III.  —  Monravije,  in  Hist,  of  the  Ch.  of  Russia, 
transl.  by  Jilachm ore.  Oxford  1842. — J.  Dobrowsky,  Cyrill  u.  Methodius. 
Prague  1823.— Philaret,  Cyrill  u.  Methodius.  Mitau  1847.— J.  A.  Ginzel, 
Gesch.  d.  Slavenap.  Cyrill  u.  Method,  u.  d.  slav.  Liturgie.  Leitm.  1857. 

Among  the  various  races  set  in  motion  when  the  Western 
Empire  was  broken  up,  the  Germans  and  Slavonians  were  des- 
tined to  become  the  principal  actors  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
The  Germanic  tribes  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  ;  and 
at  first  it  seemed  as  if  the  Slavonic  race  generally  would  equally 
connect  itself  with  the  orthodox  Byzantine  Church.  Ultimately, 
however,  only  the  Eastern  Slavonic  countries  continued  in  their 
adherence  to  this  communion.  Most  of  them  were,  about  the 
same  period  as  the  Byzantine  Church,  brought  under  the  yoke 
of  Turkish  dominion.  This  remark  applies  especially  to  the 
Church  of  Bulgaria,  which  at  one  time  enjoyed  so  bright  pros- 
pects. In  proportion  to  these  losses,  was  the  accession  made  to 
the  Greek  Church  by  the  conversion  of  the  Russian  nation.  The 
political  importance  attaching  to  that  empire,  which,  after  having 
for  two  centuries  (1223-1481)  groaned  under  the  yoke  of  the 


ORTHODOX     SLAVONIC-GREEK     CHURCHES.  270 

Mongols,  rapidly  grew  both  in  extent  and  power,  proved  of  great 
advantage  to  the  Greek  Church.  It  is  due  to  the  Russians  that 
at  this  moment  the  orthodox  Greek  almost  equals  in  numbers  and 
influence  the  Romish  Church. 

1.  Not  long  after  the  time  of  Justinian,  Slavonic  tribes  made  irrup- 
tions into  Macedonia,  Tkessalia,  Hellas,  and  the  Peloponnesus.  The 
ancient  Hellenic  population  of  those  countries  was  almost  entirely 
exterminated;  and  Greek  nationality  and  the  profession  of  Christianity 
continued  to  exist  only  in  the  fortified  towns,  especially  in  those  along 
the  sea-coast  and  on  the  islands.  The  Empress  Irene  was  the  first  suc- 
cessfully to  attempt  making  those  new  inhabitants  of  Greece  subject 
both  to  Christianity  and  to  the  Byzantine  Empire.  Basil  the  Mace- 
donian (867-886)  completed  this  effort,  and  that  so  effectually,  that 
even  the  ancient  heathen  Mainols  ($  42,  3)  in  the  Peloponnesus  sub 
mitted.  Mount  Athos,  with  its  hermits  and  monasteries  (§  70,  3), 
became  the  Zion  of  the  new  Church. 

2.  About  850  the  Chazars  in  the  Crimea  sent  to  Constantinople  for 
Christian  missionaries.  The  Court  readily  complied  ;  and  dispatched 
on  this  errand  Constantinus,  surnamed  the  philosopher,  but  better 
known  by  the  name  of  Cyrillus,  which  he  bore  as  a  monk.  He  was  a 
native  of  Thessalonica,  and  perhaps  himself  of  Slavonic  descent ;  at 
any  rate,  he  knew  the  Slavonic  language.  In  the  course  of  a  few  years 
he  succeeded  in  converting  the  great  majority  of  the  people.  In  1016 
the  empire  of  the  Chazars  was  swept  away  by  the  Russians. 

3.  The  Bulgarians  of  Thracia  and  Moesia  had  obtained  their  first 
knowledge  of  Christianity  through  some  Greek  captives ;  but  the  first 
germs  of  a  Christian  Church  were  suppressed  in  a  bloody  persecution. 
Not  long  afterwards,  however,  a  sister  of  Bogoris,  King  of  Bulgaria, 
was  baptized  at  Constantinople  during  her  captivity  in  that  city.  After 
her  liberation,  she  sought,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Byzantine  monk 
Methodius,  a  brother  of  Cyrill,  to  convert  her  brother  to  the  Christian 
faith.  The  providential  occurrence  of  a  famine,  and  a  representation 
of  the  Last  Judgment  painted  by  Methodius,  made  a  deep  impression 
on  the  mind  of  Bogoris.  He  was  baptized,  and  obliged  his  subjects  to 
follow  his  example  (861).  Soon  after  this,  both  Methodius  and  Cyrill 
were  called  to  another  field  of  labour  (to  Moravia,  £  79),  and  in  866 
the  Czar  of  Bulgaria  joined  from  political  motives  the  Western  Church. 
At  his  request,  Pope  Nicholas  I.  sent  bishops  and  priests  to  Bulgaria, 
to  organize  the  Church  of  that  country  in  conformity  with  Romish 
usages.  However,  Byzantine  diplomacy  recalled  the  Bulgarians  to 
their  first  allegiance  ;  and  at  the  Council  of  Constantinople  (869)  their 
representatives  were  readily  convinced  that,  both  according  to  the  law 
of  God  and  of  man,  the  Church  of  Bulgaria  was  subject  to  the  ecclesi- 


270  SECTION    I.  —  THIRD    PERIOD    (692— 1453  A.  P.)  . 

astical  jurisdiction  of  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  (#  67,  1).  Since 
that  time  the  Bulgarians  remained  attached  to  the  Greek  Church 
Meantime  Cyritt  and  Methodius,  the  two  apostles  of  the  Slavonians, 
had  invented  a  Slavonian  alphabet,  and  translated  both  the  Bible  and 
the  Liturgy  into  the  vernacular ;  thus  laying  the  foundation  for  an 
ecclesiastical  literature  in  that  tongue,  which  rapidly  sprung  up,  espe- 
cially in  Bulgaria,  under  the  fostering  care  of  the  noble  Czar  Symeon 
(888-927).  The  tenth  century  formed  the  golden  age  of  the  Bulgarian 
Church  ;  though  at  that  period  the  Bogomile  heresy  (§  71,  3)  made  sad 
havoc.     In  1018  Basil  II.  conquered  Bulgaria. 

4.  The  conversion  of  the  Russians  to  Christianity  is  mentioned  even 
by  Photius.  Under  the  reign  of  the  Grand  Duke  Igor,  Kiev  seems  to 
have  had  a  cathedral.  Olga,  the  widow  of  Igor,  undertook  a  journey 
to  Constantinople,  where  she  was  baptized  in  955,  and  took  the  name 
of  Helena.  But  Svcetoslav,  her  son,  refused  to  follow  her  example. 
According  to  the  statement  of  German  chroniclers,  the  aged  princess 
ultimately  requested  the  Emperor  Otto  I.  to  send  German  missionaries 
to  Russia.  Adalbert  of  Treves,  afterwards  Archbishop  of  Magdeburg, 
followed  this  call ;  but  returned  without  having  achieved  any  result, 
his  companions  having  been  murdered  by  the  way.  ..It  was  reserved 
for  Vladimir  the  Apostolic,  the  grandson  of  Olga,  to  eradicate  the  hea- 
thenism still  rampant  among  his  people.  According  to  a  somewhat 
romantic  legend,  that  monarch  had  dispatched  ten  Boiars  in  order  to 
examine  the  rites  of  the  various  churches.  The  envojTs  seem  to  have 
been  captivated  with  the  splendid  rites  which  they  witnessed  in  the 
Church  of  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople.  In  988  Vladimir  was  baptized 
in  the  ancient  Christian  commercial  city  of  Cherson,  which  the  Russians 
had  lately  taken.  He  took  in  baptism  the  name  of  Basil,  and  was  at 
the  same  time  married  to  the  imperial  Princess  Anna.  In  every  place 
the  idols  were  now  broken  in  pieces  and  burnt ;  the  great  image  of 
Peroon  was  tied  to  the  tail  of  a  horse,  dragged  through  the  streets, 
broken  with  clubs,  and  thrown  into  the  Dnieper.  Soon  afterwards  the 
inhabitants  of  Kiev  were  ordered  to  assemble  on  the  bank  of  the 
Dnieper  in  order  to  be  baptized.  Vladimir  was  on  his  knees  by  the 
river-side  praying  and  thanking  God,  while  the  clergy,  standing  on 
floats,  administered  the  sacred  rite  to  the  people.  Anna  proved  very 
useful  in  encouraging  and  directing  the  organization  of  the  Russian 
Church.  Vladimir  died  in  1015.  His  son  Jaroslav  proved  in  Russia 
another  Justinian.  He  erected  many  churches,  monasteries,  and  schools 
throughout  the  country;  introduced  improvements  in  the  mode  of  ccle- 
brating  public  worship,  especially  in  church  music  ;  awakened  a  taste 
fur  art,  and  zealously  promoted  scientific  pursuits.  Russian  national 
literature  was  first  cultivated  in  the  monastery  of  Kiev,  where  a  native 
•]er-'\  was  also  trained.  There,  at  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century, 
Nestor  composed  his  "Annals"  in  the  Russian  language.    The  spiritual 


THE    HERETICAL    CHURCHES    OF    THE    EAST.       277 

superintendence  of  the  Church  was  committed  to  the  Metropolitan  of 
Kiev,  who  in  turn  was  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople. In  1328  both  the  metropolitan  see  and  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment were  transferred  to  Moscow.  But  when  Kiev  became  subject  to 
Lithuanian  princes,  and  the  latter  joined  the  Latin  Church  (Jagello 
1386),  Kiev  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  a  metropolitan  see  for  the  pro- 
vinces of  Southern  Russia,  independent  of  the  See  of  Moscow  (1415). 
By  dint  of  Polish  and  Jesuit  intrigues,  a  union  was  brought  about 
between  that  Church  and  the  Papal  See  at  the  Synod  of  Brzesc  in 
1594.  —  Isidore,  the  Metropolitan  of  Moscow,  also  attended  the  Synod 
held  at  Florence  in  1439,  where  a  union  with  Piome  was  agreed  upon 
(comp.  §  07,  6),  and  acceded  to  the  resolutions  of  that  assembly.  He 
returned  as  Cardinal  and  Papal  Legate.  But  at  a  council  held  in  Mos- 
cow the  union  was  disavowed ;  Isidore  was  imprisoned,  but  escaped 
and  died  at  Rome  in  14G3.  After  that,  the  Metropolitan  of  Moscow 
continued  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  See  of  Constantinople  till 
1589,  when,  during  a  visit  to  Moscow,  the  Patriarch  Jeremiah  II.  was 
induced  to  declare  the  Russian  Church  independent,  and  to  set  apart 
Job,  at  that  time  Metropolitan  of  Moscow,  to  be  its  first  Patriarch. 

I  73.  THE  HERETICAL  CHURCHES  OF  THE  EAST. 

The  Nestorian  and  Monophysite  churches  of  the  East  main- 
tained their  independence  chiefly  through  the  protection  and 
favour  accorded  them  by  the  Moslem  rulers.  At  the  period  of 
which  we  write,  the  Persian  and  Syrian  Nestorians,  but  especially 
the  Armenian  Monophysites,  displayed  considerable  literary  acti- 
vity and  zeal  in  the  prosecution  of  theological  and  other  studies. 
They  initiated  the  Saracens  in  classical,  philosophical,  and  medi- 
cal lore,  and  made  many  contributions  to  theological  literature. 
For  a  long  time  the  Nestorians  continued  also  their  missionary 
efforts.  The  decay  of  these  churches,  however,  commenced 
when  the  rule  of  the  Khalifs,  who  had  encouraged  intellectual 
pursuits,  gave  place  to  Mongol  and  Turkish  barbarism.  The 
period  of  learning  and  brilliancy  was  followed  by  that  dulness 
and  deadness  which  has  ever  since  prevailed.  To  complete  the 
reunion  with  the  East,  inaugurated  at  the  Synod  of  Florence, 
Rome  soon  afterwards  proclaimed  that  all  the  heterodox  churches 
of  the  East  had  likewise  returned  to  their  allegiance  to  the  Chair 
of  St.  Peter.  But  this  union  proved  in  the  end  either  a  delusion 
or  a  deception.  Pretended  delegates  from  these  churches  so- 
lemnly applied  for  readmission  into  the  bosom  of  the  Church  — 
a  request  which  was  accorded  with  due  pomp  and  formality. 
24 


278  SECTION   I.  —  THIRD   PERIOD   (692— 145.3  A. D.). 

1.  The  Persian  Nestorians  (g  64,  2)  always  continued  on  excellent 
terms  with  their  Khalif  rulers  —  a  circumstance  chiefly  due  to  their 
opposition  to  the  notion  of  a  "  mother  of  God,"  and  to  their  rejection 
of  the  worship  of  saints,  images  and  relics,  and  of  priestly  celibacy. 
Accordingly,  the  Khalifs  regarded  theirs  as  a  kind  of  rational  Chris- 
tianity which  approximated  the  Moslem  ideal.     The  Nestorian  schools 
of  Edessa,  Nisibis,  Seleucia,  etc.,  were  in  a  very  flourishing  state.    But 
the  extensive  literature  which  issued  from  these  seats  of  learning  has 
not  been  handed  down,  and  only  fragments  of  it  have  been  preserved 
in  the  work  of  Assemanus    (Bibl.    Orientalis).      Of  later   Nestorian 
authors  the  best  known  is  Ebcd-Jesu,  the  Metropolitan  of  Nisibis  (ob. 
1318).      His  writings  treat  of  every  department  in   theology.      The 
missionary  labours  of  the  Nestorians  continued  unabated  till  the  thir- 
teenth century.     China  and  India  were  the  fields  to  which  their  ener- 
gies were  principally  directed.     In  the  eleventh  century  they  induced 
the  Chief  of  the  Kerait,  a  Tartar  tribe,  and  most  of  his  subjects  to 
embrace  Christianity.     As  vassal  of  the  great  Chinese  Empire,  that 
prince  bore  the  title   of   Ovang-Khan.     Tidings   of  this   conversion, 
adorned  with  the  most  romantic  details,  reached  the  West,  where  won- 
derful stories  about  the  power  and  glory  of  the  supposed  "Priest-King 
John"  were  circulated.     The  mistake  may  have  arisen  from  confound- 
ing the  title  Khan  with  the  Chaldee  Kahanah  (a  priest),  and  the  name 
Ovang  with  Johannes. — When  Chinghis-Khan,  the  Mongol,  put  an  end 
to  the  rule  of  the  Khalifs  (1202),  the  Nestorian  Church  also  declined. 
For  a  time,  indeed,  the  Nestorians  were  allowed  to  carry  on  missionary 
labours  among  the  Mongols,  and  not  without  success.    But  Tamerlane, 
that  scourge  of  Asia  (1309-1405),  confined  them  within  the  inaccessi- 
ble mountains  and  glens  of  the  province  of  Kurdistan. 

2.  The  most  influential  and  important  among  the  Monophysite  churches 
was  that  of  Armenia  (§  64,  3).     This  country  enjoyed,  at  least  for  a 
period,   political  independence,   under  the  rule  of  native  monarchs. 
Since  the  twelfth   century,   the   Armenian   Patriarch  resided  in  the 
monastery  of  Edgemiadzin,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Ararat.     That  church 
attained  its  highest  stage  of  literary  eminence  —  both  in  the  way  of 
furnishing  translations  of  the  classics  and  the  Fathers,  and  of  producing 
original  works  —  during   the   eighth,   and  again   during  the  twelfth 
centuries.     The  former  of  these  periods  was  adorned  by  writers  such 
as  the  Patriarch  John  Ozniensis  and  the  Metropolitan  Stephen  of  Svnin. 
In  the  twelfth  century  flourished  men  of  even  greater  distinction,  such 
as  the  Patriarch  Kerses  Clajensis  (whose  epos,  "Jesus  the  Son,"  was 
celebrated  as  the  finest  specimen  of  Armenian  poetry),  and  his  nephew 
the  Metropolitan  Nerses'  of  Lampron.     The  two  latter   would   have 
readily  acceded  to  a  union  with  the  Byzantine  Church ;  but  the  pro- 
posal could  not  be  carried  out  on  account  of  the  political  troubles  of 
the   time.     Advances  towards  a    union  with   the    Latin  Church  were 
frequently   made  since  the  thirteenth   century,  but  failed,  from  tho 


THE    HERETICAL    CHURCHES    OF    THE    EAST.      279 

aversion  towards  the  Romish  ritual  entertained  by  the  Armenians.^ 
At  one  time  the  Jacobite-Syrian  Church  (g  52,  7)  also  was  zealously 
engaged  in  prosecuting  theological  studies.  The  most  distinguished 
ornament  of  that  Church  was  Gregory  Abulfaradsch,  the  son  of  a 
Jewish  convert  — hence  commonly  called  Barhebrceus— who  first  occu- 
pied the  See  of  Guba,  and  afterwards  became  Maphrian  of  Mosul  (ob. 
1286).  His  generous  philanthropy,  his  high  mental  endowments,  his 
extraordinary  learning,  and  his  medical  skill,  made  him  equally 
respected  by  Christians,  Mohammedans,  and  Jews.  The  most  im- 
portant and  the  best  known  of  his  writings  is  the  "Chronicon  Syria- 
cvm."  —  The  Jacobite  Church  of  Egypt  stood  probably  lowest  among 
Christian  communities.  The  treason  of  the  Copts,  by  which  the 
Saracens  were  put  in  possession  of  that  flourishing  country,  met  with  a 
terrible  retribution.  Even  the  Fatimide  Khalifa  (since  1254)  oppressed 
them,  and  their  position  was  considerably  aggravated  under  Mameluke 
domination.  The  Copts  wholly  disappeared  from  the  towns,  and  even 
in  villages  the  sect  dragged  on  a  miserable  existence.  Ecclesiastically, 
they  sunk  into  a  state  of  entire  deadness.—  Though  Abyssinia  Proper 
continued  to  be  ruled  by  native  princes,  the  Church  in  that  country 
gradually  declined  to  a  very  low  level  (g  64,  1). 

3.  During  the  Crusades,  the  Maronites  (g  52,  8)  joined,  in  1182,  the 
Church  of  Rome.  They  abjured  their  monothelete  errors,  acknowledged 
the  supremacy  of  the  Pope,  but  were  allowed  to  retain  their  ancient 
rites.  This  union  was  confirmed  in  1445  (in  consequence  of  the  move- 
ment in  connection  with  the  Council  of  Florence).  At  a  later  period, 
they  also  adopted  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  The  united  Ar- 
menians recognized  the  primacy  of  the  Pope  and  the  Catholic  dogma, 
but  reserved  their  own  constitution  and  liturgy. 


SECOND     SECTION. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH 


IN   ITS 


MEDIAEVAL    AND    GERMANIC    FORM    OF 
DEVELOPMENT. 

24  *  (281) 


SOURCES, 


Sources  (comp.  §  4) :  Maxima  Biblioth.  Patrum.  Lugd.  1677.  27 
Voll.  fol. — /.  P.  Migne,  Patrologice  cursus  completus.  Par.  1844.  Series 
II.  Eccl.  Lat.  220  Voll. —  W.Wattenbach,  deutsche  Geschichtschreihor 
in  M.  A.  Berl.  1873. 

Lahhe.  Nova  Biblioth.  manuscr.  Par.  1057.  2  Voll.  fol. —  H.  Canisii 
Lectiones  ant.,  ed.  J.  Rasnage.  Ant.  1725.  5  Voll.  fol.  —  L.  d'Achery 
Spicilegium.  Par.  1G55.  13  Voll.  fol.  —  St.  Baluzii  Miscellanea.  Par. 
1678.  7  Voll.  fol.  —  E.  Mariene  et  Durandi,  Vett.  Scriptt.  ampliss.  col- 
lectio.  Frcf.  1720.  12  Voll. 

/.  Pistorii  Scr.  rer.  German.,  ed.  B.  G.  Stmve.  Ratisb.  1726.  3  Voll. 
fol.  —  M.  Freheri,  Scr.  rer.  German.,  ed.  B.  G.  Siruve.  Argent.  1717.  3 
Voll.  f. — Melch.  Goldast,  Rer.  Alemann.  scriptt.  ed.  H.  C.  Senckenberg. 
Frcf.  1730.  3  Voll.  f.  —  H.  J.  G.  Eccard,  Corpus  Historic,  medii  oevi. 
Lps.  1723.  2  Voll.  f.  —  J.  B.  Mencken,  Scr.  rer.  German.  Lips.  1728.  3 
Voll.  fol.— G.  H.  Perfz,  Monumental  Germanise  hist,  Hann.  1826  sq.  22 
Voll.  fol.  —  /.  Fr.  Bohmer,  Regesta  chronol.  Diplom.  Frcf.  1831  sq. — 
M.  G.  Haimingsfeld,  Coll.  Const.  Imperialium.  Frcf.  1713  f.  —  A.  du 
Chesne,  Hist,' Franc.  Scr.  Par.  1633.  5  Voll.  fol.  —  M.  Bouquet,  Rer. 
Gallic.  Script.  Par.  1736.  17  Voll.  fol.  —  L.  A.  Muratori,  Rer.  Italic. 
Script.  Mediol.  1723.  28  Voll.  fol.  —  Florez,  Espagna  sagrada.  Madr 
1743.  46  Voll.  4.-37.  Parka-,  Rer.  Brit.  Scr.  vetust.  Lugd.  1587  fol.— 
Th.  Gale,  Hist,  Brit.  Saxon.  Anglodan.  Scr.  Oxon.  1691.  2  Voll.  fol.  — 
H.  Wharton,  Anglia  sacra.  Lond.  1691.  2  Voll.  f. 

J.  Hartzheim,  Concilia  Germaniaj.  Colon.  1759.  11  Voll.  f.  —  A.J. 
Binterim,  pragm.  Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  National-,  Prov.-  u.  Dib'c-  Con- 
cilien.  May.  1835.  6  Vols. — /.  Sirmond,  Concilia  ant.  Gallia?,  Par.  1629. 
5  Voll.  f. — D.Wilkins,  cone.  Britanise  et  Hibernian.  Lond.  1737.  4  Voll. 
— /.  Saenz  de  Augirre,  Coll.  max.  Concill.  Hisp.  Rom.  1693.  4  Voll.  fol. 

Auxiliaries:  Fr.  Rehm,  Gesch.  d.  M.  A.  (Hist,  of  the  Middle  Ag.). 
Marb.  1821.  3  Vols,  in  7  Parts.  —  H.  Leo,  Gesch.  d.  M.  A.  Halle  1830. 
—  Heeren  u.  Ukert,  europ.  Staatengesch.  Hamb.  1828. — II.Luden,  Gesch. 
d.  deutsch.  Volkes  (Hist,  of  the  Germ.  Nat.).  Gotha  1825.  12  Vols.— 
J.  Chr.  v.  Pfister,  Gesch.  d.  Deutsch.  Hamb.  1829.  5  Vols.—  W.  Giese- 
brechf,  Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Kaiserzeit.  Vols.  I.  and  III.Braunschw.  1855, 
etc. — Hallam,  Middle  Ages.  11  ed.  London  1855. 

F.  C.  v.  Saviguy,  Gesch.  d.  rom.  Rechts  im  M.  A.  (Hist,  of  Rom. 
Law  in  the  M.  A.).  2d  ed.  Heidelb.  1834.  6  Vols.  —  K.  F.  Eichhom, 

(283) 


284  CHARACTER,    ETC.,    OF    THIS    PHASE. 

deutsche  Staats-  u.  Rechtsgesch.  5th  ed.  Gottg.  1844.  4  Vols. — F.  Walter, 
deutsche  Rechtsgesch.  Bonn  1857.  —  /.  Grimm,  deutsche  Rechtsalter- 
thlimer  (Jurid.  Antiq.  of  Germ.).  3d  ed.  Gott.  1854.  2  Vols.  —  A".  Sim- 
rock,  Handb.  d.  deutsch.  Mythol.  mit  Einschluss  d.  nord.  (Handb.  of 
Germ.  Mythol.,  including  that  of  the  North).  Bonn  1855. — J.  Grimm, 
deutsche  Mythol.  3.  A.  Gottg.  1854.  2  Bde. 

§74.    CHARACTER   AND   EXTENT   OF   THIS   PHASE   OF 

DEVELOPMENT. 

A  new  stage  in  the  development  both  of  the  Church  and  the 
world  commenced  with  the  appearance  of  the  Germanic  nations 
on  the  scene  of  history.  In  its  influence  on  the  character  and 
direction  of  general  history,  and  on  the  agencies  brought  to  bear 
upon  its  course,  the  migration  of  nations  is  a  unique  event. 
Without  ignoring  the  special  influence  exerted  by  the  various 
Slavonic  races,  which  made  their  appearance  at  a  somewhat  later 
period,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  they  were  soon  drawn  in  the 
same  or  in  an  analogous  direction  with  that  of  the  Germanic 
tribes.  This  event  must  therefore  be  regarded  as  forming  the 
boundary  line  between  the  ancient  and  the  modern  world.  But 
the  separation  between  the  past  and  the  coming  development 
was  not  at  once  complete  ;  tendencies  at  work  in  the  old  world 
continued  for  centuries  to  make  themselves  felt  along  with,  and 
by  the  side  of,  those  which  characterized  the  commencement  of  a 
new  era.  Hence,  though  in  part  beyond  the  sphere  of  the 
history  which  now  commenced,  they  cannot  be  left  unnoticed, 
since  —  for  good  or  for  evil — they  exercised  an  important 
influence. 

As  the  general  history  of  the  Church  and  world,  so  that  of 
the  Germanic  nations,  may  be  divided  into  ancient  and  modern, 
bounded  and  separated  by  the  great  Reformation  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  The  former  of  these  periods  may  not  inaptly 
be  likened  to  the  figure  of  Janus  —  one  face  being  directed 
towards  the  ancient,  the  other  towards  the  modern  world.  We 
account  for  this  from  the  circumstance,  that  the  mental  develop- 
ment of  Germanic  and  Slavonic  nations  was  not  the  slow  and 
painful  result  of  personal  and  unaided  labour.  They  inherited 
what  had  been  acquired  by  the  ancient  world,  and  were  thus 
enabled  more  rapidly  and  surely  to  attain  their  own  peculiar 
and  independent  position  and  culture.  As  the  ancieut  Roman 
Chun  h  (^and,  so  far  as  one  important  branch  of  the  Slavonic 


CHARACTER,    ETC.,    OF     THIS     PHASE.  285 

tribes  was  concerned,  the  ancient  Byzantine  also)  was  the  medium 
through  which  this  inheritance  was  conveyed,  it  became  the 
teacher  and  schoolmaster  of  the  world.  But  this  tutelage  could 
not  be  permanent.  Having  attained  and  being  conscious  of  his 
maturity,  the  pupil  broke  these  leading-strings.  At  the  Reforma- 
tion the  Germanic  spirit  attained  its  majority  and  became  eman- 
cipated.-—  Thus,  taking  a  general  and  broad  view  of  it,  this  first 
stage  in  German  ecclesiastical  and  secular  history  occupies  a 
sort  of  intermediate  position,  and  is  therefore  rightly  designated 
as  that  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

1.  The  ecclesiastical  history  of  the  Middle  Ages  forms,  as  even  ita 
name  indicates,  a  period  of  transition  from  the  old  to  the  new.     Chris- 
tianity had  fully  passed  through  the  stages  of  culture  peculiar  to  the 
ancient  Greek  and  Roman  world,  and  made  them  its  own.    It  was  now 
destined  to  pervade  the  forms  of  life  and  culture  characteristic  of  those 
modern  nations  whom  the  migration  of  nations  had  brought  to  the 
foreground  of  history.     But  in  order  to  attain  the  stage  of  culture  for 
which  they  were  fitted   and  designed,  these  peoples  had  first  to  be 
brought  under  the  influence  of  the  ancient  culture.     Thus  a  period 
intervened  which,  while  forming  a  link  of  connection  between  the 
ancient  and  modern  world,  brought  the  stages  of  culture  characteristic 
of  each  into  conflict.     Throughout  the  Middle  Ages  this  conflict  led  to 
continual  action  and  reaction,  or  rather  to  incessant  formation,  deforma- 
tion, and  reformation,  which,  however,  in  every  instance  appeared  not 
separately  and  distinctly,  but  mixed  together  and  confused.     Some  of 
the   most   important   events   and   movements    (such   as   the   Papacy, 
Monasticism,   Scholasticism,   Mysticism,   etc.)   took  their  rise  in   the 
Middle   Ages.     But  as  in   each  and  all  these  movements  the  three 
phases  to  which  we  have  alluded  continued  to  struggle  for  the  mastery, 
neither  of  them  attained  full  maturity,  and  each  in  turn  degenerated. 
It  was  only  in  the   sixteenth   century  that  the  reformatory  element 
attained  sufficient  maturity  and  force  to  appear  pure  and  unmixed  with 
other  tendencies.     Its  victory  marks  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages  and 
the  commencement  of  modern  history. 

2.  The  ecclesiastical  history  of  Germany  previous  to  the  Reforma- 
tion embraces  twelve  centuries,  and  details  very  varied  movements. 
The  first  period  closes  with  the  extinction  of  the  German  Carlovingian 
dynasty  (911).  Up  to  that  time  the  general  movement  in  ecclesiastical 
matters  progressed  uninterruptedly,  rising  before  the  time  of  Charle- 
magne, attaining  its  climax  during  his  reign,  and  then  declining.  This 
may  be  designated  the  distinctively  Germanic  period  of  history.  All 
the  princes  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty,  even  to  its  weakest  repre- 
sentatives, were  inspired  by  the  great  idea  of  uniting  the  various 
Germanic  and  k:ndred  (Romanic  or  Slavonic)  tribes  into  one  Germanic 


286  CHARACTER      ETC.,    OF    THIS    PHASE. 

Empire.    This  idea  only  died  with  the  last  of  the  Carlovingians.    AfrrT 
that  the  tendency  towards    separation  into  independent  and  distinct 
German,  Romanic,  and  Slavonic  States,  which  had  already  appeared 
in  the   ninth   century,   gradually   gained   ground.     The   Carlovingian 
period,  to  which  we  have  referred,  had  a  civilization  of  its  own,  which 
decayed  with  it.     Even  the  Papacy,  to  whose  intrigues  that  dynasty 
succumbed,  felt  the  consequences  of  its  treachery,  and  sank  into  impo- 
tence and  ruin.     To  whatever  point  we  direct  our  attention,  we  descry 
at  the  commencement  of  the  tenth  century  a  fearful  decay,  both  in 
Church  and  State,  in  science,  in  culture,  and  in  art.     The  glorious 
achievements  of  Charlemagne  gave  place  to  a  secuhun  obscurum.    Still, 
even  in  the  confusion  and  the  troubles  of  that  century  we  can  discern 
the  conditions  and  the  germs  of  a  new  and  better  age.  —  The  time  of 
Pope  Boniface  V11L,  or  the  commencement  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
marks  another  and  not  less  important  period.   Before  that  time  Germany 
led  and  gave  the  tone  both  in  secular  and  ecclesiastical  matters.     But 
the  unsuccessful  contest  between  Boniface  and  Philip  the  Fair  of  France 
gave  an  immense  preponderance  to  France,  which  henceforth  led  the 
way  in  all  ecclesiastical  movements.     During  this  period  the  internal 
development  of  the  Church   progressed  very  rapidly.     The  Papacy, 
Monasticism,  and  Scholasticism  —  the  most  important  elements  in  the 
history  of  the  mediaeval  Church  —  attained  their  highest  point  before, 
and  declined  after,  the  time  of  Boniface.    Again,  the  desire  for  reforms, 
which  manifested  itself  throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  was  quite  different 
in  these  two  periods.     Before  the  time  of  Boniface,  the  representatives 
of  the  Church  (Popes,  Monastic  Orders,  and  Schoolmen)  seemed  gene- 
rally desirous  for  a  certain  measure  of  reform,  though  perhaps  not  of  a 
comprehensive  or  entirely  spiritual  character.    On  the  other  hand,  the 
instances  in  which  a  genuine  and  evangelical  desire  after  reform  was 
associated  with  opposition  to  the  prevailing  ecclesiasticism,  were  few 
and  isolated,  while  frequently  it  appeared  in  combination  with  errors 
and  heresies  almost  unparalleled  in  history.    Towards  the  close  of  this 
period,  however,  this  state  of  matters  was  completely  reversed.     Not 
only  had  the  Papacy,  the  Monastic  Orders,  and  the  Schoolmen  degene- 
rated themselves  —  they  had  become  the  main  abettors  of  ecclesiastical 
degeneracy.     Opposition  to  the  Church,  as  then  constituted,  no  longer 
appeared  in  the  wake  of  heretical  tendencies.     The  reformatory  move- 
ment,  though   not  entirely  free   from    admixture   of  errors,   became 
evangelical  in  its  spirit,  and  rapidly  grew  in  strength  and  influence. 
This  phase  of  development,  then,  embraces  three  periods:  that  between 
the  fourth  and  the  ninth  centuries,  that  between  the  tenth  and  the 
thirteenth  centuries,  and  that  which  compiised   the  fourteenth  and 
Bftcenth  centuries. 


FIRST    PERIOD 


OP 


ECCLESIASTICAL     HISTORY 


IN  ITS  MEDIEVAL  AND  GERMANIC  FORM  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 

FROM   THE   FOURTH  TO   THE   NINTH  CENT. 

Comp.  F.  W.  Rettberg,  K.-G.  Deutschlands  (bis  zum  Tode  Karls  d. 
Gr.).  Leipz.  1853.  2  Vols.—  W.  Kraft,  die  K.-G.  der  german.  Volker. 
Berlin  1854.  Vol.  I.  —  H.  Ruckert,  Culturgesch.  d.  deutsch.  Volkes  in 
d.  Zeit  d.  Ueberganges  aus  d.  Heidenth.  in  das  Christenth.  (Hist  of 
Germ.  Civiliz.  during  the  time  of  Trans,  from  Heathen,  to  Christian.). 
Leipz.  1853.  2  Vols.  —  W.  C.  Perry,  The  Franks.  London  1857.  —  Also 
generally :  Hardwick,  Hist,  of  the  Chr.  Ch.,  Middle  Age.  Cambridge* 
1853.  —  Robertson,  Hist,  of  the  Chr.  Ch.  (590-1122).  London  1856. 


I.  ESTABLISHMENT,   SPREAD,   AND   LIMITATIONS   OF   THE 

GERMAN  CHURCH. 

I  75.  CHRISTIANITY   AND   THE   GERMANS. 

Before  the  Germans  appeared  on  the  stage  of  history,  Europe 
was  chiefly  peopled  by  Celtic  races.  In  Britain,  Spain,  and 
Gaul,  these  tribes  were  conquered  by  the  Romans,  and  became 
amalgamated  with  them  ;  while  in  the  north,  the  east,  and  the 
centre  of  Europe  they  were  expelled,  exterminated,  or  absorbed 
by  the  Germans.  When  Christianity  extended  over  the  face  of 
Europe,  the  Celtic  race  existed  as  a  distinct  nationality  only  in 
Ireland  and  Scotland,  as  even  among  the  neighbouring  Britons 
it  had  already  become  mixed  with  Roman  elements.  Hence 
but  a  very  narrow  territory  was  left  on  which  Christianity  might 
assume  the  peculiar  Celtic  form  of  development.     Our  knowledge 

(281) 


288      SECTION   II.  —  FIRST   PERIOD    (CENT.   4—9   A.  D.). 

of  this  phase  of  ecclesiastical  life  is  derived  from  the  few  notices 
left  us  of  Irish  monasteries,  and  of  the  resistance  offered  to  the 
introduction  of  the  Romish  Confession  (§71). 

But  even  before  the  time  of  Christ,  the  Germanic  races  had 
followed  the  Celts,  and  migrated  from  the  East  into  Europe. 
They  were  in  turn  succeeded  by  the  Huns,  by  the  Slavonic  and 
Magyar,  and  other  tribes.  So  early  as  the  latter  half  of  the 
third  century,  the  Germans  were  brought  into  contact  with 
Christianity.  Only  one  century  elapsed  when  a  number  of 
powerful  peoples  of  Germanic  descent  professed  the  Gospel. 
Since  that  period  each  century,  till  late  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
witnessed  fresh  national  additions  to  the  Church  from  among 
that  race.  These  great  results  have  sometimes,  though  erro- 
neously, been  traced  to  a  peculiar  natural  and  national  predis- 
position for  Christianity.  But  while  we  gladly  admit  its  exist- 
ence—  at  least  in  some  measure,  we  deny  that  the  Germans 
were  in  consequence  of  it  attracted  to  Christianity,  as  at  that 
time  it  was  preached.  In  our  opinion,  it  manifested  itself  chiefly 
after  Christianity  had  by  other  instrumentality  gained  an  entrance, 
and  only  appeared  fully  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation.  For 
this  predisposition  had  reference  to  the  profoundest  bearings  of 
Christianity,  which  were  neglected  and  ignored  in  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal externalism  of  earlier  days.  It  was  the  task  of  the  Germanic 
Church  to  develop  and  to  bring  prominently  forward  these 
aspects  of  the  Gospel. 

1.  Much  of  what  has  been  vaunted  about  the  special  predisposition 
of  the  Germans  towards  Christianity,  is  either  exaggeration  or  mis- 
apprehension. Admitting  that  in  German  Mythology  many  deep 
thoughts,  concealed  under  the  garb  of  poetic  legends,  bear  evidence  of 
the  high  religious  aspirations,  the  intellectual  endowments,  and  the 
remarkable  spiritual  anticipations  of  the  Germanic  race,  and  as  such 
may  have  formed  a  preparation  for  Christian  truth,  it  will  scarcely  be 
maintained  that  these  characteristics  apply  to  it  in  greater  measure 
than  to  the  myths,  speculations,  or  mysteries  of  ancient  Greece.  To 
our  mind,  the  predisposition  should  rather  be  traced  to  the  peculiar 
character  of  German  national  life.  There  we  notice  the  devotedness 
and  attachment  of  vassals  towards  their  lord,  which  formed  so  marked 
a  peculiarity  of  the  German  mind,  and  which,  when  applied  to  Christ 
as  the  Heavenly  King,  constitutes  the  very  essence  of  Christianity  — 
even  personal  surrender  to  the  Saviour,  a  close  and  affectionate  relation- 
ship towards  Him,  and  dependence  on  Him  for  justification  by  faith 
alone,    which     even     Augustine,  that  Paul  among  the  Fathers,  was 


CHRISTIANITY     AND    THE     GERMANS.  289 

unable  to  comprehend  in  all  its  breadth  and  fulness.  In  connection 
with  this  sentiment,  we  also  note  the  native  readiness  to  combat  and 
to  persevere  in  their  struggles  for  their  rightful  lord,  which,  when 
directed  towards  the  Gospel,  constitutes  the  main  characteristic  of 
practical  Christianity  —  the  pressing  forward  through  contests  to 
victory.  Again,  the  German  love  of  freedom  offered,  when  sanctified 
by  Christianity,  a  fitting  form  and  expression  for  the  glorious  liberty 
of  the  children  of  God;  while  even  Tacitus  speaks  of  the  spirituality  of 
those  religious  rites  which  predisposed  them  to  the  worship  of  God  "  in 
spirit  and  in  truth  (nee  cohibere  parietibus  Deos,  neque  in  ullam 
humani  oris  speciem  adsimulare,  ex  magnitudine  coelestium  arbi- 
trantur)." 

2.  The  circumstance,  that  so  many  Germanic  tribes  adopted  Chris- 
tianity without  offering  almost  any  resistance,  is  most  readily  explained 
by  the  untenable  character  of  the  Pagan  superstitions  prevailing  at  the 
time.  In  general,  heathenism  can  only  thrive  on  its  own  native  soil. 
Transplanted  to  Europe,  the  superstitions  of  those  tribes  did  not  strike 
root  during  the  turmoil  and  the  movements  of  the  period  which  followed 
their  importation.  But  if  centuries  were  allowed  to  elapse,  before  the 
Gospel  was  introduced — as  in  the  case  of  the  Frisians,  the  Saxons,  the 
Danes,  etc.  —  the  opposition  to  its  doctrines  was  much  stronger.  An- 
other element  which  either  materially  aided  or  else  impeded  the  spread 
of  Christianity,  was  the  presence  or  the  want  of  Christian  institutions 
dating  from  the  times  of  Roman  domination.  In  districts  where  hea- 
thenism had  reigned  wholly  undisturbed,  the  superstitions  imported  by 
the  Germans  soon  found  a  firm  lodgment.  But  where  Christianity  had 
once  gained  admittance,  the  elevated  culture,  and  superior  intellectual 
power  associated  with  it,  rendered  the  full  and  free  development  of 
heathenism  impossible,  even  though  the  Gospel  was  for  a  time  sup- 
pressed in  the  district.  Besides,  in  many  instances  the  alliances  of 
heathen  rulers  with  Christian  princesses  led  to  the  conversion  of  the 
former,  and  with  them  of  all  their  subjects.  No  doubt  the  same  causes 
must  also  frequently  have  operated  in  the  more  narrow  circle  of  the 
family  or  the  clan.  Such  influences  were  peculiarly  characteristic  of 
the  Saxon  tribes,  who  alone  assigned  so  high  a  place  to  woman  :  Inesse 
quin  etiam  (says  Tacitus)  sanctum  aliquid  et  providum  putant,  nee  aut 
consilia  earum  adspernantur,  aut  responsa  negligunt. 

3.  Judging  from  the  ordinary  practice  of  the  Church  (and  not  U 
speak  of  the  wholesale  conversions  accomplished  by  Christian  princes 
through  fire  and  sword),  both  baptism  and  conversion  must  have  been 
generally  regarded  as  an  opus  operatum  ;  and  whole  heathen  tribes 
were  baptized  without  having  previously  obtained  a  proper  knowledge 
of  salvation,  or  undergone  a  change  of  heart  or  mind.  This  can,  of 
course,  be  neither  approved  nor  commended.  At  the  same  time,  it 
must  be  admitted  that  only  in  this  manner  considerable  and  rapid 

25 


290       SECTION    II. FIRRT    PERIOD    (CENT.4--9A.D.). 

results  could  have  been  obtained  ;  nay,  that  in  the  infant  state  of  the 
German  races,  something  may  be  said  in  favour  of  this  practice.  A 
survey  of  the  past  would  direct  the  Church,  in  its  contest  with  German 
Paganism,  to  use  other  weapons  than  those  which  had  been  employed 
in  the  conflict  with  the  heathenism  of  Greece  and  of  Rome.  In  the 
latter  case,  Christianity  was  brought  to  bear  on  society  in  its  highest 
stat''  of  cultivation,  — on  a  world  which,  so  to  speak,  had  grown  old, 
and  come  to  despair  of  its  powers  and  capabilities,  and  where  the  expe- 
rience and  history  of  the  preceding  ten  centuries  served  as  a  "school- 
master to  Christ."  It  was  far  otherwise  with  the  Germanic  races. 
If,  therefore,  Roman  society  might  be  compared  to  a  proselyte  who  in 
riper  years,  and  after  having  passed  through  many  experiences,  is  ad- 
mitted into  the  Church,  the  conversion  of  the  Germans  may  be  likened 
to  a  baptism  administered  during  infancy. 

I    76.   VICTORY  OF   CATHOLICISM   OYER  ARIANISM. 

Coup.  W.  Kraft,  K.  G.  d.  germ.  Yolke.  Vol.  I.  —  Cli.  Waifz,  u.  d. 
Leben  u.  d.  Lehre  d.  Ulfila  (The  Life  and  Teaching  of  Ulf.).  Ilann. 
1840.  4to.  — J.  Aschbach,  Gesch.  d.  Westgothen.  Frcf.  1X21.— F.  W. 
Lembke,  Gesch.  v.  Spanien  (Hist,  of  Spain).  Vol.  I.  Ilamb.  1831.— 
F.  Papencordt,  Gesch.  d.  vand.  Herrsch.  in  Afr.  (Hist,  of  Vandal  Domin. 
in  Afr.).  Berl.  1837.  —  J.  C.  F.  Manso,  Gesch.  d.  ostgoth.  Reiches  in 
Ital.  Bresl.  1824.— J.  E.  v.  Koch- Sfernf 'eld,  d.  Reich  d.  Langob.  in  Ital. 
Mun.  1830.—//.  Leo,  Gesch.  d.  italien.  Staaten.  Vol.  I.  Hamb,  1829 — 
/.  W.  Loebell,  Gregor  v.  Tours  u.  seine  Zeit.  Leipz.  1839. — A.  Thierry, 
Recit  des  temps  Merovingiens.     Par.  1842.     2  Vols. 

When  Christianity  made  its  first  great  conquests  in  Germany.. 
Arianism  was  at  the  height  of  its  power  in  the  Roman  Empire. 
Internal  dissensions  and  external  dangers  obliged  a  portion  of 
the  Goths,  during  the  latter  half  of  the  fourth  century,  to  seek  alli- 
ances with  the  Eastern  Empire,  and  to  purchase  its  protection 
by  making  a  profession  of  Arianism.  Within  a  short  time,  the 
missionary  labours  of  a  number  of  native  priests,  directed  by  Bishop 
Ulfilas,  led  to  the  spread  of  Arianism  among  numerous  other 
Germanic  races,  though  we  are  unable  to  trace  its  exact  pro- 
gress. About  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  more  than  half  the 
German  race — the  Ostrogoths  and  Yisigoths,  the  Vandals,  Suevi, 
Burgundians,  Lombards,  Herulians,  Rugians,  Gepidae,  and  others 
—professed  that  creed.  But  as  the  friendly  relations  subsisting 
between  these  tribes  and  the  Roman  Empire  had  prepared  the 
way  for  the  spread  of  Arianism,  so  the  hostilities  which  ensued 
alter  Rome  had  again  adopted  the  Catholic  faith,  were  partly 


VICTORY   OF    CATHOLICISM    OVER   ARIANISM.      291 

the  cause  of  their  tenacious  and  even  fanatical  adherence  to  that 
heresy.  Arianism  had,  indeed,  become  wellnigh  the  national 
creed  of  Germany  ;  and  it  almost  seemed  destined  to  obtain  pos- 
session of  all  Germany,  and  with  it  of  future  history.  But  these 
prospects  were  speedily  annihilated  by  the  conversion  of  one  of 
the  most  powerful  Germanic  tribes  to  Catholicism.  From  the 
first  the  policy  of  the  Franks  had  been  directed  against  their 
strong  kindred  around  them,  rather  than  against  the  Roman 
domination,  which  was  rapidly  nearing  its  end.  The  same  policy 
also  dictated  their  adoption  of  Catholicism.  Relying  on  the 
protection  of  Him  whom  Catholic  Christendom  worshipped,  and 
on  the  sympathies  of  the  Western  Catholics,  the  Frankish  rulers 
undertook  the  double  mission  of  suppressing  heresy  and  of  con- 
quering heretical  countries.  It  was,  therefore,  their  policy  to 
renounce  the  former,  in  order  to  find  occasion  for  the  attainment 
of  the  latter  object. 

1.  The  Goths  in  the  Countries  along  the  Danube.  —  Christianity  had 
been  introduced  among  the  Goths  about  the  middle  of  the  third  century 
by  Roman  captives.  TheopMhis,  a  Gothic  bishop,  is  mentioned  as  one 
of  the  members  of  the  Council  of  Nice  in  325.  The  zeal  and  success 
of  Bishop  Ulfilas,  a  descendant  of  a  captive  Christian  family  from 
Cappadocia,  who  since  348  preached  to  the  Visigoths  (or  Thervingians), 
and  was  even  then  an  adherent  to  the  Arian  confession,  excited 
the  enmity  of  the  heathen,  which  broke  out  in  a  bloody  persecution 
(355).  Accompanied  by  a  large  number  of  his  Gothic  converts,  Ulfilas 
fled  across  the  Danube,  where  the  Emperor  Constantius,  who  regarded 
the  Bishop  as  a  second  Moses,  gave  them  a  residence  in  Mt.  Haemus, 
Ulfilas  continued  his  successful  labours  for  thirty-three  years.  To  give 
his  people  access  to  the  sacred  oracles,  he  translated  the  Bible  into  the 
Gothic  language,  for  which  he  had  constructed  an  alphabet  {ob.  388). 
Full  details  of  his  life  and  teaching  are  given  by  Auxentius,  Bishop  of 
Dorostorus  (Silistria),  a  pupil  of  Ulfilas,  in  a  short  biography  of  the 
Apostle  of  the  Goths,  which  Waitz  has  lately  discovered  (see  above). — 
But  all  the  Gothic  converts  had  not  left  their  country  with  Ulfilas. 
Those  who  remained  behind  proved  a  leaven  to  the  heathen  around. 
Accordingly,  about  370,  Athanarieh,  King  of  the  Thervingians,  raised 
another  persecution.  Soon  afterwards,  a  rebellion  broke  out  among 
the  Thervingians.  Frithigern,  the  leader  of  the  discontented,  was  indeed 
worsted,  but  obtained  assistance  from  the  Emperor  Valens,  and,  in 
gratitude  for  this  aid,  along  with  his  adherents,  adopted  Arianism. 
This  was  the  first  instance  in  which  the  Goths  embraced  Christianity 
in  considerable  numbers.  Soon  afterwards  (in  375),  the  victories  of 
the  Huns  swept  away  the  empire  of  the  Ostrogoths.     A  portion  of  that 


294   SECTION  II. —  FIRST  PERIOD  (CENT.  4-9  A.D.). 

of  Clotilda,  continued  a  Catholic.  Gundobald,  his  brother,  having 
murdered  his  kindred,  possessed  himself  of  their  dominions.  But  the 
zeal  and  labours  of  Avilus,  Bishop  of  Vienne,  prevented  the  spread  of 
Arianism,  and  both  Sigismond,  the  son  of  Gundobald,  and  his  subjects 
returned  into  the  Catholic  Church  at  the  Diet  of  Epaon  in  517.  But 
in  the  eyes  of  Clotilda,  the  wife  of  Cluvis,  King  of  the  Franks,  even 
this  conversion  could  not  atone  for  the  guilt  of  Sigismond's  father. 
Her  sons  avenged  their  maternal  grandfather,  and  put  an  end  to  the 
Burgundian  monarchy  in  534. — {Principal  Source:  Gregorii  Turon.  hist. 
Francorum.) 

G.  In  conjunction  with  the  Ileruli,  the  Schyri,  and  the  Turcelingi, 
the  Rugians  had  founded  an  independent  state  (in  what  now  consti- 
tutes Lower  Austria),  and  called  it  Rugiland.  Their  religion  consisted 
of  a  mixture  of  heathen  practices  with  Arianism,  which  had  spread 
among  them  from  their  Gothic  neighbours.  The  Catholic  Romans 
whom  they  found  in  the  country  were  much  oppressed  by  them.  But 
since  454  St.  Severinus  (ob.  482)  laboured  in  that  district,  a  messenger 
truly  sent  from  on  high  to  cheer  and  uphold  these  persecuted  people. 
Even  the  barbarians  were  constrained  to  pay  him  reverence ;  and  his 
influence  over  both  heathen  and  Arians  was  almost  unlimited.  He  is 
said  to  have  announced  the  future  greatness  of  Odoacer.  That  prince 
put  an  end  to  the  "Western  Empire,  and  for  seventeen  years  ruled  over 
Italy  with  equal  firmness  and  wisdom.  Odoacer  abolished  (in  487) 
Rugian  rule,  and  with  it  Arian  persecution,  in  Rugiland.  But  soon 
afterwards  Thcoderic,  the  Ostrogoth,  invaded  Italy,  took  Ravenna  after 
a  siege  of  three  years,  made  Odoacer  prisoner,  and  treacherously  killed 
him  at  a  banquet  (493). 

7.  The  Ostrogoths  had  become  converts  to  Arianism  long  before  they 
conquered  Italy,  but  they  were  free  from  the  fanaticism  which  charac- 
terized that  religious  party  in  almost  every  part  of  Germany.  Thco- 
deric afibrded  protection  to  the  Catholic  <  Jhurch  :  he  valued  and  fostered 
Roman  culture  —  acts  of  which  the  credit  is  certainly  due  in  part  to 
Cassiodorus,  the  excellent  counsellor  of  the  Ostrogoth  monarch  (£  47, 
C).  This  large-spirited  toleration  was  the  more  readily  accorded,  since, 
from  the  protracted  schism  (lasting  for  35  years,  I  52,  5),  no  dangerous 
political  combination  between  the  Catholics  of  the  East  and  the  West 
was  to  be  apprehended.  Accordingly,  when  this  schism  ceased  in 
519,  Thcoderic  began  to  take  a  more  lively  interest  in  the  progress  of 
the  Arian  Church,  and  to  view  the  Catholics  with  some  measure  of 
suspicion.  He  died  in  52fi.  The  Emperor  Justinian  availed  himself 
of  the  confusion  consequent  on  the  death  of  Theodoric  to  regain  Italy. 
At  the  close  of  a  war  which  lasted  for  twenty  years,  Nurses,  the 
Byzantine  general,  had  swept  away  the  last  traces  of  Ostrogoth  domi- 
nation. On  its  ruins  the  Byzantine  rule  was  again  raised,  under  the 
name  of  an  Exarchate,  and  with  Ravenna  as  its  capital.     During  that 


VICTORY    OF   CATHOLICISM    OVER   ARIANISM.       295 

period  the  rule  of  Arianism  in  Italy  was  of  course  at  an  end. — (Prin- 
cipal Sources:  Procopius,  de  bello  Goth. —  Jumandes,  de  reb.  Geticis. — ■ 
Cassiodori  Varia  et  Chronic.) 

8.  The  Lombards  in  Italy.  —  In  568  the  Lombards  left  their  homes 
by  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  under  the  leadership  of  Alboin  invaded 
Italy,  and  conquered  that  portion  called,  after  them,  Lombardy,  with 
Ticinum  (Pavia)  its  capital.  The  successors  of  Alboin  extended  their 
conquests  till  only  the  southern  extremity  of  Italy,  the  districts  along 
the  sea-shore,  and  a  number  of  fortified  towns  in  the  interior,  remained 
under  Byzantine  rule.  Incited  by  love  of  plunder  and  suspiciousness, 
the  Lombards,  who  professed  Arianism,  for  twenty  years  waged  equal 
warfare  against  Roman  civilization  and  Roman  Catholicism.  But  after 
the  first  storm  of  persecution  had  passed,  religious  indifferentism  again 
prevailed,  and  the  spiritual  impotence  of  the  Arian  clergy  proved 
unequal  in  the  contest  with  Catholicism.  Pope  Gregory  the  Great 
(590-604)  —  a  prelate  equally  wise  and  energetic  —  gave  himself  with 
untiring  zeal  to  missionary  labours.  He  found  a  powerful  auxiliary 
in  Queen  Theodelinda,  a  Bavarian  princess,  and  a  devoted  Catholic. 
So  enthusiastic  were  the  Lombards  in  their  admiration  of  their  beau- 
tiful and  amiable  queen,  that  when  Avthari,  her  husband,  was  killed 
the  first  year  after  her  marriage,  they  allowed  her  to  select  among  the 
Lombard  dukes  one  to  whom  she  would  give  her  hand,  and  whom 
they  would  acknowledge  their  king.  Her  choice  fell  on  Agihilf,  who 
indeed  continued  an  Arian,  but  did  not  oppose  the  spread  of  Catho- 
licism among  the  people.  Under  the  reign  of  Grimoald  (ob.  071)  the 
work  of  converting  the  Lombards  to  the  Catholic  Church  was  com- 
pleted, and  soon  afterwards  they  adopted  the  language  and  manners 
of  Rome.  (Comp.  \  82,  1.) —  (Principal  Source:  Paidi  Diac,  de  gestis 
Langk  Lb.  VI.) 

9.  The  Franks  in  Gaul.  —  Roman  domination  continued  for  a  time 
in  Gaul,  even  after  Odoacer  had  in  476  put  an  end  to  the  Western 
Empire.  But  the  victory  of  Soissons,  which  in  480  Childeric,  the 
Merovingian,  gained  over  Syagrius,  the  Roman  Governor,  terminated 
that  rule.  In  493  Clovis  (481  -511)  espoused  Clotilda,  a  Burgundian 
princess  (see  above,  note  5).  The  young  queen,  who  was  devotedly 
attached  to  the  Catholic  faith,  used  every  effort  to  convert  her  heathen 
husband.  For  a  long  time  the  national  pride  of  the  Frankish  ruler 
resisted  her  endeavours,  though  he  consented  to  have  their  first-born 
son  baptized.  The  death  of  this  infant  appeared  to  Clovis  an  indication 
of  the  displeasure  of  his  gods.  Still  he  could  not  resist  the  entreaties 
of  his  wife,  and  their  second  son  was  likewise  admitted  into  the  Church. 
This  infant  also  was  taken  dangerously  ill ;  but  the  earnest  prayers  of 
his  mother  were  followed  by  his  unexpected  recovery,  and  Clovis 
learned  that  the  God  of  the  Christians  was  able  to  disarm  the  vengeance 
of  Wuotan.     The  circumstance  recurred  to  the  mind  of  the  king  when, 


296      SECTION    II. — FIRST   PERIOD    (C  E  N  T  .  4— 9  A.  D.). 

in  the  battle  of  Tolbiac  (in  49G)  against  the  Alemanni,  he  was  threatened 
with  defeat,  with  the  loss  of  his  empire  and  of  his  life.  The  prayers 
offered  to  his  gods  had  remained  unanswered:  he  now  addressed  him- 
self to  the  God  of  the  Christians,  vowing  to  adopt  that  faith  if  he  were 
delivered  from  his  imminent  danger.  Immediately  the  aspect  of  the 
battle  changed.  The  army  and  the  empire  of  the  Alemanni  were  de- 
stroyed. True  to  his  promise,  Clovis  was  baptized  in  Rheims,  at 
Christmas  496,  by  Remigius,  the  Archbishop,  who  addressed  him  in 
the  words:  "  Bend  thy  neck,  proud  Sicamher;  adore  what  thou  didst 
burn  ;  burn  what  thou  didst  adore."  (Legend  afterwards  adorned  the 
event  with  miraculous  details.  It  seems,  that  when  the  attendant  who 
carried  the  phial  with  the  oil  destined  for  anointing  Clovis  was  unable 
to  make  bis  way  through  the  crowd,  in  answer  to  the  prayer  of  Remi- 
"•ius  a  white  dove  brought  from  heaven  another  phial,  ever  since  used 
in  the  coronation  of  the  French  kings).  According  to  the  measure  of 
his  knowledge,  Clovis  was  sincere  and  earnest  in  his  profession  of 
Christianity.  Most  of  the  nobles  and  of  the  people  soon  followed  his 
example.  Not  that  he  had  undergone  any  change  of  heart:  he  had 
made  a  compact  with  the  God  of  the  Christians,  and  he  was  prepared 
faithfully  to  observe  its  terms.  It  affords  sad  proof  of  the  low  state  of 
religion  at  the  time,  that  the  grossest  faithlessness,  treason,  and 
assassination  stained  the  life  of  Clovis  after  his  baptism.  And  yet  the 
Catholic  clergy  of  the  West  extolled  him  as  another  Constantine,  and 
as  divinely  appointed  to  root  up  heathenism  and  Arianism.  Regarding 
this  as  the  mission  entrusted  to  him,  they  neither  asked  nor  expected 
more  at  his  hands.  However,  the  conversion  of  Clovis  proved  an  event 
of  the  greatest  importance,  since  it  sealed  the  doom  of  the  barbarous 
and  fanatical  Arianism  of  the  German  tribes.  Along  with  its  creed, 
the  Catholic  Church  introduced  the  civilization  and  literature  of  the 
ancient  world.  Thus  trained,  the  Germans  founded  an  empire  destined 
for  many  centuries  to  continue  the  centre  around  which  the  history  of 
the  world  was  to  revolve.  —  [Principal  Source:  Gregorii  Turon.  hist. 
Francorum  eccles.  (Comp.  also  for  the  hist,  of  the  Franks,  Dr.  Perry, 
The  Franks.  London,  Longman,  1857). 

I'l.  VICTORY   OF   THE   ROMISH   OYER   THE   BRITISH 

CONFESSION. 

Comp.  Jac.   Usserii,  Britann.  ecclosiae  antiquitt.  Lond.  1C87  fol.  — 
Fr.  Milliter,  die  altbrit.  Kirche  (in   the  theol.  Stud.  u.  Krit.  for  1833). 

—  C.  Fr.  Slaudlin,  K.  G.  v.  Grossbrit.  Gottg.  is!!).  2  Vols.— Th.  Moore, 
History  of  Ireland. — J.  Lanigan,  Eccl.  Hist,  of  Ireland.  2d  ed.  4  Vols. 

—  ./.  M.  Lappenberg,  Gesch.  von  England.  Vol.  I.  Ilamb  1834.  —  /. 
TAngard  (U.  Cath.),  Antiquities  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Ch.  —  K.  Schrod't 
(R.  Cath.),  d.  L  Jahrh.  d.  engl.  Kirche  (the  First  Cent,  of  the  Engl 
Ch.).—  C.  G.  Sehoell,  de  Ecc.  Britt.  Scotu-umque  hist,  fontibus.  Bei 


VICTORY     OF     THE     ROMISH     CONFESSION.        297 

)851.—  Wilkins,  Concilia  Brit,  et  Hibernica.  London  1737.  4  Vols  fol. 
—  Spelmanni  Cone.  Deer.  Const,  in  re  Eccl.  orbis  Brit,  (to  the  yeai 
1531  _more  complete  than  Wilkins).  2  Vols.  fol.  1639-64  —  Jiedoe 
Venerabilis  Hist.  Eccl.  gentis  Anglor.  —  Wharton's  Anglia  Sacra ;  and 
the  authorities  quoted  in  Robertson,  Hist,  of  the  M.  Ages,  pp.  15  et  seq. 

An  old  legend  has  it,  that  a  British  king,  Lucius  by  name,  had 
so  early  as  the  middle  of  the  second  century  requested  Eleu- 
therus,  Bishop  of  Home,  to  send  him  Christian  missionaries, 
and  that  both  he  and  his  people  had  been  converted  by  their 
preaching.  Without  attaching  importance  to  this  tradition,  it  ia 
certain  that  since  the  close  of  the  second  century  Christianity 
had  struck  root  in  that  part  of  Britain  which  was  under  Roman 
domination.  Up  to  the  time  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  invasion  (in 
449)  the  British  Church  entertained  close  and  continual  commu- 
nication with  the  sister-churches  on  the  Continent,  especially 
with  those  of  Gaul  and  Rome.  But  after  that,  Christianity 
ceased  to  be  professed  except  along  the  west  coast,  and  the  rela- 
tions between  the  British  and  foreign  churches  were  interrupted. 
When,  after  an  interval  of  150  years,  a  Romish  mission  arrived 
(in  597)  to  renew  the  former  intercourse,  it  appeared  that  the 
British  ecclesiastical  system  differed  from  that  of  Rome  (which 
during  that  period  had  developed)  on  many  points  connected 
with  worship,  government,  and  discipline.  Rome  insisted  ou 
conformity — a  demand  which  the  Britons  strenuously  resisted. 
The  chief  objection  of  the  British  Church  lay  against  the  claims 
of  the  Romish  hierarchy.  These  divergences  have  sometimes 
been  traced  to  the  supposed  circumstance  that  the  British  Church 
had  originally  been  founded  by  missionaries  from  Asia  Minor — a 
statement  which  rests  on  no  historical  grounds.  Nor  is  it  neces- 
sary to  refute  the  assertions  of  some,  who  vaunt  that  apostolica'i 
Christianity  had  been  preserved  in  its  purity  among  the  ancient 
Britons,  and  speak  of  their  evangelical  opposition  to  the  erro- 
neous teaching  and  ordinances  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  In 
point  of  fact,  the  religion  of  Britain  and  of  Rome  was  essen- 
tially the  same  :  in  both,  the  same  tendency  to  superstition  ap- 
pears ;  in  both  churches  we  have  the  worship  of  saints  and  of 
relics,  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  asceticism,  and  work-righteous- 
ness Very  true  the  clergy  of  Britain  had  not  the  same  hie- 
rarchical pretensions  as  that  of  Rome  ;  and  too,  in  consequence 
of  the  struggle  which  now  ensued,  more  broad  and  liberal  views 
were  broached  than   had  at  first  been  entertained.     At  first,  in- 


298      SECTION    II. — FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  4-9  A.D.). 

deed,  victory  seemed  to  incline  towards  the  National  Church  •, 
but  ultimately  the  contest  ended  in  the  complete  suppression  of 
the  British  Confession.  In  Germany,  where  the  conflict  was 
renewed,  it  terminated  in  the  same  manner,  notwithstanding  the 
exertions  made  by  the  British  missionaries  (§  18).  A  very  deep 
interest  attaches  to  this  contest.  If  the  British  Confession  had 
prevailed,  as  at  one  time  seemed  probable,  not  England  only,  but 
also  Germany,  would  from  the  first  have  stood  in  direct  antago- 
nism to  the  Papacy, — a  circumstance  which  would  have  given  an 
entirely  different  turn  both  to  the  Ecclesiastical  and  the  Political 
History  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

1.  Chief  Peculiarities  of  the  British  Confession. —  The  Easter  cycle 
of  nineteen  years,  which  Dionysius  Exiguus  had  introduced  (|  56,  3), 
was  nut  adopted  in  Britain.  Further,  instead  of  the  Romish  "tonsura 
Petri"  (|  45,  3),  the  native  clergy  had  a  peculiar  form  of  tonsure,  the 
whole  forepart  of  the  head  being  shaved.  They  also  refused  to  submit 
to  the  injunction  of  clerical  celibacy,  and  to  acknowledge  the  primacy 
of  Rome;  they  rejected  auricular  confession,  the  doctrine  of  purgatory, 
the  tenet  which  made  marriage  a  sacrament,  the  stringent  ordinances 
of  Rome  in  regard  to  degrees  of  fictitious  affinity,  etc.  But  all  these 
differences  arose  not  from  any  doctrinal  divergence;  at  least,  if  such 
existed,  it  was  never  mentioned.  Indications,  however,  are  not  want- 
ing that  Pelagianism  found  more  favour  among  the  Britons  (perhaps 
from  the  nationality  of  its  author,  \  53,  3)  than  in  the  Western  Church 
generally.  The  ancient  British  clergy  bore  the  name  of  Cahlees  (Kele- 
De,  colidei  — servi  Dei). —  (Comp.  Smith,  Life  of  S.  Col.  Edinb.  1798. 
— /.  Jamieson,  Hist.  Account  of  the  Ancient  Culdees  of  Iona.  Edinb. 
1811.—/.  G.J.  Braun,  de  Culdeis.  Bonn.  1840,  4.— Russell,  Hist,  of  the 
Ch.  in  Scotland.) 

2.  So  early  as  the  commencement  of  the  fifth  century,  Christianity 
had  been  introduced  among  the  Celtic  inhabitants  of  Ireland  (Erin, 
Hibernia).  The  missionary  labours  of  Palladivs,  a  deacon  from  Rome 
(in  431),  were  indeed  unsuccessful ;  but  in  432  St.  Patrick,  the  Apos- 
tle of  Ireland,  accompanied  by  twenty-four  fellow-labourers,  arrived  on 
its  shores.  Tradition  fixes  on  Kilpatrick,  Scotland,  as  his  native  place ; 
he  mentions  Bonave  (in  Gaul)  as  the  residence  of  his  father.  His 
proper  name  is  said  to  have  been  Saccat.  In  his  sixteenth  year,  pirates 
had  carried  him  to  Ireland,  and  sold  him  to  an  Irish  chief,  whose  flocks 
lie  tended  for  six  years.  After  his  liberation,  the  constraining  power 
of  the  love  of  Christ  made  him  choose  active  Christian  service ;  his 
thoughts  and  feelings  took  the  form  of  night-visions  ;  and  he  resolved 
to  proclaim  the  glorious  liberty  of  the  children  of  God  to  those  who 
had  so  long  held  him  in  abject  slavery.  Well  acquainted  with  the  lan- 
guage and  customs  of  the  country,  h«  assembled  the  people  by  beat  of 


VICTORY     OF     THE     ROMISH     CONFESSION.         299 

drum  in  the  open  air,  and  related  to  them  the  sufferings  of  Christ  foi 
the  salvation  of  men.  Although  the  Druids  opposed  all  their  influence 
to  his  efforts,  his  amiable  and  commanding  character  disarmed  hos- 
tility. Not  one  martyr  fell ;  and  after  a  few  years,  all  Ireland  was 
converted  to  Christ,  and  the  country  covered  with  churches  and  monas- 
teries. Patrick  himself  resided  in  the  district  of  Maeha.  Around  his 
dwelling  the  town  of  Armagh  (afterwards  the  metropolitan  see  of  Ire- 
land) sprung  up.  He  died  in  4G5,  leaving  the  Church  of  Ireland  in 
the  most  flourishing  state.  The  numerous  monasteries,  whose  inmates 
combined  deep  piety  with  ardent  study  of  the  Scriptures,  and  of  whom 
so  many  went  forth  to  teach  and  to  preach  in  all  countries,  gained  for 
Ireland  the  title  of  Insula  Sanctorum.  The  Irish  monasteries  only 
declined  after  the  incursions  of  the  Danes  in  the  ninth  century.  Under 
the  title  of  "  Confessiones,"  St.  Patrick  himself  has  left  us  an  autobio- 
graphy, which  is  still  extant. 

3.  Ninian  or  Nynias,  a  Briton,  who  had  been  educated  at  Rome, 
commenced,  about  the  year  430,  his  labours  among  the  Celtic  Picts  and 
Scots  of  Caledonia.  But  after  his  death,  those  whom  he  had  converted 
again  relapsed  into  heathenism.  The  work  thus  begun  was  more 
effectually  resumed  by  Crimthan,  an  Irishman,  whose  name  was 
changed  by  his  friends  to  Columba,  to  designate  his  dove-like  character. 
Accompanied  by  twelve  of  his  pupils,  he  embarked  in  5G3  for  the 
island  of  Hy,  the  present  Iona  (i.e.,  Insula  Sanctorum)  or  IcolumbkiU, 
where  he  founded  a  monastery  and  a  church,  and  whence  he  converted 
all  Caledonia.  Although  to  his  death  he  continued  a  simple  presbyter, 
and  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Iona,  he  exercised,  in  virtue  of  his 
apostolic  authority,  superintendence  over  the  whole  Caledonian  Church, 
and  ordained  its  bishops  —  a  privilege  which  his  successors  in  the 
abbacy  of  Iona  retained.  He  died  in  597.  The  numerous  monasteries 
which  he  founded,  emulated  those  of  Ireland  in  the  learning,  piety, 
and  missionary  zeal  of  their  inmates.  This  remark  applies  especially 
to  the  monastery  of  Iona. 

4.  Romish  Mission  among  the  Anglo-Saxons.  —  Vortigern,  King  of 
Britain,  called  in  the  aid  of  the  Germans  who  inhabited  the  opposite 
coast,  for  the  purpose  of  warding  off  the  predatory  invasions  of  the 
Picts  and  Scots.  Hengist  and  Horsa,  two  exile  chiefs  from  Jutland, 
obeyed  the  summons,  at  the  head  of  a  large  number  of  Angles  and 
Saxons  (in  449).  These  arrivals  were  followed  by  others,  till,  at  the 
end  of  a  century,  only  the  west  coast  of  their  country  was  left  to  the 
Britons.  The  Angles  and  Saxons  formed  seven  monarchies,  one  of 
these  rulers,  the  Bretwalda,  —  or  leader  of  their  armies, — exercising  su- 
preme sway.  The  Anglo-Saxons  were  heathens;  and  the  hostility  be- 
tween them  and  the  ancient  Britons  rendered  missionary  activity  on  the 
part  of  the  latter  impossible.  But  Rome  supplied  what  they  had  omitted 
to  do.     The  sight  of  some  Anglo-Saxon  youths,  exposed  for  sale  in  the 


300      SECTION    II. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  4—9    A.  D.). 

slave-market  at  Rome,  inspired  a  pious  monk  —  afterwards  Pope  Gr& 
gory  I.  —  -with  the  desire  of  seeing  a  people  of  such  commanding  ap- 
pearance adorned  with  the  beauty  of  the  Gospel.  His  elevation  to  the 
Papal  See  prevented  his  commencing  the  work  himself,  as  at  first  he 
dad  purposed.  But  he  purchased  some  of  these  Anglo-Saxon  youths, 
m id  had  them  educated  for  missionary  work  among  their  countrymen. 
Soon  afterwards,  when  the  Bretwalda,  Etlielbert  of  Kent,  espoused 
BeHha,  a  Frankish  princess,  Gregory  sent  Augustine,  a  Roman  abbot, 
to  England,  accompanied  by  forty  monks  (59G).  Eihelbert  provided 
them  with  a  residence  and  support  at  Dorovernum  (Canterbury),  his 
own  capital.  At  Pentecost  of  the  year  succeeding  that  of  their  arrival, 
the  kin;;- was  baptized,  and  10,000  of  his  subjects  followed  his  example. 
Augustine  wrote  to  Gregory  for  further  instructions,  for  relics,  books, 
etc.  The  Pope  complied  with  his  request,  and  at  the  same  time  sent 
lii in  the  Pallium,  assigning  to  him  the  dignity  of  Archbishop  of  the 
Sax:ni  and  British  Church.  Augustine  now  called  upon  the  Britons  to 
submit  to  his  authority,  and  to  join  him  in  labouring  for  the  conversion 
f  the  Saxons.  But  the  Britons  rejected  these  overtures.  A  personal 
interview  with  their  leaders,  held  under  the  oak  of  Augustine,  led  to 
no  better  result.  A  second  conference  terminated  in  the  same  manner, 
chiefly  owing  to  the  prelatical  arrogance  of  Augustine,  who  would  not 
rise  when  the  Britons  made  their  appearance.  The  latter  were  at  that 
time  disposed  to  yield;  but,  at  the  suggestion  of  a  hermit,  they  had 
fixed  on  this  mark  of  respect  as  an  omen.  Its  absence  now  decided 
them.  On  the  death  of  Augustine,  in  605,  the  Pope  appointed  Lauren- 
tins,  the  assistant  of  the  British  prelate,  his  successor.  But  Eadbald, 
the  heathen  son  and  successor  of  Ethelbert,  persecuted  the  missionaries 
so  much,  that  they  even  resolved  to  quit  the  field  (016).  Laurentius 
alone  delayed  his  departure,  to  make  a  last  attempt  to  convert  Eadbald 
himself.  He  was  successful:  the  king  was  baptized,  and  the  fugitive 
priests  returned  to  their  former  duties.  —  Augustine  had  introduced 
Christianity  in  Essex ;  but  a  change  of  government  was  followed  by  a 
restoration  of  heathenism.  Soon  afterwards,  Christianity  was  esta- 
blished in  Northvmbria,  the  most  poAverful  state  in  the  Heptarchy. 
King  Edwin  (or  Eadwine),  the  founder  of  Edinburgh,  espoused  Ethel- 
berga,  the  daughter  of  Bertha,  Queen  of  Kent.  According  to  agree- 
ment, the  young  princess  was  accompanied  to  her  new  residence  by 
Paulinas,  a  monk  (625).  By  their  combined  influence  the  king,  and 
through  him  the  nobility  and  priesthood,  were  induced  to  adopt  Chris- 
tianity. At  a  popular  assembly,  Paulinus  demonstrated  the  truth  of 
Christianity;  while  Coifi,  their  high-priest,  defied  the  national  gods 
by  hurling  a  spear  into  the  nearest  temple.  The  people  regarded  his 
daring  as  madness,  and  momentarily  expected  to  see  a  manifestation 
of  Wodan's  vengeance.  But  when  the  heavens  remained  mute,  the 
people,  in  obedience  to  the  order  of  Coifi,  set  fire  to  their  principal 
temple  (627)     Paulinus  became  Bishop  of  Eboraeeum  (York),  and  the 


VICTORY    OP    THE    ROMISH     CONFESSION.        301 

t'ope  sent  him  the  Pallium.  But  in  633  Edwin  fell  in  battle  against 
Penda,  the  li3athen  King  of  Mercia;  Paulinus  had  to  flee,  and  the 
Church  of  Northumbria  was  almost  annihilated. 

5.  British  Mission  among  the  Anglo-Saxons. —  Oswald,  the  son  of  a 
former  king  of  Northumbria  whom  Edwin  had  expelled,  restored  to 
that  country  its  independence.  This  youth  had,  when  a  fugitive,  found 
an  asylum  in  Iona,  where  he  was  educated  a  Christian.  In  order  again 
to  raise  the  Church  of  his  country,  the  monks  of  Iona  sent  one  of  their 
own  number,  the  excellent  and  amiable  Aidan,  to  the  court  of  North- 
umbria. Oswald  himself  acted  as  his  interpreter,  till  he  had  acquired 
the  Saxon  tongue.  The  success  of  his  labours  was  truly  unparalleled. 
Oswald  founded  an  episcopal  see  in  the  island  of  Lindisfarne  ;  and, 
aided  by  other  missionaries  from  Iona,  Bishop  Aidan  converted,  in  a 
few  years,  the  whole  north  of  England  to  Christianity.  Oswald,  fell  in 
battle  against  Penda  (642).  He  was  succeeded  in  his  own  government, 
and  as  Bretwalda,  by  Oswy,  his  brother.  Irish  missionaries  now  joined 
the  labourers  from  Iona,  emulating  their  services ;  and  in  G60  all  parts 
of  the  Heptarchy  had  adopted  Christianity,  and  —  with  the  exception 
of  Kent,  which  remained  faithful  to  Rome  —  adhered  to  the  ancient 
British  Confession. 

6.  Victory  of  the  Romish  over  the  British  Confession. —  Oswy  pei-- 
ceived  the  danger  accruing  to  the  State  from  religious  division  and 
ecclesiastical  estrangements  among  the  people.  He  succeeded  in  con- 
vincing the  other  kings  of  the  necessity  of  an  ecclesiastical  union.  The 
only  question  now  was,  which  of  the  confessions  should  give  way.  At 
last  the  decision  fell  in  favour  of  Romish  supremacy  —  a  result  to 
which,  no  doubt,  Oswy  himself  mainly  contributed.  Eanjieda,  his 
wife,  a  daughter  of  Edwin,  was  a  zealous  partisan  of  Rome.  She  was 
seconded  in  her  efforts  by  Wilfrid,  a  man  of  great  energy,  prudence, 
and  perseverence.  By  birth  a  Northumbrian,  and  educated  in  the 
monastery  of  Lindisfarne,  he  had  visited  Rome;  on  his  return  he  em- 
ployed the  whole  force  of  hit  eloquence,  and  every  artifice  which 
intrigue  could  suggest,  to  subject  all  England  to  the  Papacy.  These 
two  influenced  the  Bretwalda,  and  the  latter  again  the  other  kings. 
Added  to  this  were  other  and  more  general  reasons  for  the  decision  of 
the  monarch  —  such  as  a  preference  for  what  was  foreign,  the  splendour 
and  the  power  of  the  Romish  Church,  and,  above  all,  the  old  national 
dislike  of  the  Saxons  towards  everything  British.  When  the  secret 
negotiations  had  issued  in  the  result  desired,  Oswy  convened  a  General 
Synod  in  the  nunnery  of  Streaneshalch  or  Whitby  (Synodus  Pharensis) 
in  664.  There  all  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  leaders  of  the  Heptarchy 
assembled.  The  Romish  party  was  represented  by  Wilfrid;  the 
British,  by  Oilman,  Bishop  of  Lindisfarne.  The  paschal  question  was 
the  first  topic  )f  discussion.     Wilfrid  appealed  to  the  authority  of  Peter, 

2<> 


iO'l        SECTION    II. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  4-9  A,D.). 

to  whom  the  Lord  had  said:  "Thou  art  Peter,"  etc.  Upon  this,  OswJ 
turned  to  Colman  -with  the  inquiry,  whether  the  Lord  had  really 
addressed  these  Avords  to  Peter.  Colman,  of  course,  admitted  it;  when 
Oswy  declared  that  he  would  own  the  authority  of  him  who  had  the 
power  of  opening  and  shutting  the  gates  of  heaven.  This  finished  the 
discussion.  In  his  capacity  of  Bretwalda,  Oswy  carried  out  the  decrees 
of  the  Synod  with  energy  and  resolution.  Within  a  few  weeks  the 
razor  completed  the  conversion  of  the  whole  Heptarchy  to  the  Romish 
Confession. — Matters  having  proceeded  thus  far,  the  British  Confes- 
sion had  soon  to  be  abandoned,  even  in  the  districts  whence  it  had 
originally  spread.  Political  reasons  obliged  the  Irish  and  Scotch  kings 
to  adopt  the  confession  of  their  dangerous  neighbours,  in  order  both  to 
deprive  them  of  a  specious  pretext  for  making  invasions,  and  to  procure 
the  assistance  of  the  Pope  and  the  sympathies  of  continental  Christen- 
dom. Ireland  submitted  in  701,  and  Scotland  followed  nine  years 
afterwards.  The  monks  of  Iona  alone  held  out  till  716,  when  this  their 
last  stronghold  also  fell.  —  (The  Principal  Sources  for  the  British  and 
Anglo-Saxon  Eccles.  Hist,  of  that  period  are:  Gildas,  liber  querulus  de 
excidio  Brittanniae.  Nennius,  hist.  Britonum,  and  especially  Beda 
venerab.  hist,  eccles.  Angl.) 

§78.  CONVERSION  OF  GERMANY. 

Comp.  F.  W.  Rettberg,  K.-G.  Peutschland's.  Vols.  I.  and  II.—  C.  J. 

Ifcfele,  Gesch.  d.  Einfiihr.  d.  Christ,  im  sudwestl.  Deutschl.  (Hist,  of 
the  Introd.  of  Christian,  in  South-West.  Germ.).  Tiib.  1837.  —  K. 
Hiemer,  d.  Einfiihr.  d.  Christenth.  in  d.  Deutsch.  Landen.  Schaffh. 
1858.  —  Ph.  Heber,  die  vorkaroling.  Glaubenshelden.  an  Rhein  u.  deren. 
Zeit.  Erkf.  1858.  —  G.  T.  Rudhari,  altest.  Gesch.  Baierns  (Old  Hist,  of 
Bavar.).  Hamb.  1841. — ^1.  F.  Ozanam,  Begriind.  d.  Christ,  in  Peutsch. 
(Introd.  of  Christ,  into  Germ.).  From  the  French,  Manic.  1845.  —  A. 
Setters,  Bonifacius,  d.  Ap.  der  Deutschen.  Mayence  1845.  —  E.  F. 
Gelpke,  K.-G.  d.  Schweiz.  Bd.  I.  Bern.  185G.  —  Bonifacii  Epistohe  (op. 
3d.  J.  A.  Giles,  Oxford  1846),  Vita  in  Pertz  (T.  II.)  and  in  the  Acta 
SS.  —  Serrarius,  Moguntiac.  rerum  1.  v.  —  Sagittarius,  Antiq.  Gentil. 
et  Christ.  Thuring. 

During  the  domination  of  the  Romans,  the  countries  along  the 
Rhine  and  Danube  had  been  fully  evangelized ;  but  of  this 
scarcely  a  trace  was  left,  in  the  succeeding  period.  The  bar- 
barians who  invaded  these  districts,  destroyed  the  monasteries 
ami  churches,  and  instead  of  Christian  rites,  introduced  their  own 
forms  of  heathenism.  By  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  the 
greater  part  of  Germany  was  subject  to  the  rule  of  the  Franks, 
and  bore  the  name  of  Western  Franconia  (Neustria),  in  contra- 


CONVERSION     OF     GERMANY.  303 

distinction  to  Austrasia  or  Eastern  Franconia.  South-Western 
and  South-Eastern  Germany  (Alemannia,  Bavaria,  Thuringia) 
were  governed  by  native  princes  under  Frankish  suzerainty  , 
while  North-Western  Germany  (the  Frisians  and  Saxons)  stil1 
maintained  its  national  independence.  The  first  successful 
endeavours  to  restore  Christianity  in  Austrasia  were  made  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixth  century.  The  missionaries  engaged  in 
this  work  were  partly  of  Frankish,  partly  of  Scotch  (either  Irish 
or  British),  and  partly  of  Anglo-Saxon  descent.  At  that  time 
the  monasteries  of  Scotland  and  Ireland  were  crowded  with  men 
whose  natural  love  of  travel  was  sanctified  by  an  ardent  desire  to 
preach  the  Gospel,  and  to  extend  the  kingdom  of  Christ.  These 
feelings  derived  an  additional  stimulus  from  the  circumstance, 
that  the  distinctive  confession  to  which  they  clung  with  so  deep 
attachment  had  just  been  suppressed  (§  77,  6).  Their  own 
country  seemed  now  dreary,  while  on  the  Continent  they  saw  a 
prospect  of  regaining  what  had  been  lost  at  home.  Under  such 
impulses,  a  large  number  of  the  inmates  of  the  Irish  and  Scotch 
monasteries  went  forth  as  missionaries  to  pagan  Germany. 
But  thither  also  the  Anglo-Saxons,  who  had  the  same  love  for 
travel,  the  same  missionary  zeal,  and  the  same  attachment  to 
their  own  distinctive  confession  (the  Romish),  followed  them. 
Thus  the  former  contest  was  renewed  on  German  soil :  there  also 
to  end  in  the  suppression  of  the  British  Confession.  Almost 
everywhere  do  we  discover  traces  of  these  Scotch  missionaries  ; 
but,  unfortunately,  the  particulars  left  us,  as  to  the  mode  in 
which  they  carried  on  their  labours,  as  to  their  contests  with  the 
representatives  of  the  Romish  Church,  are  exceedingly  scanty. 
The  practical  turn,  so  characteristic  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race, 
and  the  connection  of  these  missionaries  with  the  imposing 
spiritual  power  wielded  by  the  See  of  Rome,  no  doubt  con- 
tributed not  a  little  towards  securing  them  the  victory  over  their 
Scotch  brethren.  For  the  Frankish  missionaries  also  laboured 
quite  independently  of  Rome,  so  that  the  connection  between 
Germany  and  the  Church  of  Rome  was  mainly  due  to  the  exer- 
tions of  the  Anglo-Saxon  preachers.  —  These  missions  succeeded 
most  rapidly  in  the  districts  where  the  Gospel  had  been  preached 
at  a  former  period,  chiefly  along  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  and  of 
the  Danube.  Much  more  formidable  were  the  difficulties  en- 
countered in  districts  where  heathenism  resembled  an  impenetra- 
ble primitive  forest— as  in  Frisia,  Saxony,  Hesse,  and  Thuringia. 


304      SECTION    II. FIRST    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.   4— 9  A.  D.). 

The   protection    which    the    Frankish    monarchs    extended   to 
missionary  labours  in   Germany,  sprung;  chiefly  from  interested 
motives  —  an  interference  which  operated  rather  against  than  in 
favour  of  the  work.      It  appeared  as  if,  on  the  one  hand,  heathen- 
ism  and    national  independence,  and   on  the  other,  Christianity 
and  Frankish  domination,  were  inseparably  connected.      If  the 
sword  of  the  Franks  opened  the  way  for  the  Gospel,  the  labours 
of  the  missionaries  were,  in  return,  to  be  made  subservient  for 
the  political  subjugation  of  these  countries.     However  unwilling 
the  missionaries  vvei'e  to  become  parties  to  this  mixing  up  of 
religious  and  political  objects,  it  was   frequently  beyond  their 
power  to  resist  it. 

1.  The  Alemanni  were  a  powerful  race,  inhabiting  the  south-western 
part  of  Germany.    Only  scanty  traces  of  former  Christian  institutions 
remained    in   those   districts.     The   victory  of  Tolpiac    (490),   which 
decided  Clovis  in  favour  of  Christianity,  at  the  same  time  opened  the 
country  of  the  vanquished  Alemanni  to  the  Gospel.    But  as  the  Franks 
adopted  no  violent  measures  for  its  propagation,  its  progress  was  very 
slow.     The  civil  code  of  the  Alemanni,  as  settled  by  Dagobert  I.  in 
080,  proceeds,  indeed,  on  the  supposition  that  the  country  had  become 
entirely  christianized;  but  at  the  time  this  must  have  only  been  by 
way  of  anticipation.     St.  Fridolin,  who  founded   the  monastery  of 
Seckingen  upon   an   island  on   the  Rhine  above  Basle,  is  commonly 
represented  as  the   Apostle  of  Alemannia  (about  510).     He  was  a 
native  of  Ireland  ;  but  the  accounts  of  his  activity  are  quite  legendary 
and  unreliable.     More  accurate  and  satisfactory  are  the  details  given 
about  St.  Columban,  who  arrived  in  the  year  589,  accompanied  by 
twelve  zealous  missionaries,  from  the  celebrated  monastery  of  Bangor 
in  Ireland.     He  founded  the  well-known  Luxovium  (Luxeuil).     The 
missionaries   reclaimed  the  wastes   all   around,   and  endeavoured  to 
restore  Christian  discipline  and  order  among  a  population  which  had 
been  fearfully  neglected.     But  their  rigid  adherence  to  the  British 
practice  of  calculating  Easter  (g  77,  1)  raised  prejudices  against  them; 
the  clergy  of  Burgundy  felt  their  strict  discipline  a  most  unpleasant 
innovation  ;  while  Bnineliilda,  incensed  that  their  influence  over  the 
youthful   Theodoric  II.,   her   grandchild,   endangered   her   ambitious 
schemes,  vowed  their  destruction.     All  these  causes  led  to  their  expul- 
sion, after  they  had  laboured  for  twenty  years  in  the  country.     The 
exiles  betook  themselves  to  Switzerland,  and  settled  at  Tvggen,  on  the 
Lake   of  Zurich.     But  the  fanatical   zeal   with   which   they  attacked 
heathenism  excited  the  hostility  of  the  natives,  who  ill-used  and  drove 
them  away.     Their  next  field  was  Bregenz.     Here  they  laboured  for 
three  years  very  successfully  —  a  result  principally  achieved  through 
th    preaching  of  St.  Gallus,  who  had  acquired  the  language  of  the 


CONVERSION     OF     GERMANY.  305 

country.     But  fresh  persecutions  induced  Columban  to  pass  h.  to  Italy, 
where,  under  the  protection  of  Agilulf  (§  76,  8),  he  founded  the  cele- 
brated monastery  of  Bobbin,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  Arian  con- 
troversy.    Gallus,  who  at  the  time  his  colleagues  left  was  ill,  remained 
in  Switzerland,  resolved  to  continue  the  work  despite  the  unfavourable 
circumstances  which  had  arisen.     In  a  sequestered  and  wild  valley, 
and  on  a  spot  where   a  bush  had  caught  hold  of  his   garment  while 
engaged  in  prayer,  he  built  a  cell  which  afterwards  became  the  abbacy 
of  St.  Gull.     His  labours  were  richly  blessed.     He  died  in  04:6,  at  the 
advanced  age  of  95.     Gallus  does  not  appear  to  have  been  so  tenacious 
as  Columban  in  contending  for  the  British  Confession.    Magnoald,  the 
pupil  of  St.  Gallus,  carried  on  his  work,  and  founded  the  monastery 
of  Furssen  in  Suabia.     About  the   same   time   Trudpert,   an     hermit 
(said  to  have  been  of  Irish  descent),  laboured  in  the  Breisgau.     He 
laid   the  foundation  of  what  afterwards  became   the   abbacy  of  St. 
Trudpert,  at  the  foot  of  the  Black  Forest,  but  was  ultimately  murdered 
by  a  servant  of  his  own  (643).     Half  a  century  later,  Pirminius,  a 
Frankish  ecclesiastic,  carried  the  Gospel  along  the  shores  of  the  Lake 
of  Constance.     Protected  in  his  labours  by  Charles  Martel,  he  founded 
the  monastery  of  Reichenau  ;  but  only  three  years  afters  ards  he  was 
expelled  in  consequence  of  a  national  rising  of  the  Alemanni  against 
the  Frankish   rule.     He  now  descended  the  Rhine,   and  founded   a 
number  of  monasteries,  —  among  them  Hornbach,  in  the  diocese  of 
Metz,  Avhere  he  died  in  753.    When  about  that  time  St.  Boniface  visited 
Alemannia,  he  found  the  whole  country  nominally  Christian  and  the 
Church  regularly  organized. 

2.  South- Eastern  Germany. — No  notices  have  been  left  of  the  religious 
history  of  the  countries  along  the  Danube  during  the  period  succeeding 
the  labours  of  St.  Severinus  (§  76,  6).     A  century  later  these  districts 
were  peopled  by  the  Bavarians  (the  Boii),  whose  native  rulers  were 
subject   to  the    suzerainty  of  the  Frankish  monarchs.     At  that  time 
only  scanty  traces  of  the  former  profession  of  Christianity  remained  in 
the  country.     In  615  the  Frankish  abbot,  Eustasius  of  Luxeuil,  the 
successor  of  Columban,  went  as  missionary  among  the  Bavarians.     He 
had  to  contend  with  Bonosian  and  Photinian  errors  —  probably  in  con- 
sequence of  the  Arianism  which  the  Goths  had  spread  in  that  neigh- 
bourhood.   St.  Emmeran,  Bishop  of  Poitiers,  laboured  about  the  middle 
of  the  seventh  century  in  Regensburg,  at  the  court  of  Theodo  I.,  Duke 
of  Bavaria.     He  continued  only  three  years,  when  he  suddenly  loft  for 
Italy.     By  the  way  he  was  killed  (652)  by  the  brother  of  the  Princess 
Ota,  on  a  charge  of  having  seduced  her;  that  princess  having,  at  his 
own   suggestion,   named    him  as  her  seducer,   in  order  to  shield  the 
guilty  person  from  vengeance.     After  that  the  Church  declined,  owing 
to  the  weakness  of  the  Merovingian  monarchs.     But  when,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  victory  of  Testry  in  687,  Pepin  of  Heristal  became  the 
26* 


306       SECTION    II. FIRST    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.  4— 9  A.  D.). 

hereditary  administrator  of  the  realm,  both  the  Prankish  po"wer  and 
the  Church  were  restored.     For  the  latter  purpose,  Duke    Theodo  II. 
invited  in  696  Bishop  Ruodpert  (Rupert),  who    proved    indeed    the 
Apostle  of  Bavaria.     He  baptized  the  duke  and  his  court,   founded 
numerous  churches  and  monasteries,  and  made  Christianity  the  religion 
of  almost  the  whole  country.     The  see  of  Salzburg,  which  he  had 
founded,  served  as  a  centre  for  his  operations.     In  716  he  returned  to 
his   former   see   of  Worms,   where   he  died.     He  was   succeeded  by 
Corbinian,  a  Frankish  bishop  (without  a  fixed  see  —  or  "regionary 
bishop"),  who  in  717  founded  the  episcopal  see  of  Freisimjcn.     This 
prelate  is  described  as  proud,  unyielding,  and  severe  in  the  exercise  of 
discipline.     He  swept  away  every  remaining  trace  of  heathen  super- 
stition, founded  churches  and  monasteries,  and,  according  to  legend,  per- 
formed many  miracles.    (06.730.) — Among  the  Thuringians,  heathen- 
ism continued  unopposed  till  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century,  when 
Ki/llena  or  Kilian,  an  Irish  missionary,  commenced  his  evangelistic 
labours  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Wiirzburg.     His  zeal  was  rewarded 
with  the  martyr's  crown,  and  his  work  brought  to  a  successful  issue 
under  the  ministry  of  St.  Boniface. 

3.  North- Western    Germany.  —  In    the    country  around    the    Middle 
Rhine  the  ancient  Christian    sees  had  survived,   although,  from  the 
prevalence  of  heathenism  in  their  immediate  vicinity,   the  character 
and  influence  of  the  clergy  had  greatly  declined.     Despite  their  oppo- 
sition, the  labours  of  Goar,  a  hermit,  about  the  middle  of  the  sixth 
century,  proved  to  a  large  extent  successful.     The  pretty  little  town 
of   St.  Goar  rose  where  his  cell  had  stood.     About  the  same  time  a 
Langobard  Stylite,  Wulflaich,  braved  the  severity  of  the  climate,  and 
preached  to  the  heathen  from  the  top  of  his  column  ;  but  the  neigh- 
bouring bishops  disapproved  of  his  mad  asceticism,  and  had  the  column 
demolished.  —  Frankish   missionaries  —  especially    St.  Amandus    (the 
Apostle   of  Belgium) — laboured   among   the   Frisians,    south   of  the 
Scheld,    since    the    commencement   of  the    seventh   century.     In   647 
Amandus  became  Bishop  of  Malines,  and  died  in  679  in  the  monastery 
of  Elnon  near  Tournay  (afterwards  called  St.  Arnand).   Simultaneously, 
St.  Eligius,  formerly  a  goldsmith,  and  from  641  Bishop  of  Noyon, 
engaged  in  the  same  work. —  An  Anglo-Saxon,  Wilfrid  (#  77,  6),  was 
the  first  to  carry  the  Gospel  to  the  Frisians  north  of  the  Scheld.     He 
had  been  elected  Archbishop  of  York,  but  was  expelled  from  his  see 
(I  83,  1),  and  started  for  Rome  to  seek  protection.     Happily  a  storm 
drove  him  to  the  coast  of  Frisia,  instead  of  allowing  him  to  land  in 
France,  where   hired   assassins   lay  in  wait  for  him.     He   spent  the 
winter  in  Frisia  (677-678),  preached  daily,  and  baptized  Aldgild,  the 
reigning  duke,  and  thousands  of  his  subjects.     But  Radbod  [ob.  719), 
the  successor  of  Aldgild,  who  was  continually  engaged  in  contests  with 
Pepin  and  Charles  Martel.  hated  and  persecuted  Christianity,  as  being 
the   religion  of  the   Franks.     The  seed  sown  by  Wilfrid  s:emed  in 


CONVERSION    OF    GERMANY.  307 

danger  of  being  destroyed,  when  the  victory  of  Pepin  at  Dorstedt  (in 
689)  obliged  the  persecutor  to  relent,  at  least  for  a  time.  Wulfram 
of  Sens  immediately  recommenced  missionary  operations  among  the 
people.  Legend  has  it,  that  Radbod  himself  had  expressed  his  readi- 
ness to  be  baptized :  but  that  when  entering  the  water  he  drew  back, 
declaring  that  he  preferred  being  consigned  to  hell  in  company  with 
his  glorious  ancestors,  to  going  to  heaven  along  with  a  crowd  of 
wretched  people.  The  story,  however,  does  not  bear  the  test  of 
historical  criticism.  —  But  the  evangelization  of  all  Frisia  was  to  be 
accomplished  by  another  Anglo-Saxon.  Willibrord,  assisted  by  twelve 
other  missionaries,  devoted  himself  in  690  to  this  enterprise.  Twice 
he  journeyed  to  Rome  to  submit  his  work  to  the  direction  of  the  Pope, 
who  changed  his  name  to  that  of  Clement,  and  ordained  him  Bishop 
of  the  Frisians.  Pepin  assigned  to  him  the  castle  of  Utrecht  as  his 
episcopal  see.  Thence  his  labours  extended  not  only  over  the  domains 
of  Radbod,  but  even  beyond  the  Danish  frontier.  When  on  a  visit  on 
the  island  of  Heligoland,  he  ventured  to  baptize  three  persons  in  a 
well  which  was  regarded  as  sacred.  Radbod  was  about  to  immolate 
the  bishop  and  his  converts  to  the  gods.  Thrice  he  consulted  the 
sacred  lot,  but  each  time  the  decision  was  in  favour  of  the  Christians. 
Willibrord  continued  his  labours  among  the  Frisians  with  varying 
success  for  fifty  years,  and  died  in  739,  in  the  81st  year  of  his  life.  He 
was  succeeded  in  the  administration  of  the  See  of  Utrecht  by  Gregory, 
a  noble  Frank  of  Merovingian  descent,  who  was  the  favourite  pupil 
of  St.  Boniface.  But  Gregory  was  not  consecrated  a  bishop,  as  the 
See  of  Cologne  laid  claim  to  jurisdiction  over  the  Frisian  Church. 
When  in  734  Charles  Martel  completely  subjugated  the  Frisians,  the 
work  of  evangelization  proceeded  more  rapidly.  Among  the  mission- 
aries who  laboured  in  Frisia,  Willehad,  an  Anglo-Saxon,  whom  Charle- 
magne afterwards  invested  with  the  bishopric  of  Bremen,  seems  to 
have  been  the  most  successful.  St.  IAudger,  a  native  of  Frisia,  and 
afterwards  Bishop  of  Munster,  completed  what  his  predecessors  had 
so  worthily  begun. 

4.  Labours  of  St.  Boniface,  the  Apostle  of  Germany.  —  Winfrid,  a 
native  of  Kirton  in  Wessex  (about  680),  had,  by  piety,  devo^edness, 
and  ability,  risen  to  distinction  in  his  own  church  and  country.  But 
his  sympathies  were  wider  than  his  sphere.  Impelled  by  a  sense  of 
the  love  of  Christ,  he  resolved  to  devote  himself  to  missionary  work 
among  the  heathen  of  Germany.  He  arrived  in  Frisia  (in  716)  at  a 
moment  most  unfavourable  for  his  enterprise.  Radbod  was  just  en- 
gaged in  war  with  Charles  Martel,  and  had  wreaked  his  enmity  on 
Christian  churches  and  monasteries.  Winfrid  was  obliged  to  return 
without  having  accomplished  anything.  But  such  discouragements 
could  not  cool  his  missionary  ardour.  In  the  spring  of  718  he  again 
crossed  the  Channel.  He  went  first  to  Rome,  where  Gregory  II.  form- 
ally set  him  apart  for  missionary  work  in  Germany.    In  Thuringia  and 


.308      SECTION    II. —  FIRST    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.  4— 9   A.  1).). 

Franconia,  the  field  for  which  he  had  been  designated,  he  found  little 
encouragement.     Accordingly,  on  hearing  of  the  death  of  Radbod,  he 
returned  to  Frisia,  where  for  three  years  he  shared  the  labours  of 
Willibrord.     This  prelate,  anxious  to  secure  so  efficient  a  missionary, 
offered  him  the  succession  to  the  See  of  Utrecht.     But  such  prospects 
only  served  to  remind  Winfrid  of  the  work  for  which  he  had  been  set 
apart.    Accordingly,  in  722  he  went  to  Upper  Hesse,  where  he  founded 
the  monastery  of  Amonaberg,  and  within  a  short  period  baptized  thou- 
sands of  heathens.     Summoned  by  the  Pope  to  Rome  (in  723),  he  was 
consecrated  "Regionary"  Bishop  of  Germany  by  the  name  of  Boni- 
facius  (episcopus  regionarius,  i.e.,  without  a  definite  diocese),  and, 
after  having  taken  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  See  of  Rome,  returned 
to  his  post  armed  with  a  letter  of  recommendation  to  Charles  Martel. 
Thus  furnished  with  spiritual    armory  from  Rome,  and  enjoying  the 
more  doubtful  advantage  of  Frankish  protection,  he  resumed  his  labours 
in  Hesse.     The  fall  of  the  ancient  sacred  oak  at  Geismar,  near  Fritzlar, 
also  marked  that  of  heathenism  in  Central  Germany.     Surrounded  by 
a  vast  concourse  of  heathens,  who  gazed  in  breathless  expectation, 
Boniface  himself  had  laid  the  axe  to  that  sacred  tree ;  its  wood  now 
furnished  material  for  a  Christian  chapel.    After  that  event  his  preach- 
ing was  attended  with  unparalleled  success;  and  within  the  space  of 
a  year,  Christianity  had  become  the  religion  of  almost  all  Hesse.     In 
725  he  went  to  Thuringia,  where  British  missionaries,  who  were  unwil- 
ling to  submit  to  Papal  supremacy,  greatly  perplexed  him.     He  then 
sent  for  additional  labourers  to  England,  and  founded  the  monastery  of 
Ordorp,  near  Arnstadt,  on  the  Ohra,  for  the  education  of  a  native  min- 
istry.   Gregory  II.  died  in  731 ;  but  Gregory  III.,  whom  Boniface  kept 
informed  of  the  progress  of  the  work,  sent  him  the  Pallium,  and  en- 
trusted him  with  the  task  of  founding  episcopal  sees  in  Germany  and 
ordaining  bishops.     Having  erected  the   abbacy  of  Fritzlar,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Bavaria,  where  he  was  engaged  in  hot  controversy  with  some 
representatives  of  the  ancient  British  Confession.     Boniface  returned 
to  Hesse,  accompanied  by  Sturm,  a  zealous  Bavarian  youth,  whom  he 
educated  at  Fritzlar  for  the  clerical  profession.    In  738  he  went  a  third 
time  to  Rome,  probably  to  consult  the  Pope  about  the  final  organization 
of  the  German  Church.     There  he  met  with  the  most  respectful  recep- 
tion, and  remained  a  whole  year.     On  his    return,  he  again  visited 
Bavaria,  expelled  his  former  British  opponents,  deposed  some  refractory 
Frankish  bishops,  and  divided  the  Church  of  Bavaria  into  four  dioceses. 
He  next  returned  to  Thuringia,  whence  also  he  drove  the  British  mis- 
sionaries, and  where  he  instituted  four  dioceses.     During  the  lifetime 
of  Charles  Martel.  Boniface  had  been  prevented  from  exercising  any 
authority  over  the  churches  on  the  other  side  of  the  Rhine.     But  after 
the  death  of  that  monarch  (in  741),  his  sons,  Carloman  in  Austrasia, 
and  Pepin  the  Short  in  Neustria,  requested  his  aid  in  reorganizing  the 
Church  in  their  dominions,  which  had  sadly  d<  jlined.     The  work  of 


CONVERSION     0  1'     GERMANY.  809 

reform  commenced  in  Austrasia.     In  742  Boniface  presided  over  the 
first  Austrasian  Synod  (Concilium  Germanicum)  which  passed  strin- 
gent measures  for  the  restoration  of  discipline,  and  the  removal  of  the 
heretical,  the  married  and  the  foreign  (British)  clergy.     At  another 
synod  held  at  Lipt'uue  (Lestines,  near  Cambray)  in  743,  the  bishops 
present  promised  unconditional  obedience  to  the  See  of  Rome.     Carlo 
man,  who  was  present  at  both  these  synods,  gave  legal  sanction  to  their 
decrees.     In  742  Boniface  founded  the  celebrated  monastery  of  Fulda, 
of  which  Sturm  was  the  first  abbot — an  institution  destined  to  become 
the  watch-tower  and  training-school  of  German  monasticism.     About 
the  same  period  he  engaged  in  keen  controversy  with  two  noted  here- 
tics—  Adalbert,  a  Frank,  and  Clement,  a  Scot;  as  also  with  Virgilius, 
an  Irishman.     In  744,  in  his  capacity  of  Papal  Vicar,  he  entered  into 
negotiations  for  reorganizing  the  Church  of  Neustria.     The  authority 
of  the  metropolitans,  and  the  exercise  of  discipline,  were  restored  at 
the  Synod  of  Soissons  (in  744).     At  another  synod,  held  the  following 
year  (at  Mayence?),    Geivilih,  the   unworthy  occupant  of  the  See  of 
Mayence,  who  was  convicted  of  having  hired  assassins,  was  deposed, 
aii'!  his  see  assigned  to  Boniface  as  Metropolitan  of  Germany  (though 
he  would  rather  have  chosen  that  of  Cologne).     Carloman,  tormented 
by  a  guilty  conscience,  retired  in  747  into  a  monastery,  leaving  his 
brother  Pepin  sole  ruler.     Only  a  few  years  later,  Pepin,  with  the  ex- 
press sanction  of  the  Pope  ({j  82,  1),  put  an  end  to  the  figment  of 
Merovingian  rule  (in  751).     The  supposition  that  Boniface  acted  as 
negotiator  between  the  Pontiff  and  the  Major-Domus  in  this  transac- 
tion, is  entirely  unfounded.    On  the  contrary,  we  have  reason  to  believe 
that  the  prelate  had  to  the  utmost  of  his  power  opposed  the  scheme, 
under  the  influence  of  certain  notions  about  the  Divine  right  of  the 
Merovingians.     Amidst  many  cares  and  troubles,  the  Apostle  of  Ger- 
many untiringly  prosecuted  the  great  mission  of  his  life.     But  as  he 
grew  in  years,  he  longed  to  devolve  some  of  his  onerous  duties  on 
younger  shoulders.     Gregory  III.  had,  indeed,  promised  to  allow  him 
to  name  his  own  successor  ;   but  Pope  Zacharias   contemplated  with 
apprehension  the  appointment  of  a  German  primate  who  might  prove 
less  submissive  than  Boniface.     At  last,  however,  he  yielded  to  the 
ir.gent  entreaties  of  the  aged  Apostle.     In  the  spring  of  754  Boniface 
conferred  the  archiepiscopal  office  on  LuJlus,  his  favourite  pupil,  and 
then  sailed  down  the  Rhine  to  spend  his  last  days  in  evangelizing  those 
heathen  Frisians  to  whom  his  youthful  energies  had  been  devoted.     In 
anticipation  of  his  approaching  end,  he  took  along  his  shroud  (755). 
His  tent  was  pitched  in  the   neighbourhood  of  the  modern  Doccum, 
whence  he  itinerated  through  Frisia,  baptizing  thousands  of  heathens. 
On  the  5th  June  755,  he  had  appointed  a  number  of  his  converts  to 
meet  him  in  order  to  receive  confirmation.     But  early  on  the  morning 
of  that  day  he  was  attacked  by  a  band  of  heathen.     Holding  over  his 
head  a  copy  of  the  Gospels,  Boniface  received  the  mortal  blow.     His 


310      SECTION    II.  —  FIRST    PERIOD   (CENT.   4—9   A.  D.). 

fifty-two  co-labourers  shared  the  same  fate.     The  bones  of  the  martyr 
bishop  were  deposited  in  Fulda. 

5.   Conversion  of  the  Saxon.s-. — Two  Anglo-Saxon  monks,  both  of  the 
name  of  Ewald  (Black  and  White  Ewald),  were  the  first  missionaries 
among  the  Saxons,  who,  from  the  north-western  coasts  of  Germany, 
had  migrated  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Rhine.     These  preachers 
were  hospitably  received  by  a  Saxon  peasant ;  but  no  sooner  had  he 
learned  their  object,  than  he  and  his  servants  fell  upon  them  and  cru- 
elly murdered  them  (about  601).     Boniface  had  never  lost  sight  of  the 
Saxons ;  and  the  choice  of  Fulda,  close  by  the  Saxon  boundary,  as  the 
site  of  a  monastery,  was  no  doubt  determined  partly  with  the  view  of 
making  it  the  basis  of  spiritual  operations  among  the  neighbouring 
heathen.     Still,  for  thirty  years  this  mission  remained  only  an  object 
of  hope,  till  the  work  was  done  by  the  sword  of  the  greatest  of  Frank- 
ish  monarchs.     Charlemagne  considered  the  subjugation  of  the  hostile 
and  powerful  Saxon  nation  as  a  political  necessity.     But  their  perma- 
nent political  subjection  could  not  be  secured  without  their  conversion 
to  Christianity,  nor  the  latter  be  accomplished  without  the  former,  as 
the  Saxons  hated  the  religion  of  the  Franks  not  less  than  the  Franks 
themselves.     Alcuin,  indeed,  plead   nobly  and  boldly  with  his  royal 
friend  against  recourse  to  violent  measures  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
the  conversion  of  the  Saxons  ;  but  political  considerations  proved  more 
powerful  than  the  arguments  of  one  whose  counsels  otherwise  fre- 
quently prevailed.    The  wars  against  the  Saxons  lasted  for  thirty-three 
years  (772-804).    Even  in  the  first  campaign  Eresbvrg,  the  great  strong- 
hold of  the  Saxons,  was  taken,  and  their  most  sacred  idol,  the  Irmin- 
colnmn    (on   which   the   universe   was   supposed   to   rest),   destroyed. 
Frankish  priests  followed  in  the  train  of  the  Frankish  army,  and  im- 
mediately Christianized  the  conquered  districts.     But  scarcely  had  the 
armies  of  Charles  withdrawn,  when  the   Saxons   again  swept   away 
every  trace  of  the  hated  religion.    At  last,  however,  they  were  obliged, 
at  the  Diet  of  Paderbom  in  777,  to  take  an  oath  of  fealty  to  the  Frank- 
ish monarch,  on  pain  of  losing  life  and  property.     But  Widvkind  (Wit- 
tekind),  the  most  powerful  of  their  leaders,  had  not  attended  this  diet, 
and  again  raised   the   standard   of  revolt.     The  Frankish   army  was 
completely  defeated,  every  Christian  minister  killed,  and  every  church 
destroyed.      Charles  took  fearful  vengeance.     At  Verden  he  ordered 
4500  Saxons  to  be  beheaded  in  one  day.    Still,  another  rebellion  broke 
out;  and   at  a  second  diet,  held  at  Paderborn  in  785,  most  stringent 
laws  were  enacted,  which  punished  with  death  the  slightest  opposition 
to  the  ordinances  of  the  Church.      Widvkind  and  Albion,  the  two  prin- 
cipal Saxon  chiefs,  saw  the  uselessness  of  further  resistance.     They 
were  baptized  in  785,  after  which  they  continued  faithful  both  to  the 
king  and  to  the  Church.     But  the  people  in  general  were  far  from 
quiet.    In  804  Charles  expelled  10,000  Saxon  families  from  their  homes, 
and  gave  their  lands  to  his  allies,  the  Obotrites.     This  measure  at  last 


THE    SLAVONIANS    IN     GERMANY.  311 

p/icured  pea^e.  Charles  had  founded  eight  sees  in  Saxony.  Under 
their  fostering  care,  Christianity  now  spread  among  the  Saxons,  who 
by  and  by  learned  to  hold  its  truths  -with  the  same  warmth  and  devout- 
ness  as  the  other  German  races.  Of  this  the  popular  Epos,  entitled 
"The  Saviour"  (§  88,  2),  affords  sufficient  evidence. 


§  79.  THE    SLAVONIANS  WITHIN   THE  BOUNDARIES  OF 

GERMANY. 

Comp.  Schafarik,  Dobrowsky,  Philaret  and  Ginzel  (§  72). — J.Palacky, 
Gesch.  v.  Bohmen.     Vol.  I.     Prague  1836. 

In  their  progress,  the  Huns  had  driven  the  Slavonians  south- 
wards as  far  as  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  and  westwards  to  those 
of  the  Vistula.  When,  in  the  sixth  century,  the  Avari,  a  Mon- 
gol race,  took  possession  of  Dacia,  Pannonia,  and  Dalmatia,  the 
Slavonians  were  obliged  to  retreat  still  further  westward.  Dur- 
ing this  period  no  attempts  seem  to  have  been  made  to  carry  the 
Gospel  to  the  Slavonians  in  the  north-eastern  parts  of  Germany, 
although  the  See  of  Salzburg  made  great  efforts  to  convert  both 
the  Slavonians  in  the  south  and  the  Avari.  But  these  labours 
were  not  attended  with  great  success  till  the  middle  of  the  eighth 
century.  In  748  Boruth,  the  prince  of  the  Garantani  (in  our 
modern  Cariuthia),  invoked  the  assistance  of  Thassilo  II.,  Duke 
of  Bavaria,  against  the  oppression  of  the  Avari.  His  nephew 
Ceitumar  was  educated  in  Bavaria  in  the  Christian  religion. 
When  in  753  he  assumed  the  reins  of  government,  he  introduced 
Christianity  into  his  dominions.  After  the  fall  of  Thassilo, 
Carinthia  became  also  subject  to  Frankish  rule  (in  788),  and 
Charlemagne  extended  his  conquests  likewise  to  the  countries 
of  the  Avari  and  the  Moravians.  Commissioned  by  that  mon- 
arch, Arno  was  zealously  engaged  in  Christianizing  these  tribes; 
and  with  this  object  in  view,  his  diocese  of  Salzburg  was  ele- 
vated to  the  rank  of  a  metropolitan  see.  In  798  Tudun,  prince 
of  the  Avari,  was  baptized  at  Aix-la-chapelle  amid  a  large  con- 
course of  people  ;  and  in  797  the  ^yhole  nation  pledged  itself  to 
become  Christianized,  and  desired  Christian  teachers.  In  the 
ninth  century  the  name  Avari  disappears  from  history.  In  855 
the  Grand  Duke  JRastuslav  freed  Moravia  from  Frankish  domina- 
tion, when  the  jurisdiction  of  the  German  bishops  entirely  ceased. 
The  new  ruler  of  Moravia  applied  to  the  Byzantine  Emperor  for 
Slavonic  missionaries.     The  brothers  Cyrill  and  Methodius, 


612      SECTION   II FIRST   PERIOD   (CENT.  4—9  A.D.). 

who  had  already  distinguished  themselves  in  a  kindred  depart- 
ment of  missionary  labour  (§  72,  2,  3),  were  dispatched  on  this 
errand  (863).  They  immediately  introduced  Slavonian  worship 
and  liturgy ;  and  by  preaching  in  the  vernacular,  readily  gained 
access  to  the  hearts  of  the  people.  But  political  considerations 
obliged  the  missionaries  to  join  the  Romish  Church.  The  only 
remnant  of  former  independence  left,  was  the  permission  to 
continue  the  use  of  the  Slavonic  liturgy.  Through  the  friendly 
intercourse  subsisting  between  the  Moravians  and  the  Czechs  in 
Bohemia,  the  way  was  also  opened  for  the  evangelization  of  that 
country. 

1.  The  Moravian  Church.  —  Although  great  success  attended  the 
preaching  of  Cyrill  and  Methodius  in  Moravia,  the  political  compli- 
cations of  that  period  rendered  their  position  one  of  great  difficulty. 
Indeed,  only  under  the  protection  of  the  Papacy  could  they  hope  to 
maintain  their  ground.  Accordingly,  they  gladly  accepted  an  invita- 
tion from  Pope  Nicholas  I.  (807)  to  visit  Rome.  On  their  arrival,  they 
found  the  Chair  of  Peter  occupied  by  Hadrian  II.  Gyrillus  remained  at 
Rome,  where  he  soon  afterwards  died.  Methodius  made  formal  sub- 
mission to  the  Papacy,  and  was  consecrated  Archbishop  of  Moravia. 
But  the  German  Bishops,  in  their  envy  of  the  honours  bestowed  on  a 
hated  rival,  impugned  the  fealty  of  Methodius,  charged  him  with 
heresy,  and  inveighed  against  the  Slavonic  liturgy  which  he  had  in- 
troduced. It  was  not  difficult  to  arouse  the  suspicion  of  Pope  John 
VIII.,  and  Methodius  was  summoned  to  Rome  in  no  gentle  terms 
(879).  The  evangelist  obeyed  ;  he  completely  refuted  these  calumnies, 
and  returned  to  his  diocese  not  only  with  his  former  title,  but  also  with 
the  express  permission  to  continue  the  Slavonic  liturgy  —  only  that,  by 
way  of  special  distinction,  the  Gospel  was  to  be  read  first  in  Latin  and 
then  in  Slavonic.  Nothing  daunted,  the  German  bishops  continued 
b}r  their  intrigues  to  embitter  the  last  days  of  the  devoted  missionary 
(ol>.  885.)  After  his  death  the  Moravian  priests  were  the  objects  of  a 
general  persecution,  and  the  archiepiscopal  See  of  Moravia  remained 
vacant  for  fourteen  years,  till  John  IX.  restored  it  in  899.  But  in  908 
the  independence  of  Moravia  ceased,  and  the  country  was  divided  be- 
tween the  Bohemians  and  the  Magyars. 

2.  Introduction  of  Christianity. into  Bohemia.  —  On  New  Year's  day 
845  fourteen  Czech  nobles  appeared  at  the  court  of  Louis  the  Ger- 
manic in  Regensburg,  and  along  with  their  suite  requested  baptism. 
The  motives  and  consequences  of  this  step  have  not  been  recorded. 
When  Ratislav  elevated  Moravia  to  the  rank  and  power  of  an  inde- 
pendent realm,  the  Bohemians  entered  into  close  alliance  with  the 
Moravians.  Svatopluk,  the  successor  of  Ratislav,  married  a  daughter 
af  Borzivoi,  the  ruler  of  Bohemia  (871).     After  that,  the  labours  of 


THE     SCANDINAVIAN     NATIONS.  313 

Methodius  were  extended  to  Bohemia  also,  and  their  success  was 
marked.  Borzivoi  himself,  and  his  wife  St. Ludmilla,  were  baptized  by 
him  so  early  as  in  871.  The  sons  of  Borzivoi,  Spitihnev  (ob.  912)  and 
Vratislav  (ob.  92G),  equally  promoted  the  spread  and  establishment  of 
the  Church  in  Bohemia,  a  work  in  which  they  were  zealouslv  aided  by 
their  pious  mother.     (Comp.  \  93,  2.) 

I  80    THE  SCANDINAVIAN  NATIONS. 

Comp.  jP.  E.  Dahlmann,  Gesch,  v.  D'anem.  Vol.  I.  Hamb.  1840. — 
E.  G.  Geijer,  Gesch.  v.  Schweden.  Vol.  I.  Hamb.  1833.— i<Y.  Miinfer, 
K.-G.  v.  D'anem.  u.  Norw.  (Ch.  Hist,  of  Denm.  and  Norway).  Vol.  I. 
Leipz.  1823.  —  K.  Maurer,  d.  Bekehr.  d.  norw.  Stammes  zum  Christth. 
(Conv.  of  the  Norw.  Race  to  Christian.)  Vol.  II.  Munich  1856.  —  The 
biographies  of  St.  Ansgar  by  Kruse  (Altona  1813),  by  F.  A.  Knnnma- 
cher  (Brem.  1828),  by  Reuterdald  (Berlin  1837),  by  Kraft  (in  Latin, 
Hamb.  1840),  by  Daniel  (Halle  1842),  and  by  Klippel  (Bremen  1845). 

At  an  early  period  the  attention  of  the  missionaries  who 
laboured  among  the  Frisians  and  Saxons  was  directed  to  the 
neighbouring  provinces  of  Jutland  and  Denmark.  Already  in 
696  Wiliibrord  (§  78,  3)  carried  the  Gospel  beyond  the  Eider  ; 
and  Charlemagne  perceived  the  necessity  of  extending  his  own 
and  the  Church's  conquests  over  the  peninsula  of  Jutland,  and 
to  the  sea-shore,  in  order  firmly  to  secure  his  rule  over  the 
Saxons  and  Frisians.  But  circumstances  prevented  this  monarch 
from  carrying  this  plan  into  execution.  More  favourable  pros- 
pects opened  under  the  reign  of  Louis  the  Pious.  King  Harold, 
who  had  been  expelled  from  Denmark,  repaired  for  protection  to 
the  Frankish  court.  By  the  aid  of  Louis,  he  again  obtained  a 
footing  in  Jutland.  Ebbo,  Archbishop  of  filayence,  followed  in 
his  train  as  missionary  to  Denmark  (823).  Under  the  protec- 
tion of  Harold,  Ebbo  baptized  many  Danes  ;  but  he  was  obliged 
to  retire  after  a  stay  of  only  one  year.  Harold  himself  was  also 
hardly  beset.  Accordingly,  he  resolved  to  throw  off  the  heathen- 
ism of  his  country,  and  to  ally  himself  completely  with  Germany. 
For  this  purpose  he  embarked  in  826,  accompanied  by  his 
wife  and  child,  and  a  large  suite,  and  was  baptized  with  great 
pomp  in  the  Church  at  Mayence,  where  Louis  at  the  time  held 
his  court.  On  his  return  he  was  accompanied  by  Ansgar,  a 
young  monk  from  the  convent  of  Corvey  on  the  Weser,  to  whom 
Louis  entrusted  the  difficult  and  dangerous  task  of  gaining 
Scandinavia  for  the  Church.  Ansgar  may  be  styled  the  Apostle 
27 


iMi       SECTION    II. FIRST    l'KRIOD    (CENT.    4—9    A.  D.). 

of  the  North.  He  devoted  his  whole  life  lo  the  great  work,  and 
succeeded,  —  at  least  so  far  as  indomitable  perseverence,  de- 
votedness,   and    self-denial  among    innumerable    difficulties    and 

trials  could  secure  such  an  object. 

i.  Ansgar,  the  son  of  Prankish  parents,  was  educated  in  the 
monastery  of  Corvey  in  Picardy,  whence  lie  was  removed  to  the  con 
vent  of  New  Corvey,  when  the  latter  was  founded.  Even  while  a 
child  he  had  visions  and  dreams,  in  which  missionary  activity  and  the 
martyr's  crown  were  held  out  to  him.  His  first  missionary  journey 
(826)  promised  little  success.  Harold  settled  on  the  borders  of  Jutland, 
without  venturing  to  advance  into  the  interior.  This  circumstance 
necessarily  restrained  the  zeal  of  Ansgar.  Still  he  founded  a  school, 
and  bought  a  number  of  young  Danish  serfs  in  order  to  educate  them 
for  the  ministry  among  their  countrymen.  But  in  the  following  year 
Harold  was  again  expelled,  and  Ansgar  also  had  to  retire  (827).  Two 
years  afterwards  Louis  obtained  tidings  that  in  Sweden  there  were  a 
number  of  Christians,  and  that  the  king  himself  and  all  his  people  were 
desirous  of  obtaining  Christian  instruction.  In  company  with  several 
other  priests,  Ansgar  now  undertook  a  mission  to  that  country  in  830. 
On  their  journey  the  missionaries  were  plundered  by  pirates ;  his 
associates  advised  to  return  home,  but  the  courage  of  Ansgar  was  not 
shaken.  After  untold  difficulties  they  at  last  landed  at  Birka,  and 
were  well  received  by  Bjorn,  king  of  Sweden.  A  small  number  of 
Christian  captives  received  them  with  joy,  and  gathered  around  them 
for  worship:  young  serfs  were  bought,  a  school  was  erected,  and  the 
Gospel  preached  to  the  people.  Several  Swedes  were  baptized, — 
among  them  Herigar,  the  Governor  of  Birka,  on  whose  property  the 
first  Christian  church  was  built.  After  the  lapse  of  a  year  and  a  half 
Ansgar  returned  to  the  Frankish  court,  iu  order  to  have  the  mission 
placed  in  a  position  which  would  promise  greater  stability.  Louis  the 
Pious  yielded  to  his  representations,  and  founded  at  Hamburg,  on  the 
borders  of  Denmark,  an  archiepiscopal  see  for  Scandinavia.  He  de- 
signated Ansgar  as  its  first  occupant,  and  assigned  the  revenues  of  the 
rich  abbey  of  Turliolt  for  his  support  and  for  that  of  the  mission  (833). 
Ansgar  repaired  to  Rome,  and  obtained  from  Gregory  IV.  a  bull  con- 
firming his  appointment,  and  nominating  him  Vicar  Apostolic  for  the 
North,  lie  next  built  a  cathedral  and  a  convent  at  Hamburg,  pur- 
chased additional  Danish  youths  to  educate  them  for  the  ministry,  and 
sent  fresh  labourers  to  Sweden.  But  adversities  of  every  kind  now 
overtoil:  the  Archbishop.  In  840  the  Normans  invaded  Hamburg,  and 
destroyed  both  the  town,  the  church,  the  monastery,  and  the  library. 
With  difficulty  Ansgar  and  his  monks  escaped  with  their  lives.  Soon 
afterwards  the  Swedish  missionaries  were  expelled  by  the  pagans  of 
that  country,  and  for  fifteen  years  evangelistic  labours  had  in  great 
measure    to    be    suspended.       Louis    died,    and     Harold     apostatized. 


THE     SCANDINAVIAN     NATIONS-  315 

When  Charles  the  Bald  obtained  Flanders  (in  843)  ir  virtue  of  the 
treaty  of  Verdun,  that  callous  monarch  immediately  claimed  the  abbey 
of  Turholt  —  to  bestow  it  on  one  of  his  worthless  favourites.  Ansgai 
was  now  entirely  destitute  of  all  means  of  subsistence;  his  clergy, 
whom  he  could  no  longer  support,  left  him,  and  his  educational 
establishment  was  closed.  His  neighbour  Leuteric,  Bishop  of  Bremen, 
with  whom  he  sought  a  refuge,  and  who  had  long  envied  his  position 
turned  him  from  his  door.  At  last  he  found  an  asylum  with  a  noble 
widow,  who  assigned  a  farmhouse  on  her  property  at  Ramslo,  near 
Hamburg,  for  his  residence.  In  847  Leuteric  of  Bremen  died  ;  and 
Louis  the  Germanic  resolved  to  conjoin  the  See  of  Bremen  with  that  of 
Hamburg,  in  order  again  to  secure  the  means  of  subsistence  to  the 
tried  Apostle  of  the  North.  Against  this  arrangement  the  Bishops  of 
Verden  and  Cologne,  from  interested  motives,  raised  objections  ;  but 
their  opposition  was  stopped  by  Pope  Nicholas  I.  (858).  Meantime 
Ansgar  had  laboured  indefatigably  in  connection  with  the  Scandinavian 
mission,  notwithstanding  the  straits  to  which  himself  was  reduced. 
Denmark  was  at  that  time  under  the  rule  of  Eric  (Horic),  to  whose 
court  Ansgar  frequently  repaired  as  ambassador  of  the  German  king. 
He  succeeded  in  gaining  his  favour,  and  was  allowed  to  build  a  church 
at  Schleswig,  and  to  organize  a  mission  which  extended  over  the  whole 
of  the  country.  Although  Eric  himself  ventured  not  openly  to  profess 
Christianity,  the  fanaticism  of  the  pagans  broke  out  in  open  revolt. 
Eric  was  dethroned,  and  fell  in  battle  (854).  The  victorious  rebels 
appointed  a  boy,  Eric  II.,  his  successor;  but  the  government  was  in 
reality  administered  by  a  chief  named  Jovi,  a  furious  enemy  of  the 
Gospel,  who  expelled  the  Christian  priests,  and  declared  the  profession 
of  Christianity  a  capital  oifence.  In  855  Eric  shook  off  the  tutelage  of 
Jovi,  and  extended  toleration  to  Christians.  Missionary  labours  were 
now  resumed  with  fresh  ardour  and  great  success.  —  All  attempts  to 
re-establish  the  mission  in  Sweden  had  failed,  when  Ansgar  in  852 
resolved  himself  to  undertake  this  work.  By  rich  presents  and  a 
splendid  entertainment  he  secured  the  favour  of  Ohf,  king  of  Sweden. 
The  question  of  tolerating  Christianity  was  submitted  in  popular 
assembly  to  the  decision  of  the  heathen  lots,  which  fell  in  favour  of 
the  Gospel.  After  that,  the  labours  of  the  missionaries  continued  un- 
disturbed in  Sweden  till  the  death  of  Ansgar  in  8G5.  The  most  ardent 
hope  of  his  life  —  to  obtain  the  martyr's  crown  —  was  indeed  disap- 
pointed ;  but  a  life  so  full  of  labours,  sufferings,  trials,  devotedness, 
perseverance,  and  self-denial,  is  surely  greater  than  even  a  martyr's 
crown. — He  was  succeeded  in  the  See  of  Hamburg-Bremen  by  Rimberl, 
his  favourite  pupil,  the  companion  of  almost  all  his  missionary  journeys, 
and  his  biographer.  It  was  Rimbert's  ambition  to  follow  in  the  wake 
of  his  great  predecessor,  and  the  Scandinavian  mission  formed  the 
object  of  his  deep  solicitude.  But  the  irruptions  of  the  Danish  and 
Norman  pirates  sadly  interfered  with  the  peaceful  work  of  the  Gospel 


S1G       SECTION    IT.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  4-9  A.D.). 

Those  troubles  increased  after  the  death  of  Rimbert  to  such  an  extent, 
that  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne  could  again  bring  forward  his  claims 
on  the  See  of  Bremen,  —  this  time  with  the  plea,  that  the  purpose  for 
•which  the  see  of  Hamburg  had  been  founded  was  wholly  frustrated. 
—  [Principal  Source:  Adam  Bremensis,  Gesta  Haniburgensis  eccl.  Epis- 
coporum  (to  the  year  1076). 

§  81.   CHRISTIANITY  AND  ISLAMISM. 

Comp.  /.  Aschbach,  Gesch.  d.  Ommaijaden  in  Sp.  (Hist,  of  the  Om- 
miades  in  Spain).  Frkf.  1829.  2  Vols.'  — J7.  W.  Lemke,  Gesch.  v.  Sp., 
continued  by  H.  Schafer.  Vols.  I.  II.  Hamb.  1831 — 44. —  Conde's 
History  of  the  Arabs  in  Spain,  transl.  by  Mrs  Foster.  3  Vols  London 
1854  (Bonn's  Libr.).  —  M.  Amari,  Storia  dei  Musulmanni  di  Sicilia. 
Firenze.  1854. 

Since  the  year  665  the  Saracens,  and  their  allies  the  Moors 
(or  inhabitants  of  Barbary),  who  had  become  converts  to 
Mohammedanism,  gradually  extended  their  concpiests  in  North- 
ern Africa,  till  the  rule  of  Byzantium  (§  76,  3)  had  finally  to 
give  way  before  theirs.  From  Africa  they  passed,  at  the  sug- 
gestion of  a  traitor,  in  711  to  Spain,  where  they  swept  away  the 
Gothic  domination.  In  less  than  five  years  the  entire  peninsula, 
with  the  exception  of  the  mountainous  districts  in  the  north,  was 
in  their  possession.  The  fruitful  plains  north  of  the  Pyrenees 
next  excited  their  cupidity  ;  but  the  bloody  defeat  which  Charles 
Martel  inflicted  on  the  invaders  at  Poitiers  in  732,  effectually 
checked  such  attempts.  In  this  battle  the  Franks  at  the  same 
time  saved  Europe  and  preserved  its  Christianity.  In  752  the 
dynasty  of  the  Ommiades  at  Damascus,  whose  sway  extended 
also  over  Moorish  Spain,  was  supplanted  by  that  of  the  Abassi- 
des.  Abderrhaman  I.,  a  scion  of  the  dethroned  family,  es- 
caped to  Spain,  where  he  founded  the  independent  caliphate  of 
Cordova,  which  soon  became  distinguished  for  the  brilliant  cul 
ture  which  it  encouraged.  The  dominion  of  the  Arabs  in  Spain 
was,  however,  threatened  from  two  sides.  When  Roderic  suc- 
cumbed before  the  Saracens  (711,),  Pelayo,  a  relative  of  the 
Gothic  monarch,  retired  with  a  small  but  heroic  band  to  the 
inaccessible  mountain  fastnesses  of  Asiuria.  There,  and  in  the 
mountains  by  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  where  Alfonso,  his  son-in-law, 
held  command,  national  independence  and  Christianity  were  still 
preserved.  At  a  later  period  Alfonso  reigned  over  these  two 
districts,  conquered  Galicia  and  Castile,  and  restored  in  his  do 


CHRISTIANITY    AND    ISLAMISM  317 

minions  the  supremacy  of  Christianity.     The  people  honoured 
his  memory  by  giving  him  the  title  of  Catholic.     By  continued 
expeditions    against  the  infidels,  his    successors  enlarged    their 
possessions   as  far  as  the  banks  of  the  Duero.     Among  them 
Alfonso  IT.,  the    Chaste  (ob.  850),  who  fixed  his  residence    at 
Oviedo,  was  specially  distinguished  both  for  his  bravery  and  his 
love  of  literature.  —  In  the  eastern  part  of  Spain  also  the  arms 
of  the  Christians  drove  the  Moslems  from  their  strong  places. 
In  778  Charlemagne  conquered  the  country  to  the  banks  of  the 
Ebro.     The  revolt  of  the  Saxons  prevented  him  from  penetra- 
ting farther,  and  his  most  distinguished  warriors  were  murdered 
in  the  Pyrenees  by  the  lawless  Basques.     But  in  two  other  cam- 
paigns (in  800  and  801)  he  again  subjected  the  country,  as  far 
as  the  Ebro,  to    the    Frankish    sceptre. —In    Sicily  also  the 
Moslems  gained  a  footing.      In  827  a  Byzantine  colonel  fled  to 
Africa,  from  the  punishment  he    had    incurred,   whence   he   re- 
turned at  the   head    of  10,000    Saracens,  who   ravaged    Sicily. 
Other  succours  followed,  and  in  a  few  years  all  Sicily  was  sub- 
ject to  the  Arabs,  who  every  year  made  predatory  incursions  on 
the  coast  of  Italy,  and  on  one  occasion  penetrated  even  to  the 
gates  of  Rome.      In  880  they  formed  a  settlement  at  the  mouth 
of   the    river    Garigliano,   levying    heavy    contributions    on  the 
whole  of  Central  Italy,  until  finally  in  916  John  X.  succeeded  in 
expelling  them.      In  889  Spanish-Moorish  pirates  landed  on  the 
coast  of  Provence,  occupied  the  castle  Fraxinetum,  and  pillaged 
the  regions  of  the  Alps  and  northern  Italy  for  a  whole  century. 
The  effects  of  their  rapacity,  however,  were  most  severely  felt  in 
Southern  Italy.     This    state  of  matters  continued  for  two  and 
a  half  centuries,  till  in    1091  the  Normans  finally  expelled  the 
Saracens  from  Sicily.       (Comp.  §  95,  1.)  10 

1.  The  Spanish  Christian!},  who  were  subject  to  the  rule  of  the 
Ommiades,  were  called  Mozarabs  (Arabi  Mustaraba,  i.  e.,  arabized 
Arabs,  in  contradistinction  to  the  Arabi  Araba,  or  Arabs  properly  so 
called).  In  some  respects,  they  enjoyed  greater  liberty  than  the 
Eastern  Christians  under  Saracen  rule.  Many  Christian  youths  of  the 
best  families  attended  the  nourishing  schools  planted  by  the  Moors. 
were  enthusiastic  in  their  admiration  of  the  Arab  language  and  litera- 
ture, and  anxious  to  be  employed  at  court,  or  as  public  servants.  In 
opposition  to  this  anti-christian  and  anti-national  movement,  others,  in 
an  excess  of  fanatical  bigotry,  rushed  forward  to  martyrdom,  and 
indulged  in  gratuitous  and  unprovoked  insults  on  the  Mohammedan 
27* 


818       SECTION    II. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.   4-9  A.D.). 

rule  ani  religion.  This  species  of  Christian  fanaticism  awakened 
kindred  feelings  in  the  Moslems,  and  led  to  bloody  persecutions  (850- 
59).  Perfectvs,  a  monk,  was  the  first  of  these  martyrs.  When  asked 
what  he  thought  of  Mohammed,  he  denounced  him  as  a  false  prophet, 
for  which  he  was  executed.  Abderrhaman  II.,  who  at  the  time  was 
Caliph,  was  not  a  fanatic.  In  his  anxiety  to  put  an  end  to  such  scenes, 
he  prevailed  on  Keen/rid,  the  Metropolitan  of  Seville,  to  issue  an  ordi- 
nance, which  interdicted  all  insults  against  the  Moslem  Prophet.  But 
this  measure  only  served  to  increase  the  fanaticism  of  the  extreme 
party,  which  was  headed  by  Evlogius  (a  presbyter,  afterwards  Arch- 
bishop) of  Cordova,  and  by  Paulns  Aharus.  Eulogius  himself  kept 
concealed  a  converted  Moorish  girl,  and  on  that  account  was  executed 
along  with  her  (in  859).     He  was  the  last  victim  of  this  persecution. 


II.  INDEPENDENT  DEVELOPMENT  0E  THE  GERMANIC  CHURCH. 

I  82.   THE   PAPACY   AND   THE   CAROLINGIANS. 

Comp.  the  works  cited  at  \  4G.  —  /.  Ellendorf,  d.  Karolinger  u.  d. 
Hierarchic  ihrer  Zeit.  Essen  1838.  2  Vols.  —  8.  Sugenheim,  Gesch.  d. 
Entsteh.  u.  Ausb.  d.  Kirchenstaates  (Hist,  of  the  Rise  and  Growth  of 
the  States  of  the  Church).  Leipz.  1851. —  C.  Hoffler,  d.  deutschen  P'a>>ste. 
Regensb.  1839.  —  Scuddamore,  Rome  and  England.    London  1855. 

The  conversion  of  the  Germanic  races  had  been  in  great 
measure  accomplished  without  direct  aid  from  Rome.  Hence 
•even  the  Catholic  Germanic  churches  paid  at  first  little  homage 
to  the  See  of  Peter.  This  remark  applies  especially  1o  the 
Gothic  Church  in  Spain.  Estranged  from  Rome  even  in  peace- 
ful times,  the  Saracen  invasion  of  111  necessarily  cut  it  off  from 
all  intercourse  with  the  Papacy.  But  the  independent  Christian 
provinces  of  Spain  also  remained,  up  to  the  eleventh  century, 
unconnected  with  Rome.  The  growth  or  decay  of  the  Prankish 
churches,  both  in  Gaul  and  in  Austrasia,  under  the  reign  of  the 
Merovingians,  depended  likewise  solely  on  internal  causes.  It 
was  otherwise  in  England,  where  the  intercourse  with  the  mother- 
church  in  Rome  was  close  and  continuous.  Prom  the  first,  the 
principle  of  papal  supremacy  had  been  admitted,  nor  was  it 
contravened  except  in  rare  instances.  Innumerable  pilgrimages 
of  Anglo-Saxons,  of  all  ranks,  to  the  graves  of  the  Prin-ccs  of 


THE    PAPACY    AND    THE    CAROLINGIANS.        319 

the  Apostles,  both  indicated  and  fostered  the  national  attach- 
ment to  the  See  of  Peter.  In  the  eighth  century,  the  concourse 
of  so  many  English  pilgrims  in  the  Eternal  City  led  to  the 
establishment  of  a  great  home  or  inn  for  them  at  Rome,  called 
the  Schola  Saxonica.  The  "Peter's  pence,"  which  afterwards 
became  a  regular  tribute  paid  by  the  English  nation  to  the 
Papal  See,  was  first  levied  for  the  maintenance  of  this  institu- 
tion. The  Anglo-Saxons  —  especially  St.  Bouifacius  —  not  only 
handed  to  Rome  the  fruits  of  their  missionary  labours  gathered 
in  heathen  lauds,  but  reorganized  after  the  Romisli  fashion  the 
national  churches  already  existing  in  the  various  Frankish  pro- 
vinces, and  reduced  them  to  submission  to  the  Papal  See.  At  a 
somewhat  later  period  the  intercourse  between  the  popes  and 
the  Carolingian  rulers  became  so  close,  as  to  constitute  almost 
the  entire  diplomatic  correspondence  of  the  Curia. 

1.  Origin  of  the  States  of  the  Church.  —  By  legacies  and  donations 
the  Roman  See  had  gradually  acquired  very  extensive  landed  property 
(Patrimonium  S.  Petri),  which  supplied  the  means  of  relieving  the 
inhabitants  of  Italy  during  the  troubles  connected  with  the  irruption 
of  the  barbarians.  This,  however,  did  not  imply  any  exercise  of 
sovereign  rights,  which,  indeed,  were  never  claimed.  After  the  restora- 
tion of  Byzantine  rule,  which  was  represented  in  Italy  by  an  exarch 
(£  70,  7),  the  political  power  of  the  popes  rapidly  increased.  Indeed, 
the  continuance  of  the  Exarchate  often  depended  on  the  good-will  of 
the  pontiffs,  to  whom  the  prospect  of  becoming  the  court-patriarchs  of 
a  new  Longobard-Roman  dynasty  would,  of  course,  appear  far  from 
attractive.  Still,  they  were  not  able  to  prevent  the  Longobards  from 
conquering  district  after  district,  belonging  to  the  Exarchate.  At  last 
Gregory  III.  applied  to  Charles  Martel  for  help  against  Luitprand  (in 
738).  The  Frankish  ruler  despatched  two  clerics  to  Italy  for  the 
purpose  of  negotiating  a  peace.  Pope  Zacharias,  in  virtue  of  his 
apostolic  authority,  sanctioned  the  removal  of  Childeric  III.  (the  Mero- 
vingian puppet-king),  when  Pepin  the  Short  added  the  royal  title  to 
the  royal  power,  which  he  had  long  possessed  (752).  Meantime,  the 
Lombards,  under  Aishilf  had  taken  Ravenna,  and  demanded  the  sub- 
mission of  Rome.  Pope  Stephen  II.  now  earnestly  appealed  to  the 
Franks  for  help.  At  the  invitation  of  Pepin  he  even  went  to  France, 
and  anointed  that  monarch  and  his  sons  ;  in  return  for  which  Pepin 
made  formal  promise  of  taking  the  Exarchate  from  the  Lombards,  and 
handing  it  to  the  Pope  (754).  The  Frankish  ruler  redeemed  his 
pledge ;  and  in  two  campaigns  cleared  the  Exarchate  from  its  occu- 
pants, and  formally  gave  it  to  St.  Peter.  The  grateful  Pontiff  bestowed 
upon  Pepin,  as  patron  of  the  Romish  Church,  the  insignia  of  Patrician 


320       SECTION    II. FIRST    PERIOD    (c  EN  T.  4— 9  A.  D.). 

of  Rome.     When   ambassadors    from   Byzantium   claimed    for   their 
Emperor  these  provinces,  Pepin  only  replied  that  the  Franks  had  shed 
their  blood    for   St.  Peter,   and   not   for  the  Greeks    (755).     But   the 
Lombards   continued  to  molest  the  Papal  See,  till,  at  the  request  of 
Pope  Hadrian  L,  Charlemagne  again  interfered  (768-814),  took  Pavia, 
put  King  Desiderivs  into  the  convent  of  Corvey,  and  annexed   Lom- 
bard)- to  the  Prankish  Empire.     On  this  occasion  Charles  confirmed 
and  increased  what  his  father  had  given  to  the  Papal  See,  and  depo- 
sited a  formal  document  to  that  eifect  at  the  grave  of  the  Prince  of  the 
Apostles  (774).     Unfortunately,  this  and  the  other  documents  in  this 
transaction  have  gone  amissing — probably  intentionally  ;  but  there  is 
sufficient  evidence  that  the  donation  of  Charlemagne  did  not  by  any 
means  imply  that  the  popes  were  to  exercise  absolute  and  independent 
sway.     The  Frankish  monarch  himself  retained  the  rights  of  supreme 
lordship,  and  the  Pope  with  all  the  citizens  had  to  take  an  oath  of 
fealty  to  him.     In  fact,  the  Pope  was  a  Frankish  vassal,  and  the  States 
of  the  Church  only  formed  the  largest  "immunity"  of  that  period 
The  Pope  had  all  inferior  jurisdiction,  and  nominated  the  Government 
officials ;  but  the  latter  were  superintended  and  controlled  by  Frankish 
Deputies  (missi  dominici),  who  were  charged  to  hear  appeals,  to  receive 
complaints,  and  to  adjudicate  on  them.     These  rights    of  suzerainty 
were  claimed  even  by  the  successors  of  Charlemagne,  however  well 
the  popes  knew  to  avail  themselves  of  the  weakness  of  these  sovereigns. 
The  popes,  indeed,  resisted  as  opportunity  ofl'ered  ;  and  the  fable  about 
a  Donatio  Constantini,  according  to  which  the  Franks  had  only  restored 
to  St.  Peter  what  he  had  possessed  since  the  reign  of  Constantine, 
dates  even  from  the  time  of  Charlemagne.     (The  story  was  that  Con- 
stantine  had    removed    his    residence  to   Byzantium   for  the    express 
purpose  of  securing  to  the   Pope   the   undisturbed   sovereignty   over 
Italy.)     In  the  forged  Decretals  of  Isidore  (§  87,   2),   a  copy  of  the 
pretended  authentic  document,  in  which  the  donation  had  been  con- 
veved,  was  inserted.     Lanr.  Valla  (de  falso  credita  et  ementita  Con- 
stantini donatione,  —  edited  by   Ulric  von  Hutten  in   1518,   after  the 
author's  forced  retractation)  was  the  first,  on  critical  grounds,  to  prove 
the  spuriousness  of  this  document,  although   it  had   previously   been 
questioned  by  individuals.  —  (Comp.  E.  Munch,  lib.  d.  Schenk.  Konst. 
(on  the  Donation  of  Const.),  in  his  "  Miscell.  Works."  Ludw.  1828.  Vol. 
II.— .7.  A.  Theiner,  de  P.  Isid.  cann.  Col.  Vrat.  1827.—  F. . I.  Kunsl,  do 
font,  et  cons,  pseudois.  Col.  Goelt.  1832.     For  the  genuineness:  Mar 
chetti,  Saggio  crit.  sopra  la  storia  di  Fleuri.  Rom.  1781 ;  comp.  also 
Wasserschleben,  Beitr.  z.  Geseh.  d.  fal.  Deer.  (Contrib.  to  the  Hist,  of 
the  False  Deer.).  Breslau  1844.) 

2.  The  Carolingian  Dynasty.  —  Pope  Hadrian  I.  was  succeeded  by 
Leo  III.  (794-816),  whose  election  gave  great  offence  to  a  powerful 
party.  A  tumuli  was  raised  (799),  but  the  Pope  escaped  to  the  court 
of  Charlemagne,  whom  he  assured  that  his  enemies  had  deprived  him 


THE    PAPACY    AND    THE    C  A  R  0  L  I  N  G  I  A  NS  .  321 

rf  liis  eyes  and  tongue,  which,  however,  St.  Peter  had  restored  the 
following  night.  His  opponents,  on  the  other  hand,  charged  him  before 
the  king  with  perjury  and  adultery.1  The  inquiry  instituted  must  have 
brought  ugly  matters  to  light ;  at  any  rate,  Alcuin  immediately  burned 
the  report  which  had  been  handed  to  him.  The  Pope  was  sent  back 
with  all  honours  to  Rome,  and  supported  by  a  Frankish  guard.  The 
following  year  Charles  himself  crossed  the  Alps  with  his  army.  He 
convoked  a  synod  at  Rome ;  but  the  assembled  bishops  declined  to  act 
as  judges,  on  the  plea  that  the  successor  of  St.  Peter,  who  was  the  head 
of  all,  could  not  be  tried  by  his  inferiors.  The  Pope  proved  his  inno- 
cence by  an  oath,  and  afterwards  interceded  for  his  accusers.  At 
Christmas  Charles  attended  service  in  the  church  of  St.  Peter.  Mass 
being  ended,  the  Pope  unexpectedly  placed,  amidst  the  shouts  of  the 
people,  a  splendid  gold  crown  upon  his  head  (800).  The  coronation 
was  represented  as  the  result  of  a  sudden  Divine  inspiration  ;  in  reality 
it  had  been  the  subject  of  protracted  negotiations,  and  the  price  at 
which  the  Pope  purchased  the  protection  of  the  king.  The  empire 
which  Charlemagne  founded  was  meant  to  be  a  vast  theocratic  mon- 
archy, whose  sway  should  extend  over  all  the  globe.  The  Greek  mon- 
arch* had  proved  unworthy  of  this  distinction,  and  God  had  now  trans- 
ferred it  to  the  Frankish  ruler.  In  his  capacity  as  Emperor,  Charles 
was  placed  over  all  Christendom,  and  subject  only  to  God  and  to  His 
law.  He  was  indeed  the  most  obedient  son,  the  most  devoted  servant 
of  the  Church,  in  so  far  as  it  was  the  medium  and  the  channel  of  salva- 
tion ;  but  its  supreme  lord  and  ruler,  in  so  far  as  its  organization  was 
earthly  and  it  required  earthly  direction.  The  provinces  of  State  and 
Church,  though  distinct  and  separate,  were  closely  connected,  and,  so 
to  speak,  combined  in  the  person  of  the  Emperor  as  their  highest  repre- 
sentative. Hence  many  of  the  legislative  ordinances  of  Charles  bore 
directly  upon  ecclesiastical  affairs.  When  making  statutes  about  the 
government,  worship,  and  teaching  of  the  Church,  the  Emperor  was 
indeed  wont  to  consult  bishops  and  synods;  but  he  ratified,  supple- 
mented, or  modified  their  decrees  according  to  his  own  views  of  duty, 
as  he  thought  that  the  responsibilit}-  ultimately  devolved  upon  himself. 
The  Pope  he  regarded  as  the  successor  of  St.  Peter  and  the  visible  head 
of  the  Church,  but  as  subject  to  the  Emperor,  who  was  placed  above 
both  State  and  Church.  In  setting  him  apart  to  this  exalted  station, 
the  Pope  had  acted  by  immediate  Divine  direction  and  commission, 
and  not  in  the  exercise  of  his  own  power  or  of  that  inherent  in  the 
Papacy.  Hence  coronation  by  the  Pope  was  a  ceremony  only  once 
enacted,  and  not  to  be  repeated ;  the  office  was  hereditary  in  the  family 
of  Charles,  and  the  Emperor  alone  could  beget  or  nominate  another 
emperor.  Contrary  to  the  Frankish  law  of  succession,  the  empire  was 
to  continue  unbroken  and  undivided,  and  younger  sons  were  only  to 
occupy  the  subordinate  posts  of  viceroys.     Charles  died  in  814.     His 

1  Dean  Milrnan  thinks  the  latter  charge  refers  to  spiritual  adultery  or  Simony. 


322      SECTION   II. — FIRST   PERIOD    (CENT.  4—9  A.  D.). 

son,  Louis  the  Pious  (814-840),  was  far  too  weak  to  complete  what  his 
father  had  begun.     Foolish  affection  for  Charles  the  Bald,  his  son  by  a 
second  marriage,  induced  him  to  revoke  the  order  of  succession  which 
himself  had  formerly  proclaimed  (829).     With  the  approval  and  aid  of 
some  of  the  most  influential  Frankish  bishops,  and  of  Pope  Gregory  IV, 
the  other  sons  of  the  Emperor  now  rose  in  rebellion.     Louis  was  obliged 
to  do  public  penance  at  Compiegne  in  833,  and  kept  in  humiliating 
captivity  by  Lothair,  his  eldest  son.     But  this  circumstance  aroused 
public  sympathy,  and  Louis  (the  Germanic),  the  Emperor's  younger 
son,  restored   his  parent  to  liberty.     Against  the  prelates  who  had 
taken  part  in  the  conspiracy,  severe  sentences  were  now  pronounced  at 
the  Synod  of  Thionville  in  835.     Still  the  sons  of  Louis  were  continually 
in  arm's  against  each  other.     Louis  lived  not  to  see  the  end  of  these 
hostilities  (ob.  848).     The  treaty  of  Verdun  in  843  partitioned  the  West- 
ern Empire  into  three  separate  and  independent  realms.     Lothair,  who 
with  the  imperial  title  obtained  Italy  and  a  narrow  territory  between 
Neustria  and  Austrasia,  died  in  855.     Of  his  three  sons,  Louis  II.  in- 
herited Italy  and  the  imperial  title ;  Lothair,  the  district  called  after 
him,  Lotharingia  ;  and  Charles  Burgundy  and  the  Provence.     When 
soon  afterwards  the  two  latter  died  without  leaving  issue  (8G9),  their 
uncles  seized  their  possessions  before  Louis  II.  had  time  to  interpose. 
By  the  treaty  of  Mersen  in  870  Charles  the  Bald  obtained  the  Romanic, 
and  Louis  ihe  Germanic  the  German  portions  of  their  father's  empire. 
Thus  was  the  great  Carolingian  monarchy  divided  into  three  states, 
each  of  distinct  language  and  nationality,  viz.,  Germany,  France,  and 
Italy. 

3.  The  Papacy  till  the  Time  of  Nicholas  I.  —  However  weak  and  de- 
vout, Louis  the  Pious  was  not  prepared,  any  more  than  his  immediate 
successors,  to  surrender  the  supremacy  which  as  Emperor  he  claimed 
over  the  See  and  city  of  St.  Peter.  What  the  popes  felt  most  galling 
was,  that  before  being  consecrated  their  appointment  required  to  be 
ratified  by  the  Emperor.  As  this  had  been  eluded  on  more  than  one 
occasion,  Louis  sent  Lothair,  his  son,  to  Italy,  in  order  to  arrange  the 
matter  once  for  all  with  Pope  Eugen  II.  The  so-called  Constitutio  Po- 
mana  now  agreed  upon  enacted  that  in  future  the  Romans  should  have 
no  voice  in  the  election  of  the  Pope,  and  that  before  the  Pontiff  was 
consecrated  his  appointment  should  be  ratified  by  the  Emperor,  to 
whom  the  successor  of  St.  Peter  was  to  take  an  oath  of  fealty  (*24). 
But  although  the  emperors  jealously  watched  over  the  rights  thus 
accorded  them,  pretexts  were  never  awanting  to  evade  the  terms  of 
this  agreement.—  Between  the  pontificate  of  Leo  IV.  (oft. 855)  and  that 
of  Benedict  III.,  the  predecessor  of  Nicholas  I.,  the  Papal  See  was, 
according  to  an  old  legend,  occupied  by  a  female  called  Joan.  The 
story  runs,  that  a  girl  from  May. Mice  had  in  male  disguise  accompanied 
her  paramour  to  Athens,  where  she  acquired  great  learning;  that  she 


THE     PAPACY    AND     THE     CAROLINGIANS.  323 

I. ad  next  appeared  under  the  name  of  Johannes  Angelicus  at  Rome, 
and  been  elected  Pope.  During  a  solemn  procession  she  had  given 
birth  to  a  child,  and  soon  afterwards  died,  having  officiated  for  two 
years,  five  months,  and  four  days,  under  the  name  of  John  VIII.  The 
oldest  testimony  in  favour  of  this  legend  is  that  of  Anastasius,  the 
Roman  librarian,  whose  "liber  pontificalis"  dates  almost  from  that 
period ;  but  according  to  the  statements  of  Roman  Catholic  editors, 
what  passes  as  his  biography  of  Joan  is  awanting  in  most  MSS.  of  this 
work,  and  must  therefore  be  regarded  as  a  spurious  interpolation. 
Marianus  Scotus,  ob.  1086),  is  the  next  witness  in  favour  of  the  story. 
It  is  furher  related,  with  all  its  details,  in  the  Chronicles  of  Martinus 
Polonus  (Grand  Penitentiary  of  Rome,  and  afterwards  Archbishop  of 
Gnesen,  ob.  1278),  and  after  him  unhesitatingly  reiterated  by  all  sub- 
sequent chroniclers  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Pope  John  XX.  (ob.  1277) 
acknowledged  Joan  as  one  of  his  predecessors,  and  accordingly  styled 
himself  John  XXI.  In  popular  opinion,  the  seat  of  the  marble  chair 
used  in  the  Lateran  Church  at  the  consecration  of  the  popes  (the  sen 
called  sella  stcrcorariu),  was  supposed  to  be  arranged  with  a  view  to 
render  in  future  the  mistake  of  electing  a  female  pontiff  impossible  ; 
and  a  statue  which,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  was  destroyed  by  order 
of  the  Pope,  was  regarded  as  having  been  a  monument  of  Joan.  But 
the  silence  of  Photius,  who  would  undoubtedly  have  made  his  own  use 
of  such  a  piece  of  scandal,  and  contemporary  evidence  (such  as  the 
Annals  of  Prudentius  of  Troyes,  a  letter  by  Hincmas  of  Rheims,  a 
diploma  of  Benedict,  and  a  coin  of  Lothair),  which  proves  that  Bene- 
dict III.  immediately  succeeded  Leo  IV.,  render  it  impossible  to  regard 
this  story  as  other  than  a  legend.  No  clue,  however,  has  }Tet  been 
found  to  its  origin,  unless,  indeed,  it  was  meant  as  a  satire  on  the  dis- 
soluteness of  such  infamous  pontiffs  as  John  X.,  XI.,  or  XII.  —  only 
that  in  that  case  we  should  have  expected  a  female  Pope  to  have  been 
introduced  in  the  tenth  and  not  in  the  ninth  century.  —  A  Calvinistic 
divine,  David  Blondel,  was  the  first  to  show  that  the  story  could  not 
stand  the  test  of  sound  criticism,  and  was  utterly  unworthy  of  credence 
(Amst.  1G49).  Since  then,  however,  its  authenticity  has  again  been 
defended  by  Spanheim  (Opp.  II.  577),  and  latterly  by  N.  Chr.  Kist 
("Hist.theol.Zeitschr."  for  1844.  II.).  Hase  (Ch.Hist.,  8th  ed.,p.204) 
regards  it  as  at  least  conceivable  that  a  church  which  has  represented 
as  matter  of  history  what  has  never  taken  place,  may  similarly  have 
blotted  out  what  really  took  place,  at  least  so  long  as  the  knowledge 
of  it  seemed  dangerous  to  the  interests  of  the  Papacy. 

4.  Nicholas  I.  and  Hadrian  II.  (858-07-72).  — Of  the  pontiffs  who 
occupied  the  papal  chair  between  the  time  of  Gregory  I.  and  that  of 
Gregory  VII.,  Nicholas  I.  was  by  far  the  ablest.  A  man  of  unbend- 
ing will,  of  keen  penetration,  and  of  a  bold  spirit,  he  knew  how  to 
avail  himself  of  the  political  troubles  of  his  time,  of  public  opinion, 
which  proclaimed  him  another  Elijah,  and  ultimately  also  of  the  pseudo- 


324       SECTION    II. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  4-9  A.D.). 

Isidorian  Decretals,  which  emerged  at  that  very  time  (see  \  87,  2),  tc 
invest  his  claims  for  absolute  papal  supremacy  with  the  appearance  of 
a  contest  on  behalf  of  truth,  right,  and  purity.     Among  the  various 
disputes  in  which  he  was  involved  (§  07,  1 ;  §  83,  1),  that  with  Lothair 
J  I.  of  Lotharingia  proved  the  most  important.     That  prince,  desirous 
of  marrying  WaldraJa,  with  whom  he  had  formed  an  improper  connec- 
tion, accused  Thietberga,  his  spouse,  of  incest  with  her  brother.     Two 
of  his  prelates,   Gunther  of  Cologne  and   Thiclgunt  of  Treves,  proved 
sufficiently  venal  to  gratify  the  adulterous  monarch  by  dissolving  his 
legitimate  marriage  at  a  synod  held  in  Aix  (859).     Lothair  now  form- 
ally espoused  Waldrada :  but  Thietberga  escaped  from  the  nunnery  to 
which  she  had  been  confined,  to  do  penance  for  the  crime  with  which 
she  was  charged,  and  appealed  to  the  Pope.    The  two  uncles  of  Lothair, 
Louis  the  Germanic  and  Charles  the  Bald,  desirous  of  possessing  them- 
selves of  their  nephew's  country,  took  her  part.     By  appointment  of 
Charles,  Hincmar  of  Rheims  undertook  the  public  defence  of  the  queen. 
Nicholas  sent  Rodoald  of  Porto  (?  comp.  \  G7,  1)  and  another  Italian 
bishop  to  Lotharingia  to  investigate  the  matter.     These  legates,  how- 
ever, were  bribed,  and  a  synod  held  at  Meiz  (8G3)  decided  in  favour  of 
the  king.     But  the  Pontiff  excommunicated  his  own  legates,  and  de- 
posed the  two  metropolitans  who  had  travelled  to  Rome  in  order  there 
to  try  what  Lotharingian  gold  could  effect  for  their  master.     To  avenge 
their  wrongs,  these  prelates  now  incited  the  Emperor  Louis  II.,  the 
brother  of  Lothair,  against  the  Pope.    Imperial  troops  occupied  Home  ; 
but  Louis  soon  came  to  an  understanding  with  the  Pontiff.     Deserted 
by  his  own  subjects,  and  threatened  in  his  possessions  by  his  uncles, 
Lothair  was  glad  to  make  submission,  and  humbly  implored  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Pope  against  the  covetousness  of  his  relatives.    Arsenius, 
the  legate  whom  Nicholas   sent  across  the  Alps  to  arrange  matters, 
acted  as  if  he  had  been  absolute  lord  of  the  three  Frankish  empires. 
Lothair  was  obliged  to  take  back  Thietberga;  her  rival  was  to  have 
accompanied  the  legate  to  Rome,  but  escaped  by  the  way.     In  the 
arms  of  Waldrada,  Lothair  soon  forgot  his  former  promises  and  oaths. 
At  the  same  time  he  succeeded  in  making  his  peace  with  his  relatives, 
whom  the  overbearing  conduct  of  the  legate  had  offended.    Thietberga 
herself  now  applied  to  the  Pope  for  a  divorce  —  a  request  which  the 
Pontiff  absolutely  refused.     Nicholas  I.  died  in  867.     His  successor, 
Hadrian  II.,  a  man  seventy-five  years  of  age,  was  elected  through  the 
influence  of  the  imperial  party.     Accordingly,  he  proved  at  first  more 
tractable.     He  accepted  the  submission  of  the  two  metropolitans,  al- 
though without  restoring  them  to  their  offices,  and  absolved  Waldrada 
from  church  censure,  but  refused  the  petition  which  Thietberga  again 
addressed  for  a  divorce.      Lothair  himself  now  went  to  see  the  Pope, 
lie  took  a  solemn  oath  that  he  had  not  cohabited  with  Waldrada  since 
the  return  of  his  wife,  and  received   the  sacrament  from  the  hands  of 
the  Pontiff.     In  the  full  hope  of  at  last  attaining  his  object,  he  returned 


THE  PAPACY  AND  THE  CAROLINGIANS.   325 

homewards,  but  on  his  journey  was  cut  off  at  Piacenza  by  a  fever  (869). 
After  his  death  the  uncles  of  Lothair  seized  his  dominions.  Hadrian 
in  vain  interposed  his  authority  on  behalf  of  the  Emperor  as  the  right- 
ful heir,  and  even  threatened  to  excommunicate  those  who  refused  to 
obey.  In  the  name  of  Charles  the  Bald,  Hincmar  of  Rheims  addressed 
a  remarkable  epistle  to  Hadrian,  in  which  he  expressed  it  as  the  con 
viction  of  the  Frankish  nobility,  that  the  Pope  had  no  right  to  interfere 
with  political  questions.  Hadrian  was  obliged  to  allow  this  act  of  defi 
ance  to  pass  unpunished.  In  another  affair  also  (g  83,  1)  Hincmar  had 
the  better  of  the  Pope. 

5.  John  VIII.  and  his  Successors.  —  The  measures  adopted  by  Jon x 
VIII.  (872-882)  for  subjecting  the  Carolingian  princes  to  papal  supre- 
macy were  more  successful  than  those  of  his  predecessor.  But  then  he 
was  also  a  greater  adept  in  the  art  of  intriguing,  a  more  accomplished 
hypocrite,  and  less  troubled  with  conscientious  scruples.  By  his  efforts 
the  Papacy  was  made  entirely  independent  of  the  Emperor,  although, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  became  an  object  of  furious  contention  to  rival 
parties  in  Rome.  Hence  the  almost  incredible  debasement  of  the  Papal 
See  during  the  tenth  century  must  be  mainly  imputed  to  this  Pontiff. 
On  the  decease  of  the  Emperor  Louis  II,  in  the  year  875,  this  dignity 
should  have  devolved  on  Louis  the  Germanic,  as  being  both  the  elder 
and  the  full  brother  of  Louis's  father.  But  John  was  anxious  to  show 
the  world  that  the  imperial  crown  was  in  the  gift  of  the  successor  of 
the  apostles.  Accordingly,  he  invited  Charles  the  Bald  to  Rome,  and 
crowned  him  at  Christmas  875.  In  return  for  this  act  of  grace,  the 
Emperor  formally  renounced  his  claims  as  superior  of  the  States  of  the 
Church,  all  control  in  future  elections  to  the  Papacy,  and  consented  to 
receive  a  papal  vicar  and  primate  for  all  Germany.  But  even  this  was 
not  all.  At  Pavia,  Charles  had  to  submit  to  become  the  elective  mon- 
arch of  Lombardy,  and  then  to  concede  to  his  own  nobles  the  same 
right  of  election,  as  also  that  of  hereditary  succession  to  their  fiefs,  in 
order  to  obtain  their  consent  to  these  transactions.  But  Hincmar  and 
the  clergy  of  Neustria  offered  strenuous  resistance,  and  stormy  discus- 
sions ensued  at  the  Synod  of  Pontion  in  876.  —  From  this  shameful 
compromise  neither  the  Pope  nor  the  Emperor  derived  advantage.  The 
reign  of  faction  increased  at  Rome  beyond  the  control  of  John,  and  the 
Saracens  ravaged  Italy.  The  Emperor,  unable  to  keep  his  own  against 
the  Northmen,  could  afford  no  help.  At  last,  having  purchased  a  dis- 
graceful peace,  he  crossed  the  Alps.  But  fresh  domestic  troubles 
speedily  obliged  him  to  retrace  his  steps.  Charles  died  in  a  miserable 
hut  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Cenis,  in  consequence  of  poison  administered 
to  him  by  his  physician  (877).  Meantime  the  troubles  of  the  Pope 
increased,  and  his  intrigues  only  served  to  make  his  situation  more 
dangerous.  John  VIII.  died  by  the  hand  of  an  assassin  in  882.  The 
year  before  his  death  he  had  been  obliged  to  crown  Charles  the  Fat,  the 
youngest  son  of  Louis  the  Germanic.  This  prince  was  also  elected 
28 


326       SECTION    II. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  4-9  A.L.). 

monarch  of  Neustria  by  the  nobles  of  that  malm  ;  go  that  the  weakest 
of  Charlemagne's  successors  once  more  combined  all  the  dominions  of 
his  great  ancestor  under  his  sway.  But  in  887  the  Estates  of  Germany 
deposed  him,  and  elected  in  his  stead  Arnulph  of  Carinthia,  a  natural 
son  of  his  brother  Carlomau.  Pope  Formosus  (894)  called  in  the  aid 
of  that  monarch,  and  crowned  him  Emperor.  But  Arnulph  was  not 
able  to  maintain  himself  in  Italy  against  his  Langobard  rival  Lambert. 
Formosus-  died  soon  after  the  departure  of  Arnulph  (89G).  His  suc- 
cessor, Stephen  VI.,  in  the  true  spirit  of  Italian  revenge,  ordered  the 
body  of  Formosus  to  be  exhumed,  maltreated,  and  thrown  into  the 
Tiber,  because  he  had  favoured  the  Germans.  The  three  following 
popes  reigned  only  a  few  weeks  or  months,  and  were  either  killed  or 
expelled.  In  order  to  appease  the  German  party,  John  IX.  (898-900) 
rescinded  the  sentence  passed  by  Stephen  against  Formosus.  Although 
the  reign  of  Arnulph  in  Germany  had  fallen  in  troubled  times,  it 
proved  vigorous  and  honourable.  He  died  in  899,  when  the  German 
Estates  chose  his  infant  son,  Louis  the  Child,  his  successor, —  Arch- 
bishop Jffatto  of  Mayence  acting  as  regent  during  the  minority.  But 
Louis  died  in  911.  With  him  the  German  branch  of  the  Carolingians 
became  extinct ;  in  France  the  dynasty  continued  to  exist  till  the  death 
of  Louis  the  Indolent  in  987. 

\  83.  THE  PAPACY  AND  THE  METROPOLITAN  OFFICE. 

Comp.  Guss,  Merkwiirdigkk.  aus  dem  Leben  u.  d.  Schriften  Ilink- 
mar's  (Memorabilia  in  the  Life  and  from  the  Writ,  of  Hincm.).  Gottin- 
gen  1806. 

The  office  of  Metropolitan  was  one  of  great  importance  and 
influence  in  Germany.  Among  the  many  various  races  and  tribes 
which  inhabited  the  Frankish  Empire,  the  metropolitans  repre- 
sented the  unity  of  the  National,  jast  as  the  Pope  that  of  the 
Universal  Church  ;  while,  as  influential  members  of  the  Estates, 
they  took  an  important  part  both  in  the  internal  administration 
of  the  country,  and  in  the  direction  of  its  foreign  policy.  The 
concentration  of  spiritual  power  in  one  individual  afforded  to 
the  secular  rulers  a  fresh  guarantee  for  the  political  integrity  of 
their  country.  On  that  account  they  were  opposed  to  the  multi- 
plication of  metropolitan  sees;  and  where  the  extent  of  the 
country  rendered  it  necessary  to  have  more  than  one  arehiepis- 
copal  see,  they  were  anxious  to  see  the  most  influential  of  these 
prelates  invested  with  the  authority  and  jurisdiction  of  Primate. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  was  the  policy  of  the  popes  to  appoint  in 
every  large  country  at  least  two  or  three  metropolitans,  and  to  re- 
sist the  appointment  of  primates,  since  it  was  quite  possible  that  if 


PAPACY     AND     THE     METROPOLITAN     OFFICE.        327 

the  supreme  direction  of  a  national  church  were  confided  to  one- 
person,  that  prelate  might,  some  time  or  other,  conceive  the  wish 
of  emancipating  his  see  from  the  authority  of  Rome,  and  con- 
stituting himself  an  independent  patriarch.  —  Since  the  time  of 
Charlemagne,  the  Frankish  monarchs  were  also  wont  to  esta- 
blish episcopal  and  arch-episcopal  sees  along  the  borders  of  their 
dominions,  for  the  twofold  purpose  of  sending  the  Gospel  into 
the  neighbouring  heathen  countries,  and  of  preparing  for  theii 
conquest,  or,  where  this  had  already  been  accomplished,  strength- 
ening their  government.  The  former  of  these  objects  alone  could 
command  the  approbation  of  the  pontiffs  ;  the  latter  they  re- 
sisted to  the  utmost  of  their  power.  It  is  but  justice  to  say,  that 
the  occupants  of  the  See  of  St.  Peter,  remembering  that  they 
represented  the  Church  universal,  always  recognized,  respected, 
and  watched  over  the  rights  of  nationality.  It  was  intended 
that  every  country  in  which  Christianity  was  established,  should 
preserve  its  nationality  and  political  independence,  and  thus  be- 
come a  member  of  that  great  family  of  which  the  Pontiff  was 
the  spiritual  father.  In  this  grand  organism,  every  people  was 
to  stand  in  the  same  relation,  since  all  were  equally  to  be  subject 
to  the  Apostolic  See.  "While  this  policy  was  in  accordance  with 
the  rules  of  humanity  and  of  the  Gospel,  it  promoted  at  the 
same  time  the  selfish  objects  of  the  Papacy.  Hence,  whenever  a 
national  church  had  been  founded,  it  was  the  aim  of  Rome  to 
set  it  free  from  the  superintendence  of  the  German  clergy,  and 
to  render  it  independent,  by  giving  it  a  hierarchy  of  its  own. — 
Lastly,  the  interests  of  the  metropolitan,  as  the  representative 
and  supreme  ruler  of  a  national  church,  were  in  great  measure 
identical  with  those  of  the  sovereign  country.  Hence  these  pre- 
lates were  the  strongest  supporters  of  the  throne  ;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  their  authority  also  was  most  carefully  guarded  by 
the  secular  princes.  But  this  coalition  between  the  metropoli- 
tans and  secular  princes  was  fraught  with  manifest  danger  to  the 
liberties  of  the  inferior  clergy,  who  accordingly  sought  the  pro- 
tection of  the  See  of  Rome,  by  espousing  its  separate  interests. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Louis  the  Pious,  under  the 
pressure  of  circumstances,  a  wide-spread  conspiracy  of  bishops 
and  abbots  was  formed  for  the  twofold  purpose  of  emancipating 
the  clergy,  especially  the  bishops,  from  the  control  of  the  State 
and  of  their  metropolitans,  and  of  placing  them  under  the  im- 
mediate jurisdiction    of   the    Papacy.      The    forged   Decretals 


328       SECTION    II. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  4-9  A.D.). 

which  bear  the  name  of  Isidore  (§  87,  2)  represent  these  prin- 
ciples as  in  force  and  acted  upon  since  oldest  times.  Although 
these  tendencies  met  with  the  most  strenuous  opposition,  the 
principles  of  the  forged  Decretals  ultimately  became  the  esta- 
blished law  of  the  Church. 

1.  For  a  long  time  the  English  monarchs  resisted  the  papal  attempts 
to  establish  another  metropolitan  see  besides  that  of  Canterbury,  as 
such  a  measure  endangered  the  political  unity  of  the  Heptarchy.  The 
contest  raged  most  fiercely  at  the  time  of  Wilfrid  (|  77,  G;  78,  3),  whom 
the  Romish  party  had  appointed  Archbishop  of  York.  Wilfrid  was 
obliged  to  retire;  and,  after  a  troubled  career,  died  without  having  ob- 
tained actual  possession  of  the  see  to  which  he  had  been  nominated 
(709).  But  the  Pope  ultimately  succeeded  in  his  object.  In  735  a 
Northumbrian  prince  received  the  pall,  and  the  archbishopric  of  York 
has  continued  ever  since.  —  In  the  north  of  Italy  there  were  three 
metropolitan  sees  —  those  of  Ravenna,  Milan,  and  Aquileja — each 
claiming  to  be  independent  of  Rome  (§46).  Indeed,  Sergiits,  Arch- 
bishop of  Ravenna  (about  760),  would  fain  have  followed  the  example 
of  the  See  of  Rome,  and  transformed  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna  into 
an  independent  state  in  connection  with  his  own  see.  Of  course,  in- 
stances of  opposition  to  papal  supremacy  were  of  frequent  occurrence. 
But  Pope  Nicholas  I.  succeeded  in  finally  checking  these  pretensions 
(in  8G1),  at  a  time  when  the  See  of  Ravenna  was  occupied  by  John,  a 
prelate  guilty  of  sacrilege  and  violence  of  every  kind.  The  force  of 
public  opinion  obliged  the  Emperor  to  withdraw  his  protection  from 
a  bishop  justly  excommunicated  for  his  crimes.  But  during  the  ponti- 
ficate of  John  VIII. ,  Ansbert,  Archbishop  of  Milan  and  a  partisan  of 
Germany,  was  strong  enough  to  set  both  papal  bans  and  sentences  of 
deposition  at  defiance  (ob.  882).  His  successor,  however,  again  acknow- 
ledged the  primacy  of  Rome.  —  The  Metropolitan  of  Rheims  occupied 
the  first  place  in  the  hierarchy  of  France.  From  845  to  882  that  see 
was  occupied  by  Hincmar,  the  most  eminent,  vigorous,  and  influential 
prelate  whom  France  has  ever  had.  His  life  presents  a  series  of 
different  contests.  The  first  controversy  in  which  he  engaged  was  on 
the  subject  of  Predestination  (<5  91,  4).  But  ecclesiastical  law  and 
politics,  not  dogmatic  intricacies,  were  his  chosen  field.  In  opposition 
to  the  claims  of  the  Papacy,  and  the  attempts  of  the  bishops  to  emanci- 
pate themselves,  he  firmly  and  successfully  contended  for  the  inde- 
pendence of  secular  princes  from  papal  control,  for  the  liberties  of  his 
national  Church,  and  for  the  rights  of  metropolitans.  His  controversy 
with  Rothad,  Bishop  of  Soissons,  deserves  special  notice.  This  prelate 
had  been  deposed  by  Hincmar  on  account  of  insubordination  (8G1), 
from  which  sentence  he  appealed  to  Pope  Nicholas  I.,  on  the  ground  of 
the  Sardican  Canon  (g  4G,  2),  which  hitherto  had  not  been  acknow- 
ledged in  the  Prankish  Empire;  while  at  the  same  time  he  supplied 


STATE     OF     THE    CLERGY.  329 

the  Pope  with  the   pretended  Decretals  of  Isidore.     On   this   forged 
collection  Nicholas  took  his  stand,  and,  after  considerable  resistance, 
carried  the  restoration  of  Rothad   (8G5).     Another  collision  arose  out 
of  the  contumacious  conduct  of  his  own  nephew,  Hincmar,  Bishop  of 
Laon.     In   this  instance    also,   both  parties   appealed  to   the   forged 
Decretals.     Although  Hadrian  II.  took  the  part  of  young  Hincmar 
(869),  the  Metropolitan  carried  the  day ;  and  the  Bishop  of  Laon,  who, 
besides  defying  his  king  and  his   ecclesiastical  superior,  had  entered 
into  treacherous  communications  with  the  German  Court,  was  punished 
with  the  loss  of  his  eyes.     Till  the  year  875,  Hincmar  stood  by  his 
"monarch,  and  formed  the  strongest  prop  both  of  his  policy  and  of  his 
throne.     But  when   Charles  the  Bald,  in  exchange  for  the   imperial 
dignity,  bartered  away  the  supremacy  of  the  crown,  the  liberties  of  the 
French  Church,  and  the  rights  of  its  hierarchy,  the  prelate  firmly  op- 
posed his  monarch.     Hincmar  died  during  his  flight  from  the  North- 
men  (882).     With  him  the  glory  of  the  French  hierarchy  departed. 
The  authors  of  the  forged  Decretals  prevailed.     But  if  bishops  were 
emancipated  from  the  rule  of  their  own  metropolitans,  they  were,  on 
the  other  hand,  left  unprotected,  and  hence  frequently  exposed  to  the 
lawless  violence  of  secular  grandees.  —  In  Germany,  metropolitan  sees 
had  been  founded  at  Salzburg,  Cologne,  Passau,  Treves,  and  Hamburg. 
Over  these,  and  all  other  sees  in  the  country,  the  Archbishop  of  May- 
enre  continued  to  exercise  supremacy.     Strange  to  say,  in  Germany  the 
pretended  Decretals  of  Isidore,  although  originating  in  that  country 
under  peculiar  circumstances,  did  not    affect    an  organized  opposition 
against  the  metropolitan  office,  as  was  the  case  in  France.     Indeed, 
they  recognized  the  primacy  of  the  See  of  Mayence.     Happily  for  the 
Empire,   the  power  of  the    Metropolitan    of  Germany  continued  un- 
diminished for  several  centuries. 

I  84.  STATE  OF  THE  CLERGY. 

Comp.  S.  Sugenheim,  Staatsleben  d.  Klerus  im  M.  A.  (Polit.  State  of 
the  Clergy  in  the  Middle  Ages).  Berl.  1839.  —  K.  D.  Hullmann,  Gesch. 
d.  Urspr.  d.  Standc  in  Deutschl.  (Hist,  of  the  Orig.  of  the  Difl'.  Est.  in 
Germ.).  2d  Ed.  Berl.  1830.  Vol.  I. 

Those  prelates  who  bore  a  rank  subordinate  to  the  Metropo- 
litan were  called  Diocesans,  or  also  Suffragan  bishops,  from 
their  right  to  vote  in  provincial  synods.  In  Germany,  instead 
of  the  former  or  canonical  mode  of  episcopal  election  by  the  peo- 
ple and  clergy,  the  kings  now  claimed  the  right  of  appointing  to 
vacant  sees.  At  the  Synod  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (817),  Louis  the 
Pious  restored,  indeed,  to  the  people  and  clergy  their  former 
privilege,  reserving  for  the  Crown  only  the  right  of  confirming 
the  election  ;  but  his  successors  on  the  throne  paid  no  regard  to 
28* 


B30        SECTION    II.  —  FIRST    rERIOD    (CENT.  4-9  A.D.). 

this  enactment.  —  Sentence   of   deposition  was    commonly  pro- 
nounced by  a  provincial  or  national  synod.     The  Investiture  of 
bishops    with    ring    and    staff   (the    shepherd's    crook    and    the 
marriage-rin g)    appears   to    have    been   practised  —  at  least  in 
isolated  cases  —  during  the  time  of  the  Merovingians,  and  came 
in  general  use  in  the  ninth  century.    The  so-called  Chorepiscopi 
of  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  —  who,  however,  had  nothing 
but  the  designation  in  common  with  their  namesakes  of  a  pre- 
ceding period  (§30,  45)  —  seem  to  have  been  intended  as  suc- 
cessors of  the  former  "bishops    without  diocese,"  or  episcopi 
regionarii,  who  were  originally  set  apart  for  missionary  service. 
They  acted   as    subordinate    assistants   of   diocesan   bishops,   in 
cases  where  love  of  ease,  want  of  zeal,  or  frequent  absence  on 
public  business  rendered  such  aid  necessary.    But  their  arbitrary 
and  high-handed  proceedings  occasioned  serious  inconvenience 
to  those  bishops  who  devolved  not  their  work  on  delegates.    The 
office  was  virtually  abrogated  by  the  Synod  of  Paris  in  849,  after 
which  it  seems  gradually  to  have  ceased.     The  lower  clergy  were 
in  part  drawn  from  the  serfs  ;  generally  speaking,  they  were  held 
in  absolute  subjection  by  their  bishops.     Very  frequently  these 
clerks  were  deficient  in  the  first  elements  of  education.     Paro- 
chial appointments  rested  with  the  bishop  ;  but  in  many  cases  the 
founders  of  churches  reserved  to  themselves  and  their  successors 
the  right  of  patronage.      Towards  the  close  of  the  Merovingian 
and  at  the  commencement   of  the  Carolingian  period,  both  the 
higher  and  the  lower  clergy  had  sunk  into  a  fearful  state  of  moral 
degeneracy.      Boniface  succeeded  in  restoring  discipline,  at  least 
to  some  extent  (§  78,  4)  ;   while  the  vigorous  measures  taken  by 
Charlemagne  greatly  tended  to  improve  and  elevate  the  state  of 
the   clergy.      But    all   this   did    not    suffice    to    stem    the    almost 
general  corruption.     Accordingly,  in    816  Louis  the  Pious  in- 
troduced throughout  his  dominions  the  rule  which  Chrodegang 
of  Metz  had  half  a  century  before  instituted,  with  a  view  to  the 
reformation  of  the  clergy  of  his  own  diocese.    The  remedy  proved 
efficacious  — at  least  for  a  short  period;   but  during  the  weak 
and   disturbed  reigns  of   the  last  Carolinians,   ordinances  like 
these  were  easily  set   aside. —During  this  period  the  clergy  ob- 
tained the  privilege  of  exemption  from  secular  tribunals  ;  but 
only  thus  far,  that  the  civil  magistrate  could  not  proceed  against 
a  clergyman  without  the  concurrence  of  the  bishop,  and  that  a 
bishop  was  amenable  only  to  the  king  or  to  a  provincial  synod. 


STATE     OF     THE     CLERGY  331 

1.  In  Germany  the  higher  clergy -were  from  the  first  regarded  as  a 
kind  of  spiritual  arist  cracy,  whose  superior  education  ensured  them 
an  influence  in  the  State  greater  even  than  that  of  the  secular  nobility. 
In  all  affairs  of  importance  the  bishops  acted  as  advisers  of  the  monarch  ; 
in  almost  every  instance  they  were  selected  as  ambassadors  ;  clerical 
members  sat  on  every  commission  ;  and  one  half  of  the  "  Missi  dominici" 
were  always  selected  from  the  same  privileged  order.  From  their 
proximity  to  the  person  of  the  king,  and  their  influence  in  public 
affairs,  the  bishops  became  one  of  the  estates  of  the  realm.  Another 
element  which  contributed  to  the  power  of  the  hierarchy  was,  that,  ac- 
cording to  Frankish  law,  the  immunity  which  accompanied  grants  of 
land  made  by  the  king,  conferred  on  the  proprietor  the  power  of  taxa- 
tion and  of  jurisdiction.  Thus  the  bishops  wielded  not  only  spiritual, 
but  also  temporal  sway,  over  a  great  part  of  the  country.  —  As  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Frankish  king  was  not  stationary,  a  special  court  chapel, 
to  which  a  numerous  body  of  clergy  was  attached,  was  requisite. 
Commonly  the  most  prominent  and  influential  prelate  of  the  realm 
acted  as  arch-chaplain  of  the  court,  and  from  the  clergy  attached  to  this 
chapel  the  future  bishops  of  the  country  were  generally  chosen. 

2.  The  gradual  extension  of  episcopal  dioceses  rendered  it  necessary 
to  make  some  new  arrangements  in  regard  to  the  inferior  clergy. 
Formerly  the  affiliated  or  country  churches  had  been  served  by  the 
clergy  attached  to  the  cathedrals  ;  but  now  priests  were  appointed 
specially  to  these  charges.  Such  churches  were  called  tituli,  from  the 
circumstance  that  they  were  always  dedicated  to  some  saint,  and  their 
priests  iuiitulati,  incardinati,  cardinales.  Such  was  the  origin  of  the 
institution  of  the  Parochia  (rtapoixui)  and  of  the  Parochus  or  parson, 
who  was  also  designated  Curate  because  the  cura  animarum  devolved 
on  him.  An  archipresbyter  rural  is  was  entrusted  with  the  superintend- 
ence of  about  ten  parishes,  from  which  circumstance  he  was  called 
Decanus  (Dean).  As  at  first  he  retained  the  exclusive  right  of  ad- 
ministering baptism,  his  church  bore  the  name  of  Ecclesia  baptismalis, 
his  district  of  Christianitas  or  Plebs,  and  he  himself  the  title  Plebanus. 
In  the  eighth  century,  Heddo,  Bishop  of  Strasburg,  formed  his  diocese 
into  seven  archdeaconries  for  the  purpose  of  efficiently  superintending 
the  labours  of  the  deans.  Besides  parochial  churches,  a  number  of 
chapels  or  oratories  existed,  in  which  the  nearest  parish  priest  at  stated 
seasons  celebrated  divine  service.  In  the  same  category  we  also  in- 
clude the  pricate  chapels  in  episcopal  palaces  and  on  the  properties  of 
the  nobility,  which  were  supplied  by  domestic  chaplains.  Occasionally 
the  latter  were  degraded  to  do  menial  work,  such  as  taking  charge  of 
the  dogs,  waiting  at  table,  or  leading  the  horse  of  the  lady  of  the  manor. 
Although  the  ancient  canon,  "  ne  quis  vage  ordinetur,"  was  fre- 
quently re-enacted,  there  were  a  large  number  of  so-called  Clerici  var/i, 
commonly  lazy  vagabonds,  who  wandered  about  the  country  in  quest 
of  some  livelihood,  ordained  by  careless  bishops  for  money. 


332       SECTION    II. FIRST    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T  .  4—9  A.  D.). 

3.  The  German  clergy  were  very  reluctant  to  submit  to  the  injunction 
of  celibacy.  Many  instances  of  married  bishops,  presbyters,  and  deacons 
occur.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  inferior  clergy  were  married. 
At  their  ordination  they  pledged  themselves  indeed  to  separate  from 
their  wives,  and  to  abstain  from  intercourse  with  them  ;  but  this 
promise  was  rarely  observed.  The  unmarried  clergy  were  frequently 
chargeable  with  uncleanness,  adultery,  and  even  with  unnatural  vices. 
Accordingly  TJlric,  Bishop  of  Augsburg,  scrupled  not  to  expostulate 
with  Pope  Nicholas  I.  on  the  subject  of  clerical  celibacy,  and  in  the 
spirit  of  Paphnutius  of  old  (§  45,  4),  unsparingly  exposed  the  evils 
connected  with  it.  —  In  general,  the  moral  state  of  the  clergy  was  very 
low.  Attempts  to  get  hold  of  the  property  of  devotees,  forgery  of 
documents,  simony,  and  other  abuses,  were  openly  and  shamelessly 
carried  on.  The  bishops  imitated  in  their  hunting  and  drinking  bouts 
the  vices  of  the  nobility,  and  were  more  expert  with  dogs  and  falcons 
than  in  their  own  peculiar  duties.  In  the  seventh  century,  it  Avas  the 
liking  for  the  profession  of  arms  which  induced  Frankish  bishops  to 
take  part  in  wars;  at  a  later  period,  the  obligation  of  furnishing  a 
military  contingent  from  the  lands  belonging  to  the  Church,  furnished 
an  additional  pretext.  Pepin,  Charlemagne,  and  Louis  the  Pious, 
issued  strict  edicts  against  this  practice  ;  but  the  later  Carolingians  not 
only  tolerated,  but  even  encouraged  the  abuse. 

4.  Though  Augustine's  institution  of  a  monasterivm  Clericorvm 
(#  45,  1)  had  been  adopted  by  several  pious  bishops  of  later  times,  it 
was  Chrodegang,  Bishop  of  Metz,  who  first  introduced  it  generally, 
and  laid  down  certain  fixed  rules  for  it.  His  scheme  (canon)  consisted 
of  an  adaptation  of  the  monastic  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  ($  85),  from 
which  it  only  differed  in  dispensing  with  the  vow  of  poverty.  He 
erected  a  spacious  dwelling  (called  domus  or  monasterium,  whence  the 
term  Munster),  where,  under  the  strict  and  continuous  supervision  of 
the  bishop  or  archdeacon,  all  the  clergy  of  his  cathedral  lived,  prayed, 
and  wrought  together,  ate  at  a  common  table,  and  slept  in  a  common 
dormitory  [vita,  canonica,  hence  canons).  After  morning  service  all  the 
members  assembled  in  the  common  hall,  when  the  bishop  or  archdeacon 
read  a  chapter  of  the  Bible  (frequently  in  the  book  of  Levit.)  or  a 
portion  of  the  "  Pule,"  taking  occasion  at  the  same  time  to  administer 
any  admonition  or  reproof  that  might  be  called  for.  Hence  this  hall 
was  called  the  cliapler-hovsc,  and  the  designation  of  Chapter  was  also 
given  to  the  community  as  a  whole.  In  towns  which  were  not  the 
seats  of  bishoprics,  the  clergy  were  formed  into  colleges  of  canons 
under  an  abbot  or  dean,  in  imitation  of  the  cathedral  chapters.  Louis 
the  Pious  commissioned  Amalarius,  a  deacon  of  Metz,  to  revise  the 
Pule  of  Chrodegang,  so  as  to  make  it  generally  applicable;  and  at  a 
national  assembly  held  in  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  816,  it  was  sanctioned 
for  general  use  throughout  the  realm  (Regula  Aquisgranensis).  But 
the  canons  soon  showed  a  desire  to  get  rid  of  this  troublesome  super- 


MONASTICISM.  333 

vision  of  their  bishops.  When  Gunther  of  Cologne  (§  82,  4)  was 
deposed  by  the  Pope,  he  sought  to  retain  his  office,  among  other  things, 
by  ingratiating  himself  with  his  cathedral  chapter.  Accordingly  he 
agi'eed  to  leave  a  great  part  of  the  property  of  the  Church  to  their 
uncontrolled  disposal  {prtebenda,  prebends).  What  this  chapter  bad 
extorted,  others  also  gradually  obtained. 

£85.   MONASTICISM. 

Co.up.  L.  d'Achenj,  Acta  Ss.  Ord.  s.  Benedicti.  Sec.  I.-VI.  (500-1100). 
ed.  /.  Mabillon.  Par.  1688.  9  Yoll.  fol.—  J.  Mabillon,  Annales  Ord.  S. 
Benedicti  ed.  Martene.  Par.  1703.  6  Voll.  fol.  —  Gesch.  d.  Bened.  Ord. 
aus  Splitters  Vorles.  v.  Gurliit  (Hist,  of  the  Bened.  Ord.  from  the  Lect. 
of  Spittler,  by  Gurlitt).  Hamb.  1823.—  C.  Brandes,  d.  Ben.  O.  in  the 
Tubingen  Quarterly  for  1851.  —  Helyot,  Ilistoire  des  Ordres  Relig. 

The  disasters  which  accompanied  the  irruption  of  barbarous 
nations  in  the  fifth  century,  extended  also  to  the  monastic  insti- 
tution. Indeed,  it  could  scarcely  have  survived  that  period,  at 
least  it  could  not  have  proved  a  source  of  so  great  and  manifold 
blessing  to  Western  Christendom,  if  at  the  right  moment  unity, 
order,  and  law,  had  not  been  introduced  among  the  various 
monasteries  by  the  adoption  of  a  fixed  rule,  suited  to  the  times 
and  circumstances.  For  this  the  Church  was  indebted  to  Bene- 
dict of  Nursia  (ob.  543),  who  may  be  styled  the  Patriarch  of 
Western  Monasticism.  The  rule  which  he  presci'ibed  to  the 
inmates  of  the  monastery  of  Monte- Casaino  in  Campania,  which 
he  founded,  was  free  from  all  ascetic  extravagance.  It  secured 
strict  discipline  and  order,  but  breathed  a  mild  and  even 
indulgent  spirit,  while  at  the  same  time  it  took  account  of  the 
requirements  of  human  nature  and  of  the  times-;  withal,  it  was 
simple,  plastic,  and  eminently  practical.  Besides,  the  disciples 
of  Benedict  derived  from  the  Rule  of  Cassiodorus  (§  47,  6)  their 
impulse  toward  literary  employments,  and  from  Gregory  the 
Great  their  ardour  in  missionary  enterprises.  Thus  the  Bene- 
dictine order  became  thoroughly  prepared  for  the  grand  mission 
which  it  accomplished  throughout  the  West  (St.  3Iaurus  trans- 
planted it  to  France  in  543),  in  reclaiming  both  soil  and  mind, 
in  clearing  forests  and  cultivating  waste  land,  in  zealous  and 
faithful  preaching,  in  exterminating  superstition  and  heathenism, 
and  in  cultivating  and  preserving  literature,  science,  and  art. 
But  during  the  troublous  period  at  the  close  of  the  Merovingian 
rule,  the  Benedictine   monasteries  also  suffered  severely.     The 


334       SECTION    II. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.   4-9  A.  D.). 

court    appointed    its    favourites    to    the    office    of  abbot ;    rich 
abbacies  were  given  to  the  higher  secular  clergy  in  commendam, 
i.  e.,  simply  to  enjoy  its  revenues,  or  else  to  counts  and  military 
chiefs   (lay-abbots,  Abbacomites)  in    reward    for   their   services. 
These   lay-abbots  occupied   the   monasteries  with   their  families, 
or  with  their  friends  and  retainers,  sometimes  for  months,  con- 
verting them  into  banqueting-halls,   or  using  them  for  hunting 
expeditions  or  for  military  exercises.      The  wealthiest  abbacies 
the  kings  either  retained  for  themselves,  or  bestowed  on  their 
sons  and  daughters,  their  wives  and  mistresses.      Charlemagne 
corrected  this  abuse  also  ;  he  insisted  on  strict  discipline,  and 
made  it  a  rule  that  schools  should  be  planted  in  connection  with 
the  various   monasteries,  and  that  literary  labours   were  to   lie 
prosecuted  within  their  walls.     At  the  Diet  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
in  817,  Louis  the  Pious  appointed   Benedict  of  Aniane  (ob. 
821)  to  reorganize,  and  to  introduce  the  needed  reforms  in,  the 
various  monasteries  throughout  the  empire.     Along  with  com- 
missioners specially  appointed  for  the  purpose,  he  visited  every 
monastery  in  the  country,  and  obliged  their  inmates  to  adopt  an 
improved  rule.  —  As  yet  the  monks  were  not  regarded  as  neces- 
sarily belonging  to  the  clerical  order;    but  gradually  the  two 
professions  became  more  identified.      Clerical  celibacy  and  the 
introduction    of  the    canonical    rule    (§  84,    4)   assimilated    the 
regular  priests  to  the  inmates  of  cloisters ;   while  the  latter  fre- 
quently took  ordination  either  with  a  view  to  missionary  service, 
or   to   enable   them   to   conduct   worship    in    their   monasteries. 
Withal,  the  monks  would  sometimes  interfere  with  the  rights  and 
duties  of  curates,  giving  rise  to  mutual  jealousies  and  distrust, — 
All  monasteries  were  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop 
in   whose   diocese   they  lay.      The   exemptions   granted   at  this 
period   only   secured    permission   of   freely  choosing   their  own 
abbots,   or  the   power    of  administering   without   control    their 
own  property,  or  else  the  right  of  receiving  ordination  without 
payment  of  fees. 

1.  Our  knowledge  of  the  life  of  Benedict  of  Nursia  is  solely  derived 
from  the  account  given  by  credulous  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  in  the 
second  book  of  his  Dialogues,  which,  unfortunately,  is  full  of  legendary 
stories.  The  Rule  of  Benedict  comprised  seventy-three  chapters.  It 
was  laid  down  as  the  first  duty  of  the  inmates  of  a  monastery,  to  pay 
implicit  obedience  to  the  abbot  as  the  vicar  of  Christ.  The  brethren 
had  the  right  of  choosing  their  own  abbot,  and  the  "Rule"  did  not 


MONASTICISM.  335 

recognize  any  order  of  "  serving  brothers."  Agriculture  was  to  form 
the  principal  employment;  all  idleness  was  most  strictly  prohibited. 
The  monks  were  by  turns  (each  for  a  week)  to  take  charge  of  the 
kitchen,  and  to  read  aloud  in  the  refectory.  Divine  service  was  to 
commence  at  two  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  the  seven  "  horse  "  to  the 
completorium  were  to  be  regularly  celebrated  ($  56,  2).  The  monks 
had  two  meals  a  day,  and  each  a  pint  of  wine  ;  only  the  sick  or  delicate 
were  allowed  animal  food.  At  table,  and  after  the  completorium, 
unbroken  silence  was  to  be  observed.  The  brothers  slept  in  a  common 
dormitory — each,  however,  in  a  bed  of  his  own  —  with  their  dress  and 
girdle  on,  to  be  ready  for  prayers  at  the  first  signal.  The  discipline 
was  careful  and  strict.  Offenders  were  to  be  first  privately,  then 
publicly  reproved  ;  and  if  this  was  insufficient,  punished  with  fasts, 
with  bodily  chastisement,  and  finally  with  excommunication.  Every 
monastery  was  bound  to  entertain  strangers,  and  to  provide  for  the 
poor  in  the  district.  The  novitiate  of  candidates  extended  ever  one 
year;  the  vows  prescribed  were  those  of  sidbilitas  loci,  of  conversio 
morum  (implying  also  poverty  and  chastity),  and  of  obsdieniia.  The 
so-called  oblati,  or  children  whom,  during  their  minority,  the  parents 
had  offered  to  a  monastery,  were  regarded  as  a  kind  of  novices.  They 
were  educated  in  the  cloister,  and  not  allowed  to  return  to  the  world. 

2.  Benedict  of  Aniane  was  the  son  of  a  Visigoth  count,  and  his  real 
name  was  Witiza.  In  early  life  he  served  in  the  army  of  Charlemagne. 
But  during  a  moment  of  imminent  danger,  while  attempting  to  rescue 
his  brother  from  drowning,  his  mind  received  a  new  turn,  and  dis- 
tinction in  ascetic  exercises  became  now  the  object  of  his  ambition. 
He  founded  the  monastery  of  Aniane,  by  the  river  Anianus  in  Lan- 
guedoc,  and  became  the  trusted  and  all-powerful  adviser  of  Louis  the 
Plans,  who  built  the  monastery  of  Inda  near  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  order 
to  have  his  friend  always  beside  him.  Benedict  composed,  for  the 
reform  of  monasteries,  a  Codex  regularum,  which  consisted  of  a  col- 
lection of  the  various  monastic  rules  then  known  (best  ed.  by  L.  Hol- 
stein;  and  next  to  it  that  by  Brockie.  Augsb.  1759.  6  Vols.),  and  a 
Concordia  regularum  (ed.  H.  Menard.  Par.  1638.  4to). 

3.  The  rule  of  the  first  Benedict  made  no  arrangements  about  Nun- 
neries. Scholnstica,  the  sister  of  that  saint,  is,  however,  generally 
regarded  as  having  originated  the  female  order  of  Benedictines.  The 
institution  of  Canonesses,  in  imitation  of  the  "  canonical  life  "  of  the 
secular  clergy,  was  another  form  of  female  asceticism.  The  Rule  drawn 
up  for  them  in  816,  by  order  of  Louis  the  Pious,  was  much  less  strin- 
gent than  that  which  applied  to  ordinary  nuns.  By  and  by  these 
institutions  became  a  provision  for  the  unmarried  daughters  of  the 
nobility.  —  The  canonical  age  for  entrants  before  taking  the  vow  was 
twenty-five  years;  their  novitiate  lasted  three  years.  Besides  the 
"  propria   professio,"   the    "  paterna   devotio "  was   also   regarded   as 


336     SECTION    II. — FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  4-9  A.D.). 

binding.  The  taking  of  the  veil  formed  the  main  part  of  the  ceremony 
of  admission :  the  garland  worn  was  intended  to  be  the  symbol  of 
virginity  ;  the  ring,  that  of  their  spiritual  marriage.  At  this  period 
the  practice  of  cutting  off  the  hair  was  only  resorted  to  as  punishment 
of  nuns  who  had  broken  their  vow  of  chastity.  From  the  respect 
which  the  Germans  were  wont  to  pay  to  woman,  the  abbess  occu- 
pied a  place  of  special  distinction ;  and  in  later  times  the  principal 
nunneries  enjoyed  even  such  privileges  as  exemption,  a  vote  among 
the  estates  of  the  realm,  and  the  exercise  of  sovereign  rights.  It  was 
a  peculiarity  of  German  monasteries,  that  frequently  they  were  con- 
structed both  for  monks  and  nuns,  who  —  of  course  in  separate  houses 
— lived  under  the  common  rule  of  an  abbess  (as  often  in  England)  or  of 
an  abbot. 

4.  To  the  Larger  Monasteries  a  number  of  buildings  were  attached, 
in  which  every  conceivable  spiritual  or  temporal  occupation  was 
carried  on.  Some  of  these  buildings  were  designed  for  agricultural 
purposes,  others  for  trades  and  arts  of  every  description,  or  for  public 
instruction,  for  private  studies,  for  showing  hospitality  or  taking  charge 
of  the  sick.  They  often  formed  of  themselves  a  small  town,  around 
which,  in  many  instances,  considerable  cities  sprung  up.  The 
monasterv  of  Vivarium  in  Calabria,  founded  by  Cassiodorus,  claims  the 
merit  of  having  awakened  in  the  monks  of  Germany  the  desire  of  de- 
voting themselves  to  literary  avocations  ;  the  arrangements  of  Monte 
Cassiuo  were  adopted  all  over  Western  Europe.  Through  the  exer- 
tions of  the  inmates  of  Bobbio,  founded  by  Columbanus,  both  heathen- 
ism and  Arianism  were  uprooted  in  Northern  Italy  ;  the  monks  of  lona 
and  Bangor,  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  sustained  the  important  conflict 
with  Rome  on  behalf  of  the  British  Confession  ;  while  the  monastery  of 
Wearmouth,  in  England,  was  famed  as  a  seminary  of  learning.  St. 
Denys  near  Paris,  and  Corbey  in  Picardy,  were  the  most  celebrated 
abbacies  in  France.  The  most  famous  institutions  of  this  kind  in 
Southern  Germany  were  those  of  St.  Gall,  Reiehenatt,  Lorsch,  and 
Hirsehau  ;  in  Central  Germany,  those  of  Fulda,  Hers/eld,  and  Fritzlar  ; 
and  in  Northern  Germany,  that  of  New  Corbey  (an  offshoot  of  Corbey 
in  France). 

5.  The  severity  of  the  climate  prevented  Western  ascetics  from 
imitating  the  example  of  former  Stylites  (g  78,  3).  Instead  of  this, 
however,  the  so-called  Reclusi  or  Reclusce  adopted  the  practice  of  shut- 
ting themselves  up  in  their  cells,  without  ever  quitting  them.  A 
peculiar  class  of  anchorites,  who  lived  in  the  woods,  were  found  in  many 
parts  of  Germany.  This  kind  of  asceticism  was  peculiarly  in  accord- 
ance with  some  national  characteristics,  such  as  the  tendency  to 
dreamy  melancholy,  the  passionate  love  of  nature,  and  the  delight  in 
roaming  over  mountain  and  forest.  The  practice  of  thus  retiring  into 
solitude  seems  to  have  been  chiefly  in  vogue  during  the  sixth  century  ;. 


ECCLESIASTICAL     PROPERTY.  337 

and  the  lonely  valleys,  glens,  and  mountains  of  Auvergne  were  peopled 
with  these  saints.  But  the  concourse  of  admiring  followers  soon  con- 
verted the  cell  of  the  saint  into  a  monastery,  and  the  practice  gradually 
ceased.11 

I  86.   ECCLESIASTICAL  PROPERTY. 

Comp.   Paul  Roth,  Gesch.  d.  Beneficialwesens  bis  zum  lOten  Jahrh. 
(Hist,  of  Eccles.  Benefices  to  the  Tenth  Cent.).  Erlg.  1850 

By  donations    and    legacies   both    churches    and   monasteries 
gradually  acquired  immense  wealth.     If  princes  knew  no  bounds 
in  making  pious  grants,  private  individuals  not  unfrequently  even 
surpassed  them  in  this  species  of  liberality.     Nor  could  occasions 
for   its  display  be  ever  wanting.      Restoration  from  dangerous 
illness,  deliverance    from    danger,  the  birth    of   a  child,  or  any 
extraordinary  occurrence,  swelled    the    treasury    of  the    church 
whose  patron  saint  had  been  of  use  to  the  donor.      This  kind  of 
piety  was  of  course  greatly  encouraged  by  the  clergy,  who,  be- 
sides, hesitated  not  to  impose  on  the  ignorance  of  the   age  by 
unscrupulous  forgeries.      Gifts  or  grants  of  land,   of  which  the 
donor  retained  the  use  during  his  lifetime,  were  called  Precarice. 
Commonly,  the  private  property  of  priests  at  their  death,  and 
that  of  monks  at  their  "  conversio,"  went  to  the  institutions  with 
which  they  were  connected.      Besides  this  revenue  from  property, 
every  church  claimed  tithes  from  all  its  parishioners.     According 
to   the   precedent  of  the   Mosaic   law,  tithes  were  regarded  as 
"juris  di vini,"  and  Charlemagne  gave  to  this  arrangement  the 
sanction  of   public  law.      On   the  other  hand,  the  clergy  were 
prohibited  from  demanding  payment  for  the  discharge  of  their 
spiritual  functions.  —  It  was  the  first  fundamental  principle  in 
the  administration  of  ecclesiastical  property,  that  no  part  of  it 
might    be    sold  or    alienated.      Hence  it  increased    every  year. 
Thus,  in  the  seventh   century,  fully  one-third   of  all  the  landed 
property  in  Gaul  belonged  to  the  Church,  while  the  fiscal  and 
crown  lands  had  all  been  alienated.     Under  these  circumstances, 
Charles  Martel  had  no  choice  left  but  to  reward  his  adherents 
and  servants  by  bestowing  on  them  lay-abbacies.     His  sons,  Car- 
loman  and  Pepin,  went  even  further;   they  claimed  the  right  of 
absolutely  disposing  of  all   ecclesiastical  property,  and  at  once 
proceeded    to    secularize    and    divide    the    coveted    possessions. 
Charlemagne  and  Louis  the  Pious  were  anxious  to  atone  for 
these  acts  of  injustice  by  making  such  restitution  as  was  possible, 
29 


338        SECTION    II. —  FIRST    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.  4— 9  A.  D.). 

considering  the  reduced  state  of  the  fisc.  By  these  restitutions, 
and  by  new  donations  from  wealthy  individuals,  the  property 
of  the  Church  again  accumulated  as  before.  Thus,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  ninth  century,  the  monastery  of  Luxeuil  pos- 
sessed not  less  than  15,000  manors  ( Man  si). — The  manage- 
ment of  Church  property  was  entrusted  to  the  bishops,  that  of 
monasteries  to  their  abbots.  Special  advocates  or  defensors 
(advocati  ecelesise)  were  appointed  to  watch  over  the  temporal 
rights  of  churches,  and  to  exercise  their  secular  jurisdiction. 
But  after  a  time  these  officials  came  greatly  to  abuse  their 
position;  they  committed  every  kind  of  extortion,  oppression, 
and  dishonesty  ;  claimed  a  great  part  of  the  ecclesiastical  reve- 
nues as  their  dues;  and  generally  disposed  both  of  the  property 
and  income  of  churches  as  if  it  were  their  own. 

1.  When  Charles  Martel  undertook  the  government  of  the  country, 
he  found  that,  by  excessive  liberality  towards  the  Church,  and  towards 
their  own  immediate  attendants,  the  Merovingians  bad  completely 
exhausted  all  available  resources,  so  far  as  crown  lands  were  concerned. 
But  in  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  country,  threatened  by  the 
Saracens  on  the  one  hand,  and  surrounded  on  the  other  by  a  number 
of  petty  tyrants,  who  would  have  broken  up  and  so  destroyed  the  realm, 
Charles  Martel  was  in  more  urgent  want  of  pecuniary  means  than  any 
of  his  predecessors.  These  difficulties  gave  rise  to  the  bestowal  of  what 
were  called  benefices.  The  warriors,  whose  services  gave  them  claims 
upon  the  State  or  the  monarch,  were  still  rewarded  by  grants  of  land, 
which  conferred  on  the  possessor  the  obligation  of  furnishing  a  mili- 
tary contingent;  but  these  grants  of  land  were  no  longer  hereditary, 
but  valid  only  during  the  lifetime  of  the  possessor  (for  his  usufruct, 
(beneficium).  As  the  crown  lands  were  almost  entirely  disposed  of, 
Charles  Martel  confiscated  for  this  purpose  the  property  of  the  Church. 
Thus,  without  absolutely  appropriating  these  lands,  lie  tilled  the  vacant 
sees  with  creatures  of  his  own,  and  induced  them  to  grant  benefices  to 
such  of  his  followers  as  deserved  rewards,  while  he  himself  similarly 
bestowed  abbacies  in  commendam  (?  85).  But  while  this  half  measure 
did  not  suffice  for  the  wants  of  the  case,  it  proved  also  the  occasion  of 
more  serious  inconvenience  to  the  Church  than  complete  confiscation 
would  have  been.  Accordingly,  the  successors  of  Martel  secularized  a 
large  portion  of  the  property  of  the  Church.  These  measures  were 
initiated  at  the  Synod  of  Lestines  in  743  ($  78,  4).  St.  Bonifacius,  and 
the  clergy  generally,  felt  that  submission  was  absolutely  requisite,  and 
that  any  hope  of  seeing  ecclesiastical  discipline  restored,  depended  on 
their  willingness  to  yield.  Accordingly,  they  gave  their  consent,  in 
the  hope  of  obtaining  in  better  times  a  restitution.  The  rights  of  the 
ecclesiastical  inundation  were  preserved,  at  least  in  point  of  form;  tl  a 


ECCLESIASTICAL     LEGISLATION.  339 

lay  im proprietors  granted  letters  precarice,  and  agreed  to  pay  for  every 
manor  a  yearly  duty  of  one  solidus.  Under  the  reign  of  Charlemagne 
this  tribute  was  converted  into  second  tithes  called  Nonce.  But  when 
Charlemagne  and  Louis  made  partial  restitution  of  the  Church  pro- 
perty formerly  secularized,  the  obligations  formerly  imposed  on  bene- 
ficiarj'  possessors  (especially  that  of  furnishing  contingents)  were  not 
remitted,  and,  indeed,  were  gradually  extended  to  all  ecclesiastical 
property. — This  system  of  beneficiary  grants,  though  originating  under 
the  pressure  of  circumstances,  gradually  spread,  and  became  the  basis 
of  social  arrangements,  and  "  one  of  the  most  important  points  in  the 
policy  of  the  Middle  Ages."  —  (Coup,  also  Hallam,  Middle  Ages,  Vol. 
I.,  pp.  159,  etc  J 

i  87.  ECCLESIASTICAL  LEGISLATION. 

The  duty  of  enacting  ecclesiastical  ordinances  for  the  German 
Empire  devolved  in  the  first  place  on  the  various  synods.  The 
Papacy  exercised  scarcely  any  influence  in  this  respect.  It  was 
otherwise  with  the  secular  rulers.  They  convoked  synods,  sub- 
mitted to  them  questions  for  deliberation,  and  confirmed  their 
decrees  as  they  saw  fit.  But  when  the  Frankish  sees  were  filled 
exclusively  with  natives,  synods  gradually  ceased  to  be  held,  and 
ecclesiastical  affairs,  if  discussed  at  all,  were  settled  at  the  Im- 
perial Diets,  in  which  the  bishops  took  part,  as  belonging  to  the 
estates  of  the  realm.  Even  those  great  national  synods  which 
St.  Bonifacius  held  for  the  purpose  of  remodelling  and  restoring 
ecclesiastical  arrangements,  which  had  fallen  into  sad  confusion, 
were  Concilia  mixta;  and  this  continued  to  be  the  constitution 
of  such  assemblies  under  the  reign  of  Charlemagne  and  of  Louis 
the  Pious.  The  former  monarch,  however,  introduced  better 
order  into  these  deliberations,  by  separating  the  assembled  estates 
into  three  distinct  curias — viz.,  that  of  bishops,  of  abbots,  and 
of  counts.  Under  the  rule  of  the  Carolingians,  royal  ordinances 
or  Capitularies  settled  those  ecclesiastical  questions  on  which 
formerly  synods  had  published  their  decrees.  But  at  that  period, 
purely  ecclesiastical  synods  also  were  again  held,  —  a  practice 
which  came  chiefly  in  vogue  during  the  time  of  Hincmar. 

1.  Collections  of  Ecclesiastical  Laws. — Gregory  II.  furnished  St.  Boni- 
facius, among  other  things,  with  a  codex  canonum  (no  doubt  that  of 
Dionysius,  g  43,  3)  ;  and  Hadrian  I.  sent  one  to  Charlemagne,  which, 
at  the  Diet  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  802,  received  public  sanction.  —  An- 
other collection  of  canons  was  that  made  in  Spain,  of  which  the  author- 
ship was  err/  ueously  ascribed  to  Isidore,  Bishop  of  Seville,  and  which 


3-10       SECTION    II. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.    4—9    A.D.). 

accordingly  is  designated  as  the  Hispana,  or  as  the  genuine  Decretals-  of 
Isidore,  in  opposition  to  the  forged  or  Frankish  collection  which  bears 
that  title.     In  point  of  form,  it  resembles  the  collection  of  Dionysius. 
In  the  ninth  century  it  was  introduced  into  the  Frankish  Empire,  and 
there  gave  its  name  to  and  became  the  occasion  of  the  forged  Decretal* 
of  Isidore.     Closely  connected  with  this  piece  of  imposture  was  the 
collection  made  by  Benedictus,  "a  Levite"  of  Mayence  (about  840). 
Although  professing  to  be  a  collection  of  capitularies,  it  is  chiefly  com- 
posed of  ecclesiastical  canons  ;  some  genuine,  others  forged.     The  ear- 
liest collection  of  capitularies  was  that  made  by  Ansegis,  Abbot  of 
Fontenelles,  in  827,  to  which  the  work  of  Benedict  formed  a  kind  of 
supplement  (best  ed.  in  I'crtz,  Monumenta  Germ.  III.  IV.).     Besides 
these  large  and  general  collections,  some  bishops  published  abstracts 
of  ecclesiastical  canons  for  the  use  of  their  own  dioceses,  several  of 
which  have  been  preserved  under  the  name  of  Capitida  Episcoporvm. 
Of  these,  the  Capitida  Angilramni,  which  were  spuriously  attributed 
to  Angilramnus,  Bishop  of  Metz  (ob.  701),  are  evidently  composed  in 
the  same  spirit  and  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  Pseudo-Isidorian  De- 
cretals.    What  are   the  true    relations  of  these  three  collections,  so 
much  alike,  is  still  disputed.      Though  the  earlier  opinion  was  that 
Benedict  had  made  use  of  the   Decretals,  Hinschius  supposes  that  the 
author  of  the  Capitida  wrote   the  Decretals,  and  then  also  the  Capitu- 
laries.    In  the  above  class   of  works  we  also  include  the  Penitential 
books  and  the  Instructions    for  clerical  visitations  (\  88,  5). 

2.    The  Forged  Decretals  of  Isidore.  —  About  the  middle  of  the  ninth 
century  a  collection  of  canons  and  decretals  appeared  in  the  Frankish 
Empire,  which  bore  the  venerable  name  of  Isidore,  and  embodied  the 
so-called  Mdoriana,  but  contained,  besides,  also  a  number  of  spurious 
decretals.     This  work  was  composed  of  the  fifty  Canones  Apostt.,  which 
were  followed  by  fifty-nine  forged  decretal  letters,  professedly  written 
by  the  first  thirty  popes  from  Clem-ens  Romanus  to  Melchiades  (ob. 
314).     Part   Second  contained  genuine  canons   of  synods,   and   Part 
Third  another  series  of  papal  decretals,  dating  from  the  time  of  Syl- 
vester, the  successor  of  Melchiades,  and  extending  to  that  of  Gregory 
II.  (ob.  731),  of  which  thirty-five  are  spurious.12    From  their  Frankish 
Latinity,  from  the  numberless  anachronisms  of  the  grossest  kind  which 
occur  in  them,  and  from  the  evident  purpose  throughout  the  work,  we 
cannot  but  conclude  that  all  the  spurious  portions  were  the  production 
of  the  same  person,  probably  of  the  editor  of  this  collection.     The  fol- 
lowing are  the  leading  characteristics  of  the  si/stem  of  l'seado- Isidore : 
—The  Sacerdolium  which  the  Lord  has  instituted  to  govern  and  judge 
the  world,  is  infinitely  superior  to  the  secular  Imperivm.     The  See  of 
St.  Peter  represents  the  unity  and  the  climax  of  this  Sacerdotium.    Tlio 
bishops  stand  in  the  same  relation  towards  the  Pope  as  the  other  apos- 
tles occupied  towards  P  Her  ;  metropolitans  are  only  primi  inter  par**. 


ECCLESIASTICAL    LEGISLATION.  341 

Between  Pope  and  bishop  was  the  patriarch,  belonging  to  those  metro- 
politan sees  set  apart  by  the  apostles  and  their  immediate  followers, 
and  to  such  as  were  necessarily  elevated  because  of  a  multitude  of  bish- 
ops in  lands  converted  in  later  times.  Provincial  Synods  cannot  be 
held  without  leave  of  the  Pope,  and  their  decrees  only  become  valid 
by  his  confirmation.  All  causae  majores,  among  them  especially,  all 
charges  against  bishops,  can  only  be  decided  by  the  Pope  himself. 
Priests  are  the  "familiares  Dei"  and  " spiritual e"s  ;"  while  the  laity 
are  "carnales."  Even  a  clerk  may  not  be  summoned  before  a  secular 
tribunal,  far  less  a  bishop  ;  nay,  a  layman  cannot  even  accuse  a  priest, 
while  synods  are  enjoined  to  render  it  as  difficult  as  possible  to  bring 
any  charge  against  a  bishop.  A  bishop  who  has  already  been  deprived 
of  his  see  must  be  completely  reinstated  before  an  accusation  can  be 
received  against  him.  If  the  party  accused  thinks  that  the  judges  are 
inimici  or  suspecti,  he  may  appeal  to-  the  Pope,  even  before  any  inves- 
tigation had  actually  commenced.  At  least  seventy-two  trustworthy 
witnesses  are  required  to  substantiate  a  charge,  etc. —  The  forged  De- 
cretals originated  doubtless  in  the  Frankish  Empire,  where  they  were 
circulated  for  years  before  they  were  heard  of  in  Rome.  Blondel  and 
Knu.it  ascribe  them  to  Benedict  the  Lovite,  because  they  first  became 
known  in  his  Capitularies.  PJiiUippn  charges  them  to  Rothad  of  Sois- 
sons,  who  first  brought  them  to  Rome,  in  864.  Wasserschleben  says 
they  were  written  by  Otgar,  Archbishop  of  Mayence,  because  0.,  as  a 
lender  in  the  clerical  conspiracy  against  Louis  the  Pious,  might  seek  thus 
to  avert  punishment.  But  Louis  pardoned  Otgar,  without  trial,  as 
soon  as  he  regained  his  throne.  Besides,  there  was  in  Germany  no 
ground  for  the  hostile  attitude  of  the  Isidoriana  toward  the  Chorepis- 
copoi,  and  they  appeared  first  not  in  Germany  but  France.  Then  the 
claims  put  forth  by  the  Decretals  for  the  primacy  could  avail  for  Rheims 
no  less  than  Mayence.  Weizsaeker  and  Von  Noorden  have,  therefore, 
thought  Rheims  was  the  home,  and  Archbishop  Ebo  the  author  (§  83 ,1 ) ; 
and  Ebo  was  a  leading  conspirator.  Louis  had  to  humble  himself  be- 
fore him  ;  and  when  fortunes  changed  he  deposed  ami  imprisoned  Ebo. 
He  was  restored  by  Lothair,  only  to  flee  from  Charles  the  Bald  in  the 
same  year;  and  from  then  until  Hincmar's  elevation,  Rheims  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  local  bishops.  Before  and  during  Ebo's  restoration, 
says  Von  N.,  the  Decretals  may  have  been  written.  Hinschius,  too, 
thinks  they  sprang  from  Rheims,  but  not  from  the  hand  of  Ebo,  be- 
cause, according  to  H's  arguing,  the  Decretals  were  the  source  of  Bene- 
dict's collection,  which  was  not  completed  until  847,  when  Ebo  had 
given  up  all  hope  of  another  restoration.  And  Ebo  never  used  these 
Decretals  in  his  own  defence.  Had  he  meant  to  do  so,  he  would  not 
have  undertaken,  when  his  time  was  so  short  such  a  gigantic  work, 
containing  so  much  apart  from  his  immediate  need.  The  work 
seems  far  more  likely  to  be  the  so-called  pia  fraus  of  some  high 
churchman  of  the  time,  who  had  no  specially  personal  interest  in 
29  * 


342       SECTION    IT. —  FIRST    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.  4— 9  A.  D.). 

view;  and  whose  name  we  cannot  determine.  The  Decretals  must 
have  appeared  about  851  or  852.  At  the  time,  the  genuineness  of  the 
Decretals  was  nut  called  in  question,  even  by  Hincmar,  who  only 
denied  their  validity  so  far  as  the  Frankish  court  was  concerned,  and 
who,  besides,  was  so  inconsistent  as  to  appeal  to  their  authority,  in  his 
controversy  with  Charles  the  Bald,  at  the  Council  of  Kiersy  in  857, 
though  at  a  later  period  he  designated  them  an  "  opus  a  quoquam  cum- 
pilatum  et  confictum." — The  Magdeburg  Centuriones  were  the  first  to 
show  that  these  documents  were  a  forgery.  Notwithstanding  their  ex- 
posure, Turrianus,  a  Jesuit  (Flor.  1572),  again  entered  the  lists  in  de- 
fence of  their  authenticity;  but  was  so  completely  silenced  by  Dav. 
Blondel  (Ps.  Isidorus  et  Turrianus  vapulantes.  Genev.  1628)  as  to  deter 
any  subsequent  writer  from  taking  up  so  forlorn  a  cause.  (Of.  Knust, 
de  fontibus  et  consilio  Ps.  Isid.  Gottg  1832  — //.  Wassersclileben,  Beitr. 
zur  Gesch.  d.  falsch.  Decretalien."  Breslau  1844.— J.  Wcizsucker.  llinc- 
mar,  u.  Ps.  Isidor.— In  the  Hist.  Theol.  Zeitschrift,  1858.  III.— C.  V. 
Noovdea,  Ebo,  Hincmar,  u.  Ps.  Isidor. —  In  V.  SybeVs  last  Zeitschrift, 
Vol  VII.  1862. — Hinschius,  in  the  Prolog,  to  his  edition  of  Ps.  Isid. 
Lps.  180:5.) 

§88.   STATE   OF   INTEELIGENCE,  ECCLESIASTICAL  USAGES 

AND   DISCIPLINE. 

Cf.  H.  B.  Scftindler,  dcr  Aberglaube  d.  M.  A.     Bresl.  1858. 

To  convince  ourselves  how  thoroughly  the  German  mind  could 
enter  into  the  spirit  of  genuine  Christianity,  we  only  require  to 
peruse  the  scanty  specimens  of  religious  poetry  preserved  from 
that  period.  At  first,  indeed,  the  mass  of  the  people  had  oidy 
made  outward  profession  of  the  new  faith.  Considerable  time 
lapsed  before  it  reached  the  heart  and  leavened  the  life  of  the 
nation.  Accordingly,  a  number  of  tenets  and  superstitions  foreign 
to  Christianity  —  the  remnants  of  former  heathen  views  —  were 
mixed  up  and  almost  formed  part  of  the  religious  life.  This 
tendency  was  fostered  by  some  adventitious  circumstances.  Gre- 
gory the  Great  had  recommended  his  missionaries  not  so  much 
to  wage  a  war  of  extermination  against  heathenism,  and  to 
sweep  away  its  every  trace,  as  rather  to  Christianize  pagan  rites, 
and  to  assign  a  deeper  Christian  meaning  to  heathen  tenets  for- 
merly cherished.  In  practice  the  Church  continued  to  follow 
this  suggestion,  thereby  keeping  alive  not  only  the  memory,  but 
also  the  forms,  of  ancient  misbelief.  Besides,  the  representatives 
of  the  Church  taught  that  the  heathen  deities  formerly  worshipped 
were  real  demons,  and,  as  such,  had  actual  existence.     Hence, 


STATE     OF     INTELLIGENCE,     ETC.  343 

m  popular  belief,  they  were  regarded  as  a  kind  of  dethroned 
powers  who  still  exercised  an  uncontrolled  sway  in  certain  do- 
mains of  nature,  and  whom  it  would  therefore  be  dangerous  to 
offend.  Withal,  the  highly  imaginative  and  poetic  turn  so  pecu- 
liarly characteristic  of  Germans,  their  liking  for  the  mysterious 
and  supernatural,  their  delight  in  speculation,  exercised  its  own 
influence  in  the  same  direction.  The  honours  paid  by  the  Church 
to  saints,  and  even  its  statements  about  the  devil,  opened  to  a 
highly  imaginative  race,  as  it  were,  a  new  range,  and  popular 
belief  soon  peopled  it  with  fantastic  shapes  and  strange  occur- 
rences. The  faithful  were  always  exposed  to  the  vexatious 
enmity  of  demons,  yet  never  so  as  to  place  them  beyond  the 
miraculous  protection  of  angels  and  saints.  The  agency  of  the 
Prince  of  Darkness  himself  was  frequently  brought  into  requisi- 
tion. At  this  period,  however,  the  relation  which  the  devil  and 
his  angels  occupied  towards  man,  was  regarded  as  far  too  serious 
and  solemn  to  favour  the  introduction  of  those  stories  which  cir- 
culated during  the  latter  part  of  the  Middle  Aires,  in  which 
Satan  was  uniformly  duped,  and  represented  as  an  object  of 
ridicule  and  contempt,  whose  impotent  rage,  as  he  disappeared, 
could  only  find  vent  in  leaving  a  horrid  sulphurous  smell. —  It 
must  be  admitted  that  the  moral  date  of  the  Germanic  races, 
after  their  adoption  of  Christianity,  sank  very  low.  Indeed,  a 
more  glaring  contrast  can  scarcely  be  conceived  than,  for  exam- 
ple, between  the  picture  which  Tacitus  draws  of  ancient  German 
manners  and  morality,  and  the  dreadful  degeneracy  and  brutal 
barbarism  which  Gregory  of  Tours  describes  during  the  Mero- 
vingian period.  But  in  no  instance,  also,  were  it  more  fallacious 
than  in  this  to  reason  :  "Post  hoc  ergo  propter  hoc."  The  moral 
decay  of  the  German  races  which  took  place  at  the  time  when 
they  made  their  outward  profession  of  Christianity,  depended  on 
circumstances  wholly  distinct  from  their  change  of  faith.  It  was, 
in  fact,  the  consequence  of  that  entire  transformation  of  views  and 
manners  caused  by  the  migration  of  nations.  Having  left  home — 
that  mightiest  bulwark  of  ancestral  manners — occupying  the  fer- 
tile and  opulent  countries  which  they  had  recently  conquered, 
and  there  exposed  to  most  demoralizing  influences  around,  the 
Germans  threw  themselves  into  enjoyments  new  to  them  with  all 
the  avidity  characteristic  of  a  people  which  had  hitherto  been 
unacquainted  with  luxury  and  its  attendant  vices ;  their  passions, 
once  let  loose,  soon  swept  away  all  the  landmarks  of  decency  and 


344       SECTION    II. — FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  4—9  A.  1).). 

propriety.  In  proof  of  the  correctness  of  this  explanation,  we 
appeal  to  the  fact  that  this  moral  decay  took  place  chiefly  among 
those  races  which  settled  in  countries  where  the  degenerate  Ro- 
mans held  sway  (as  was  the  case  with  the  Franks  in  Gaul,  and 
the  Langobards  in  Italy)  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  moral 
development  of  other  tribes,  such  as  the  Anglo-Saxons  and  the 
inhabitants  of  Germany  Proper,  was  entirely  different  and  much 
more  regular. 

1.  Religious  Education  of  the  People. —  Charlemagne  was  the  first  to 
conceive  the  idea  of  popular  education,  and  of  the  elevation  of  the 
masses.  It  will  readily  be  understood  that  only  a  small  beginning  of 
this  could  be  made  during  his  time.  Great  merit  attaches  in  this 
respect  to  Theodulf,  Bishop  of  Orleans,  who  planted  schools  in  every 
village  throughout  his  diocese.  The  religious  instruction  of  youth  com- 
monly consisted  of  learning  by  heart  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  Apostles' 
Creed.  Charlemagne  directed  that  adults — male  or  female — who  were 
deficient  in  this  modicum  of  popular  theology,  should  be  induced  by 
fasts  or  stripes  to  acquire  it.  A  number  of  formulas  still  extant,  dating 
from  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  employed  in  making  abjuration, 
confession  of  faith  or  of  sins,  or  in  orisons,  indicate  the  kind  of  religious 
knowledge  common  among  the  people.  As  further  means  of  popular 
religious  instruction,  we  may  mention  the  frequent  attempts  to  render 
patristic  or  Biblical  books  generally  accessible  by  translating  them  into 
the  vernacular.  Among  German  monasteries,  the  inmates  of  St.  Gall 
distinguished  themselves  by  their  zeal  in  promoting  the  growth  of  a 
national  literature.  Alfred  the  Great  prosecuted  the  same  object  among 
the  Anglo-Saxons,  especially  by  his  own  contributions  The  latest 
mention  of  Ultilas's  translation  of  the  Bible  occurs  in  the  ninth  cent., 
after  which  it  seems  for  many  centuries  to  have  remained  unknown. 

2.  Popular  Christian  Poetry. — This  species  of  composition  first  appeared 
at  the  close  of  the  seventh,  and  continued  to  be  cultivated  till  late  in 
the  ninth  cent.,  especially  in  England  and  Germany.  A  considerable 
number  of  Biblical  poems  of  great  merit,  on  subjects  connected  with 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  have  been  preserved,  which  are  ascribed 
to  the  pen  of  Ccedmon,  a  Northumbrian  [ob.  680).  Even  more  interest- 
ing is  the  German-Saxon  epos,  entitled  the  Heliaud,  dating  from  the  time 
of  Louis  the  Pious, — the  first,  and  only  Christian  poem  on  the  Messiah, 
worthy  its  glorious  subject,  popular  yet  perfect  in  construction,  simple 
and  elevated  in  its  conception — in  short,  deep  and  genuine  Christianity 
presented  in  a  Teutonic  form.  The  "Krist"  of  Oi fried  (a  monk  at 
Weissenburg,  about  8G0)  is  a  comparatively  inferior  production.  It 
was,  indeed,  the  great  aim  of  tiiis  author,  as  it  had  been  that  of  the 
Saxon  poet  —  to  useOtfried's  expression  —  "thaz  wirKriste  sungen  in 
unsere  Zungen"  (to  raise  Christ's  song  in  our  own  tongue)  ;  but  the 
poetry  of  the  Saxon  bears  the  same  relation  to  that  of  the  monk,  "  aa 


STATE     OF     INTELLIGENCE,     ETC.  345 

the  Rong  of  the  lark  under  the  broad  sunlit  canopy  of  heaven  to  the 
artificial  melody  of  the  bird  confined  to  its  cage."  To  the  same  class 
of  compositions  belong  two  other  pieces,  the  so-called  Wcssobrvnn  Prayer, 
of  which  the  first  and  poetic  portion  is  probably  a  fragment  of  a  larger 
poem  intended  to  celebrate  creation,  and  what  is  known  by  the  name 
of  Muspilli,  a  poem  in  high  German,  treating  of  the  end  of  the  world 
and  the  last  judgment,  of  which,  unfortunately,  only  a  fragment, 
unrivalled  in  depth  and  pathos,  has  been  preserved. 

3.  Social  State.  —  The  high  position  which  woman  had  always  occu- 
pied among  the  ancient  Germans  (#  75,  2)  prevented  the  spread  of  those 
degrading  views,  both  of  her  sex  and  of  the  married  relationship,  which 
in  great  measure  were  the  necessary  consequence  of  the  spurious 
asceticism  of  churchmen.  The  Church  attached  special  merit  to  com- 
plete abstinence  from  conjugal  intercourse,  which,  indeed,  was  entirely 
prohibited  during  the  three  seasons  of  Quadragesima,  on  feast-days, 
and  on  the  "dies  stationis"  (Wednesday,  Friday,  Saturday,  and  Sun- 
day). Second  marriages  were  stigmatized  as  incontinence,  and  had  to 
be  expiated  by  temporary  penance.  The  laws  regulating  divorce  were, 
however,  still  somewhat  lax,  and  only  in  exceptional  cases  were  persons 
divorced  prevented  from  again  marrying.  Intermarriage  with  Heathen, 
Jews,  and  Arians  was  strictly  prohibited.  But  the  stringent  regula- 
tions about  impediments  to  marriage  arising  from  affinity  [\  Gl)  were 
more  distasteful  to  the  Germans  than  probably  any  other  ordinance  of 
the  Church.  Such  unions,  especially  that  with  a  brother's  widow,  had 
formerly  been  regarded  in  popular  estimation  as  a  kind  of  duty. — 
The  national  customs  and  laws  connected  with  property  rendered  it 
impossible  for  the  Church  to  interfere  with  the  institution  of  serfdom; 
indeed,  monasteries  and  churches,  in  virtue  of  their  large  territorial 
possessions,  owned  a  considerable  number  of  serfs.  But  the  Church 
always  insisted  on  the  fact,  that  masters  and  servants  occupied  exactly 
the  same  place  in  a  moral  and  religious  point  of  view  ;  it  extolled  the 
manumission  of  slaves  as  occupying  the  first  rank  in  the  scale  of  good 
woi'ks,  and  ever  threw  the  shield  of  its  protection  around  those  who 
were  oppressed  by  harsh  masters. — The  care  of  (lie  poor  was  considered 
one  of  the  great  concerns  of  the  Church,  from  which  even  avaricious 
and  unfeeling  bishops  could  not  withdraw  themselves.  If  circumstances 
at  all  allowed  it,  every  church  had  its  own  special  buildings,  in  which 
the  poor,  the  sick,  widows  and  orphans,  were  supported  or  entertained. 

4.  Administration  of  Justice. — The  practice  of  taking  private  vengeance 
wis  common  among  the  German  races.  Some  bounds,  however,  were 
set  to  this  abuse,  by  fixing  by  law  the  composition  or  atonement  to  be 
paid  for  every  injury  (the  Weregild).  From  aversion  to  inflicting 
capital  punishment,  the  Church  readily  fell  in  with  this  custom.  A 
solemn  oath,  and  the  so-called  judgment  of  God,  were  the  means 
adopted  for   leading  judicial   proof.     Only  a   freeman  who  had   not 


346       SECTION    II. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.   4—9    A.  D.). 

previously  been  convicted  of  ciimc  was  allowed  to  take  the  oath  of  pur 
gation  ;  a  husband  might  take  it  for  his  wife,  a  father  for  his  children, 
or  a  master  for  his  slave.     Along  with  the  person  accused,  his  relatives, 
friends,   and  neighbours    appeared  as  compurgators  (conjuratorcs)    to 
take  the  oath.     Although  they  repeated  the  same  formula  as  the  party 
impeached,  their  oath  was  only  intended  as  a  personal  guarantee  foi 
the    truthfulness    and  honour  of  the  accused.     If,  from    any  circum- 
stance, this   oath   of  purgation  could  not  be   taken,  if  there  were  nc 
compurgators,  or  if  other  means  of  probation  were  awanting,  resort 
was  had  to  the  judgment  of  God  (Ordale).     This  was  ascertained  — 
1.  By  judicial  combat,  which  owed  its  origin  to  the  old  popular  belief: 
"Deum  adesse  bellantibus."     Only  a  freeman  could  demand  this  mode 
3f  trial.     Old  persons,  women,  children,   and  clerks  might  be  repre- 
sented by  a  proper  substitute.     2.  By  various  experiments  with  fire, 
such  as  holding  the  hand  for  some  time   in   the   fire,  walking  over  a 
burning  pile  with  no  other  dress  on  than  a  shirt,  carrying  a  red-hot 
iron  with  the  naked  hand  for  nine  paces,  or  walking  barefoot  over  nino 
or  twelve  burning  ploughshares.     3.  By  one  of  two  experiments  with 
water.     The  accused  person  had  to  fetch,  with  his  naked  arm,  a  ring 
or  a  stone  out  of  a  cauldron  filled  with  boiling  water ;  or  he  was  thrown 
into  the  water  with  a  rope  round  his  body.     If  he  sank,  he  was   de- 
clared to  have  proved  his  innocence.     4.  By  the  experiment  of  the  cross. 
Each  party  stood  before  the  cross  with  arms  expanded ;  and  the  person 
who  first  became  weary,  and  allowed  his  hands  to  droop,  lost"  the  cause. 
5.  By  the  experiment  with  the  Encliarist,  specially  in  disputes  among 
ecclesiastics.     It  was  thought  that  the  guilty  party  would  soon  after- 
wards be  struck  by  some  manifestation  of  the  Divine  displeasure.     The 
laity  underwent  the  experiment  with  the  consecrated  morsel  (judicium 
offse),  which  the  party  impeached  had  to  swallow  at  mass.     0.  By  the 
so-called  "judicium  feretri."     The  accused  touched  the  wounds  of  the 
person  murdered;  if  blood  flowed  from  them,  or  foam  from  his  mouth, 
it  was   held   to   establish    guilt.  —  The   implicit   credence  which   the 
Church  attached  to  so  many  legendary  miracles,  sprung  from  the  same 
tendency  which  gave  rise  to  these  ordeals.     It  was,  therefore,  mani- 
festly impossible  for  churchmen  to  combat  such  superstitions  ;  at  most, 
they  could  object  to  the  pagan  rites  so  frequently  connected  with  them. 
But  by  sanctioning  and  regulating  these  trials,  the  Church  no  doubt 
contributed   not  a   little  to  diminish  the   evils   attendant   upon   them. 
Agobard  of  Lyons  (ob.  840)  was  the  first  to  denounce  these  practices 
as  damnable  superstitions.     After  that,  the  See  of  Rome  also  (since 
the  pontificate  of  Nicholas  I.)    uniformly  condemned   every   kind  of 
appeal  to  the  "judgment  of  God." — Among  the  different  kinds  of  peace 
(i.  e.,  immunity  of  person,  property,  office,  and  duly),  next  to  the  peace 
../'  the   King,  that  of  the  Church  was  most  respected.     For  injuries  to 
ecclesiastical  personages  and  property,  or  offences  committed  in  conse- 
crated  places,  a  threefold  compensation  was  exacted.     A  bishop  was 


STATE     OF     INTELLIGENCE,     ETC  347 

regarded  as  equal  to  a  duke,  and  a  common  priest  to  a  count. —  (Comp. 
also  Robertson,  Charles  V.,  First  Section,  and  Notes  21,  22.) 

5.  Ecclesiastical  Discipline  and  Penances.  —  In  Germany,  the  State 
fully  recognized  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Church  and  its  right  to  inflict 
punishment,  so  that  an  offence  was  considered  expiated  only  when, 
besides  the  requirements  of  the  secular,  those  of  the  ecclesiastical  tri- 
bunal also  had  been  satisfied.  This  gave  rise  to  a  system  of  regular 
episcopal  visitations,  called  Sends  (Synodus,  from  send?),  which  came 
into  use  during  the  reign  of  Charlemagne.  The  bishop  was  every  year 
to  visit  the  whole  of  his  diocese,  accompanied  by  a  royal  Missus,  and, 
with  the  aid  of  bailiffs  specially  selected  (from  every  congregation) 
and  sworn,  to  institute  a  searching  inquiry  into  the  moral  and  religious 
state  of  every  parish,  and  to  punish  the  sins  or  misdemeanors  brought 
to  light.  Both  Regino  of  PiUnn  and  Hinemar  of  Rheims  composed 
instructions  for  conducting  these  visitations.  —  The  State  also  lent  its 
sanction  and  force  to  the  sentences  of  ecclesiastical  excommunication, 
Pepin  enjoined  that  those  who  had  been  excommunicated  should  not 
enter  a  church,  and  prohibited  Christians  from  eating  and  drinking 
with,  or  even  saluting  such  persons.  The  public  exercise  of  discipline 
was  repugnant  to  German  notions  of  propriety,  and  the  Church 
generally  yielded  in  this  matter  to  popular  feeling.  The  numerous 
Penitential  books  which  date  from  this  period,  gave  ample  direction 
about  the  administration  of  discipline,  and  adopting  the  custom  of 
judicial  compensations,  prescribed  certain  fines  for  every  conceivable 
kind  of  offence.  Wasserschleben  has  collected  and  edited  all  the  docu- 
ments of  this  character  still  extant  ("The  Penitential  Books  of  the 
Western  Church,  with  Hist.  Introd."  Halle  1851).  They  appear  to 
have  been  generally  constructed  after  the  penitential  order  of  Theodore, 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Manifestly,  the  fundamental  idea  of  these 
arrangements  implied  an  entire  misunderstanding  of  Christian  disci- 
pline ;  and  their  frequent  contradictions,  their  confusedness  and  arbi- 
trary regulations,  led  to  very  sad  consequences.  Even  the  rendering 
of  the  term posnitentia  by  "penance,"  i.e.,  compensation,  shows  how 
superficial  were  the  views  entertained  by  the  Church  on  this  important 
subject.  Thus  in  the  Penitential  books,  "pcenitere"  is  represented  as 
entirely  identical  with  "jejunare."  But  if  the  idea  of  poenitentia  once 
resolved  itself  into  merely  external  acts,  the  penance  of  fasting  might 
readily  give  place  to  other  spiritual  exercises.  Again,  if  it  was  only 
requisite  by  seme  penance  to  make  compensation  for  sins  committed, 
the  services  of  another  might  fairly  be  employed  as  a  substitute  for 
those  of  the  guilty  person.  Accordingly,  a  system  of  redemption  was 
gradually  introduced,  which  involved  utter  disregard  of  all  moral 
earnestness  on  the  part  of  penitents.  Thus,  for  example,  the  peniten- 
tial books  indicate  how  a  rich  man  might,  by  hiring  a  sufficient  number 
of  persons  to  fast  in  his  stead,  in  three  days  go  through  a  course  of  seven 
years'  penance,  without  incurring  any  personal  trouble.     This  moral 


346       SECTION    II. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  4-9    A.  D.). 

previously  been  convicted  of  ci  ime  was  allowed  to  take  the  oath  of  pur- 
gation ;  a  husband  might  take  it  for  his  wife,  a  father  for  his  children, 
or  a  master  for  his  slave.    Along  with  the  person  accused,  his  relatives, 
friends,   and  neighbours   appeared  as  compurgators  (conjuratorcs)    to 
take  the  oath.     Although  they  repeated  the  same  formula  as  the  party 
impeached,  their  oath  was  only  intended  as  a  personal  guarantee  foi 
the    truthfulness    and  honour  of  the  accused.     If,  from    any  circum- 
stance, this  oath  of  purgation  could  not  be  taken,  if  there  were  nc 
compurgators,  or  if  other  means  of  probation  were  awanting,  resort 
was  had  to  the  judgment  of  God   (Ordale).     This  was  ascertained  — 
1.  By  judicial  combat,  which  owed  its  origin  to  the  old  popular  belief: 
"Deura  adesse  bellantibus."     Only  a  freeman  could  demand  this  mode 
}f  trial.     Old  persons,  women,  children,  and  clerks  might  be  repre- 
sented  by  a  proper  substitute.     2.  By  various  experiment*  with  fire, 
such  as  holding  the  hand  for  some  time   in  the  fire,  walking  over  a 
burning  pile  with  no  other  dress  on  than  a  shirt,  carrying  a  red-hot 
iron  with  the  naked  hand  for  nine  paces,  or  walking  barefoot  over  nino 
or  twelve  burning  ploughshares.     3.  By  one  of  two  experiment*  with 
water.     The  accused  person  had  to  fetch,  with  his  naked  arm,  a  ring 
or  a  stone  out  of  a  cauldron  filled  with  boiling  water ;  or  he  was  thrown 
into  the  water  with  a  rope  round  his  body.     If  he  sank,  he  was  de- 
clared to  have  proved  his  innocence.     4.  By  the  experiment  of  the  cross. 
Each  party  stood  before  the  cross  with  arms  expanded ;  and  the  person 
who  first  became  weary,  and  allowed  his  hands  to  droop,  lost  the  cause. 
5.  By  the  experiment  with  the  Eucharist,  specially  in  disputes  among 
ecclesiastics.     It  was  thought  that  the  guilty  party  would  soon  after- 
wards be  struck  by  some  manifestation  of  the  Divine  displeasure.     The 
laity  underwent  the  experiment  with  the  consecrated  morsel  (judicium 
offaj),  which  the  party  impeached  had  to  swallow  at  mass.     C.  By  the 
so-called  "judicium  feretri."     The  accused  touched  the  wounds  of  the 
person  murdered  ;  if  blood  flowed  from  them,  or  foam  from  his  mouth, 
it  was   held   to   establish   guilt.  —  The    implicit   credence  which    the 
Church  attached  to  so  many  legendary  miracles,  sprung  from  the  same 
tendency  which  gave  rise  to  ihese  ordeals.     It  was,  therefore,  mani- 
festly  impossible  for  churchmen  to  combat  such  superstitions;  at  most, 
they  could  object  to  the  pagan  rites  so  frecpicntly  connected  with  them. 
But  by  sanctioning  and  regulating  these  trials,  the  Church  no  doubt 
contributed   not  a   little  to  diminish  the   evils   attendant  upon   them. 
Agohard  of  Lyons  (cf>.  840)  was  the  first  to  denounce  these  practices 
as  damnable  superstitions.     After  that,  the  See  of  Rome  also  (since 
the  pontificate  of  Nicholas  I.)    uniformly  condemned  every  kind  of 
appeal  to  the  "judgment  of  God." — Among  the  different  kinds  rf  peace 
(i.  c,  immunity  of  person,  property,  office,  and  duty),  next  to  the  peace 
of  the  King,  that  of  the  Church  was  most  respected.     For  injuries  to 
ecclesiastical  personages  and  property,  or  offences  committed  in  conse- 
crated places,  a  threefold  compensation  was  exacted.     A  bishop  was 


STATE     OF     INTELLIGENCE,     ETC.  347 

regarded  as  equal  to  a  duke,  and  a  common  priest  to  a  count. —  (Comp. 
also  Robertson,  Charles  V.,  First  Section,  and  Notes  21,  22.) 

5.  Ecclesiasticul  Discipline  and  Penances.  —  In  Germany,  the  State 
fully  recognized  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Church  and  its  right  to  inflict 
punishment,  so  that  an  offence  was  considered  expiated  only  when, 
besides  the  requirements  of  the  secular,  those  of  the  ecclesiastical  tri- 
bunal also  had  been  satisfied.  This  gave  rise  to  a  system  of  regular 
episcopal  visitations,  called  Sends  (Synodus,  from  send?),  which  came 
isit)  use  during  the  reign  of  Charlemagne.  The  bishop  was  every  year 
to  visit  the  whole  of  his  diocese,  accompanied  by  a  royal  Missus,  and, 
with  the  aid  of  bailiffs  specially  selected  (from  every  congregation) 
and  sworn,  to  institute  a  searching  inquiry  into  the  moral  and  religious 
state  of  every  parish,  and  to  punish  the  sins  or  misdemeanors  brought 
to  light.  Both  Eegirto  of  Piiim  and  Hincmar  of  Rheims  composed 
instructions  for  conducting  these  visitations.  —  The  State  also  lent  its 
sanction  and  force  to  the  sentences  of  ecclesiastical  excommunication. 
Pepin  enjoined  that  those  who  had  been  excommunicated  should  not 
enter  a  church,  and  prohibited  Christians  from  eating  and  drinking 
with,  or  even  saluting  such  persons.  The  public  exercise  of  discipline 
was  repugnant  to  German  notions  of  propriety,  and  the  Church 
generally  yielded  in  this  matter  to  popular  feeling.  The  numerous 
Penitential  books  which  date  from  this  period,  gave  ample  direction 
about  the  administration  of  discipline,  and  adopting  the  custom  of 
judicial  compensations,  prescribed  certain  fines  for  every  conceivable 
kind  of  offence.  Wasserschleben  has  collected  and  edited  all  the  docu- 
ments of  this  character  still  extant  ("The  Penitential  Books  of  the 
Western  Church,  with  Hist.  Introd."  Halle  1851).  They  appear  to 
have  been  generally  constructed  after  the  penitential  order  of  Theodore, 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Manifestly,  the  fundamental  idea  of  these 
arrangements  implied  an  entire  misunderstanding  of  Christian  disci- 
pline ;  and  their  frequent  contradictions,  their  confusedness  and  arbi- 
trary regulations,  led  to  very  sad  consequences.  Even  the  rendering 
of  the  term pomitentia  by  "penance,"  i.e.,  compensation,  shows  how 
superficial  were  the  views  entertained  by  the  Church  on  this  important 
subject.  Thus  in  the  Penitential  books,  "pcenitere"  is  represented  as 
entirely  identical  with  "jejunare."  But  if  the  idea  of  posnitentia  once 
resolved  itself  into  merely  external  acts,  the  penance  of  fasting  might 
readily  give  place  to  other  spiritual  exercises.  Again,  if  it  was  only 
requisite  by  some  penance  to  make  compensation  for  sins  committed, 
the  services  of  another  might  fairly  be  employed  as  a  substitute  for 
those  of  the  guilty  person.  Accordingly,  a  system  of  redemption  was 
gradually  introduced,  which  involved  utter  disregard  of  all  moral 
earnestness  on  the  part  of  penitents.  Thus,  for  example,  the  peniten- 
tial books  indicate  how  a  rich  man  might,  by  hiring  a  sufficient  number 
of  persons  to  fast  in  his  stead,  in  three  clays  go  through  a  course  of  seven 
years'  penance,  without  incurring  any  personal  trouble.     This  moral 


348       SECTION    II. FIRST    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.  4— 9  A.  I).). 

decay  led  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  to  determined  opposition 
against  penitential  books,  and  the  dangerous  principles  involved  in  their 
arrangement.  The  reaction  commenced  in  Britain  at  the  Council  of 
Cloveshove  in  747,  and  soon  spread  to  the  Continent,  where  it  found 
vent  at  the  Synods  of  Chalons  in  813,  of  Paris  in  829,  and  of  Mayeuce 
in  847.  The  council  of  Paris  ordered  all  penitential  books  to  be  de- 
livered up  and  burnt.  But  their  use  was  still  retained. — At  this  period, 
confession  was  not  yet  regarded  as  incumbent  on  the  faithful  generally. 
In  theory  at  least,  it  was  still  held  that  it  sufficed  to  confess  to  God 
alone.  But  already  the  custom  of  confessing  once  a  year — during 
Easter  Quadragesima  —  seems  to  have  been  so  general,  that  its  omis- 
sison  was  severely  reprimanded  at  episcopal  visitations.  The  formula 
of  absolution  adopted  was  only  of  a  deprecatory,  not  of  a  judicial 
character. 

I  89.   PUBLIC   WORSHIP  AND   THE   FINE  ARTS. 

Wherever  Arianisrn  remained  the  creed  in  Germany,  the  ser- 
vices of  the  Church  were  no  doubt  conducted  in  the  vernacu- 
lar. But  when  these  races  joined  the  Catholic  Chinch,  Latin 
became  the  ecclesiastical  language.  Among  the  tribes  which 
were  converted  to  Christianity  by  Catholic  missionaries,  the  use 
of  Latin  in  the  public  services  had  from  the  first  been  intro- 
duced. The  Slavonians  alone  were  allowed  to  worship  in  their 
own  language  (§  79,  1).  —  As  the  language,  so  also  the  liturgy 
of  Rome  was  everywhere  enforced,  except  within  the  diocese  of 
Milan  and  in  the  Spanish  Church.  When  Pepin  entered  into 
negotiations  with  the  Papacy,  he  consented  to  have  the  forma 
of  worship  common  among  the  Franks  altered  to  suit  the  Romish 
model  (745).  For  the  same  purpose  Hadrian  I.  furnished 
Charlemagne  with  a  Romish  Sacramentarium,  and  that  monarch 
insisted  on  having  the  desired  uniformity  carried  out.  At  first 
sight,  it  may  appear  strange  that  the  peculiar  characteristics  of 
the  German  mind  should  not  have  expressed  themselves  in  corre- 
sponding modifications  in  the  services  of  the  Church.  But  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  Romish  ritual,  when  imported  into 
Germany,  was  not  only  in  itself  complete,  but  so  constituted  as 
scarcely  to  admit  improvements  of  a  fundamental  character;  and 
that,  besides,  the  vernacular  was  excluded  from  the  Liturgy,  and 
the  people  really  took  no  active  part  in  the  services.  Where, 
as  in  this  case,  so  much  depends  on  the  choice  of  expressions, 
the  national  mind  could  not  find  full  or  free  utterance  so  long  as 
Khe  use  of  a  foreign  idiom  was  enforced. 


PUBLIC    WORSHIP    AND    THE    FINE     ARTS.        349 

1.  Liturgy  and  Preaching. —  Besides  the  Roman  or  Gregorian,  other 
liturgies  were  in  use  ;  differing  from  it  in  some  respects.  Such  was 
the  attachment  both  of  the  people  and  clergy  of  Milan  to  their  old 
Ambrosian  Liturgy,  that  even  Charlemagne  was  not  strong  enough  to 
displace  it;  and  to  this  day  has  Milan  preserved  its  possession  of  this 
relic.  Not  less  tenacious  were  the  Spaniards  in  their  adherence  to 
their  national  or  so-called  Mozarabic  Liturgy  ($  81,  1).  In  several 
points  it  resembled  the  Eastern  litm-gies ;  after  having  been  recast  and 
enlarged  by  Leander  and  Isidore  of  Seville,  it  was  adopted  throughout 
the  Spanish  Church  by  the  national  Synod  of  Toledo  in  633.  This 
similarity  to  Eastern  liturgies  is  also  noticeable  in  some  of  the  older 
Gallican  liturgies,  before  the  time  of  the  Carolingians.  —  Throughout 
the  West,  the  Sermon  always  occupied  a  comparatively  subordinate 
place  in  public  worship.  The  intellectual  decay  subsequent  on  the 
migration  of  nations,  almost  banished  it  entirely  from  the  services  of 
the  Church.  But  when,  in  the  seventh  century,  the  Latin  Church 
addressed  itself  to  missionary  work,  the  great  importance  of  sermons 
in  diffusing  the  truth  was  deeply  felt.  Few,  however,  of  the  clergy 
were  capable  of  composing  sermons.  Charlemagne  therefore  com- 
missioned Paulus  Biaconus  ($90,  3),  in  782,  to  collect  from  the 
writings  of  the  Fathers  a  (Latin)  Ilomiliarium  for  Sundays  and  feast- 
days,  to  serve  as  a  model  for  similar  compositions,  or,  where  this  could 
not  be  expected,  to  be  read  to  the  people  either  in  the  original  or  in 
translation.  Of  course  the  missionaries  preached  in  the  vernacular; 
in  established  congregations  the  sermon  was  mostly  delivered  in  Latin. 
But  ('harlemagne  and  the  synods  of  his  time  enjoined  preaching, 
either  in  German  or  in  the  Romanic.  (Comp.  also  Johnson,  English 
Canons;  Maskell,  Ancient  Liturgy.) 

2.  (Cf.  Hoffmann  v.  Fallersleb.  Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Kh'chenlieds  bis 
auf  Luther.  3  Aufl.  Hann.  1854.  — A.  Schnbiger,  d.  Sangerschule  St. 
Gallons.  Einfied.  1831.) — According  to  the  rule  laid  down  by  Gregory, 
the  cJianting  in  churches  was  performed  by  the  clergy.  The  ordinance 
of  Charlemagne,  that  the  people  should  at  least  take  part  in  singing 
the  "Gloria"  and  the  Sanctus,"  was  not  obeyed.  Between  the 
seventh  and  the  ninth  centuries  flourished  a  number  of  Latin  hymn- 
writers,  among  whom  we  specially  mention  Beda  Yenerabilis,  Paid 
Warnefried,  Theodulf  of  Orleans,  Alcuin,  and  Pabanus  Maurus.  The 
beautiful  hymn  for  Pentecost,  "  Veni  creator  Spiritus,"  is  commonly 
ascribed  to  Charlemagne  himself.  Instead  of  following,  as  formerly 
the  tone  and  style  of  the  classics,  the  religious  compositions  of  that 
age  became  gradually  more  German  and  Christian  in  their  spirit, 
being  characterized  by  deep  simplicity  and  genuine  feeling.  Towards 
the  close  of  this  period  a  considerable  impulse  was  given  to  this  species 
of  compositions  by  the  adoption  of  what  were  called  sequences 
(sequentire)  into  the  service  of  the  Mass.  Instead  of  the  long  series 
cf  notes  without  words  —  intended  to  indicate  that  the  feelings  were 

30 


350       SECTION    II.  — FIRST    PERIOD    (c  E  X  T.  4—9  A  D.). 

too  strong  for  expression  (hence  the  term  Jubili) — which  formerly  had 
followed  upon  the  Hallelujah  of  the  Mass.  suitable  rhythmical  language 
in  Latin  prose  was  .adopted,  which  by  and  by  was  cast  into  metre, 
rhyme,  and  stanzas.  Notker  Balbulvs,  a  monk  of  St.  Gall  (ob.  912), 
was  the  first  distinguished  writer  of  sequences.  —  The  only  part  which 
the  people  were  allowed  to  take  in  the  services  of  the  Church  was  to 
sing,  or  rather  to  shout,  the  "  Kyrie  Eleison"  in  the  Litany,  and  that 
only  at  extraordinary  seasons,  such  as  processions,  pilgrimages,  the 
transportation  of  relics,  funerals,  the  consecration  of  churches,  and 
other  similar  occasions.  In  Germany,  during  the  second  half  of  the 
ninth  century,  short  verses  in  the  vernacular  were  introduced  at  such 
times  —  the  Kyrie  Eleison  forming  the  refrain  of  every  stanza.  This 
was  the  humble  commencement  of  German  hymnology.  The  only 
monument  of  this  kind  of  poetry  still  extant  from  that  period  is  a 
hymn  in  honour  of  St.  Peter,  composed  in  the  old  high  German  dialect. 
—  The  Ambrosian  chant  (g  59,  3)  had  entirely  given  place  to  the 
Gregorian  (the  so-called  Cantus  firmus  or  choralis).  When  Stephen 
II.  visited  France  in  754,  Pepin  ordered  that  the  Romish  chant  should 
he  universally  adopted.  To  this  injunction  Charlemagne  gave  general 
effect  throughout  the  West,  by  entirely  abolishing  the  Ambrosian  chant, 
by  instituting  excellent  singing-schools  at  Metz,  Soissons,  Orleans, 
Paris,  Lyons,  and  in  other  places,  over  which  he  placed  musicians  sent 
from  Rome  for  the  special  purpose,  and  by  introducing  music  as  a 
branch  of  education  in  all  the  higher  schools  throughout  the  Empire. 
The  first  organ  brought  to  Franco  was  that  which  the  Byzantine 
Emperor  Copronymus  presented  to  Pepin  in  757.  A  second  organ  was 
given  to  Charlemagne  by  the  Emperor  Michael  I.  and  placed  in  the 
church  at  Aix-la-Chapellc.  After  that  it  was  gradually  introduced 
throughout  the  Church.  But  these  instruments  were  still  very  imper- 
fect ;  they  had  only  from  nine  to  twelve  notes,  and  the  keys  were  so 
ill  constructed  that  they  required  to  be  struck  with  the  fist. 

3.  The  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  —  The  idea  of  a  sacrifice  attaching  to 
the  Eucharist,  which  led  to  the  celebration  of  masses  for  the  benefit 
of  the  dead  ($  58,  3),  i.  e.,  for  alleviating  and  shortening  the  torments 
of  purgatory,  was  gradually  developed  and  applied  to  other  purposes. 
Thus  private  masses  were  celebrated  for  the  success  of  any  under- 
taking, as  for  the  restoration  of  a  sick  person,  for  favourable  weather, 
etc.  This  increase  of  masses  was  somewhat  limited  by  the  enactment, 
that  only  one  ma*s  might  be  celebrated  at  the  same  altar  and  by  the 
same  priest  in  one  day.  The  desire  to  secure  as  many  masses  as 
possible  after  death,  gave  rise  to  associations  of  churches  and  monas- 
teries on  the  covenant  that  a  certain  number  of  masses  should  be  said 
in  all  these  churches  and  monasteries  for  every  member  of  the  asso- 
ciation that  died.  The  idea  of  such  fraternities  —  into  which,  by 
special  favour,  kings,  princes,  and  lords  were  sometimes  received  — 
seems  to  have  originated  with  St.  Boniface. 


PUBLIC     WORSHIP     AND     THE     FINE     ARTS.         351 

4.  Among  the  Germans  the  worship  of  saints  was  in  great  repute, 
especially  as  they  served  as  substitutes  for  the  displaced  deities  of 
former  days.  Far  above  the  other  saints  towered  in  popular  esteem 
the  Mother  of  God,  the  fair  and  gracious  Queen  of  Heaven  —  the  full 
ideal  of  woman,  that  object  of  ancient  veneration  among  the  Ger- 
mans. Partly  from  the  want  of  images,  and  partly  from  national 
dislike,  the  worship  paid  to  images  was  little  in  vogue  in  the 
German  Church.  Indeed,  during  the  time  of  the  Carolingians,  the 
Frankish  Church  formally  protested  against  such  services  ($  92,  1). 
But  all  the  greater  was  the  zeal  displayed  in  the  worship  of  relics, 
in  which  the  saint  reappeared,  as  it  were,  in  concrete  and  bodily  form. 
Innumerable  relics  existed  in  the  "West,  supplied  partly  from  the  inex- 
haustible treasury  at  Rome,  and  partly  from  the  band  of  zealous  mis- 
sionary martyrs,  from  the  solitudes  of  hermits,  or  even  from  monasteries 
and  episcopal  sees.  The  bones  of  these  saints  were  the  objects  of  en- 
thusiastic veneration.  When  a  church  or  a  monastery  acquired  a  new 
relic,  the  whole  country  rejoiced  in  the  accession ;  the  concourse  of 
multitudes,  and  an  abundant  harvest  in  the  shape  of  donations  by  the 
pious,  attended  the  deposition  of  the  prized  memorial  in  the  crypt  of 
the  sanctuaiw.  In  the  ninth  century  the  Frankish  monastery  of  Cen- 
fcula  boasted  of  a  large  quantity  of  such  relics;  among  them,  memorials 
from  the  grave  of  the  Innocents  at  Bethlehem,  part  of  the  milk  of  the 
Virgin,  of  the  beard  of  St.  Peter,  of  his  casula,  of  the  Orarium  of  St. 
Paul,  nay,  even  of  the  wood  with  which  Peter  was  about  to  construct 
the  three  tabernacles  on  Mount  Tabor.  —  Among  the  Germans,  and 
especially  the  Anglo-Saxons,  who  were  so  fond  of  travelling,  the  prac- 
tice of  making  pilgrimages  was  very  general.  The  favourite  places 
fur  such  devotions  were  the  tombs  of  the  princes  of  the  apostles  at 
Rome,  the  grave  of  St.  Martin  at  Tours,  and,  towards  the  close  of  this 
period,  that  of  St.  Jago  de  Compostella  (Jacobus  Apostolus  the  Elder, 
the  supposed  founder  of  the  Spanish  Church,  whose  bones  were  disco- 
vered by  Alphonse  the  Chaste).  But  the  demoralizing  influences 
attendant  on  these  pilgrimages,  which  formed  subject  of  complaint 
even  in  older  times,  were  painfully  felt.  Accordingly,  St.  Boniface 
insisted  that  his  countrywomen  should  be  prohibited  joining  them, 
since  they  only  served  to  provide  loose  women  for  the  towns  of  Gaul 
and  Italy.  —  The  idea  of  patron  angels  proved  specially  attractive  to 
the  Germans.  More  particularly  did  they  accord  their  sympathies  to 
Michael,  the  knightly  Archangel,  who  had  defeated  the  great  dragon. 

5.  Ecclesiastical  Seasons  and  Places.  —  Besides  the  Easter  Quadra- 
gesima, another  was  introduced  after  Pentecost,  and  a  third  before 
Christmas.  The  ecclesiastical  year  now  commenced  at  Christmas, 
instead  of  Easter.  In  the  ninth  century,  the  Feast  of  All-Saints  (£  57, 
1),  which  at  first  had  been  only  celebrated  at  Rome,  was  observed 
throughout  the  Church. —  In  consequence  of  the  number  of  relics  and 
the  increase  of  masses,  additional  altars  were  erected  in  the  churches. 


852       SECTION    II. FIRST    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T  .  4— 9  A.  D.) 

Charlemagne  enjoined  them  to  be  limited  to  the  number  actually  re- 
quired. The  high  altar  stood  unsupported  in  the  centre  of  the  nicha 
in  the  choir.  The  other  altars  were  cither  placed  in  juxtaposition  or 
supported  by  pillars.  Pulpits  and  confessionals  had  not  yet  been  in- 
troduced into  churches.  Special  baptistries  adjoined  those  churches  in 
which  the  sacred  rite  was  administered  (§  84,  2).  But  when  this  privi- 
lege was  extended  to  all  churches,  a  baptismal  font  was  placed  at  the 
left  side  of  the  principal  entrance,  or  at  the  point  where  the  nave  was 
crossed  by  the  transept.  This  change  contributed  to  the  general  intro- 
duction of  the  practice  of  sprinkling  instead  of  immersion  in  baptism. 
Bells  and  towers  were  common  ;  the  latter  stood  at  first  by  themselves, 
but  since  the  time  of  Charlemagne  they  were  connected  with  the  main 
building.  Charlemagne  prohibited  the  christening  of  bells,  but  the 
practice  still  continued. 

G.  During  the  domination  of  the  Ostrogoths,  the  Fine  Arts  were 
chiefly  cultivated  on  the  other  side,  during  that  of  the  Carolingians  on 
this  side,  the  Alps.  On  the  British  Isle  also,  considerable  attention 
was  paid  to  their  cultivation.  The  German  monasteries  of  St.  Gall 
and  Fulda  bore,  in  the  ninth  century,  the  palm  in  artistic  taste.  Thus 
Tut iio,  a  monk  of  St.  Gall  (ob.  912),  was  greatly  distinguished  as  an 
architect,  painter,  sculptor,  poet,  and  general  savant.  The  old  Roman 
Basilica  still  formed  the  model  for  ecclesiastical  architecture.  At  Ra- 
venna— the  Byzantium  of  Italy — some  splendid  churches  were  built  in 
the  Byzantine  style  during  the  domination  of  the  Goths.  Einliard  was 
the  favourite  architect  of  Charlemagne.  Among  the  various  churches 
built  by  that  monarch,  the  Mlinster  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  constructed 
after  the  model  of  these  Ravenna  churches,  is  the  most  beautiful. 
Being  intended  to  serve  as  royal  chapel,  it  was  connected  with  the 
palace  by  a  colonnade.  For  the  same  reason,  it  was  originally  of  mode- 
rate size  ;  but  being  also  used  for  coronations,  it  was  enlarged  in  1355 
by  the  addition  of  the  grand  principal  choir,  in  the  Gothic  style.  The 
ceremonies  of  the  Church  tended  to  the  promotion  of  the  plastic  arts. 
as  costly  shrines  were  required  for  relics;  and  the  crucifixes,  candle- 
sticks, ciboria,  censers,  and  other  vessels,  called  forth  the  skill  of  artists. 
The  liturgical  books  were  covered  with  boards  elaborately  carved,  and 
the  doors  of  churches,  the  stalls  of  bishops,  reading-desks,  and  bap- 
tismal fonts  adorned  with  decorations  in  relief.  Among  the  various 
kinds  of  pictorial  representations,  miniature  painting  was  employed  in 
adorning  copies  of  ecclesiastical  books. —  (Comp.  G.  Kinkel,  Gesch.  d 
bildenden  Kunste.  I.  Bonn  1845.—^.  Fbrster,  Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Kunst 
Leips.  1851-55.  3  Vols.) 


SCIENCE    AND    THEOLOGICAL    LITERATURE.       353 

|  90.    STATE   OF    SCIENCE  AND  OF   THEOLOGICAL  LITE- 
RATURE. 

Comp.  J.  C.  F.  Balir,  Gesch.  d.  rom.  Liter,  iin  karoling.  Zeitalter. 
Karlsr.  1840. 

So  long  as  Arianism  continued  the  creed  of  the  German  races, 
independent  scientific  pursuits  seem  not  to  have  been  followed, 
with   the   exception  of  those  of  Ulfilas.      But   Theodoric,  the 
generous   monarch    of   the    Ostrogoths,    patronized   and    distin- 
guished the  representatives  of  ancient  Roman  literature.    Among 
them  Boethius  and  Cassiodofus  have  the  merit  of  preserving  the 
remnants  of  classical  and  patristic  learning  in  Italy.      A  similar 
service  Isidore  of  Seville  [ob.  636)  performed  for  Spain,  and  his 
works  were  for  centuries  used   also   on  the    other   side   of  the 
Pyrenees  as  text-books  and  guides  for  students.     The  numerous 
monasteries  of  Scotland  and  Ireland  were,  till  late  in  the  ninth 
century,  equally  famed  for  the  extensive  learning  and  the  deep 
piety  of  their  inmates.      The  learned  Greek  monk,  Theodore  of 
Tarsus,  whom  the  Pope  elevated  to  the  archiepiscopal  See  of 
Canterbury   (oh.  690),  and    his   companion   Hadrian,   awakened 
among  the  Anglo-Saxons  an  ardent  zeal  for  the  prosecution  of 
learned  investigations,  while  Beda  Venerabilis,  though  he  never 
left  his  monastery,  was  regarded,  throughout  the  Western  Church, 
as  a  leading  authority.     For  a  time  the  Northmen  pirates  swept 
away  the  traces  of  this  high  civilization,  till  Alfred  the  Great 
(871  to  901)  again  restored  it.      This  monarch,  equally  great  in 
peace  and  in  war,  distinguished  as  a  general,  a  statesman,  and  a 
legislator,  and  renowned  both  as  a  poet  and  prose  writer,  raised 
the  literature  of  his  country  to  a  height  never  before  attained — 
though,  unfortunately,   only  for  a  time.      In  Gaul,  Gregory  of 
Tours  (ob.  595)  was  the  last  representative  of  Roman  ecclesi- 
astical lore.     After  him  came  that  chaos  which  only  under  the 
reign  of  Charlemagne  (168  to  814)  gave  place  to  a  new  day,  of 
which  the  light  shone  throughout  the  West.     The  encourage- 
ment which  that  monarch  gave  to  literature  dates  from  the  period 
of  his  first  visit  to  Italy,  in  774.     There  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  such  men  as  Petrus  of  Pisa,  Paul  Warnefried,  Paulinus 
of  Aquileja,  and  Theodulf  of  Orleans,  whom  he  attached  to  his 
court,      From  the  year  782,  Alcuin,  an  Anglo-Saxon  "  Levite," 
was  the  leading  spirit  at  the  Frankish  court.     Charlemagne  had 
30* 


B54       SECTION    II. FIRST    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.  4— 9  A.  D.;. 

made   his   acquaintance   the  year  before   in  Italy.      Study  now 
became  one  of  the   main  pursuits,  which  even  the   royal  family, 
the  court,  and  all  connected  with  it,  encouraged  or  followed;  but 
among  these  noble  scholars,  Charlemagne  himself  was  the  most 
zealous  and  docile  pupil  of  Alcuin.     At  the  court  school  (schola 
palatina),  which,  like  the  court  itself,  was  migratory,  the  sons 
and  daughters  of  the  king  received,  along  with  the  children  of 
the  noblest  families  in  the  empire,  a  liberal  education.      From 
England,  Ireland,  and   Italy,  continual  additions  were  made  to 
the   staff   of   teachers    employed   in    it.      At  last    Charlemagne 
issued,  in  78*1,  a  circular  letter  addressed  to  all  the  bishops  and 
abbots  of  his  empire,  in  which,  under  pain  of  his  royal  displea- 
sure, he  commanded  that  schools  should  be  attached  to  all  mon- 
asteries and  cathedral  churches.      And,  in  truth,  the  result  of 
these  measures  was  most  encouraging,  although  as  yet  the  course 
of  study  was  limited  to  the  acquisition  of  classical  or  patristic 
lore,  to  the  neglect  of  anything  like  national  literature.      The 
great,  the  liberal,  and  patriotic  mind  of  Charlemagne  perceived, 
indeed,  the  importance  of  encouraging  the  growth  of  a  national 
literature;  but,  with  the  exception  of  Paul  Warnefried,  his  other 
learned   advisers  had   lost   every  sympathy   with  the  spirit,  the 
language,  and  the  nationality  of  Germany.     They  even  regarded 
such  studies  as  endangering  Christianity  and  encouraging  the 
spread    of   former  heathen   notions;    hence  their  influence   was 
rather  in  the  way  of  discouraging  these  views  of  their  monarch. 
—  The   weak  administration  of  Louis  the  Pious  (_814  to   840), 
disturbed  as  it  was  by  party  fights  and  civil  wars,  was  far  from 
favourable  to  the  promotion  of  science  ;   but  as  yet  the  fruits  of 
his  father's  labours  had  not  disappeared.    Lothair,  his  son,  issued 
an  edict  by  which    the   scholastic   arrangements    of   Italy  were 
entirely  reorganized,   and    indeed  completely  remodelled.      But 
that  country,  with    its   factions    and   tumults,  was   not  the  place 
where  such  institutions  could  for  any  length  of  time  prosper.     It 
was  otherwise  in  France,  where,  under  the  reign  of  Charles  the 
Bald  (840-877),  a  new  period  was  inaugurated.     At  his  court, 
as   at  that   of  his  grandfather,  the   choice   spirits    of  the  West 
gathered  ;   under  the  guidance  of  Joliannex  Erigena,  a  Scotch- 
man, the  court-school  rose  rapidly;   the  cathedral   and  monastic 
schools  of  France  emulated  the  most  celebrated  institutions  of 
Germany  (such  as   St.  Gall,   Fulda,   Reichenau,  etc.);   and  the 
French  sees  were  occupied  by  men  of  the  most  extensive  learn- 


SCIENCE    AND     THEOLOGICAL    LITERATURE.        355 

ins:.  But  after  the  death  of  Charles  this  high  state  of  cultiva- 
tion  rapidly  disappeared,  and,  amidst  the  troubles  of  that  period, 
gave  place  to  deep  ignorance,  confusion,  and  barbarism. 

1.  It  was  the  primary  object  of  these  monastic  and  cathedral  schools, 
to  train  persons  for  the  Church.  The  writings  of  Cassiodorus,  of  Isi- 
dore, Beda,  and  Alcuin,  were  the  manuals  and  text-books  chiefly  in 
use.  The  inmates  of  monasteries  were  in  the  habit  of  making  careful 
copies  of  books,  for  the  purpose  of  founding  libraries  and  of  multiply- 
ing celebrated  works.  Alcuin  arranged  all  knowledge  under  three 
branches,  viz.,  Ethics,  Physics,  and  Theology.  His  Ethics  included 
what  was  afterwards  designated  as  Trivium  (Grammar,  Rhetoric,  and 
Dialectics) ;  Physics  corresponded  to  the  later  Quadrivium  (Arithmetic, 
Geometry,  Music,  and  Astronomy) ;  both  together  constituting  what 
were  called  the  Liberal  Arts.  Conversation  and  instruction  were  to 
be  carried  on  in  Latin.  In  the  higher  schools  Greek,  of  which  Theo- 
dore of  Tarsus  and  his  pupils  had  promoted  the  study,  was  also  taught. 
Acquaintance  with  Hebrew  was  a  more  rare  accomplishment;  some 
scholars  obtained  a  knowledge  of  it  by  intercourse  with  learned  Jews. 
The  writings  of  Boethius  were  the  principal  source  for  the  study  of 
philosophy;  Plato  and  Aristotle  were  known,  however,  to  some  extent, 
and  in  the  ninth  century  the  Byzantine  Emperor  Michael  presented 
Louis  the  Pious  {I  92,  1)  with  a  copy  of  the  so-called  writings  of  Dio- 
nysiu3  the  Areopagite.  He  was  regarded  as  the  same  Dionysius  who 
had  founded  the  Church  of  Paris,  and  on  this  ground  his  writings, 
even  when  not  understood,  were  vaunted.  Hilduin,  Abbot  of  St.  Denis, 
and  afterwards  Johannes  Erigena,  translated  them  into  Latin. — Isidore 
of  Seville  and  Eabanvs  Mounts-  composed  encyclopaedias  which  embo- 
died a  summary  of  the  lore  of  their  times.  The  work  of  Isidore,  which 
bears  the  title  of  Originum  s.  Etymologiarum  LI.  XX.,  is  a  remarkable 
monument  of  industry  and  comprehensive  learning.  Almost  the  same 
meed  of  praise  is  due  to  the  LI.  XXII.  de  Universo,  by  Rabaaus.  Both 
writers  group  theology  along  with  the  other  sciences. 

2.  The  following  were  the  most  celebrated  Theologians  before  the 
lime  of  the  Caroling ians  : 

(1.)  Gregory  of  Tours,  the  scion  of  a  noble  Roman  famil}^.  While 
on  a  pilgrimage  to  the  grave  of  St.  Martin,  to  implore  the  removal  of  a 
disease  (in  573),  he  was  elevated  to  the  See  of  Tours,  which  he  occu- 
pied to  his  death  (oft.  595).  His  family  connections,  his  office,  his 
character,  learning,  and  piety,  contributed  to  make  him  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  men  of  his  time.  Posterity  is  indebted  to  his  writings  for 
its  knowledge  of  public  and  private  affairs  at  the  time  of  the  Merovin- 
gians. (Best  edition  by  Th.  Ruinart.  Par.  1C99  f.  Comp.  also  /.  W. 
Loebell,  Gregor  von  Tours  u.  s.  Zeit.  Leipz.  1869.) 

(2.)  Isidore  of  Seville  (Hispalensis),  the  scion  of  a  distinguished 
Gothic  family,  who  succeeded  Leander,  his  brother,  in  the  archiepisco- 


356      SECTION    II.  —  FIRST   PERIOD    (CENT.    4—9    A.  D.). 

pal  See  of  Hispalis  (ob.  636).     He  composed  excellent  and  careful  com 
Dilations,  in  which  information  and  fragments  not  otherwise   known 
are  preserved.    For  his  cotemporaries  he  did  a  more  important  service, 
by  making  the  German  Church  acquainted  with  classical  and  patristic 
lore.     (Best  cd.  by  F.  Areoalo.  Rom.  1797.  7  Voll.  4.) 

(3.)  Beda  Veneeabilis,  an  Anglo-Saxon,  educated  in  the  monastery 
of  Wearmouth,  which  he  afterwards  left  for  that  of  Jarrow,  where  ha 
died  in  735.  His  fame  for  learning,  in  all  branches  of  science  known 
at  the  time,  was  very  great.  These  acquirements  were  combined  with 
great  modesty,  piety,  and  amiability.  While  his  numerous  disciples 
attained  the  highest  posts  in  the  Church,  Beda  himself  30ntinued  in 
quiet  retirement,  a  simple  monk,  satisfied  with  this  his  chosen  lot. 
Even  on  his  death-bed  he  was  engaged  in  teaching  and  writing;  and 
immediately  before  he  expired,  he  dictated  the  last  chapter  of  an  Anglo- 
Saxon  version  of  the  Gospel  according  to  John.  (Best  ed.  of  his  wri- 
tings by  /.  A.  Giles.  London  1843.) 

3.  The  most  eminent  theologian  during  the  reign  of  Charlemagne 
(7G8-814)  was  an  anglo-Saxon,  Alcuin  (Albinus),  surnamed  Flaccus. 
lie  was  trained  in  the  celebrated  academy  of  York,  under  Egbert  and 
Elbert.  When  the  latter  was  elevated  to  the  archiepiscopal  see,  Alcuin 
became  president  of  this  academy.  On  a  journey  to  Rome  (781),  he 
was  introduced  to  the  notice  of  Charlemagne,  who  invited  him  to  his 
court,  where  he  became  the  teacher,  friend,  and  most  intimate  advisei 
of  the  monarch.  To  the  period  of  his  death  (in  804),  he  continued  the 
king's  great  authority  in  all  religious,  ecclesiastical,  and  scholastic  ques- 
tions. In  790  he  went  as  ambassador  to  his  own  country,  whence  he  re- 
turned in  792,  no  more  to  leave  France.  In  790  Charlemagne  bestowed 
on  him  the  Abbacy  of  Tours;  and  the  school  connected  with  it  became 
henceforth  the  most  celebrated  in  the  empire. — (Best  ed.  of  his  writings 
by  Frobenius.  2  Voll.  f.  1777.  — Comp.  Fr.  Lorentz,  Life  of  Alcuin, 
transl.  by  ./.  M.  Slee,  London  1839.  —  F.  Mounier,  Alcuin.  Par.  1853.) 

After  Alcuin,  the  most  learned  man  of  that  age  was  Paulus  Diacc- 

nus  (son  of  J  Waeneebid,  a  Langobard  of  noble  family,  and  chancellor 
of  King  Desiderius.  From  grief  over  the  decay  of  his  own  country,  he 
retired  to  the  monastery  of  Monte  Cassino,  whence  Charlemagne  drew 
him  to  his  court  in  774.  His  attainments  were  vaunted  as  those  of  a 
Homer  in  Greek,  of  a  Virgil,  Horace,  and  Tibullus  in  Latin,  and  of  a 
Philo  in  Hebrew.  But  love  to  his  country  induced  him  to  return  to 
his  monastery  (in  787),  where  he  died  at  a  very  advanced  age.  The 
Btory  of  his  having  conspired  against  Charlemagne,  and  being  sent  into 
exile,  is  devoid  of  historical  foundation.  It  deserves  special  notice  that 
this  learned  and  amiable  man  was  also  distinguished  for  qualities  rare 
in  his  time,  such  as  openness,  enthusiastic  admiration  of  the  language, 
the  national  legends,  the  poetry,  ami  the  ancient  laws  and  customs  of 
his  own  people.  Besides  these  two  divines,  the  names  of  Paulinus, 
Patriarch  of  Aquileia,  a  native  of  Friaul  (ob.  804),   of  Leidrad  of 


SCIENCE     AND     THEOLOGICAL     LITERATURE.        357 

Lyons  (ob.  813),  and  of  Theodulf  of  Orleans,  deserve  particular  notice. 
The  latter  acquired  fame,  not  only  as  a  poet  and  a  man  of  learning,  but 
from  his  zeal  in  establishing  elementary  schools.  Under  the  reign  of 
Louis  the  Pious,  he  was  accused  of  traitorous  communications  with 
Bernard  of  Italy,  deposed  and  exiled  (in  817),  but  afterwards  pardoned. 
He  died  before  again  reaching  his  own  diocese  (in  821). 

4.  The  following  were  the  most  celebrated  theologians  under  the 
reign  of  Louis  the  Pious  (814-840). 

(1.)  Agobard  of  Lyons,  by  birth  a  Spaniard,  ob.  as  Bishop  of  Lyons 
in  840.  His  anxiety  for  preserving  the  unity  of  the  empire,  and  his 
position  as  chief  of  the  national  party  among  the  Frankish  clergy, 
implicated  him  in  the  conspiracy  against  Louis  the  Pious,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  he  was  deposed  and  exiled  (835).  Two  years  after- 
wards he  obtained  the  royal  pardon.  Agobard  was  a  man  of  rare 
mental  endowments  and  learning;  withal  a  keen  opponent  of  eccle- 
siastical and  other  superstitions  ($  92,  2). 

(2.)  Claudius,  Bishop  of  Turin  (ob.  840),  also  a  Spaniard,  and  a 
pupil  of  Felix  of  Urgellis  ($  91,  1)  ;  whose  heretical  views,  however,  he 
did  not  share  ;  well  known  as  a  bold  reformer.  —  (Comp.  \  92,  2). 

(3.)  Jonas  of  Orleans,  the  successor  of  Theodulf  (ob.  844),  one  of 
the  most  renowned  prelates  of  his  age,  who  completely  succeeded  in 
restoring  discipline  and  order  in  his  own  diocese. 

(4.)  Asialarius,  a  priest  of  Metz  (comp.  $  84,  4). 

(5.)  Christian  Druthmar,  a  monk  of  Corbey,  and  celebrated  as  at 
the  time  the  only  advocate  of  a  grammatical  and  historical  exegesis. 

(G.)  Walafrid  Strabo,  teacher  and  Abbot  of  Reichenau  (ob.  849). 

(7.)  Fredegis,  an  Anglo-Saxon,  who  came  with  Alcuin  from  England, 
and  succeeded  him  both  in  the  school  and  Abbacy  of  Tours,  —  a  man 
whose  philosophical  investigations  constitute  him  in  a  certain  sense  the 
precursor  of  mediseval  scholasticism. 

5.  The  following  Avere  the  most  celebrated  theologians  during  the 
reign  of  Charles  the  Bald  (840-877). 

(1.)  Rabanus  Magnentius  Maurus.  the  descendant  of  an  ancient 
Roman  family  which  had  early  settled  in  Germany,  and  a  pupil  of 
Alcuin,  who  designated  him  St.  Maurus  (#  85).  He  was  first  a  teacher, 
then  became  Abbot  of  Fulda,  and  finally  Archbishop  of  Mayence  (ob. 
856).  Maurus  was  the  most  learned  man  of  his  age,  and  under  his 
tuition  the  academy  of  Fulda  rose  to  highest  distinction. —  (Comp.  N. 
Bach,  Arab.  Maur.,  der  Schopfer  d.  deutsch.  Schulwesens  (Rab.  Maur., 
the  Originator  of  the  Schol.  System  in  Germ.).  Fulda  1835.  —  Fr. 
Kunstmann,  Arab.  Magn.  Maur.  Mayence  1841). 

(2.)  Hincmar  of  Rheims,  (comp.  I  83,  1).  (Best  ed.  of  his  writings 
by  /.  Sirmond.  Par.  1645.  2  Voll.  f.). 

(3.)  Pasohasius  Radbertus,  from  844  Abbot  of  Corbey,  an  office 
which  he  resigned  in  851,  when  he  dedicated  himself  exclusively  tc 


358     SECTION    II.  —  FIRST    TERIOD    (C  E  N  T  .  4— 9  A.  D.). 

studies  and.  writing  (ob.  865).     Despite  occasional  ultraisms,  he  was 
deservedly  celebrated  ($  91,  3). 

(4.)  Ratramnus,  a  monk  of  Corbey,  the  opponent  of  Radbertus;  a 
clear  and  acute  thinker,  but  somewhat  rationalistic  in  his  views. 

(5.)  Florus  Magister,  a  clerk  at  Lyons,  celebrated  both  for  his 
learning  and  for  the  share  he  took  along  with  Agobard  in  certain  con- 
troversies. 

(6.)  Hayjio.  Bishop  of  Ilalberstadt,  a  friend  and  class-mate  of 
Rabanus. 

(7.)  Servatus  Lupus,  Abbot  of  Ferriexes,  a  deep  and  independent 
thinker,  distinguished  alike  for  his  interest  in  science  and  in  public 
instruction. 

(8.)   Prudentius  of  Troves. 

(9.)   Anastasius,  papal  librarian  at  Rome. 

(10.)  Regino,  Abbot  of  Prlim  (ob.  915)  ;  and  lastly,  that  enigma  and 
wonder  of  his  time,  Johannes  Scotus  Erigena.  He  was  born  in 
England.  Like  a  brilliant  meteor,  he  appears  at  the  court  of 
Charles  the  Bald;  like  a  meteor  he  disappeared;  and  no  one  knew 
whence  he  came,  or  whither  he  went.  He  was  undoubtedly  the 
most  learned  man,  and  the  deepest,  boldest,  and  most  independent 
thinker  of  his  time.  His  speculations  have  not  been  surpassed  for 
centuries  before  or  after  him.  Had  he  lived  three  centuries  later, 
he  might  have  occasioned  a  complete  revolution  in  the  learned 
world;  but  in  his  own  time  he  was  neither  understood  nor  appreciated, 
and  scarcely  deemed  even  worthy  of  being  declared  a  heretic.  The 
latter  omission,  however,  was  rectified  by  the  Church  after  the  lapse 
of  three  and  a  half  centuries  ($  108,  2).  For  further  details  see  below, 
Note  7. — (Comp.  F.  A.  Staudenmaier,  J.  Sc.  Erig.  u.  d.  Wiss.  sr.  Zeit. 
Frankf.  1834.  —  M.  Taillandier,  Sc.  Erigene  et  la  philos.  scholast. 
Strassb.  1843.—  N.  Holler,  J.  Sc.  Erig.  u.  d.  Wissensch.  s.  Z.  Frankft. 
1834.  —  A.  Torstrick,  Phil.  Erigena?.  Gott.  1844;  and  Hitter,  Gesch.  d. 
chr.  Phil.  Voll.  III.  —  JV.  Mbller,  J.  Sc.  Erig.  u.  s.  Irrthumer.  May- 
ence  1844). 

6.  The  theological  investigations  of  the  German  Church  at  that  time 
wore  specially  directed  to  the  immediate  wants  of  the  Church,  and 
hence  chiefly  of  a  practical  character.  Withal,  such  was  the  reverence 
paid  to  the  Fathers,  that,  whenever  practicable,  their  words  and  thoughts 
were  employed  in  teaching,  writing,  preaching,  demonstrating,  and 
refuting.  But  the  reformatory  movement  initiated  under  Charlemagne 
led.  in  the  domain  of  theological  science,  also  to  greater  freedom; 
while  the  controversies  of  the  ninth  century  necessitated  independent 
thinking,  and  gradually  inspired  theological  writers  with  greater  con- 
fidence.— Among  the  various  branches  of  theology,  mosl  attention  was 
paid  to  exegesis,  although  commentators  still  confined  themselves  to 
making  notes  on  the  Vulgate.  Charlemagne  commissioned  Alcuin  to 
make  a  ci  t:cal  revision  of  its  text,  which  had  been  greatly  corrupted. 


SCIENCE     AND     THEOLOGICAL     LITERATURE        359 

The  first  to  oppose  the  theory  of  a  mechanical  inspiration  was  Agobard 
of  Lyons.  He  started  from  the  principle,  that  the  prophets  had  not 
been  merely  passive  instruments  like  Balaam's  ass,  and  that  only  the 
sensus  jjrcedicationis  and  modi  vel  argumenta  dictionum,  but  not  the 
corporalia  verba,  had  been  inspired  by  the  Holy  Ghost.  One  only 
among  the  numerous  exegetical  writers  of  that  age,  Christian  Druth- 
mar,  perceived  that  it  was  the  first  and  most  important  work  of  an 
interpreter  to  ascertain  the  grammatical  and  historical  meaning  of  the 
text.  All  other  interpreters  set  lightly  by  the  literal  meaning  of  tho 
text,  while  they  sought  to  discover  the  treasures  of  Divine  wisdom  by 
an  allegorical,  tropical,  and  anagogic  interpretation.  After  Druthmar, 
it  was  probably  Paschasius  Radbertus  who  devoted  greatest  attention 
to  a  calm  investigation  of  the  literal  meaning  of  Scripture.  Besides 
these,  the  most  celebrated  exegetical  authors  at  that  time  were  Beda 
Venerdbilis,  Alcuin,  Rabanus  Maurus,  and  Walafrid  Sirabo,  whose 
"  Glossas  ordinarios"  formed,  on  account  of  their  convenient  size  (next 
to  the  more  full  commentaries  of  Rabanus),  the  exegetical  manual  in 
c  immon  use  during  the  Middle  Ages.  The  work,  however,  contains 
little  that  is  original,  by  far  the  greater  part  being  derived  from  the 
Latin  Fathers. 

7.  In  the  stud_y  of  Systematic  Theology,  proportionally  least  attention 
was  bestowed  upon  apologetics.  Though  the  illiterate  character  of  the 
heathen  around  called  not  for  any  elaborate  refutation  of  their  super- 
stitions, this  remark  applies  not  either  to  Mohammedanism  or  to  Juda- 
ism. In  Spain,  a  large  number  of  Jews  were  obliged  to  submit  to 
baptism,  or  else  expelled  ;  but  in  the  Frankish  Empire,  especially  under 
the  reign  of  Louis  the  Pious,  wealth  and  briberies  ensured  them  ample 
protection.  Thus  encouraged,  they  not  only  prohibited  their  Jewish 
and  heathen  slaves  from  being  baptized,  but  obliged  their  Christian 
servants  to  observe  the  Sabbath,  to  work  on  the  Lord's  day,  and  to  eat 
meat  during  Lent.  Occasionally  they  even  openly  blasphemed  the 
name  of  Christ,  derided  the  Church,  and  sold  Christian  slaves  to  the 
Saracens.  Agobard  of  Lyons  was  very  active  in  opposing  them,  by  his 
preaching,  writings,  and  measures ;  but  they  enjoyed  the  protection 
of  the  court.  Isidore  of  Seville  and  Rabanus  Maurus  also  refuted  their 
distinctive  tenets. —  The  department  of  polemical  theology  was  more 
fully  cultivated  than  that  of  apologetics,  especially  since  the  time  of 
Charlemagne  (comp.  $?  91,  92). — In  his  LI.  III.  Sententiarum,  Isidore 
of  Seville  collected  from  the  writings  of  the  Fathers  a  system  of  dog- 
matics and  ethics,  which  for  several  centuries  continued  the  text-book 
in  use.  Another  manual  of  dogmatics,  chiefly  derived  from  the  writ- 
ings of  Augustine,  was  Alcum's  LI.  III.  de  fide  sanctae  et  individual 
trinitatis — Philosophical  mysticism,  which  was  first  introduced  by  the 
writings  of  the  so-called  Areopagite,  was  represented  by'Johannes 
Scotus  Erigena,  a  mind  far  in  advance  of  his  age.  Following  up  the 
gnosticism  of  ti  e  school  of  Origen,   the  theosophic  mysticism  of  tha 


360      SECTION   II. — FIRST   PERIOD    (CENT.  4-9  A.D.). 

Ar3opagite,  and  the  dialectics  of  Maximus  Confessor,  his  work  "  De 
Divisione  Naturae"  embodied  a  system  of  speculative  theology  of  Aast 
dimensions.     Though    Erigena  felt  anxiously  desirous    to  retain    the 
fundamental  doctrines  of  the  Church,  his  system,  from  first  to  last, 
was  one  great  heterodoxy.     He  started  from  the  principle,  that  true 
theology  and  true  philosophy  were  essentially  the  same,  and  diifered 
only  in  point  of  form.     Faith  had  to  do  with  the  truth  as  "thcologia 
affirmativa"  (xo.ta$atLxq),  revealed  in  the  Bible,  and  handed  down  by 
the  Chur<5h  in  a  metaphorical  and  figurative  garb,  and  in  a  manner 
adapted  to  the  limited  capacity  of  the  multitude.     It  was  the  task  of 
reason  to  strip  off  this  envelope  (theologia  negativa,  ato^atixr^),  and,  by 
means  of  speculation,  to  convert  faith  into  knowledge.     The  peculiar 
title  of  the  work  was  intended  to  express  its  fundamental  idea,  viz., 
that  nature  —  i.  c,  the  sum  of  everything  existent  and  non-existent  (as 
the  necessary  opposite  of  what  existed)— manifested  itself  in  a  fourfold 
manner,  as  natura  creatrix  non  creata  (/.  e.,  God  as  the  potential  sum 
of  all  existence  and  non-existence),  natura  creatrix   creata  (('.  e.,   the 
eternal   thoughts   of  God    as    the  grand   eternal  types  of  everything 
created,  the  source  and  medium  of  which  is  the  Logos),  natura  creata 
non  creans   (the  eternal,  invisible,  and  ideal  world),  and  natura  nee 
creata  nee  creans  (de.,  God  as  the  final  end  of  everything  created,  to 
which,  after  all  antagonisms  have  been  overcome,  everything  created 
returns  in  the  artaxatdotaais  tw  rtavtuv).     It  is  evident  that  this  system 
must  speedily  have  merged  into  Pantheism  ;  but  in  the  case  of  Erigena 
himself  genuine  Christian  feeling  seems  to  have  prevented  these  con- 
sequences, and  he  was  anxiously  desirous  of  preserving  at  least  the 
fundamental  truths  of  Christian  Theism. 

8.  The  Homiletic  literature  of  that  period  was  comparatively  very 
scanty.     Besides  the  Homiliarius  of  Paul  Wamefrid   (?  89,  1),   only 
Bede,  Walafrid,  Rdbanus,  and  Haymo  appear  to  have  been  known  aa 
writers  of  original  sermons.     But  the  Theory  of  Worship  (its  descrip- 
tion and  mystical  interpretation)  attracted  considerable  attention.    The 
first  work  of  this  kind  was  that  of  Isidore,  "  de  officiis  ecelesiasticis." 
Charlemagne  invited  his  theologians  to  discuss  the  import  of  the  rites 
connected  with  baptism.    During  the  reign  of  Louis  the  Pious,  Agohurd 
of  Lyons  proposed  to  reform  the  Liturgy,  and  defended  himself  with 
considerable  vehemence   in   several  tractates  against  the  attacks  of 
Amalarius  of  Metz,  whose  liturgical  work  (de  officiis  ecclesiasticis)  he 
sharply  criticised.    Florus  Magist&r  (de  actione  Missarum)  also  entered 
the  lists  against  Amalarius.    Of  other  important  works  on  this  subject, 
we  mention  those  of  Eabanus  (de  institutioneClericorum),  of  Walafrid 
(de  exordiis  et  incrementis  rerum  ecclesiasticarum),  and  of  Remigius 
of  Auxerre  (expositio  Missae).     The  great  authority  on  questions  con- 
nected with    ecclesiastical   law  and  church-politics  was  Hincmar  of 
Rheims,  and  ncxl  to  him  Agobard  and  Regino  of  Priim  (§  88,  5). 


DOCTRINE    AND    DOGMATIC    CONTROVRES.ES.       361 

9.  The  scanty  knowledge  of  ancient  Church  History  which  theolo 
gians  possessed,  was  solely  derived  from  the  works  of  Rufinus  and  Cas- 
niodorus.  The  ecclesiastical  history  of  Ilaymo  consists  only  of  a  com- 
pilation from  Rufinus.  All  the  more  diligent  were  writers  throughout 
the  Middle  Ages  in  chronicling  the  current  political  and  ecclesiastical 
events,  and  in  recording  those  which  had  taken  place  within  the 
memory  of  man.  To  these  labours  we  owe  a  threefold  kind  of  litera- 
ture:— -1.  That  of  national  historians.  Thus  the  Visigoths  had  an 
Isidore  (Hist.  Gothorum,  Hist.  Vandal,  et  Suevorum)  ;  the  Ostrogoths  a 
Caxsiodorus  (LI.  XII.  de  reb.  gestis  Gothorum  —  a  work  which  unfor- 
tunately has  been  lost ;  or  at  least  only  preserved  in  extracts,  in  the 
tractate  of  Jomandes,  in  550,  de  Getarum  orig.  et  reb.  gestis)  ;  the  Lan- 
gobards  a  Paul  Warnefrid  (LI.  VI.  de  gestis  Langobardorum)  ;  the 
Franks  a  Gregory  of  Tours  (Hist,  eccles.  Francorum)  ;  the  Britons  a 
Gildas  (about  560) :  Liber  querulus  de  excidio  Britannia1)  and  a  Nen- 
nius  (Eulogium  Brittannige  s.  hist.  Britonum,  about  850)  ;  and  the 
Anglo-Saxons  a  Bede  (Hist,  eccles.  gentis  Anglorum).  2.  Annals  or 
Chronicles,  chiefly  composed  in  monasteries,  and  continued  from  year 
to  year.  3.  Biographies  of  prominent  political  or  ecclesiastical  per- 
sonages. Among  the  former,  the  most  important  are  the  Vita  Caroli 
M.,  by  Einhard,  and  the  Vitas  Ludovici  Pii,  by  Theganus,  by  Nithard, 
and  by  an  anonymous  writer  commonly  designated  as  Astronomus.  The 
number  of  Vitce  Sanctorum,  compiled  in  a  most  credulous  spirit,  chiefly 
in  honour  of  local  saints,  was  very  great.  In  the  same  class  we  also 
reckon  the  numerous  martyrologies,  generally  arranged  according  to 
the  calendar.  The  best  known  of  these  compositions  were  compiled 
by  Bedc,  Ado  of  Vienne,  Usuardus,  Babanus,  Nbtker  Balbulus,  and 
Wandelbert.  The  Miraculorum  hist.,  by  Gregory  of  Tours,  deserves 
special  mention.  Books  III.  to  VI.  give  an  account  of  the  miracles  of 
St.  Martin;  while  Book  VII.  (de  vitis  patrum)  describes  the  lives  of 
other  twenty-three  Frankish  saints.  —  The  Biographies  of  the  Popes  in 
the  Liber  pontificalis  of  Anastasius  the  Librarian,  the  Historia  Metten- 
sium  Episcoporum  by  Pautus  Warnefrid,  and  the  continuation  of  Je- 
rome's Catalogus  s.  de  ecclesiast.  scriptoribus  by  Isidore,  deserve  to 
be  ranked  among  more  solid  historical  contributions. 

§91.   DEVELOPMENT   OF   DOCTRINE    AND   DOGMATIC   CON- 
TROVERSIES. 

Comp.  C.  G.  Fr.  Walch,  hist.  Adoptianorum,  Gottg.  1755.  and  his 
"  Ketzerhist."  (Hist,  of  Heret.)  ;  against  him:  Frobenius,  Diss,  in  his 
ed.  of  Alcuin. — J.  G.  Watch,  Hist,  controversies  Grrecorum  et  Latin,  de 
process.  Spir.  s.  Jenas  1751  . —  G.  Mauguin  (a  Jansenist),  Vett.  auc- 
torum,  qui  in  Sec.  IX.  de  prsedest.  scripserunt  opera  et  fragmenta. 
Par.  1G50.  2  Voll.  4to ;  with  hist,  dissert.  Against  him:  L.  CelZot 
(a  Jesuit),  Hist.  Gotteschalci.  Par.  1G55.  Jac.  Usserii,  Go'teschalci 
et  controversise  ab  eo  mota?  hist.  Dubl.  1631.  4to. 
31 


362        SECTION    II.  —  FIRST   PERIOD    (CENT.  4-9  A.D.). 

The  first  important  heresy  of  Germanic  origin  (at  the  time  of 
Charlemagne)  was  that  to  which  the  name  of  Adoptionism   Las 
been  given,  and  which  originated  in  Spain.      Following  up  the 
doctrine  about  the  person  of  Christ,  as  it  had  been  defined  by  the 
sixth  (Ecumenical  Council  of  Constantinople  in  680  (§  52,  8),  it 
was  argued  that  the  idea  of  a  twofold  nature  and  of  a  twofold 
will  implied  also  that  of  a  twofold  Sonship.     But  the  Frankish 
divines  regarded  this  innovation  not  as  a  further  development 
of  the  doctrine    in  question,  but  apostacy  into  Nestorianism, 
and  accordingly   carried  its  condemnation. —  About  the   same 
time  the  doctrine  of  the  procession  of  the  Hoi//  Spirit  became 
the  subject  of  discussion,  when  the  Frankish   Church   defended 
orthodox  truth  against  the  objections  of  Eastern   theologians. — 
Several  controversies  took  place  during  the  reign  of  Charles  the 
Bald.     In  the  Eucharistic  Controversy,  the  principal  Frankish 
divines  opposed  the  views  of  Radbertus  about  transu.bstantiation. 
Connected  with  this  was  another  discussion  about  the  parturition 
of  the  Virgin.     On  neither  of  these  questions  did  the   Church 
give  any  formal  or  synodical  deliverance.     It  was  otherwise  in 
reference  to  the  controversy  about  predestination,  which  soon 
afterwards    broke    out.      Although    discussed    in    councils,    the 
question    was  not  finally  settled.      Of  less  importance  was  the 
controversy  about  the  appropriateness  of  the  expression  "irina 
Deltas. " 

1.  The  Adoptionist  Controversy  (785-818).— Of  all  the  doctrines  of 
Christianity,  none  was  so  repugnant  to  Moslem  feelings,  or  excited 
their  ridicule  more  than  that  of  the  Divine  Sonship  of  Christ.  It  was 
probably  with  the  view  of  meeting  these  Moslem  objections  that  a  num- 
ber of  Spanish  bishops,  headed  by  Elipandus,  Archbishop  of  Toledo, 
and  Felix,  Bishop  of  Urgellis,  addressed  themselves  anew  to  the  eluci- 
dation of  the  doctrine  concerning  the  person  of  Christ.  These  divines 
held  that  Christ  was  properly  the  Son  of  God  (flivs  Dei  naturd  or 
genere)  only  in  reference  to  His  divinity ;  in  reference  to  His  humanity 
He  was  properly  a  servant  of  God,  as  all  of  us,  and  only  adopted  as  Son 
(flius  Dei  adoptivus)  by  the  determination  of  God,  just  as  all  of  us  are 
by  Him,  and  after  His  similitude  to  be  transformed  from  servants  to 
children  of  God.  Hence,  according  to  His  Divine  nature,  He  was  the 
osin-hegoften,  according  to  His  human  nature  the  FittST-begotten  Son  of 
God.  Tins  adoption  of  His  human  nature  into  Sonship  had  commenced 
at  His  conception  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  appeared  more  fully  at  His  bap- 
tism, and  had  been  completed  at  the  resurrection.  The  controversy 
occasioned  by  these  views  first  broke  out  in  Spain.  Two  representatives 
of  the  Esturian  clergy  (?  81),  Beatns,  a  presbyter  of  Libana,  and  Ethe- 


DOCTRINE    AND    DOGMATIC     CONTROVERSIES.      363 

>"ius,  Bishop  of  Osraa,  attacked  the  views  of  Elipandus  both  by  word 
and  writing  (785).     The  doctrinal  divergence  between  these  divines 
probably  received  a  keener  edge  by  the  desire  of  emancipating  the 
Esturian  Church  from  the  See  of  Toledo,  which  was  still  subject  to 
Saracen  rule.     The  Esturians  appealed  to  Pope  Hadrian  I.,  who,  in  an 
encyclical  addressed  to  the  bishops  of  Spain,  condemned  Adoptionisni 
as  essentially  akin  to  the  Nestorian  heresy  (786).     Another  stage  of 
this  controversy  commenced  with   the  interference  of   Charlemagne, 
occasioned  by  the  circumstance  that  Adoptionism  was  rapidly  spread- 
ing in  the  portion  of  Spain  subject  to  his  sceptre.     Most  probably  he 
gladly  seized  this  opportunity  of  coming  before  the  West  in  the  char- 
acter of  Protector  of  Orthodoxy,  and  hence  as  Emperor  in  spe.    At  the 
Synod  of  Ratisbon  in  792,  Felix  was  obliged  to  abjure  his  heresy,  and 
was  sent  to  Pope  Hadrian  I.     In  Rome  he  was  made  to  repeat  his 
recantation  ;  but  escaped  from  captivity  and  gained  Saracen  territory. 
Meantime  Alcuin  had  returned  from  his  journey  to  England,  and  im- 
mediately took  part  in  the  controversy  by  addressing  to  Felix  a  kind, 
monitory  letter.     To  this  the  Spaniards  replied  in  strong  language, 
when  Charlemagne  convoked  the  celebrated  Synod  of  Frankfort  (794), 
at  which  Adoptionism  was  again  fully  discussed  and  condemned.    The 
judgment  of  the  Synod  was  accompanied  by  four  detailed  memorials 
(to  represent  the  different  national  churches  and  authorities  —  in  order 
to  give  it  an  oecumenical  character).     Although  dispatched  with  such 
formalities  to  Spain,  it  produced  little  impression.     No  greater  was  the 
success    of   a  learned   controversial  work  by  Alcuin,  to  which   Felix 
replied  in  a  clever  tractate.     Meantime  Charlemagne  had  sent  a  com- 
mission, with  Leidrad  of  Lyons  and  Benedict  of  Aniane  at  its  head, 
into  Spain,  in  order  to  put  an  end  to  the  spread  of  this  heresy.     The 
commissioners  persuaded  Felix  to  submit  to  a  second  investigation.    At 
the  great  council  held  at  Aix-la-Chapclle  in  799  he  disputed  for  six  days 
with  Alcuin,  and  at  the  close  declared  himself  perfectly  convinced. 
Alcuin  and  Paulinus  of  Aquileja  now  published  controversial  tractates 
on  the  subject;  and  Leidrad  went  a  second  time  into  Spain,  where  he 
succeeded  in  almost  extirpating  the  heresy  from  the  Frankish  provinces. 
But  the  bishops  who  were  subject  to  Saracen  rule  continued  to  defend 
these  opinions;  and  when  Alcuin  addressed  a  flattering  and  conciliatory 
letter  to  Elipandus,  the  latter  replied  in  the  most  violent  and  coarse 
language.     Felix  was,  till  his  death  in  818,  committed  to  the  charge  of 
the  Bishop  of  Lyons.    Agobard,  the  successor  of  Leidrad,  found  among 
his  papers  clear  evidence  that  Felix  had  to  the  end  continued  in  heart, 
an  adoptionist.    Agobard  now  published  another  controversial  tractate, 
which  happily  proved  the  last  written  on  the  subject.     In  Spain  Pro- 
per, also,  Adoptionism  became  extinct,  with  the  death  of  its  leading 
repiesentatives. 

2.  Controversy  about  the  Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost. — At  the  Synod 
of  Gentilhj  in  767,  held  for  the  purpose  of  meeting  a  Byzantine  em- 


364       SECTION    II. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  4—9  A.  D.). 

bassy  in  connection  with  the  iconoclastic  controversy,  the  question  ot 
the  enlargement  of  the  Creed  by  the  addition  of  the  expression  "./?/&• 
oque"  (I  50,  G;  07,  1)  was  also  discussed.  The  result  of  this  conference 
is  not  known.  At  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  Alcuia  and  Theodulf 
wrote  special  tractates  in  defence  of  the  Latin  view.  At  the  Synod 
held  in  Friaul  in  791,  Paulinus  of  Aquileia  vindicated  the  insertion  of 
the  expression  in  the  Creed  —  a  view  also  defended  by  the  Caroline 
books  (§  92).  The  question  was  discussed  anew,  when  the  Latin  monks 
on  Mount  Olivet  appealed  to  the  practice  of  the  Frankish  Church  in 
reply  to  the  attacks  of  the  Greeks.  Pope  Leo  III.  communicated  on  the 
subject  with  Charlemagne,  and  a  Council  held  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in 
809,  gave  its  solemn  sanction  to  the  addition.  But  although  the  Pope 
did  not  question  the  correctness  of  this  tenet,  he  disapproved  of  the 
alteration  of  the  Creed.  Accordingly,  he  erected  in  the  Church  of  St. 
Peter  two  silver  tablets,  on  which  the  Creed  was  engraved  without  the 
addition  —  manifestly  as  a  kind  of  protest  against  the  ecclesiastical 
interferences  of  the  Emperor. 

3.  Controversies  of  Paschasius  Radbertus. —  I.  Eucharistic  Contro- 
versy (844).  — (Cf.  Ebrard  u.  Kahnis,  §  33.-^1.  W.  Diechhoff  die 
Abendmahlsl.  im  Reformationszeit.  Giittg.  1854.  Bd.  \.—L.J.R'uckert, 
d.  Abendmahlstreit  im  M.  A.,  in  Ililgenfeld's  Ztsclir.  fiir  wschl.  Theol. 
1858,  I.,  II.)  —  So  late  as  the  ninth  century  the  vieAvs  of  theologians 
concerning  the  Eucharist  were  expressed  in  ambiguous  terms  (?  58,  2). 
But  in  831.  Paschasius  Radbertus,  a  monk  of  Corbey,  wrote  a  treatise, 
"  De  sanguine  et  corpore  Domini,"  for  the  purpose  of  proving  that  the 
cements  were  completely  changed — an  opinion  which,  even  before  his 
t      \  had  been  current  in  ecclesiastical  practice  and  in  popular  belief. 
The  work  of  Radbertus  breathes  a  spirit  of  genuine  piety  ;  manifestly, 
it  was  his  chief  aim  to  present  the  deep  import  of  this  sacrament  in  all 
its   fulness,    power,    and   depth.     Withal,    the  treatise  was  popularly 
written.    Already  the  author  could,  in  the  course  of  his  argumentation, 
appeal  to  a  number  of  supposed  facts  in  the  "Vitis  Sanctorum,"  in 
which  this  internal  Veritas  had  also  become  outwardly  manifest.     For 
the  circumstance  that  such  was  not  always  the  case,  he  accounted  on 
the  ground  that  the  Eucharist  was  intended  to  be  umi/sterium  for  faith, 
and  not  a  miraeulum  for  unbelief;  as  also,  on  that  of  the  Divine  con- 
descension, which  had  regard  to  the  infirmity  of  man  and  his  shrinking 
from  flesh  and  blood,  and  which,  besides,  would  cut  off  all  occasion  for 
tlio  heathen  to  blaspheme.     The  treatise  at  first  remained  unnoticed. 
lint  when  Radbertus  became  Abbot  of  Corbey,  he  recast  and  handed  it 
to  Charles  the  Bald  in  844.     This  monarch  commissioned  Ratramnus, 
a  learned  monk  of  Corbey,  to  express  his  opinion  on  the  question  ;  and 
the  latter  gladly  seized  the  opportunity  of  controverting  the  statements 
of  liis  abbot.     Jin  his  tractate  "De  corp.  et  sang.  Domini  ad  Carolum 
Calvum,"  Ratramnus  submitted  the  views  of  bis  abbot  (without  naming 
him)  to  a  searching  criticism,  and  then  explained  his  own  opinions, 


DOCTRINE     AND     DOGMATIC    CONTROVERSIES.      365 

according  to  which  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  was  present  in  the 
Eucharist  only  "  spiritualiter  et  secundum  potentiam."  In  the  same 
souse,  Rabanus  Maurus,  Scotus  Erigena,  and  Florus  of  Lyons  wrote 
against  Radbertus'  view  of  a  magic  transformation.  Hincmar  and 
Haymo  took  the  side  of  Radbertus  ;  Avhile  Walafrid  Strabo,  and  that 
able  interpreter  of  Scripture  Christian  Drvthmar,  sought  to  avoid  either 
extreme,  and  propounded  the  doctrine  of  impanationor  consubstantial- 
ity,  as  adequately  expressing  the  import  of  this  mystery.  But  Rad- 
bertus had  only  given  publicity  to  what  really  were  the  tendencies  of 
the  Church  generally  ;  and  the  opposition  of  so  many  great  divines 
could  only  retard,  but  not  prevent,  the  spread  and  prevalence  of  these 
views. — II.  Controversy  about  the  Parturition*  of  the  Virgin  (845). 
In  entire  accordance  with  his  fundamental  views  about  the  marvellous 
influences  of  the  Divine  power  and  presence,  Radbertus  soon  afterwards 
composed  a  tractate.  "De  partu  virginali,"  for  the  purpose  of  defending 
tiie  view  that  the  Virgin  had  given  birth  "  utero  ciauso,"  and  without 
pain  —  an  opinion  which  Ambrose  and  Jerome  had  already  broached. 
Ratramnus  opposed  this  tenet  as  savouring  of  Docetism  (De  eo,  quod 
Christus  ex  Virgine  natus  est). —  In  the  controversy  about  predestina- 
tion, Ratramnus  took  the  side  of  Gottschalk,  and  Radbertus  that  of  his 
opponents. 

4.  Controversy  about  Predestination  (847-8G8). —  (Cf.  G.  Maugitin 
(Jansenist),  Vett.  auctorum,  qui  in  seculo  IX.  de  prasdest.  scripserunt 
opera  et  fragmenta.  Par.  1650,  2  volls.  with  a  hist.  diss.  Against  him: 
L.  Cdlot  (Jesuit),  hist.  Gottschalkii.  Par.  1G55.  —  Jar.  Usserii  Gotteb- 
chalkii  et  controv.  ab  eo  motae  hist.  Dubl.  1631,  4to.) — The  former  dis- 
cussions on  this  subject  (|  53,  5)  had  not  issued  in  the  final  settlement 
of  the  question.  Indeed,  the  views  of  theologians  varied  from  the 
extreme  of  semi-Pelagianism  to  that  of  a  predestination  to  condemna- 
tion, which  went  even  beyond  the  statements  of  Augustine.  In  the 
ninth  century  the  controversy  broke  out  afresh.  Gottschalk,  the  son 
of  Berno,  a  Saxon  count,  had  as  a  child  been  devoted  by  his  parents  to 
the  monastic  profession,  and  trained  at  Fulda.  At  a  synod  held  in 
Mayence  (829),  he  obtained  permission  to  leave  that  monastery;  but 
Rabanus  Maurus,  at  the  time  Abbot  of  Fulda,  prevailed  on  Louis  the 
Pious  to  annul  this  dispensation.  Translated  to  the  monastery  of 
Orbais  in  the  diocese  of  Soissons,  Gottschalk  sought  consolation  in 
ardent  study  of  the  writings  of  Augustine,  from  which  he  rose  an  en- 
thusiastic advocate  of  the  doctrine  of  absolute  predestination.  In  one 
point  he  went  even  beyond  his  great  teacher,  since  he  held  a  twofold 
predestination  (gemina  prsedestinatio) — one  to  salvation,  and  the  other 
to  condemnation ;  whilst  Augustine  generally  spoke  of  the  latter  only 
as  God  leaving  sinners  to  deserved  condemnation.  While  travelling  in 
Italy  in  847,  he  sought  to  gain  adherents  to  his  views.  Among  others, 
he  addressed  himself  to  Noting,  Bishop  of  Verona.  This  prelate  gave 
information  to  Rabanus,  who  in  the  meantime  had  been  elevated  to  the 
31* 


366       SECTION    II. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  4—9   A.D.). 

See  of  Mayence.    Rabanus  immediately  issued  two  thundering  epistle^ 
in  which  the  views  of  Gottschalk  were  in  some  particulars  misrepre- 
sented, and  certain  unjust  inferences  drawn  from  them,  more  especially 
in  the  way  of  transforming  the  "  praedestinatio  ad  damnationem"  into 
a  "  praadestinatio  ad  peccatum."     Rabanus  himself  distinguished  be- 
tween foreknowledge  and  predestination,  ranging  under  the    former 
head   the   condemnation   of  the    reprobate.     But  other  weapons  than 
those  of  discussion  were  employed.     A  synod  was  convoked  at  Mayence 
(848),  before  which  Gottschalk  appeared,  strong  in  the  conviction  of 
the  orthodoxy  of  his  statements.    But  the  council  took  a  different  view 
Gottschalk  was  excommunicated,  and  handed  over  to  his  metropolitan, 
Hincmar  of  Rheims,  for  punishment.     This  prelate,  not  content  with 
the  spiritual  sentence  which  the  Synod  of  Chiersy  pronounced  against 
him  (840),  condemned  him  to  the  most  severe   bodily  chastisement, 
since  he  refused  to  recant,  and  consigned  him  to  a  prison  in  the  mon- 
astery of  Hunt  Villiers.     In  vain  Gottschalk  proposed  to  submit  the 
justice  of  his  cause  to  a  solemn  ordeal.     Hincmar,  though  otherwise 
favourable  to  these  trials,  retorted  by  characterizing  this  offer  as  the 
boast  of  a  Simon  Magus.  —  The  inhuman  treatment  of  which  the  poor 
monk  had  been  the  victim,  and  the  rejection  of  the  doctrine  of  Augus- 
tine by  two  influential  prelates,  excited  an  angry  controversy  in  the 
Frankish   Church,  of  which   the  weight  was  chiefly  directed   against 
Hincmar.     Prudentius,  Bishop  of  Troycs,  was  the  first  to  publish  a 
tractate  in  favour  of  Gottschalk.    Upon  this  Charles  the  Bald  requested 
Ratramnus  of  Corbcy,   and  Servatus  Lupus,   Abbot  of  Ferrieres,   to 
express  their  judgment  on  the  question,  which   in  both  cases  was  in 
favour  of  Gottschalk.     The  position  of  Hincmar  was  becoming  very 
difficult,  when  at  last  he.  succeeded  in  enlisting  the  advocacy  of  Floras, 
a  deacon  of  Lyons,  of  Amalarius,  a  priest  of  Metz.  and  of  John  Scotus 
Erigena.     But  the  aid  of  Erigena  was  fraught  with  almost  greater 
danger  to  Hincmar  than  the  attacks  of  his  opponents.     The  Scotch 
metaphysician  founded  his  opposition  to  the  doctrine  of  predestination 
on  the  principle,  hitherto  unheard  of  in  the  West,  that  evil  was  only  a 
pjj  oi/.     Accordingly,  he  argued  that  condemnation  was  not  a  positive 
punishment  on  the  part  of  God.  and  only  consisted  in  the  tormenting 
consciousness  of  having  missed  one's  destiny.     The  cause  of  Hincmar 
was  fast  getting  into  disrepute,  as  his  opponents  made  him  responsible 
for  the  heresies  of  his  Scottish  friend.    Not  Prudentius  of  Troyes  only, 
who  had  long  been  his  literary  antagonist,  but  even  Wenilo,  Archbishop 
of  Sens,  and  Floras  of  Lyons,  who  hitherto  had  espoused  his  cause, 
now  turned  their  weapons  against  him.    But  Charles  the  Bald  came  to 
the  aid  of  his  metropolitan.     A  national  synod  was  convoked  at  Chiersy 
in  853,  when  four  articles  (Capiiula  Carisiaca),  embodying  a  moderate 
form  of  Augustinianism,  were  adopted,  and  the  doctrine  of  a  twofold 
predestination  formally  rejected.     Thus  the  opponents  of  Hincmar  in 
Neustria  were  silenced.    But  Rcmigius,  Archbishop  of  Lyons,  convoked 


REFORMATORY     MOVEMENTS.  367 

a  LotJiaritigian  Synod  at  Valence  in  855,  in  which  both  the  decrees  of 
Chiersy  and  the  "Scottish  mess"  (pultes  Scotorum)  were  stigmatized, 
and  six  articles  of  a  very  different  tone  adopted,  as  the  test  of  ortho- 
doxy. At  last  the  secular  rulers  interposed,  and  convoked  a  general 
synod  at  Savonnferes,  a  suburb  of  Toul,  in  859.  But  here  also  the  dis- 
putants could  not  arrive  at  an  agreement.  Already  the  members  were 
about  to  separate  in  mutual  estrangement,  when  Remigius  proposed  to 
leave  the  settlement  of  the  controversy  to  a  future  council  in  less  trou- 
bled times,  and  till  then  to  continue  in  harmony.  The  Synod  unani- 
mously adopted  this  suggestion  ;  and  as  the  proposed  council  never 
took'place,  the  controversy  completely  terminated.  Abandoned  by  his 
former  friends,  Gottschalk  now  appealed  to  Pope  Nicholas  I.,  who 
ordered  Hincmar  to  defend  himself  for  his  conduct  towards  the  monk 
before  Papal  legates  at  the  Synod  of  Metz  in  863  (g  82,  4).  Hincmar 
deemed  it  prudent  not  to  obey  the  citation.  Happily  for  him,  the  Pope 
himself  afterwards  annulled  the  decrees  of  this  synod  on  account  of 
the  venality  of  his  legates,  and  the  metropolitan  soon  afterwards  suc- 
ceeded in  appeasing  the  Pope  by  intercessions  and  letters.  Thus 
Gottschalk  was  deprived  of  his  last  hope.  Twenty  years  had  he  lin- 
gered in  prison,  but  to  his  latest  breath  he  rejected  with  indignation 
every  proposal  of  recantation.  He  died  in  868,  and  by  order  of  Hinc- 
mar was  interred  in  unconsecrated  earth.  —  From  his  prison  he  had 
charged  his  metropolitan  with  another  heresy.  In  the  hymn.  "  Te 
Trina  Deitas  Unaque,"  Hincmar  had  substituted  the  expression  "  Sancta 
Deitas"  for  "Trina  Deitas."  On  this  ground  his  opponents  accused 
him  of  Sabellianism,  a  charge  which  Ratramnus  embodied  in  a  contro- 
versial tractate.  But  the  reply  of  Hincmar  put  an  end  to  this  agita- 
tion (857). 

£  92.  REFORMATORY  MOVEMENTS. 

The  independence  which  Charlemagne  restored  to  the  German 
Church  seems  to  have  awakened  in  the  divines  of  Germany  a 
feeling  that  they  were  destined  to  become  the  reformers  of  pre- 
vailing abuses.  This  tendency,  though  limited,  one-sided,  and 
frequently  liable  to  aberrations,  manifested  itself  more  or  less 
throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  until  it  reached  its  maturity  and 
perfection  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  series  of  reformers 
commenced  with  Charlemagne  himself,  who  vigorously  opposed 
the  image-worship  of  that  time.  Louis  the  Pious  continued  in 
the  path  of  his  father,  and  allowed  Agobard  of  Lyons  and  Clau- 
dius of  Turin  to  combat  kindred  forms  of  ecclesiastical  super- 
stition —  in  the  case  of  the  latter  divine,  perhaps,  even  beyond 
the  bounds  of  evangelical  prudence. 


3G8       SECTION    II. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.    4—9    A.D.). 

1.   Opposition  oj  the  Carlovingians  to  Image-  Worship  (790-825).— On 
occasion  of  an  embassy  from  the  Emperor  Constantin  us  Copronymus  (?  66, 
2),  Pepin  the  Short  had  convoked  in  707  a  synod  at  Gentilly  (?  91, 2), 
where  the  question  of  image-worship  was  also  discussed.     But  we  are 
left  in  ignorance  of  all  beyoud  this  fact,  as  the  acts  of  the  synod  have 
been  lost.     Twenty  years  later  Pope  Hadrian  I.  sent  to  Charlemagne 
the  acts  of  the  Seventh  (Ecumenical  Council  of  Nice  (§  6G,  3).     In  his 
character  of  emperor-expectant,  Charlemagne  felt  deeply  aggrieved  at 
the  presumption  of  the  Greeks,  who,  without  consulting  the  German 
Church,  had  ventured  to  enact  laws  which  were  in  direct  opposition  to 
the  practice  of  the  Frankish  Church.     He  replied  by  issuing  in  his  own 
name  the  so-called  Libri  Carolini  (best  ed.  by  Heumann,  Han.  1731). 
In  this  work  the  attempts  of  the  Eastern  prelates  are  sharply  met,  and 
flic  acts  of  the  Synod  refuted  seriatim.     Although  Charlemagne  dis- 
avowed the  views- of  the  iconoclasts,  and  admitted  the  utility  of  religious 
images  for  exciting  devotional  feelings,  for  instructing  the  people,  or 
as  suitable  decorations  in  churches — with  special  reference  to  the  views 
of  Gregory  the  Great  (?  59,  3)— he  reprobated  every  species  of  image- 
worship  as  a  kind  of  idolatry.     On  the  other  hand,  the  Libri  Carolini 
expressed  approbation  of  the  reverence  paid  to  saints,  to  relics,  and  to 
the  crucifix.     Charlemagne  sent  this  significant  treatise,  which  in  all 
probability  was  composed  bjAlcuin,  to  the  Pope,  who  rejoined,  although 
in  the  most  guarded  language.     But  this  reply  made  no  impression  on 
the  Frankish  monarch.     Nay,  the  authority  of  a  great  general  council 
of  all  the  Germanic  churches  was  to  be  opposed  to  that  of  the  Council 
of  the  Byzantine  Court.     During  his  sojourn  in  England   (790-792), 
Alcui'n  secured  for  this  purpose  the  co-operation  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Church.     The  Synod  met  at  Frankfort  in  794,  and  solemnly  confirmed 
the  principles  of  the  "Libri  Carolini."     The  Pope  deemed  it  prudent 
to  leave  this  controversy  to  the  operation  of  time  and  popular  feeling. — 
Under  the  reign  of  Louis  the  Pious  the  question  was  again  discussed, 
on  occasion  of  an  embassy  from  the  iconoclastic  emperor,  Michael  Bal- 
bus.  At  a  national  synod  held  at  Paris  (825),  the  conduct  of  Hadrian  I. 
was  reprehended,  the  practice  of  image-worship  reprobated,  and  the 
principles  of  the  "  Libri  Carolini"  once  more  confirmed.     Pope  Eu- 
gene IT.  made  no  reply.     This  rejection  of  the  Second  Nicene  Council 
and  opposition  to  image-worship  continued  in  the  Frankish  Empire  Till 
the  tenth  century. 

2.  Soon  after  the  Council  of  Paris,  Agobard  of  Lyons  (§  90,  4)  pub- 
lished a  tractate:  Contra  superstitioncm  eorum,  qui  picturis  et  imagi- 
Dibus  Sanctorum  adorationis  obsequium  deferendum  putant.  But  the 
prelate  went  much  further  than  the  Libri  Carolini.  lie  proposed 
entirely  to  remove  all  images  from  churches,  as  the  practice  would 
inevitably  lead  to  abuses.  Besides,  he  also  rejected  the  idea  of  paying 
homage  to  saints,  relics,  or  angels.  Our  confidence  was  to  be  placed 
only  in  Almighty  God,  whom  alone  we  were  to  worship  through  Jesus 


REFORMATORY     MOVEMENTS.  369 

Christ,  the  sole  Mediator.  At  the  same  time,  he  wished  to  int-  oduce 
certain  reforms  in  the  Liturgy  (g  90.  8).  He  also  opposed  those  por- 
tions of  the  public  services  which  were  merely  designed  to  affect  the 
senses,  and  would  have  banished  the  use  of  all  non-inspired  hymns. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  insisted  on  the  necessity  of  diligent  study  of  the 
Bible,  and  condemned  all  appeals  to  ordeals  (g  88,  4),  and  all  the  popu- 
lar superstitions  about  witchcraft,  and  supernatural  means  for  securing 
favourable  weather  (Contra  insulsam  vulgi  opinionem  de  grandine  et 
tonitruis)  ;  as  also  the  belief,  that  diseases  and  other  plagues  might  be 
averted  by  donations  to  churches.  On  the  subject  of  inspiration  his 
views  were  somewhat  loose  (g  90,  G).  Still  nobody  thought  of  charging 
him  with  heresy. —  Claudius,  Bishop  of  Turin  (g  90,  4),  went  even 
beyond  Agobard.  From  the  writings  of  Augustine  that  prelate  had 
derived  views,  more  deep  and  full  than  any  of  his  cotemporaries,  of  the 
blessed  truth,  that  man  is  justified  without  any  works  of  his  own,  only 
through  the  mercy  of  God  in  Christ.  Louis  the  Pious  had  elevated  him 
to  the  See  of  Turin  for  the  express  purpose  of  opposing  image-worship 
in  Italy,  the  great  stronghold  of  this  superstition.  In  his  diocese  the 
veneration  paid  to  images,  relics,  and  crucifixes  had  been  carried  to 
fearful  excess.  These  abuses  seemed  to  call  for  stringent  measures. 
Accordingly,  Claudius  ordered  all  images  and  crucifixes  to  be  flung  out 
of  the  churches.  Popular  tumults  ensued  in  consequence,  and  only 
fear  of  the  Frankish  arms  could  have  preserved  the  life  or  protected 
the  office  of  the  bold  prelate.  When  Pope  Paschal  expostulated  with 
him  on  the  subject,  he  replied,  that  he  would  only  recognize  his  apos- 
tolic dignity  so  long  as  he  did  the  works  of  an  apostle;  if  otherwise, 
Matt,  xxiii.  2,  3,  applied  to  him.  Claudius  expounded  his  views  in 
some  exegetical  tractates.  In  answer  to  Theodimir.  Abbot  of  Psalmody, 
the  Bishop  of  Turin  wrote,  in  825,  a  work  entitled  "  Apologeticus," 
which  is  only  known  from  the  rejoinder  of  Theodimir.  A  Scotchman, 
Dungal,  teacher  at  Pavia,  also  wrote  against  him,  and  accused  him 
before  the  Emperor.  Upon  this  Jonas,  Bishop  of  Orleans,  was  com- 
missioned to  refute  the  Apologeticus.  The  work  (de  Cultu  Imaginum 
LI.  III.),  which  appeared  only  after  the  death  of  Claudius,  em]  odies 
the  principles  of  the  Frankish  Church  on  the  subject  of  image- wo:  ship. 


SECOND    PERIOD 

ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY 

IN  ITS  MEDIEVAL  AND  GERMANIC  FORM  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 

FROM  THE  TENTH  TO  THE  THIRTEENTH  CENT. 


I.  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY. 
I  93.   MISSIONARY  OPERATIONS  DURING   THAT  PERIOD. 

The  christianization  of  the  continent  of  Europe  was  almost 
completed  during  this  period,  that  of  Lapland  and  Lithuania 
alone  being  reserved  for  the  following.  Both  the  mode  and 
results  of  missionary  operations  continued  as  before.  The 
labours  of  the  heralds  of  the  Cross  were  supported  by  armed 
force  ;  monasteries  and  fortresses  became  the  bases  for  the  spread 
of  Christianity;  political  motives  and  marriages  with  Christian 
princesses  generally  effected  the  conversion  of  heathen  rulers; 
and  the  peoples  were  either  obliged  to  follow  the  example  of 
their  sovereigns,  or  submitted  in  silent  resignation  ;  while,  under 
the  cover  of  Christianity,  many  heathen  superstitions  continued 
to  exist.  It  was  the  policy  of  the  German  emperors  to  place 
the  newly-converted  races  under  the  spiritual  supremacy  of  the 
Metropolitan  of  Germang.  Thus  Hamburg  and  Bremen  was 
made  the  see  for  Scandinavia  and  the  Baltic  Provinces,  Magde- 
burg that  for  Poland  and  the  adjoining  countries,  Mayence  for 
Bohemia,  Paxsau  and  Salsburg  for  Hungary.  But  the  Papacy 
uniformly  opposed  such  attempts  of  the  German  clergy  and 
rulers.  Each  of  these  countries  was  to  have  its  independent 
metropolitan,  and  thus  to  occupy  a  place  of  equality  in  the 
great  family  of  Christian  states,  of  which  the  See  of  Rome  was 

(370) 


MISSIONARY     OPERATION  ».  371 

to  be  the  spiritual  head  (§  83"). — The  Western  Church  repeatedly 
commenced  missionary  operations  among  the  Mongols  of  Asia 
and  the  Saracens  of  Africa,  but  without  leading  to  any  lasting 
results. 

1.   The  Scandinavian  Mission.  —  (Comp.  Ft.  Minder,  K.  G.  v.  Dane- 
mark  u.  Norweg.,  I.   Lpz.   1823. — K.  Maurer,  d.  Bekehr.  d.  Norweg. 
Stammes.  2  Bde.  Munch.  1856. — F.  C.  Ddhlmann,  Gesch.  v.  D'anem.  I. 
Hamb.  1840.—  C.  G.  Geijer,  Gesch.  Schwed.  I.  Hamb.  1832.  — Main 
Source:  Adam  v.  Bremen,  Gesta  Hamb.  eccl.  Pontiff.) — The  labours  of 
Ansgar  and  Rimbert  (<§  80)  extended  only  to  the  border  provinces  of  Jut- 
land and  some  places  of  traffic  in  Sweden ;  and  the  churches  even  there 
established  had  virtually  died  out.     A  revival  of  the  mission  was  not 
to   be    thought   of,    in    the   face    of  the    predatory  incursions    of  the 
Normans,  or  Vikinger  (Wikingar  =  warrior),  who  were  the  terror  of 
the  entire  European  coast,  during  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries.     But 
their  incursions  opened  the  way,  in  other  respects,  for  the  new  intro- 
duction of  Christianity  in  those  countries.     Many  of  the    returning 
Vikinger  had   embraced   Christianity   abroad,    and    thus    carried  the 
knowledge  of  it  back  to  their  homes.     In  France  Norwegian  Normans 
founded  (912)  Normandy,  under  Rollo's  guidance ;  in  England,  in  the 
tenth  century,  the  northern  half  of  the  country  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the   Danish    Normans,   and   ultimately   King   Sven   of  Denmark  con- 
quered  (1013)  the  whole  country.     In   both  countries   the   invaders 
embraced  Christianity7,  and  in  virtue  of  the  intimacy  kept  up  with 
their  native  countries,  participated  in  the  work  of  their  conversion. — 
In  Denmark   Gorm   ihc  Aged,  the  founder  of  the  Danish  monarchy, 
showed  violent  hostility  to  Christianity.    He  destroyed  all  the  Christian 
institutions  of  the  country,  drove  away  all  the  priests,  and  devastated 
the  neighbouring  German  coasts.     Finally  the  German  king  Henry  I. 
went  on  an  expedition  against  the  Danes,  made  them  tributary,  and 
exacted  toleration  of  the  Christian  faith  (934).     At  once  Archbishop 
Unni  of  Bremen  resumed  the  work  of  missions.     With  a  large  part 
of  his  clergy  he  went  into  the  Danish  territory,  restored  the  churches 
of  Jutland,  and  died  in  Sweden  (936).     Gorm's  son,  Harold  Blaatand 
(Blue-tooth),  was  baptized  after  having  concluded  a  peace  with  Otho  I. 
in  972.     But  his  son,    Sven    Gabelbart,   although   likewise  baptized, 
became  leader  of  a  heathen  reactionary  party.     Harold  fell  in  battle 
against  him   (986),   and   Sven   madly  persecuted  the  Christians.     In 
988,  however,  Erich  of  Sweden,  also  a  heathen  and  foe  of  Christianity, 
drove  out  Sven,  and  by  the  advice  of  a  German  embassy,  tolerated 
Christianity.     After  Erich's  death  Sven  returned   (998).     Converted 
during  his  exile,  he  now  furthered  Christianity  as  zealously  as  he  had 
opposed  it.    In  1013  he  conquered  all  England  and  died  there  in  1014. 
His  son,  Canute  the  Mighty  (ob.  1036),  united  the  two  kingdoms  undei 
his  sceptre,  and  made  great  efforts  to  reconcile  both  nations  in  a  com- 


372     SECTION    II. — SECOND    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.   10— 13  A.  D  ). 

mon  Christian  faith,  an<l  thus  form  a  bond  of  union  between  them, 
The  German  mission  of  Bremen,  urged  by  him,  now  actively  co-operated 
with  an  English  mission.     In  1026  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome, 
and  effected  an  intimate  connection  of  the  Danish  Church  with  the 
ecclesiastical  centre  of  the  Western  Church  :  a  movement  which  was 
probably   based   on  far-seeing    political    considerations.      Thenceforth 
Denmark    appears    as    a   completely    Christianized    country. —  (Main 
Source,  next  to  Adam  of  Bremen:   Saxo  Grammaticus,  ob.  1204,  Hist. 
Danica.)  —  In  Sweden  also.  Archbishop  Unni  of  Bremen  reopened  the 
work  of  missions,  and  died  there  in  936.     From  that  time  the  German 
mission    continued    uninterruptedly   active.     But  little  was    effected, 
however,  until  English  missionaries  went,  early  in  the  eleventh  century, 
from  Norway,  with  Sigurd  (Sigfried)  at  their  head,  and  baptized  King 
Olaf  Skaufkonung  (Lap-king,  ob.  1024).    Olaf  and  his  followers  did  all 
they  could  to  promote  the  mission,  which  was  very  successful  in  Goth- 
land, also;   whilst  in  Swealand   (with  the  heathen  temple  at  Upsala), 
heathenism  still  prevailed.     King  Inge,  having  refused  to  relapse  from 
Christianity,  was,  1080,  driven  with  stones  from  a  popular  assemblage 
at  Upsala.    His  brother-in-law,  Blot  Sven,  headed  the  heathen  reaction, 
and  excited  a  violent  persecution  against  Christians.     After  reigning 
three  years  he  was  killed,  and  Inge  restored  Christianity,  which,  how- 
ever,  first   became   predominant  in  Upper  Sweden,  -under   St.  Erich 
[ob.  1160). — (Sources:  Adam  v.  Br.  ;  SaxoGramm.) — NoRw.whad  early 
obtained  a  knowledge  of  Christianity  through  the  romantic  adventures 
of   its    seafaring    youth,    through    captives,   and  by   intercourse  with 
Norman  colonies  in  England  and  Normandy.    The  first  Christian  king 
of  Norway  was  Haco  the  Good  (9.34-61)  who  had  been  trained  a  Chris- 
tian at  the  English  court.     After  gaining  the  affections  of  his  people 
by  his  admirable  government,  he  ventured  to  request  them  legally  to 
adopt  Christianity.    The  people,  however,  compelled  him  to  participate 
in  heathen  sacrifices ;  and  when  he  made  the  sign  of  the  cross  over 
the  sacrificial  bowl  before  he  drank  it,  he  barely  escaped  violence  by 
an  evasive  reference  of  the  act  to  Thor's  mark.    He  could  never  forgive 
himself  for  this  weakness,  and  died  broken-hearted,  not  even  deeming 
himself  worthy  of  a  Christian  burial.      Olaf  Tryggvason  (005-1000), 
at  first  the  ideal  of  a  Northern  Viking,  then  of  a,  Northern  king,  was 
baptized  during  his  last  invasion  of  England,  and  bent  all  the  energies 
of  his  character  to  the  forcible  introduction  of  Christianity.     Not  even 
a  stranger  left  Norway  without  being  persuaded  or  compelled  by  him 
to  be  baptized.     Those  who  resisted  were  imprisoned  or  put  to  death. 
He  fell  in  a  battle  against  the  Danes.     His  example  was  followed  by 
Olaf  Haroldson  (the  Fat,  afterwards  Saint;  1014-30).     Without  pos- 
sessing the  amiability  and   noble-heartedness  of  his   predecessor,  but 
pursuing  his  ecclesiastical  and  political  schemes  more  arbitrarily  and 
cruelly,  he  soon  lost  the  regard  of  his  subjects.     His  enraged  chief- 
tains conspired  with  Canute  the  Dane;  the  whole  country  rose  against 


MISSIONARY     OPERATIONS.  373 

him ;  he  fell  in  battle,  and  Norway  became  a  Danish  province.  But 
the  hai-d  Danish  yoke  soon  changed  the  popular  sentiments  regai  ling 
Olaf,  who  now  came  to  be  considered  a  martyr  of  national  freedom  and 
independence.  Countless  miracles  were  wrought  by  his  relics,  and  in 
1031  he  was  unanimously  proclaimed  a  national  saint.  Enthusiasm 
in  his  worship  daily  increased,  and  with  it  enthusiasm  for  the  libera- 
tion of  their  country.  Borne  onward  by  this  mighty  agitation,  Olafa 
son,  Magnus  the  Good,  expelled  the  Danes  (1035).  But  although  the 
elevation  of  Olaf  to  saintship  at  first  led  to  purely  political  results,  it 
was  the  means  of  stamping  the  country  forever  with  the  seal  of  Chris- 
tianity (Source:  Snorrs  Sturleson  ob.  1241  Heimskringla  oder  norw. 
Konigssagen).  On  the  North-Western  group  of  islands,  the  Hebrides, 
Orkneys,  Sketland,  and  Faroe  islands,  the  sparse  Christian  Celtic 
population  was  driven  out  in  the  ninth  century  by  the  immigration  of 
heathen  Norwegian  Yikinger,  among  whom  Christianity  was  first 
introduced  by  the  two  Norwegian  Olafs.  —  The  first  mission  to  Ice- 
land Avas  conducted  by  the  Icelander  Thorivald,  who,  baptized  in 
Saxony  by  a  bishop  (?)  Frederick,  took  him  to  Iceland  to  assist  there 
in  the  conversion  of  the  heathen  natives.  After  nearly  five  years' 
labour  a  number  were  converted,  but  the  Thing  (national  diet)  con- 
demned the  movement,  and  the  missionaries  left  the  island  (985). 
Olaf  Tryggvason  did  not  readily  allow  an  Icelander  visiting  Norway 
to  return  without  being  baptized,  and  twice  sent  expeditions  thither 
to  convert  the  natives.  The  first,  under  Stefnir,  a  native  Icelander, 
accomplished  but  little  (996)  ;  the  second,  under  Olafs  court  chaplain, 
Dankbrand  (a  Saxon  who  was  both  priest  and  warrior,  effecting  with 
his  sword  what  his  preaching  failed  to  accomplish),  converted  many 
of  the  most  powerful  chieftains.  A  civil  Avar  threatened  to  ruin  every- 
thing, but  was  averted  by  a  timely  compromise,  in  accordance  with 
Avhich  all  the  natives  vrere  baptized,  Christian  worship  only  publicly 
performed,  Avhilst  secretly  idolatry,  infanticide,  and  the  eating  of 
horseflesh  Avas  tolerated  (1000).  Subsequently  an  embassy  of  the 
Norwegian  king,  Olaf  Haraldson,  had  these  relics  of  heathenism 
expunged  from  their  laAvs.  —  Greenland  also,  which  had  been  dis- 
covered by  an  outlawed  Icelander,  Eric  the  Red,  and  soon  after 
colonized  (9S5),  owes  its  Christianity  to  King  Olaf  Tryggvason, 
who  sent  thither  (1000)  a  son  of  Eric,  Leif  the  Lucky,\\t\\  an  expe- 
dition for  its  conversion.  The  people  did  not  objectto  being  baptized.13 
This  same  Leif  discovered  on  his  voyage  a  rich  fertile  country,  Avhich 
he  called  Vinland,  from  the  wild  grapes  found  there ;  it  was  subse- 
quently colonized  by  Icelanders.  In  the  twelfth  century  yet,  a  Green- 
land bishop,  Eric,  went  thither  to  confirm  the  inhabitants  in  the  faith. 
It  doubtless  lay  on  the  east  coast  of  North  America,  and  is  probably 
identical  with  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island.  —  (Main  Source: 
Snorrs  Sturleson.) 
2.  The  Slavonian  Magyar  Mission  — (Coup.  /.  Palacky,  Gesch.  v. 
32 


374     SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.    10— 13  A.  D.J. 

Bohmen.  I.  Prag.  183G.— C.  G.  v.  Friese,  K.  G.  d.  Konigr.  Polen.  I.  Bresl 
1786.— E.  Roepell,  Gesch.  Polens.  Hamb.  1840.  I.— J.  v.  Mailath,  Gesch, 
d.  Magyaren,  I.  Wien  1828.  2  Ausg.  Regensb.  1852.  —  L.  Giesebrecht, 
wendische  Gesch.  3  Bde.  Berl.  1843.— E.  W.  Spieker,  K.  u.  Ref.  Gesch. 
d.  Mark  Brandenb.  I.  1839.—  Jul  Wiggers,  K.  G.  Mecklenb.  Parchim. 
1840.  —  P.  F.  Kannegiesser,  Bekehrungsgesch.  d.  Pommern.  Greifsw. 
1824.  —  F.  IV.  Barthhold,  Gesch.  v.  Rligen  u.  Pommern.  2  Bde.  Hamb. 
1839.  —  E.  L.  Dummler,  Piligrim  v.  Passau  Lpz.  1854.  —  F.  C.  Kruse, 
St.Vicelin.  Altona  182G.  (J.J.  Sell)  Otto  v.  Bamberg.  Stettin  1792.— 
C.  F.  Busch,  Memoria  Ottonis  ep.  Bamb.  Jen.  1824.)— The  Gospel  had 
been  introduced  into  Bohemia  during  the  preceding  period  (g  79,  2). 
After  the  death  of  Vratislav,  Drahomira,  his  widow,  a  heathen,  seized 
the  reins  of  government  in  name  of  Boleslav,  her  younger  son.  The 
attempt  of  Ludmilla,  with  the  aid  of  certain  priests  and  Germans,  to 
elevate  to  the  throne  Si.  Wenceslav,  the  elder  son,  whom  she  had  edu- 
cated, was  frustrated.  Ludmilla  was  killed  by  order  of  Drahomira 
(927),  and  Wenceslav  fell  by  the  hand  of  his  brother.  Boleslav  at 
first  attempted  to  exterminate  Christianity  from  his  dominions,  but 
was  obliged  to  relax  his  former  severity  after  his  defeat  by  Otl/o  I.  in 
950.  His  son,  Boleslav  II.,  established  Christianity  in  the  country, 
and  founded  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Prague.  The  Pope  gave  his 
consent  to  the  erection  of  this  see,  on  condition  that  the  Romish  Liturgy 
should  be  introduced  (973).  —  From  Bohemia  the  Gospel  spread  tc 
Poi.axd,  Duke  Miecislav  was  induced  by  Dambrovka,  his  wife,  a 
Bohemian  princess  (daughter  of  Boleslav  I.),  to  adopt  the  Christian 
religion  (966).  His  subjects  followed  his  example,  and  the  See  of 
Posen  was  founded.  The  Church  secured  a  firmer  footing  under  his 
son,  the  powerful  Boleslav  Chrobry  (992-1025),  who.  with  the  appro- 
bation of  Otto  III.,  emancipated  the  Polish  Church  from  allegiance  to 
the  Magdeburg  See,  and  founded  an  archiepiscopal  see  at  Gnesen 
(1000).  He  also  freed  Poland  from  fealty  to  the  German  empire,  and 
let  himself  be  crowned  shortly  before  his  death  (1025).  Five  years  of 
anarchy,  which  threatened  to  destroy  Christianity  in  the  land,  Avere 
brought  to  an  end  by  his  grandson  Casimir  (1039).  Casimir's  grand- 
son, Boleslav  II.,  murdered  Bishop  Stanislaus  of  Cracow  (1079),  who 
had  put  him  under  the  ban,  and  thus  furnished  Poland  with  a  saint. — 
(Main  Source:  Thietmar's  v.  Merseb.  (ob.  1018)  Chronik.  and  Martin! 
Galli  (c.  1130)  Chronic.  Polon.)  —  The  Gospel  was  first  carried  to 
Hungary  from  Constantinople,  where  Gj/las,  a  Hungarian  prince,  was 
baptized  in  950.  He  returned  home  with  Ilieroiheus,  a  monk  Avho  had 
been  consecrated  Bishop  of  Hungary;  but  this  connection  with  the 
Greek  Church  was  only  temporary.  After  Henry  I.  routed  the  Hun- 
garians (933)  at  KeuBchberg,  and  still  more  after  they  had  been 
enfeebled  by  the  defeat  inflicted  on  them  by  Otto  I.  in  955,  German 
influence  became  predominant  there.  The  indefatigable  missionary 
teal   of  Bishop   Piligrim  of  Passau,    and   the   immigration  of  m-wvy 


MISSIONARY     OPERATIONS.  375 

foreigners,  especially  Germans,  soon  secured  for  Christianity  a  com- 
plete ascendancy  over  heathenism.  This  end  was  also  favoured  bv 
Duke  Geisa  (972-07),  and  his  resolute,  energetic  wife,  Sarolta,  a 
daughter  of  the  above-named  Gylas.  The  work  was  perfected  by 
Geisa's  son,  St.  Stephen  (997-1038),  who  was  baptized  at  his  marriage 
with  Gipela,  sister  of  the  subsequent  Emp.  Henry  II.,  suppressed  a 
heathen  insurrection,  and  gave  the  country  a  constitution  and  laws. 
He  also  founded  the  archiepiscopate  of  Gran,  with  ten  suffragan 
bishops,  put  on  his  head  the  crown  (1000)  which  had  been  solicited 
from  Pope  Sylvester  II,  and  made  Hungary  a  powerful  member  of 
the  national  confederacy  of  Christian  Europe.  Under  his  successors, 
heathenism  twice  made  menacing  insurrections,  but  was  soon  put 
down.  Its  last  remains  were  annihilated  by  St.  Ladislaus  (1077-95). 
—  (Chief  Source:    Thietmar.) 

Among  the  numerous  tribes  of  Wends,  in  N.  and  N.  E.  Germany, 
the  most  prominent  were  the  Obotrites,  (in  modern  Holstein  and 
Mecklenburg),  the  Luticians  or  Wilzens,  (between  the  Elbe  and  Oder), 
the  Pomeranians,  (from  the  Oder  to  the  Weichsel),  and  the  Serbians 
or  Sorbens,  (southward  in  Saxony  and  Lusatia),  Henry  I.  (919-36), 
and  his  son  Otho  I.  (936-73),  subjected  them  to  German  rule,  and  Otho 
founded, besides,  several  bishoprics,  the  archbishopric  of  Magdeburg  (9G8). 
The  loss  of  their  national  liberty,  as  well  as  the  pride  and  tyranny  of 
the  German  Margraves,  rendered  Christianity  exceedingly  odious  to  the 
Wends,  so  that  it  could  not  be  firmly  established  among  them  until 
their  freedom  and  nationality  had  been  wholly  eradicated,  and  the 
Slavic  population  had  been  merged  in  the  predominent  German  element. 
An  insurrection  of  the  Obotrites,  under  Mistevoi  (983),  who  hoped  with 
one  blow  to  get  rid  of  the  German  yoke  and  Christianity,  overthrew  all 
Christian  institutions.  His  grandson  Gottschalk  was  reared  in  a  German 
monastery,  but  enraged  by  the  murder  of  his  father,  Udo  (1032),  fled 
from  the  monastery,  renounced  Christianity,  and  excited  a  fearful  per- 
secution against  Christians  and  Germans.  This  revengeful  madness, 
however,  was  soon  followed  by  repentance.  The  Germans  captured 
him  ;  on  being  set  free,  he  went  to  Denmark,  but  soon  returned  and 
founded  a  great  Wend  empire  which  extended  from  the  North  sea  to 
the  Oder  (1045).  He  then  bent  all  his  energy,  with  glowing  zeal,  to 
the  establishment  of  the  Church  in  his  empire  upon  a  national  basis, 
Adalbert  of  Bremen  furnishing  him  with  missionaries.  He  himself 
became  in  a  great  measure  their  interpreter  and  expounder.  The  suc- 
cess was  brilliant,  but  the  national  sentiment  of  the  Wends  hated  him 
as  a  friend  of  the  Saxons  and  the  Church.  He  was  assassinated  1066. 
Then  followed  a  most  cruel  persecution  of  the  Christians.  Gottschalk's 
son,  Henry,  was  supplanted,  and  Cruco  (of  the  island  R'ugen),  the 
powerful  prince  of  the  Rani,  a  fanatical  foe  of  Christianity,  was  chosen 
ruler.  At  Henry's  instigation,  he  was  murdered,  1105,  in  his  house. 
Henry  died  1119.  A  Danish  prince,  Canute,  bought  the  Wend  crown 
from  the  Saxon  duke,  Lothar ;  but  he  was  murdered  in  1131      Thus 


376     SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (O  E  N  T.   10— 13  A.  D.). 

ended  the  Wend  empire;  only  among  the  Obotrites,  prince  Niclot  {,,b 
1160),  maintained  his  authority  for  some  time.     His  son,  Pribislas, 
(the  ancestor  of  the   present   princes  of  Mecklenburg),  by  a  timely 
adoption   of  Christianity   (1164),   secured   for   himself  a   part   of  his 
paternal  inheritance,  as  a  Saxon  feudal  principality.     The  rest  of  the 
country  Henry  the  Lion  divided  among  his  German  warriors,  settling 
the  devastated  possessions  with  German  colonists.     The  power  of  the 
Luticians  was  broken  by  Albert  the  Bear,  the  founder  of  Mark  Bran- 
denburg, after  long  contests  and  numerous  insurrections  (1157).     He. 
also,  placed  a  great  number  of  German  colonists  upon  the  desolated 
country.     The  work   of  Christianizing   the    Sorbi  was    much    easier. 
After  their  first  defeats  by  Henry  I.  (922-927),  they  never  regained 
tix.:v  liberty.     The  mission  of  the  sword  more  or  less  closely  attended 
the  mission  of  the  cross  among  the  Wends.     Among  the  Sorbi,  bishop 
Benno  of  Misnia  (ob.  1106),  laboured  with  special  zeal ;  among  the 
Obotrites,  St.  Vicelin,  under  sore  trials  and  sufferings.    St.  Vicelin  died 
whilst  bishop  at  Oldenburg  (1154).     His  successor,  Gerold,  who  trans- 
ferred the  see  to   Liibeck,  followed  in   his   footsteps.     Other  zealous 
Wend  apostles  deserving  mention,  are,  bishop  Event  nod  of  Ratzeburg 
(from  1154),  bishop  Bemo  of  Schwerin  (from  1158).     (Chief  sources: 
—  Widukinds.  v.  Corbei.  (c.  970),  Chronik. —  Thietmar's  Chronik. — 
Adam  v.  Brem.  —  Helmold's  (ob.  1170),  Chronicon.  Slavorum).     The 
Pomeranians  were  subjugated  (1121),  by  the  Polish  duke  Boleslav  III., 
who  extorted  from  them  an  oath  that  they  would  embrace  Christianity. 
But  the  work  of  their  conversion  proved  so  difficult,  that  he  could  find 
no  one  among  his  clergy  willing  to  undertake  it.     Thereupon  Bern- 
hard,  a  Spanish  monk,  offered  his  services  (1122).     But  the  Pomera- 
nians drove  him  off  as  a  beggar,  asserting  that  if  the  God  of  the 
Christians  was  really  Lord  of  heaven  and  earth,  he  would  send  them 
a  servant  corresponding  with  his   dignity.     This   convinced  Boleslav 
that  none  but  a  man  who  combined  with  a  true  missionary  spirit,  the 
show  of  worldly  grandeur  and  wealth,  could  succeed  on  that  field,  and 
bishop  Otho  v.  Bamberg  seemed  to  suit  the  case.      Otho  consented,  and 
in  two  missionary  towns  (1124, 1128),  founded  the  Pomeranian  Church. 
Following  Boleslav's  counsel,  he  both  times  travelled  in  princely  style. 
The  result  was  astonishing,  though  he  several  times  came  near  losing 
his  life.    The  entire  Middle  Ages  furnish  no  example  (unless  St.  Boni- 
face be  excepted),  of  a  like  noble,   pure,  and  successful  missionary 
effort.     No  missionary  of  that  period  exhibited  the  same  firmness,  with- 
out egotism;  earnestness,  without  severity  ;  gentleness,  and  placability, 
without  weakness  ;  glowing  zeal,  without  fanaticism  ;  and,  in  no  other 
instance  did  the  German  and  Slavic  nationalities  merge  so  harmoniously. 
The   last   bulwark   of  Wend  heathenism  was  the    island  Rggen;    it 
yielded  (1168),  to  a  league  between  the  Danish  king  Waldemar  I., 
and  princes  of  Christian  Pomeranians  and  Obotrites. — (Main  source : 
Vitae  Ottoni). 


MISSIONARY     OPERATIONS.  377 

3.  Missions  among  the  Fins  and  Letonians.  —  (Cf.  Fr.  Riilis.  Finnl. 
u.  s.  Bewohner.  Lpz.  1809.  —  F.  K.  Gadebusch,  livl.  Jahrb.  3  Bde. 
Riga.  1780.  —  Fr.  Kruse,  Urgesch.  d.  esthnisch.  Volksstammes.  Lpz. 
1846  (unreliable).  —  Osk.  Kienitz,  24  Bb.  livl.  Gesch.  Bd.  I.  Dorp. 
1847.  —  A',  v.  Schlbzer.  Livl.  u.  d.  Aufange.  d.  deutsch.  Lebens  im  bait. 
Norden.  Berl.  1850. — A.  v.  Bidder,  Gesch.  d.  russ.  Kaiserth.  einverl- 
eibten.  deutsch.  Ostseeprov.  Bd.  I.,  Abth.  I.  (1158-1347),  Riga.  1857. 
—  E.  Fapst,  Meinhart,  Livland's  Apost.  Reval.  1847-49.  —  /.  Yoigt, 
Gesch.  Preussens.  bis  z.  Unterg.  d.  Herrsch.  d.  deutscb.  Ordens.  Bd. 
I-IIL,  Konigsb.  1827.  —K.  0.  Tornwaldt,  d.  Leb.  Adalb.  v.  Prag.  &c, 
in  d.  hist,  theol.  Ztschr.  1853,  II.  —  J.  M.  Watterich,  d.  Grundung.  d. 
deutsch.  Ordenstaates  Preussen.  Lpz.  1857).  —  Christianity  was  in- 
troduced into  Finland  by  St.  Eric,  by  means  of  conquest  and  force 
(1157).  Bishop  Henry  of  Upsala,  the  apostle  of  the  Fins,  who  accom- 
panied him,  suffered  martyrdom  in  1158.  The  Fins  hated  Christianity 
as  ardently  as  the  Swedish  rule  which  brought  it  to  them.  It  was  only 
after  the  third  invasion,  under  the  chief  magistrate  Thorkel  Camiteson 
(1293),  that  success  was  achieved.  Lapland  became  subject  to  Sweden 
in  1279,  and  Christianity  was  gradually  introduced.  In  1335,  bishop 
Hemming  of  Upsala  consecrated  the  first  church  in  Tornea.  Modern 
Estiionia,  Livonia,  and  Curland,  were  settled  by  people  of  Finnish 
descent ;  though  Livonia  and  Curland  were  likewise  settled  by  Leto- 
nians from  the  South  and  East,  (Letonians  and  Letonian-Gauls  in 
Livonia,  and  Semgauls  and  Wends  in  Curland).  The  first  attempts  to 
plant  Christianity  in  those  regions  proceeded  from  SAvedes  and  Danes, 
and,  as  early  as  1048,  under  the  Danish  king  Sren  III.,  Estritson,  a 
church  was  built  in  Curland  by  Christian  merchants  ;  and  the  Danes, 
not  long  after,  built  the  fortress  Lindanisso,  in  Estonia.  The  elevation 
of  the  bishopric  of  Lund  to  a  metropolitan  see  (1098),  occurred  with 
reference  to  these  countries.  In  1171.  Pope  Alexander  III.  sent  Fulc.o, 
a  monk,  as  bishop  of  Finland  and  Esthnia,  to  convert  the  heathen 
there,  but  he  seems  not  to  have  entered  upon  his  duties.  The  first 
permanent  results  were  secured  by  German  preachers  and  swords. 
Merchants  from  Bremen  and  Llibeck  had  formed  commercial  leagues 
with  the  regions  along  the  Diina.  Meinhart,  a  pious  priest  from  the 
monastery  of  Segeberg,  in  Holstein,  undertook,  in  their  company,  and 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Bremen  archbishop,  Hartwig  II.,  a  missionary 
journey  thither  (1180),  established  a  church  at  Uerklill,  on  the  Diina, 
and  became  its  bishop,  but  died  1198.  His  companion,  Dietrich* 
laboured  in  the  vicinity  of  Treiden,  as  far  as  into  Esthnia.  Meinhart' s 
successor  as  bishop  was  the  Cistercian  abbot  Bcrthold  v.  Loccum,  in 
Hanover.  Driven  off  soon  after  his  arrival,  he  returned  with  a  band 
of  German  crusaders,  and  fell  in  battle,  1198.  His  successor  was  the 
Bremen  canon,  Albert  von  Burhowden,  (v.  Appeldern).  He  removed 
the  see  to  Riga,  which  he  built  in  1201 ;  and,  for  the  protection  of  the 
mission,  established,  1202,  the  Order  of  the  Swoi'd  (§98,6),  and 
32* 


378      SECTION    II. — SECOND   PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.  10— 13  A.  D.). 

founded,  amid  constant  conflicts  with  the  Russians.  Estonians,  Curs, 
and   Letonians,   new  bishoprics  in   Esthnia,   Dorpat,  Qesel,  and  Sem- 
gaul,  and  wellnigh  Christianized  all  these  countries.     Ele  died  1  -20. 
After  1210,  the  Danes  co-operated   with   Albert  in  the  conquest  and 
conversion  of  Esthnia.      Waldemar  II.  founded  Reval   (1219),  elevated 
it  to  a  bishopric,  and  used  all  means  to   expel  the  Germans;   but  he 
failed.     Indeed  the  Danes  were    compelled   (1227),  to  leave  Esthnia. 
After  Albert's  death,  the  difficulties  of  the  Germans  so  increased,  that 
Volguin,  the  excellent  master  of  the  Order,  had  to  invoke  the  aid  of 
the  new  Prussian  order  of  Teutonic  Knights.     The  union  of  the  two 
orders,  hindered  by  Danish  intrigues,  was  not  effected  until  1237,  when 
a  fearful  defeat  of  the  Germans  by  the  Letonians  not  only  threatened 
the  existence  of  the  Order  of  the  Sword,  but  the  Livonian  Church  itself. 
Then  first  was  Curland  (the  see  at  Pilten),  permanently  subjugated 
and  converted;  it  had    promised  to  embrace  Christianity  in   1230,  but 
soon  again  relapsed  into  heathenism.     Finally,  in  1253,  Riga  was  also 
made  a  metropolitan  see ;  Albert  Suerbeer  (previously  archbishop  of 
Armagh  in   Ireland),  having  been    appointed  by  Innocent  IV.  arch- 
bishop of    Prussia,   Livonia,  and  Esthnia,  removed  his  see    to  Riga. 
(Cf.  P.  v.  Gotze,  Albert  Suerbeer,  St.  Petersb.  1854).  — (Chief  sources: 
Henry  the  Lettonian,  [oh.  alter  1227),  Origines  Livonicae.  —  Ditleb's  v. 
Alepeke  livl.  Reimchronik.)  —  The  old  Prussians  and  Lithuanians  also 
belonged  to  the  Letonians.  To  the  Prussians  (between  the  Weichsel  and 
Memel),  St.  Adalbert  of  Prague  first  bore  the  tidings  of  salvation,  but 
suffered  martyrdom  soon  after  he  commenced  labours  in  Samland  (997). 
In  1009,  the  zealous  monk  Bruno,  and  eighteen  companions,  met  with 
a  similar  fate  on  the  borders  of  Letonia.    Two  centuries  elapsed  before 
another  missionary  showed  himself  in  Prussia.     The  first  was  abbot 
Godfrey,  of  the  Polish  monastery  of  Lukina.     At  the  outset  he  and  his 
companion  Philip  were  encouraged,  but  they  soon  suffered  martyrdom 
(1207).     The  labours  of  the  Cistercian  Christian,  of  the  Pomeranian 
monastery  Oliva,  three  years  later  (1209),  were  more  successful  and 
permanent.     He  was  the  real  apostle  of  the  Prussians,  became  bishop 
in  1214.  and  died  in  1244.     Following  the  example  of  the  Order  of  the 
Sword  in  Livonia,  he  founded,  1225,  the  order  of  the  Milites   Christi, 
which,  however,  was  reduced  to  five  men  in  the  first  year  of  its  exist- 
ence. _  I,,   union   with  duke    Conrad  of  Masovia,  whose  country   had 
also    suffered   tearfully    from    the    inroads   of   the    heathen    Prussians, 
Christian    called    in  the    aid    of  the    Teutonic   Knights  (§98,  0),  then 
already  in  high  repute  in  Germany,  a  branch  of  whom  emigrated  to 
Culmerland  in  1228,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  civil  sway  of 
the  Teutonic  Knights  in  Prussia.     Then  commenced  a  sanguinary  con- 
flict of  sixty  years'  duration,  for  the  extermination  of  Prussian  heathen- 
ism.    This  struggle  may  be  said  to   have   lasted  until  the  greater  part 
of  the   Prussians,  after  numerous  insurrections,  victories,  and  defeats, 
jrere  slain  (1283),  by  the  swords  of  the  Knights  and  of  crusaders  from 


MISSIONARY    OPERATIONS.  870 

Germany,  Poland,  Bohemia,  &c.  Among  hosts  of  missionaries 
(chiefly  Dominicans),  Bishop  Christian,  the  papal  legate  William, 
bishop  of  Modena,  and  the  Polish  Dominican  Hyacinth,  an  ardent 
preacher  of  repentance  and  faith  (ob.  1257),  merit  special  mention. 
As  early  as  1243,  William  of  Modena  had  drawn  up  an  ecclesiastical 
constitution  for  the  country,  which  divided  Prussia  into  four  bishoprics, 
which,  after  1253,  were  under  the  metropolitan  of  Riga.  —  (Chief 
sources:  the  Chronicon  Prussia  of  Peter  of  Duisburg,  of  the  14th  cent., 
a  Chron.  van  d.  Duitscher  Oirder  of  the  15th  cent.,  and  the  Pruss. 
Chron.  of  Luk.  David  (ob.  1583),  in  which  use  was  made  of  the,  since 
then,  lost  work  of  bishop  Christian,  Liber  filiorum  Belial). — The 
establishment  of  Christianity  in  Lithuania  proved  a  difficult  task. 
After  Ringold  had  founded  (1230).  a  grand  duchy  in  Lithuania,  his 
son  Mindowe,  (Mendog),  resolved  to  extend  it  by  conquest.  The 
Prussian  Livonian  Knights,  however,  so  reduced  him  that  he  sued  for 
peace,  and  was  compelled  to  be  baptized  (l'J52).  But  he  had  scarcely 
recovered  from  his  humiliation,  when  he  threw  aside  the  mask  (1260), 
and  assailed  his  Christian  neighbours  anew.  His  son,  Wolstinik,  who 
had  adhered  to  the  faith,  reigned  too  short  a  time  (ob.  1206),  to  secure 
recognition  from  his  people.  With  him  disappeared  every  trace  of 
Christianity  in  Lithuania.  The  grand  duke  Gedimin  (1315—40),  was 
the  first  again  to  tolerate  Christianity  in  his  country.  Under  his  suc- 
cessor, Olgerd,  Romish  Dominicans  and  Russian  priests  rivalled  each 
other  in  their  missionary  zeal.  Olgerd  was  baptized  by  the  Greeks, 
but  soon  relapsed.  His  son,  Jagello,  whose  mother  was  a  Christian, 
and  who  had  married  the  young  Polish  queen,  Hedwig,  whose  hand 
and  crown  ho  obtained  by  being  baptized,  and  obligating  himself  to 
introduce  Christianity  into  his  country  (1386),  put  an  end  to  heathen- 
ism in  Lithuania.  His  subjects,  to  each  of  whom  a  woollen  garment 
was  given  by  their  sponsors,  pressed  in  crowds  to  be  baptized.  An 
episcopal  see  was  founded  at  Wilna. 

4.  Missions  among  the  Mongols.  —  (Cf.  Marco  Polo,  Travels,  &c. — 
De  Guignes,  hist,  generale  des  Huns,  des  Turcs,  des  Mongols.  Par. 
1756.  —  D'Aivzac,  Relation  des  Mongoles  ou  Tartares.  Par.  1838,  in 
the  Reimeil  de  voyages  et  memoires  publie  par  la  soc.  geogr.  T.  IV. — 
Abel-Eemusat,  Memoires  sur  les  relations  politiques  des  princes  Chre- 
tiens avec  les  empereurs  Mongols,  in  the  Mem.  des  l'Instit.  royal  de 
France.— T.  VI.,  396,  &c,  VII.,  355,  &c,  Par.  1822,  1824.— D' Ohsson, 
Hist,  des  Mong.  depuis  Tschingis-Khan  jusqu'a  Timur-lenk.  Par.  1824, 
—  L.  Moshcim,  Hist.  Tartarorum  eccl.  Helmst.  4to,  1741. —  IV.  Heyd, 
Studien  iiber  d.  Kolonien  d.  rom.  K.  unter  d.  Tartaren,  in  the  hist 
theol.  Ztschr.  II.  1858).  —  The  most  extravagant  accounts  of  the  power 
and  glory  of  the  Tartar  priest-king  John  ($  73,  1),  were  current  in  the 
West,  even  after  his  kingdom  was  overthrown  by  Genghis  Khan,  in 
1202.  Pope  Alexander  III.  sent  an  embassy  to  him  (1177),  of  the 
result  of  which  nothing  is  known.     The  Mongol  princes,  after  the  time 


380      SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.  10—13    1.  D.). 

of  Genghis  Khan,  in  deistic  indifference,  showed  themselves  equally 
tolerant  and  inclined  towards  Christianity,  Islam,  and  Buddhism.  The 
Nestorians  were  very  numerous,  though  greatly  reduced  in  their 
empire.  In  1240  and  41,  the  Mongol  hosts,  in  their  constant  advancea 
westward,  threatened  to  overrun  and  lay  waste  all  Europe.  Russia, 
Poland,  Silesia,  Moravia,  and  Hungary,  had  heen  already  fearfully 
devastated,  when  the  wild  plunderers  suddenly  and  unexpectedly 
turned  their  course.  Pope  Innocent  IV.  sent  (1245),  a  Dominican  em- 
bassy, under  Nich.  Ascelinus,  to  the  commander-in-chief  Batcliu,  then 
in  Persia,  and  a  Franciscan  embassy  under  John  of  Piano- Carpini  to 
the  Great  Khan,  Oktai,  (successor  of  Genghis  Khan,  from  1227),  to  his 
capital  Caracorum,  calling  upon  him  to  be  converted,  and  commanding 
him  to  abstain  from  his  repeated  incursions.  Both  embassies  were 
fruitless.  Equally  so  were  two  embassies  of  Louis  IX.,  of  France,  oc- 
casioned by  a  pretended  Mongol  embassy,  which  told  the  king  some 
fabricated  stories  concerning  the  inclination  of  the  Great  Khan,  Gajuh 
and  his  princes,  to  Christianity  and  of  their  purpose  to  conquer  the 
Holy  Land  for  the  Christians.  The  first  embassy  (1241),  proved  an 
utter  failure,  for  the  Mongols  regarded  the  presents  brought  to  them 
as  tribute  and  an  acknowledgment  of  voluntary  subjection.  The 
second,  also,  to  the  Great  Khan  Mangu  (1253),  although  conducted  by 
that  admirable  tactician,  the  Franciscan,  William  Ruysoroek  (de  Rubiju- 
quis),  Avas  fruitless,  for,  Mangu,  instead  of  allowing  them  to  remain 
and  preach  the  gospel  in  the  country,  sent  them  back  to  Louis,  after 
they  had  held  a  debate  with  the  Mohammedans  and  Buddhists,  with 
a  menacing  demand  of  subjection  to  him.  After  Mangu's  death  (1257), 
the  Mongol  empire  was  divided  into  an  Eastern  (China),  and  "Western 
(Persia).  The  former  was  ruled  by  the  Khan  Kublai,  the  latter  by 
the  Khan  Hulagu.  Hulagu,  whose  mother  and  wife  were  Christians, 
put  an  end  to  the  caliphate  of  Bagdad,  but  was  thereupon  so  pressed 
by  the  Sultan  of  Egypt,  that  he  opened  a  long  series  of  embassies  and 
negotiations  in  England  with  the  popes,  and  kings  of  France,  who  were 
planning  a  common  movement  against  the  Saracens,  and  made  splendid 
oilers  to  the  East.  His  successor  continued  these  negotiations,  which, 
however,  were  only  empty  promises  and  encouragements.  The  age  of 
the  crusades  had  passed,  and  even  the  most  powerful  popes  could  not 
revive  them.  The  Persian  khans,  vaccilating  between  Islam  and 
Christianity,  sank  into  greater  impotence,  until,  finally,  Tamerlane, 
upon  the  ruins  of  their  power  undertook  (1387),  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Crescent,  to  found  a  universal  Mongol  empire.  But  with  his 
death  (1405),  perished  the  rule  of  the  Mongols  in  Persia,  and  that  of 
the  Ture  .mans  began.  Thenceforth  Islam  remained  the  predominant 
religion  amidst  all  the  changes  of  dynasties.  Kublai-Khan,  the  ruler 
of  China,  a  genuine  type  of  the  mixed  religion  of  the  Mongols,  also 
seemed  inclined  to  Christianity,  but  at  the  same  time  favoured  the 
Mohammedans,  and  in  1260,  gave  to  Buddhism  a  hicrarchal  form  and 


MISSIONARY    OPERATIONS  381 

fionsolidation  hy  the  appointment  of  the  first  Grand  Lama.  The 
journey  of  two  Venetians,  of  the  house  of  Poll,  who  returned  from  the 
country  of  the  Mongols  in  1269,  led  to  the  establishment  of  an  Eastern 
Christian  mission  in  China.  I2  1272,  Pope  Gregory  X.  sent  two 
Dominicans  thither,  who  were  joined  by  the  two  Poll,  and  the  son  of 
one  of  them,  Marco  Polo,  then  seventeen  years  old.  Marco  won  the 
implicit  confidence  of  the  Khan,  who  entrusted  him  with  an  important 
vicegerency.  On  his  return  he  published  a  Perigrinatio  s.  LI.  4  de 
Oriental,  regionibus,  which  attracted  great  attention,  and  was  the  first 
work  to  furnish  the  West  with  correct  ideas  of  the  state  of  Eastern 
i\sia.  But  the  Franciscan,  John  de  Monte-Corvino  (1291-1329),  one 
of  the  most  noble,  discerning,  and  faithful  missionaries  of  the  entire 
Middle  Ages,  was  the  first  to  start  regular  and  persevering  efforts  to 
evangelize  that  region.  Having  frustrated  the  inimical  machinations 
of  the  Nestorians,  he  gained  a  high  degree  of  favour  with  the  Khan. 
He  built  two  churches  in  Cambalu  (Peking),  the  Khan's  residence, 
baptized  about  6000  Mongols,  and  translated  the  Psalms  and  N.  T. 
into  the  Mongol  language.  Until  1303  he  laboured  alone.  After  that, 
other  Franciscans  went  to  his  aid.  Clement  V.  appointed  him  arch- 
bishop of  Cambalu.  Annually  new  congregations  were  gathered.  But 
intestine  quarrels  among  Kublai's  successors  reduced  the  strength  of 
the  Mongol  dynasty,  and  it  was  overthrown  in  1368,  by  the  national 
Ming  dynasty.  The  Mongols  were  driven  from  China,  and  with  them 
the  missionaries  whom  they  had  favoured,  so  that  the  harvest  was  lost. 

5.  Missions  in  Mohammedan  Countries. — The  princes  and  hosts  of  the 
crusaders  only  desired  to  wrest  the  Holy  Land  from  the  power  of  the 
unbelievers,  but  did  not  (unless  we  except  Louis  IX.)  think  of  con- 
ferring upon  them  the  blessing  of  the  Gospel.  Still  less  could  it  be 
expected  that  an  influence  favourable  to  Christianity  would  be  ex- 
erted upon  them,  by  men  so  dissolute,  covetous,  cruel,  faithless,  and 
immoral,  as  most  of  the  crusaders  were.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
13th  century,  the  new  orders  of  Franciscans  and  Dominicans  started 
zealous  but  unsuccessful  missionary  operations  among  the  Moslems  of 
Africa  and  Spain.  The  leader  in  this  movement  was  St.  Franciscus 
himself,  who,  during  the  siege  of  Damietta  by  the  crusaders,  1219, 
went  into  the  camp  of  the  Sultan,  Kamel,  and  challenged  him  to  kindle 
a  large  fire,  into  which  St.  F.  and  a  Moslem  priest  should  plunge.  When 
the  priest,  who  was  present,  secretly  withdrew,  Franciscus  offered  to 
enter  the  flames  alone,  if  the  Sultan  would  promise,  that  he  and  his 
people  would  embrace  Christianity  if  he  came  forth  unhurt.  The 
Sultan  declined  the  test,  and  dismissed  Franciscus  with  presents, 
which  the  latter  rejected.  Subsequently  many  Franciscan  missions 
were  undertaken  to  the  Moslem,  which,  however,  accomplished  noth- 
ing but  the  increase  of  their  number  of  martyrs.  The  Dominican!* 
commenced  similar  efforts  earlier,  but  with  no  better  results.  Their 
General,  Eaijmun  <s>  of  Pennajbrti    (ob.  1273),  devoted  himself  to  this 


382      SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.  10— 13  A.  D.). 

work  with  great  zeal.  For  the  purpose  of  preparing  the  brethren  of 
his  order  for  this  work,  he  founded  institutions  at  Tunis  and  Murcia, 
for  the  study  of  Oriental  languages.  Most  important  were  the  labours 
of  Raymund  Lullus  of  Majorca,  who  after  his  conversion,  thoroughly 
studied  the  requisite  languages,  and  thrice  visited  North  Africa,  and 
there  engaged  in  disputations  with  Saracen  scholars,  to  convince  them 
of  the  truth  of  Christianity.  But  his  "  great  art "  (§  104,  2),  which  he 
had  devised  for  this  purpose  with  extraordinary  efforts,  failed  to  secure 
appreciation  either  there  or  in  Europe.  Imprisonment  and  abuse  were 
his  usual  reward.     He  died  of  maltreatment  in  1315. 

|  94.   THE  CRUSADES. 

Sources:  J.  Bongars,  Gesta  Dei  per  Francos.  Ilann.  1611.  2  Voll.— 
F.  'J.  MicJiavd,  Biblioth.  des  Croisades.  Par.  1830.  4  T.  —  Coup. 
William  of  Tyre,  Hist,  of  the  Crus.  and  of  the  Kingd.  of  Jems.  — 
Chronicles  of  the  Crusaders  (in  Bonn's  Antiquar.  Libr.) — J.  Michaud, 
Hist,  des  Croisades,  transl.  by  W.  Robson.  London  1852,  3  Vols. — 
F.  Wilken,  Gesch.  d.  Kreuzzlige  (Hist,  of  the  Crus.).  Leips.  1807. 
7  Vols.  —  H.  v.  Si/bel,  Gesch.  d.  ersen  Kreuzzlige.  Diisseld.  1841  — 
the  same  author:  Aus  d.  Gesch.  d.  Kreuzz.  and  Braunschw.  1858. — 
A.  H.  L.  Eeeren,  Versuch  u.  Entw.  d.  Folgen  d.  Kreuzziige  fur  Europa 
(essay  on  the  results  of  the  Crus.  for  Europe).  Gb'ttg.  1808. 

During  the  rule  of  the  Arabs,  Christian  pilgrims  to  the  Holy 

Sepulchre  had  enjoyed  ample  protection.      But  under  the  reign 

of  the  Fatimites,  at  the  coinineneement  of   the  tenth  century, 

persecutions    commenced,  especially   during    the    Caliphate    of 

Hakim,  who  equally  oppressed  native  Christians  and   pilgrims, 

and  interdicted  their  worship  under  severe  penalty,  probably  in 

order  by  such  severities  to  wipe  out    the    disgrace    of   having 

sprung  from  a  Christian  mother.     Under  the  dominion  of  the 

Seljookian    Turks,    from    1070,    these    measures    of   oppression 

greatly  increased.     The  feeling  evoked  throughout  the  West  by 

these  persecutions  was  all  the  more  deep,  since  the  expectation 

of  the  approaching  end  of  the  world,  which  was  general  in  the 

tenth  century  (§  106,  1),  induced  many  to  undertake  pilgrimages 

to  the  Holy  Land.      So  early  as  the  year  999  Sylvester  II.  had 

—  ex  persona   devastate    Hierosolymao  —  made    an    appeal    to 

Christendom  to  rescue  the  Holy  Land  from  the  infidel.     Gregory 

VII.  entered  warmly  into  this  project,  and   had  indeed   resolved 

to  head  a  crusade  in  person  ;  but  his  dissensions  with  Henry  IV 

preven  ed  the  execution  of  the  plan.      Twenty  years  later  Peter 

of  Aniens,  a  hermit,  returned  from  his  pilgrimage.      In  burning 


THE     CRUSADES.  383 

language  he  portrayed  to  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  (Urbar.  II.)  the 
sufferings  of  the  Christian?, ;  he  recounted  a  vision  in  which 
Christ  Himself  had  charged  him  with  the  commission  to  rouse 
Christendom  for  the  delivery  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  By  direc- 
tion of  Urban,  Peter  travelled  through  Italy  and  France,  every- 
where exciting  the  feelings  of  the  people.  A  council  was  sum- 
moned at  Pi'/cenza  in  1095,  where  this  cause  was  pleaded.  Still 
greater  success  attended  the  address  of  Urban  at  the  Council  of 
CJaremont  in  the  same  year.  In  response  to  his  enthusiastic 
appeal  for  a  holy  war  under  the  standard  of  the  Cross,  the 
universal  exclamation  was  heard  :  "It  is  the  will  of  God  !"  and 
on  the  same  day  thousands  enlisted  in  the  cause,  and  had  the  red 
cross  affixed  to  their  right  shoulder  —  among  them  Adhemar, 
Bishop  of  Le  Puy,  who  was  named  Papal  legate  for  the  war. 
On  their  return  to  their  dioceses,  the  bishops  everywhere 
preached  the  Crusade,  and  before  many  weeks  had  elapsed 
Western  Christendom  was  stirred  to  its  inmost  depths.  Thus 
commenced  a  movement  which  lasted  for  two  centuries,  and 
which  in  its  character  can  only  be  compared  with  the  migration 
of  nations.  By  these  expeditions  Europe  lost  nearly  5,000,000 
of  men  in  bootless  attempts.  In  the  end  every  hope  and  purpose 
cherished  by  the  crusaders  was  frustrated.  Still,  the  consequences 
of  these  expeditions  proved  of  deepest  importance,  and  their 
influence  extended  to  all  departments  of  life,  both  ecclesiastical 
and  political,  spiritual  and  intellectual,  civil  and  industrial. 
New  views,  requirements,  tendencies,  and  forces  were  introduced, 
by  the  operation  of  which  mediaeval  history  entered  on  the  last 
stage  of  its  development,  and  which  prepared  the  way  for  the 
modern  phases  of  society. 

1.  The  First  Crusade  (1096).— In  the  spring;  of  1096  vast  multitudes 
of  people,  impatient  of  the  tardy  preparations  of  the  princes,  started  on 
their  journey  under  the  leadership  of  Walter  the  Penniless.  He  was  fol- 
lowed by  Peter,  with  40,000  men.  But  the  excesses  committed  by  them, 
and  the  utter  absence  of  all  discipline,  aroused  the  hostility  of  the  popu- 
lations: half  the  army  was  destroyed  in  Bulgaria,  the  rest  perished  by 
the  sword  of  the  Saracens  at  Nicaea.  Several  fresh  gatherings,  finally  a 
disorderly  host  of  200,000  men,  perished  in  Hungary,  or  on  its  confines. 
At  length,  in  the  month  of  August,  the  regular  army  of  the  crusaders  set 
out  under  the  command  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  Originallv  it  con- 
sisted of  30,000  men.  but  by  the  way  it  increased  to  not  less  than  600,000. 
The  reception  which  the  Byzantine  Government  accorded  the  crusadera 
was  by  no  means  favourable.    Iu  1097  they  crossed  to  Asia.    Nicsea.  An- 


384      SECTION    II. — SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.   10— 13  A.  D.). 

tioch,  and  Edessa  were  taken,  not  without  considerable  resistance  and 
great  losses.  But  their  efforts  ultimately  proved  successful,  and  on  the 
15th  July,  1099,  the  crusaders  scaled  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  with  the 
shout,  "  It  is  the  will  of  God !"  By  the  light  of  burning  houses,  and  wad- 
ing in  blood,  they  marched  in  solemn  procession  to  the  Church  of  the 
Resurrection,  repeating  psalms.  Godfrey  was  chosen  King  of  Jerusa- 
lem, but  refused  to  wear  a  royal  diadem  where  his  Master  had  been 
crowned  with  thorns.  The  pious  leader  of  the  crusaders  died  after  the 
lapse  of  only  one  year,  and  was  succeeded  by  Baldwin,  his  brother, 
who  was  crowned  at  Bethlehem.  The  bestowal  of  numerous  fiefs  soon 
gathered  a  number  of  vassals  around  the  new  monarch.  Jerusalem 
was  made  the  seat  of  a  patriarchate,  to  which  four  archiepiscopal  sees 
and  a  corresponding  number  of  bishoprics  were  subjected.  Tidings 
of  these  events  awakened  fresh  enthusiasm  throughout  the  West.  So 
early  as  the  year  1101  three  other  large  armies  of  crusaders  set  out. 
They  marched  against  Bagdad,  with  the  view  of  breaking  the  Moslem 
power  in  its  great  stronghold ;  but  these  undisciplined  masses  never 
reached  their  destination. 

2.  Second  Crusade  (1147).  — The  fall  of  Edessa  (1146) —  the  great 
bulwark  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem — seemed  a  loud  call  for  renewed 
exertions.  Pope  Eugene  II.  summoned  the  nations  to  arms.  Bernard 
of  Clairvaux,  the  great  prophet  of  that  period,  preached  the  Crusade, 
and  predicted  victory.  Louis  VII.  of  France  took  the  cross,  thereby 
to  expiate  the  sacrilege  of  having  burned  down  a  church  filled  with 
people.  Under  the  impression  of  the  sermons  of  St.  Bernard,  Conrad 
III.  of  Germany  followed  his  example,  not  without  considerable  reluct- 
ance. But  their  noble  armies  fell  under  the  sword  of  the  Saracens,  or 
perished  through  the  perfidy  of  the  Greeks  and  the  utter  dissolution 
of  all  discipline,  amidst  want,  pestilence,  and  fatigue.  Damascus  was 
not  taken;  humbled,  and  with  the  scanty  remnants  of  their  armies,  the 
Christian  princes  returned  to  their  own  countries. 

3.  Third  Crusade  (1189). —  A  century  had  not  elapsed  before  the 
kingdom  of  Jerusalem  had  fallen  into  complete  decay.14  The  incessant 
animosities  between  Greeks  and  Latins,  the  intrigues  of  vassals,  the 
licentiousness,  luxury,  and  lawlessness  of  the  people,  the  clergy,  and 
the  nobles,  and,  after  the  extinction  of  the  dynasty  of  Baldwin,  the 
disputes  of  pretenders  to  the  crown,  rendered  order,  security,  or  sta- 
bility impossible.  Under  these  circumstances,  it  was  comparatively 
easy  for  Sultan  Saladin  —  that  Moslem  knight  without  fear  or  stain, 
who  had  already  dethroned  the  Fatimite  dynasty  in  Egypt  —  after  the 
bloody  victory  of  Tiberias,  to  put  an  end  to  the  domination  of  Chris- 
tians in  Syria.  Jerusalem  was  taken  in  October  1187.  Tidings  of 
tliix  calamity  once  more  roused  'Western  Christendom.  Philip  Augustus 
of  Prance,  and  Henry  II.  of  England,  for  a  season  laid  aside  their  dis- 
putes, and  took  the  cross  at  the  hand  of  William  of  Tyre,  the  historian 
of  the  Crusades.     They  were  joined  by  the  Emperor  Frederic  I.,  in 


THE     CRUSADES.  385 

personal  courage  a  youth,  but  old  in  years  and  experience,  whose 
energy,  prudence,  and  ability  seemed  to  insure  success.  The  intrigues 
of  the  Byzantine  court,  and  the  indescribable  difficulties  of  a  march 
through  a  desert,  could  not  arrest  his  progress.  He  met  and  defeated 
the  well-appointed  army  of  the  Sultan  of  Iconium,  and  took  his  capi- 
tal, but  soon  afterwards  was  drowned  in  a  small  river  of  Pisidia  (1190). 
The  greater  part  of  the  army  now  dispersed  ;  the  rest  were  led  against 
Ptolemais  by  Frederic  of  Swabia,  the  Emperor's  son.  Soon  afterwards 
appeared  under  the  walls  of  that  city  Philip  Augustus  and  Richard 
Cgsur-de-liox,  who,  after  the  death  of  his  father,  had  undertaken  his 
vow,  and  on  his  passage  to  Syria  conquered  Cyprus.  Ptolemais  (St. 
Jean  d'Acre)  fell  in  1191 ;  but  disputes  among  the  leaders  prevented 
any  lasting  success  from  that  enterprise.  Frederic  of  Swabia  had 
fallen,  and  Philip  Augustus  returned  to  France  under  pretence  of  ill- 
ness. Richard  gained,  indeed,  a  splendid  victory  over  Saladin,  took 
Joppa  and  Askelon,  and  was  about  to  march  upon  Jerusalem,  when 
tidings  arrived  that  Philip  Augustus  was  arming  against  England. 
Saladin,  who  respected  the  knightly  qualities  of  his  opponent,  agreed 
to  an  armistice  for  three  years,  on  conditions  favourable  to  Christian 
pilgrims  (1192).  The  district  along  the  shore,  from  Joppa  to  Askelon, 
was  ceded  to  Henry  of  Champagne.  On  his  return  to  England,  Richard 
was  seized  by  Leopold  of  Austria,  whose  flag  he  had  insulted  before 
Ptolemais,  and  kept  a  prisoner  for  two  years.  The  Crusade  was  not 
resumed  even  after  his  liberation.     He  died  1199. 

4.  Fourth  Crusade  (1217). — Pope  Innocent  III.  summoned  Christen- 
dom a  fourth  time  to  the  Holy  War.  The  monarchs  of  Europe  were 
too  much  engaged  with  their  own  affairs  to  give  heed  to  this  call ;  but 
Fulk  of  Neuilly,  the  great  penitential  preacher  of  his  age,  induced  the 
nobility  of  France  to  fit  out  a  considerable  armament.  Instead,  how- 
ever, of  marching  against  the  Saracens,  they  were  induced  by  Dandolo, 
the  Doge  of  Venice,  to  assist  him  in  subduing  Zara  in  Palmatia,  by 
way  of  payment  for  the  transport  of  the  troops,  and  then  to  advance 
against  Constantinople,  where  Baldwin  of  Flanders  founded  a  Latin 
Empire  (1204-1261 ;  Cf.  \  67,  4).  The  Pope  excommunicated  the  Doge 
and  the  crusaders  for  the  conquest  of  Zara,  and  strongly  censured  the 
campaign  against  Constantinople.  But  he  was  appeased  by  the  unex- 
pected result ;  he  rejoiced  that  Israel,  after  casting  down  the  golden 
calves  in  Dan  and  Bethel,  was  again  united  with  Judah,  and  bestowed 
the  pallium,  in  Rome,  upon  the  first  Latin  patriarch  of  Constantinople. 
— The  Crusade  of  the  Children  (1212),  which  robbed  parents  in  France 
and  Germany  of  40,000  children  (boys  and  girls),  terminated  most 
sadly.  Many  thousands  of  them  perished  in  Europe  of  hunger  and 
fatigue,  the  rest  fell  into  the  hands  of  ruthless  men  who  sold  them  into 
Egypt.  At  the  urgent  persuasion  of  Pope  Honorius  III.,  Andrew  II. 
of  Hungary  led  another  army  of  crusaders  to  Palestine  in  1217.  He 
gained  some  advantages ;  but,  being  betrayed  or  forsaken  by  the  barons 
33 


386     SECTION    II. — SECOND   PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.  10— 13  A.  D.). 

of  Palestine,  he  returned  the  following  year.  The  Germans,  however, 
who  went  out  with  him  under  Leopold  VII.  of  Austria,  remained,  and, 
having  been  strengthened  by  a  fleet  from  Cologne  and  the  Netherlands, 
undertook  (1218),  in  connection  with  King  John  of  Jerusalem,  a  cam- 
paign into  Egypt.  Damietla  was  taken  ;  but  by  the  breaking  of  the 
dykes  of  the  Nile,  they  were  driven  to  such  extremities,  that  they 
owed  their  escape  to  the  generosity  of  Kamel  (1221). 

5.  Fifth  Crusade  (1228).  —  The  Emperor  Freberic  II.  had  also  pro- 
mised the  Pope  to  undertake  a  crusade,  but  delayed  on  various  pretexts, 
till  Pope  Gregory  at  length  excommunicated  him.  Frederic  now  set 
out  at  the  head  of  a  comparatively  small  army  (1228).  Kamel,  the 
Sultan  of  Egypt,  was  at  the  time  engaged  in  war  with  a  rival.  Under 
the  apprehension  that  Frederic  might  co-operate  with  him,  he  hastily 
concluded  peace,  ceding  Jerusalem  and  several  other  towns.  On  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  the  Emperor  crowned  himself  with  his  own  hands 
(Jerusalem  being  the  hereditary  portion  of  his  spouse  Jolanthe),  and 
then  returned  to  make  his  peace  with  the  See  of  Rome  (1229).  —  The 
crusaders  whom  King  Theobald  of  Kovarra  (1239)  and  Count  Richard 
of  Cornwallis  (1240)  led  to  Palestine,  accomplished  nothing,  in  conse- 
quence of  factions  among  themselves,  and  the  distractions  prevailing 
among  Syrian  Christians. 

6.  Sixth  (1248)  and  Seventh  Crusades  (1270).  —  The  ardour  in  thi3 
cause  had  for  a  considerable  time  been  declining.  Nevertheless  St. 
Louis  (IX.)  of  France  assumed  the  cross,  during  a  dangerous  illness 
(1244).  At  that  time  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the  Carizmians,  whom 
the  Sultan  of  Egypt  had  hired,  amid  the  most  fearful  cruelties.  Until 
1247  the  authority  of  the  Christians  in  Palestine  was  confined  to  Acre 
and  some  seaports.  Louis  could  be  restrained  no  longer.  In  1248  he 
once  more  set  out  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  army,  and,  having  win- 
tered in  Cyprus,  passed  in  1249  into  Egypt.  He  defeated  the  Egyptian? 
both  by  sea  and  by  land,  and  took  Damiette.  His  army,  however,  was 
decimated  by  battles,  pestilence,  and  famine,  and  himself  made  pri- 
soner by  the  Mamelukes,  who  had  lately  dethroned  the  <U  nasty  of 
Saladin.  After  payment  of  a  heavy  ransom,  he  was  allowed  to  return 
to  his  own  country  in  1250.  The  pious  monarch  still  felt  as  if  his  vow 
had  not  been  fulfilled.  Accordingly,  he  embarked  a  second  time  in 
1270  for  Tunis,  in  the  hope  of  making  that  city  the  basis  of  further 
operations.  But  half  of  his  army,  and  the  king  himself,  were  swept 
away  by  a  pestilence  that  same  year.  Ptolemais,  the  last  stronghold 
of  the  Christians  in  the  Holy  Land,  fell  in  1291.  The  Popes  failed 
ever  afterwards  to  awaken  an  interest  in  new  crusades. 

§  95.  ISLAMISM  AND  THE  JEWS  IN  EUROPE. 

In  the  eleventh  century  the  dominion  of  the  Saracens  iu  Sicily 
(§  81)  gave  place  to  that  of  the  Normans.     In  Spain  (J  81) 


ISLAMISM    AND    THE    JEWS    IN    EUROPE.         387 

also  the  sway  of  Mohammedanism  was  drawing  to  a  close.  Fre- 
quent changes  of  rulers  and  dynasties,  and  the  division  of  the 
country  into  small  caliphates,  had  weakened  the  power  of  the 
Moors  ;  while  increasing  degeneracy  of  morals,  in  a  rich  and 
luxurious  country,  gradually  diminished  the  military  prowess  and 
ardour  of  the  people.  Although  the  Christian  forces  of  the 
country  were  also  drawn  from  a  number  of  small  kingdoms, 
patriotism  and  religious  enthusiasm,  which  grew  as  the  contest 
continued,  rendered  them  invincible.  Rodrirjo  Diaz,  the  Casti- 
lian  hero  (called  by  the  Moors  the  Cid,  or  Lord,  by  Christiana 
the  Campeadur  or  Commander)  —  ob.  1099 —  appeared  to  these 
warriors  the  embodiment  of  Spanish  and  Christian  chivalry, 
though  it  must  be  confessed  that  the  conduct  of  this  hero 
towards  vanquished  infidels  was  at  times  neither  Christian  nor 
knightly.  The  Moors  called  in  the  aid  of  the  Almoravides 
(1086) ;  but  neither  could  they  nor  the  Almohades  from  Bar- 
bary,  who  afterwards  (1146)  took  their  place,  restore  the  former 
glory  of  the  Moorish  arms.15 

1.  Islamism  in  Sicily. —  To  the  predatory  incursions  of  the  Sicilian 
Saracens  into  Italy,  the  Norman  settlers  there  put  an  end  (from 
1017).  Robert  Guiscard  subverted  the  remnants  of  Greek  rule  in  Lower 
Italy,  subdued  the  small  Lombard  dukedoms  there,  and  founded  an 
independent  Norman  duchy  of  Apuleia  and  Calabria  (10G0),  whilst  his 
brother  Roger,  in  a  war  of  30  years'  duration,  seized  all  Sicily  from 
the  Saracens,  and  governed  it  as  a  vassal  of  his  brother,  under  the 
name  of  Count  of  Sicily  (ob.  1101).  His  son  Roger  II.  (ob.  1154)  con- 
nected the  government  of  Apuleia  and  Calabria  with  that  of  Sicily, 
had  himself  crowned  king  of  Sicily  in  1130,  and  in  1139  conquered 
Naples.  By  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  Constancia  with  Henry  IV., 
the  Sicilian  crown  passed  over  to  the  Hohenstaufen  (1194).  But  as 
Robert  Guiscard  already  had  given  an  oath  of  fealty  to  Pope  Nicholas 
II.,  the  successoi-s  of  Peter  regarded  Sicily  as  a  papal  fief. 

2.  Mamism  in  Spain.  —  The  times  of  Abderrahman  III.  (912-61) 
and  Hakem  II.  (961-76),  were  the  most  brilliant  and  happy  of  the 
Ommiyahen  caliphate.  After  the  death  of  the  latter  the  Hadschib 
Almansur  (ob.  1002)  reigned  in  the  name  of  the  effeminate  and  volup- 
tuous Hescham  II.  But  endless  civil  wars  were  the  consequence  of 
this  arrangement;  and  in  1031,  during  one  of  these  insurrections,  the 
last  Ommiyah,  Abderrahman  IV.,  voluntarily  renounced  the  crown 
and  fled.  The  caliphate  was  now  divided  into  as  many  emirates  as  there 
had  been  emirs.  Amid  these  distractions  Christian  princes  could 
3xtend  their  power.  Sancho  the  Great,  King  of  Navarre  (970-1035), 
united  under  his  dominion,  by  marriage  and  conquest,  wellnigh  the 


388     SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT     II— 13  A.  D.). 

whole  of  Christian  Spain,  but  severed  it  again  by  division  among  hig 
sons,  of  whom  Ferdinand  I.  (ob.  1085)  inherited  Castile  and  conquered 
Leon  (1037).    With  him  began  the  glory  of  Spanish  knighthood.    His 
son  Alfonzo  IV.  (ob.  1109)  wrested  (1085)  Toledo,  and  a  great  part  of 
Andalusia  from  the  Moors.     These  called  the  potent  AJmoravide  lord, 
Yusnf  Ben  Taschjln,  of  Morocco,  to  their  aid.     The  Christians  were 
defeated  on  the  plains  of  Salacca  (108G).     Soon  the  victor  turned  his 
arms  against  the  confederates,  and  within  six  years  all  Moslem  Spain 
fell  under  his  dominion.    His  son  Ali,  in  the  fearfully  bloody  battle  of 
Ueles  (1107),  annihilated  the  flower  of  the  Castilian  nobility.     That 
was  the  zenith  of  the  Almoravklc  rule  ;  from  that  time  their  star  grew 
pale.    Alfonzo  I.  of  Aragon  (1105-34)  took  Saragossa  (1118),  and  other 
towns;  Alfonzo  VII.  of  Castile  (1120-57),  whose  power  rose  to  such  a 
height  that  most  Christian  princes  acknowledged  him  as  their  feudal 
lord,  and  that  he  had  himself  solemnly  crowned,  1135,  as  Emperor  of 
Spain,  made  a  splendid  campaign  into  Andalusia,  and  pressed  even  to 
the  S.  coast  of  Granada  (1144).    Alfonzo  I.  of  Portugal  wrested  Lisbon 
from  the  Moors.     Count  Baymund  of  Barcelona,  took  Tortosa,  &c.     Si- 
multaneously the  power  of  the  Almoravides  was  undermined  in  Africa. 
In  1140  Morocco,  and  the  whole  of  N.W.  Africa,  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Almohaden  Abdolmumin,  whose  general  Abu  Amram  at  the  same  time 
took  Andalusia  (Moslem  Spain).     Abdolmumin's  son  Yusuf  himself 
entered  Spain,  1184,  with  an  immense  army,  to  exterminate  Christian 
rule  there,  but  fell  in   the  battle  of  Santerem,  again;  t  Alfonzo  I.  of 
Portugal.     His  son  Yahub  avenged  this  defeat  by  the  bloody  battle  of 
Alarcos,  in  which  30,000  Castilians  perished  (1195).     But  as,  after  a 
few  years,  the  Christians  made  new  attempts,  Yakub's  successor,  Mo- 
hammed, entered  Spain  with  a  half  million  of  fanatical  Africans.     It 
was  the  decisive  hour  for  Spain.     The  Christians  had  gained  time  to 
unite  their  strength.     On  the  plains  of  ToJosa,  1212,  they  fought,  under 
Alfonzo  VIII.  of  Castile,  with  unexampled  heroism.    More  than  200,000 
Africans  were  left  dead  on  the  field  of  battle.    It  was  the  death-blow  of 
Almohaden  rule  in  Spain.    In  spite  of  the  feuds  which  broke  out  among 
the  Christian  princes,  they  conquered  .(especially  St.  Ferdinand  III. 
of  Castile,  1217-52,  and  James  I,  the  Conqueror  of  Aragon,  1213-76), 
during  twenty-five  years,  all  Andalusia ;  so  that  only  in  the  extreme 
south  of  Spain,  in  the  kingdom  of  Granada,  there  remained  a  remnant 
of  Moslem  dominion,  under  the  Emir  Mohammed  Abcn  Alomar,  where 
the  splendour  of  Arabic  culture  once  more  again  shone  forth. — In  14G9 
the  two  most  powerful  Christian  kingdoms  of  Spain  were  united  by  the 
marriage  of  Ferdinand  of  Arajron  with  Isabella  of  Castile.     Then  came 
Granada's  last  hour.     On  January  2d,  1492,  Abu-Abdilahi  (Boabdil), 
the  last  caliph,  concluded  a  disgraceful  treaty,  in  accordance  with  which 
he  evacuated  Granada,  and  a  few  moments  afterwards  the  Castilian 
banner  waved  over  the  loftiest  turret  of  the   proud  Alhambra.     The 
Pope  bestowed  upon  the  royal  pair  the  title  of  Catholic  kings.     Those 


THE     PAPACY    AND    THE     GERMAN     EMPIRE.       389 

Moors  who  refused  baptism  were  expelled;  but  even  the  MorisiJes,  or 
baptized  Moors,  proved  so  dangerous  an  element  in  the  state,  that 
Philip  III.,  1009,  resolved  upon  their  entire  expulsion.  Most  of  them 
60ught  refuge  iu  Africa,  where  they  again  professed  Islamism,  which 
they  had  never  cordially  renounced. 

3.  By  trade  and  usury  the  Jews  had  obtained  almost  exclusive  posses- 
sion of  the  coined  money.  The  influence  thus  acquired  was  more  than 
counterbalanced  by  the  cruelty  and  oppression  to  which,  from  their 
wealth,  they  were  exposed  on  the  part  of  needy  princes  and  nobles. 
Every  public  calamity  was  popularly  ascribed  to  them ;  they  poisoned 
the  wells,  and  thus  occasioned  epidemics  ;  they  stole  consecrated  wafers 
in  order  to  pierce  them  through  with  needles  ;  they  abducted  Christian 
children  to  sacrifice  them  at  their  Passover.  Popular  superstition  and 
enmity,  thus  excited,  frequently  found  vent  in  tumults,  in  which  thou- 
sands of  these  J  evvs  were  slain.  But  their  faith  was  even  dearer  to  them 
than  their  gold,  and  they  feared  baptism  more  than  torture.  Occasion- 
ally the  crusaders  also  commenced  their  heroic  exploits  at  home  with  a 
massacre  of  Jews.  In  Spain  the  synagogue  suffered  persecutions  simi- 
lar to  those  of  the  Moors  and  Moriscoes.  Several  of  the  popes  —  espe- 
cially Gregory  VII. ,  Alexander  III.,  and  Innocent  III. — published  ordi- 
nances for  the  protection  of  the  Jews,  interdicted  the  practice  of  forced 
conversions,  and  called  attention  to  the  circumstance  that  they  were 
destined  by  Providence  to  be  living  evidences  to  the  truth  of  Chris- 
tianity.— The  German  Emperors,  also,  took  the  Jews  under  their  special 
protection,  regarding  them  as  servi  camera?  nostra?  speciales  (as  Vespa- 
sian and  Titus  had  done).  In  England  and  France  also,  they  were 
considered  as  property  of  the  crown. 


II.  HIERARCHY,  THE  CLERGY,  AND  MONASTICISM. 

§96.   THE   PAPACY  AND   THE    HOLY  ROMAN   GERMAN 

EMPIRE. 

Cf.  TV.  GiesebrecM,  Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Kaiserzeit.  Braunschvr.  1852, 
etc.     (So  far  2  vols.) 

The  history  of  the  Papacy  during  this  period  opens  amid  its 
deepest  degradation.  It  was  Germany  which  put  an  end  to  these 
infamous  abuses  ;  the  Papacy  once  more  recovered  from  its  low 
state,  and  remembering  its  high  aims,  rapidly  rose  to  the  highest 
point  of  its  irfluence  and  power.     With  the  alternative  before  it 


390     SECTION    II.  —  SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.   10—13  A.  D.). 

of  being  subject  to  the  secular  power  of  the  emperors  or  of  ren 
deri tig:  them  subject  to  its  spiritual  sway,  it  entered  into  mortai 
conflict  with  that  very  monarchy  to  which  it  owed  its  recovery. 
In  this  contest,  which  raged  most  fiercely  during  the  disputes 
with  the  Hohenstaufen  dynasty,  the  Papacy  carried  indeed  the 
victory,  but  only  again  to  experience  that  it  could  neither  co- 
exist nor  dispense  with  a  strong  imperial  government.  As  the 
overturn  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne  had  reduced  the  Papacy 
to  utter  degradation  under  the  vile  rule  of  Italian  nobles,  so  its 
victory  over  the  German  monarchs  issued  in  rendering  it  subject 
to  French  policy,  to  an  extent  scarcely  less  humiliating.  —  At 
the  time  when  the  Papacy  rose  from  its  decay,  the  orders  of 
Clngny  and  Camaldoli  (§98)  proved  its  strongest  supporters  and 
best  advisers;  afterwards,  the  begging  friars  formed  a  sort  of 
Papal  standing  army;  while  the  Crusades,  besides  contributing 
a  good  deal  of  enthusiasm  in  favour  of  the  Church,  found  employ- 
ment and  a  grave  for  troublesome  princes  and  their  armies. — 
When  the  Papacy  reached  its  climax,  the  Holy  Father  was 
regarded  as  absolute  head  of  the  Church.  Already  theologians 
argued  that  the  position  of  the  Supreme  Pontiff  in  the  theocracy 
must  insure  the  infallibility  of  his  official  decrees.  Gregory  VII 
claimed  for  the  chair  of  Peter  the  right  of  confirming  all  appoint 
ments  to  vacant  sees.  From  the  time  of  Innocent  III,  what 
formerly  had  been  merely  papal  recommendations  to  vacant  posts 
(preces,  whence  the  parties  recommended  were  called  precistce) 
were  issued  as  mandata  ;  while  Clement  IV.  (ob.  12G8)  insisted 
that  the  Pontiff  possessed  the  power  of  "  plcnaria  dispositio " 
over  all  ecclesiastical  benefices.  According  to  these  vicars  of 
Christ,  Universal  Councils  had  only  a  deliberative  voice.  From 
every  tribunal  an  appeal  might  be  taken  to  the  successors  of  the 
apostles;  they  might  grant  dispensation  from  any  law  of  the 
Church,  and  they  alone  possessed  the  right  of  canonizing.  The 
practice  of  kissing  (he  foot  originated  in  an  Italian  custom  ;  and 
even  emperors  stooped  to  hold  the  stirrup  to  the  Pope.16  In  all 
countries,  legates,  with  absolute  power,  acted  as  representatives 
of  the  Pope.  Theirs  it  was  to  convoke  and  to  preside  over  pro- 
vincial councils.  From  the  time  of  Nicholas  I.  it  was  customary 
to  crown  the  Sovereign  Pontiff,  although  at  first  only  a  simple 
Brown  called  tiara  was  used  for  the  purpose.  The  College  of 
Cardinals,  which  consisted  of  the  clergy  of  the  cathedral  at 
Rome,  and  of  the  seven  bishops  in  the  metropolitan  diocese, 


THE     PAPACY     AND    THE     GERMAN     EMPIRE.        391 

formed  the  ecclesiastical  and  secular  council  of  the  Pope.  The 
ilotnish  curia  discharged  all  the  ordinary  business  ;  the  ministry 
of  finance  bore  the  name  of  Rota  Bomana.  Besides  the  regular 
revenues  derived  from  the  States  of  the  Church  and  the  annual 
tribute  from  foreign  countries,  the  bestowal  of  the  pall  upon 
newly-elected  metropolitans  brought  considerable  sums  into  the 
papal  treasury.  Under  special  circumstances,  the  popes  also 
claimed  the  right  of  levying  a  contribution  from  all  churches. 

1.  The  Papacy  to  the  Death  of  Sylvester  II.  (904-1003).  —  (Cf.  F.  E. 
Losclier,  Geseh.  d.  rom.  Hurenregiinents,  1707,  2.  Aufl.  unter  d.  Titel: 
Hist.  d.  niittlern  Zeiten  als  ein  Licht  aus  d.  Finsterniss.  Lpz.  1725, 
4to.  —  L.  Banke,  Jahrb.  d.  deutsch.  Reiches  unter  d.  sachs.  Hause  v. 
G.  Waitz,  R.  A.  Kbpke,  W.  Donniges,  W.  Giesebrecht,  u.  H.  Wilmanns, 
3  Bd.  Berl.  1837,  &c.  —  Vehse,  Otto  d.  Gr.  u.  s.  Zeit.  Zittau,  1835.  — 
C.  Hbjler,  d.  deutsch.  Papste.  Bd.  I.  Regeusb.  1830.— Floss,  d.  Papst- 
wahl  unter  d.  Ottomen.  Freib.  1858.)  —  In  the  contests  of  the  Italian 
nobles  which  ensued  after  the  departure  of  the  Emperor  Arnulf  (§  82,  5), 
the  party  of  Adalbert,  Margrave  of  Tuscany,  proved  ultimately  victori- 
ous. For  half  a  century  Theodora,  the  concubine  of  that  prince  —  a 
beautiful  and  noble  Roman,  but  steeped  in  lowest  vice  —  and  her 
equally  infamous  daughters,  Marozia  (Maria)  and  Theodora,  filled  the 
See  of  Peter  with  their  paramours,  their  sons,  and  grandsons,  who  sur- 
passed each  other  in  vileness  and  wickedness  of  every  kind  (the  so-called 
Poriiocracy) .  The  first  of  these  pontiffs  was  Sergius  III.  (904-911), 
the  paramour  of  Marozia.  He  was  succeeded  by  John  X.  (914—928), 
whom  the  elder  Theodora  summoned  from  his  see  at  Ravenna,  as  the 
distance  of  that  city  from  Rome  put  some  restraint  on  her  infamous 
connection  with  him.  John  successfully  resisted  the  inroads  of  the 
Saracens  in  Italy  (^  81),  and  after  the  death  of  Theodora  would  have 
put  an  end  to  the  infamous  rule  of  these  women  ;  but  Marozia  had  him 
cast  into  prison  and  smothered.  The  next  occupant  of  the  papal  chair 
was  John  XI.  (931),  the  son  of  Pope  Sergius  and  Marozia.  But  Alberic, 
his  brother,  deprived  this  pontiiF  and  his  successors  of  all  secular 
power  (ob.  954).  Octavianus,  the  son  of  Alberic,  and  the  most  disso- 
lute of  that  race,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  once  more  combined  the  spirit- 
ual and  secular  power.  He  was  the  first  pontiff  who  on  his  elevation 
to  the  Papal  See  changed  his  name,  adopting  that  of  John  XII.  (955- 
963). — Meanwhile  matters  had  progressed  beyond  measure  in  Germany. 
After  the  death  of  Louis  III.  (911),  the  last  of  the  Carlovingians,  the 
Frank  duke,  Conrad  I.  (911-18),  was  chosen  German  king.  Although 
vigorously  supported  by  the  higher  clergy  (the  Synod  of  Hohenaltheim, 
015,  which  invoked  all  the  terrors  of  hell  upon  insurgents),  his  con- 
flicts with  other  dukes  prevented  his  founding  a  united  German  empire. 
This  point  was  first  attained  under  his  successor,  Henry  I.  of  Saxony 
(919-36),  who,  disclaiming  the  politics  of  the  clergy,  granted  the  dukes 


o92     SECTION    II.  —  SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.   10—13  A.  D.). 

independence  in  the  government  of  their  respective  district--.    His  great 
son,  Otho  I.  (93G-73),  after  long  civil  wars,  reducing  the  power  of  the 
dukes,  conquering  and  converting  the  heathen  Danes,  Wends,  Bohe- 
mians, and  Hungarians,  decided  on  interference  in  the  French  dissen 
sions;  and,  gathering  around  him  energetic  German  clergy,  secured 
such  influence  as  no  Western  ruler  since  Charlemagne  had  enjoyed. — 
Pope  John  XII.  and  the  princes  of  Lombardy  invoked  the  aid  of  Otho  I., 
against  Berengar  II.     Otho  conquered  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  at 
( iandlemas,  692,  in  St.  Peter's,  was  crowned  by  the  pope  as  Roman  Em- 
peror —  a  dignity  which  had  been  extinct  for  thirty-eight  years  (962). 
Thus  was  the  holy  Roman  German  Empire  established — a  power  which 
for  centuries  continued  the  central  point  of  the  history  of  the  world 
and   the   Church.     But  Otho   had   hardly  left   Rome  before  the   Pope 
changed  sides,  and  entered  into  alliance  with  Berengar  for  the  purpose 
of  expelling  the  Germans.     Otho  hastened  to  Rome,  and  at  a  synod 
held  in  that  city  (963)  deposed  the  Pontiff,  as  guilty  of  incest,  perjury, 
blasphemy,  murder,  and  other  crimes,  and  made  the  Romans  swear 
over  the  relics  of  St.  Peter  that  they  would  never  again  elect  or  conse- 
crate a  pope,  without  obtaining  the  Emperor's  privilege  and  approba- 
tion.    Otho  suppressed  repeated  insurrections  of  the  Romans,  without 
difficulty.     After  his  death,  the  Tuscan  party,  under  Crescentius,  a  son 
of  John  XII.  by  the  younger  Theodora,  again  obtained  the  ascendency, 
and  was  only  temporarily  kept  in  check  by  Otho  II.  (973-983).    While 
in  Rome  itself  the  Papacy  was  thus  in  the  hands  of  an  unprincipled 
political   party,  its  spiritual   supremacy  was   seriously  threatened  in 
France.     In  987  Hugo  Capet  had  assumed  the  French  crown  ;  he  now 
appealed  to  Pope  John  XV.  (985-96)  to  remove  Arnulf,  Archbishop  of 
Rheims,  who  had  opened  the  gates  of  that  city  to  the  enemies  of  the 
new  monarch.     The  Pope  hesitated  ;  but  the  French  king  summoned 
a  synod  at  Rheims,  which  deposed  the  rebellious  prelate,  whose  place 
was  filled  by  Gerbert  (991),  the  most  learned  man  and  the  ablest  poli- 
tician of  his  age.     The  council,  at  the  same  time,  openly  avowed  the 
purpose  of  separating  the  entire  French  Church  from  Rome,  whose 
bishops  for  a  century  had  sunk  into  the  deepest  immoralities.    Gerbert 
presented  a  confession  of  faith,  which  rejected  celibacy  and  fasting, 
and  only  recognized  the  first  four  general  councils.     But  the  scheme 
failed,  less  in  consequence  of  the  rather  ineffectual  opposition  of  the 
Pope,  than  of  a  reaction  of  the  high-church  Cluniacensian  party,  and 
popular  feeling  excited  against  it  by  that  party.     Gerbert  could  not 
maintain   his  position,   and  was   heartily  glad   to   shake  the  dust  of 
Rheims  from  his  feet,  and  to  accept  an  honourable  call  of  Otho  III.  to 
become  his  classical  tutor  (997).     Robert,  the  successor  of  Hugo,  was 
weak  enough  to  abandon  Gerbcrt  and  to  restore  Arnulf  (996).     John 
XV.  called  in  the  aid  of  Otho  III.  (983-1002)  against  the  oppressions 
of  Crescentius,  but  died  before  the  arrival  of  the  Emperor  (996).     Otho 
directed  the  choice  upon  Bruno,  his  cousin,  who  assumed  the  nar.ie  of 


THE    PAPACY    AND    THE    GERMAN    EMPIRE.         393 

Gregory  V.  (99G-9),  the  first  German  pontiff.     This   excellent  prelate 
only  survived  to  999.     Gerbert,  who  had  lately  been  appointed  Arch- 
bishop of  Ravenna,  was  now  elected  through  the  influence  of  the  Em- 
peror.    He  ascended  the  chair  of  Peter  by  the  name  of  Sylvester  II. 
(999-1003).     In  Ravenna,  already,  Gerbert  had  adopted  high-church 
views,  and  as  pope  he  developed  a  degree  of  energy  which  made  him 
a  worthy  follower  of  Gregory  V.,  and  a  more  worthy  predecessor  of 
Gregory  VII.     He  especially  assailed  simony,  that  real  cancer  of  the 
Church,  and  by  sending  the  ring  and  staff  to  Arnulf,  he  made  the  first 
attempt  at  securing  for  the  papacy  the  right  of  investiture.     As  Otho's 
tutor  he  had  flattered  the  young  prince's  vanity,  by  inspiring  him  with 
the  idea  of  reviving  the  ancient  glory  of  Rome,  and  becoming  a  uni- 
versal Emperor.     This  led  Otho  to  raise  Gerbert  to  the  papal  chair. 
But  now  Gerbert  endeavoured  by  various  crafty  measures  to  evade  the 
scheme.     The  phantom  of  a  renovatio  imperii  Romani  was  actualized 
by  introducing  the  mummery  of  the  ceremonies  and  grand  titles  of  the 
Byzantine  Court.     Upon  the  occasion  of  a  pilgrimage  to  the  tomb  of 
his  friend,  St.  Adalbert,  in  Gnesen  (§  93,  3),  the  Emperor  emancipated 
the  Polish  Church,  by  elevating  the  see  there  to  an   archbishopric. 
He  also  released  Boleslav  Chrobry  (|  93,  3),  the  most  dangerous  foe  of 
Germany,  from  vassalage  to  the  German  Empire,  and  incorporating 
him  in  his  imaginary  universal  dominion,  called  him  "A  friend  and 
confederate  of  the  Romish  nation"  (1000).     In  the  same  year  Sylvester 
bestowed,  in  the  exercise  of  papal  authority,  the  crown  on  St.  Stephen 
of  Hungary,  and  appointed  him,  on  the  annual  payment  of  a  feudal 
tax,  papal  vicar,  with  full  power  in  ecclesiastical  affairs  over  his  coun- 
try, which,  by  forming  a  separate  metropolitinate  at  Gran,  he  wrested 
from  its  ecclesiastical  subjection  to  Passau  and  Salzburg.     Thus  Otho 
allowed  himself  to  be  tied  to  the  hierarchical  leading-strings  of  his  papal 
friend  ;  although,  on  one  occasion,  when  the  Pope  had  obtained  the 
gift  of  eight  manors  in  the  Roman  territory,  Otho  reminded  him  that 
it  was  a  free  gift  of  imperial  grace,  and  unsparingly  chastised  the 
extravagance  and  covetousness  of  the  popes,  and  pronounced  the  grant 
of  Constantine  a  fraudulent  fable.     His  Germans,  and  especially  the 
German  clergy,  were  alienated  by  his  anti-national  course.     The  Ger- 
man princes  charged  him  with  treason  against  the  German  Empire. 
Soon  all  Italy,  with  spoiled  Rome  at  its  head,  was  in  open  rebellion. 
But  an  early  death,  in  his  twenty-second  year  (1002)  rescued  the  un- 
happy youth  from  extreme  humiliation.     The  Pope's  lucky  star  also 
set.     He  died  1003.     According  to  popular  belief,  he  had  practised  the 
black  art,  and  was  indebted  for  his  learning  and  the  success  of  his 
hierarchical  measures  to  his  league  with  the  devil. 

2.  To  the  Synod  of  Sutri  ( 1003-1 040).  —  (Cf.  /.  G.  H.  Stenzel,  Gesch. 
Deutschl.  unter  d.  frank.  Kaisern,  2  Bde.  Lpz.  1827.  —  C.  Hqfler,  d. 
Deutsche  Papste.  2  Bde.  Regeusb.  1839).  —  After  the  death  of  Otho 
III.,  Henri/  II.  (1002-24),  Duke  of  Bavavia,  a  great-grandson  of  Henry 


394     SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.    10—13    A.  D.). 

I.,  and  the  last  offshoot  of  the  house  of  Saxony,  attained  to  the  German 
throne,  one  of  the  best  rulers  who  ever  occupied  it.  Neither  a  bigoted  zealo* 
nor  a  slave  of  the  priests,  and  yet  truly  pious  in  the  spirit  of  his  age; 
strictly  churchly,  and  looking  to  his  bishops  as  the  props  of  his  empire 
against  all  revolutionary  tendencies  of  temporal  princes,  no  German 
emperor  ever  ruled  the  Church  as  he  did,  none  ever  so  ventured  to  cut 
away  the  excrescences  which  clung  to  her,  or  so  thoroughly  to  reform 
her  abuses.     In  Rome,  on  the  contrary,  after  the  death  of  Otho  III., 
John   Crescentius,  son  of  Crescentius  II.,  who  had  been  beheaded  by 
Otho's  orders,  made  himself  sole  ruler  of  the  city,  and  placed  his  own 
creatures  on  Peter's  chair.     But  when  he,  and  the  pope  he  had  last 
appointed,  both  died,  in  1012,  the  long-oppressed  Tusculan  party  arose 
and  chose  a  scion  of  that  family,  Benedict  VIII.  (1012-24),  as  pope. 
Gregory,  whom  the  Crescentians  had  elevated,  was  compelled  to  flee, 
lie  sought  aid  of  Henry  II.     But  Henry  preferred  the  more  mighty 
and  noble  Benedict,  had  himself  crowned  by  him  (1014),  and  thence- 
forth continued  on  the  best  of  terms  with  him.     Both  the  emperor  and 
pope  maintained  friendly  relations  with  the  monks  of  Clngny,  both 
acknowledged  the  need  of  a  thorough  reformation  in  the  Church,  and 
both  were  every  way  well  qualified  to  effect  it.     But  Benedict  was  so 
occupied  with  vanquishing  the  Crescentians,  and  then  the  Greeks  and 
Saracens  in  Italy,  and  Henry  so  engaged  with  the  suppression  of  the 
internal  and  external  dissensions  of  his  empire,  that  they  could  not 
devise  the  desired  measures  until  near  the  end  of  their  life.     The  pope 
took  the  lead;  at  the  Synod  of  Pavia  (1018),  he  excommunicated  all 
priests  having  wives  and  concubines,  and  condemned  their  children  to 
servitude.     The  emperor  had  still  larger  schemes:  he  wished  to  call  a 
general  Western  council  at  Pavia,  and  there  reform  the  entire  Western 
Church.     But  Benedict's  death,  and  that  of  Henry,  a  few  months  later 
(1024),  frustrated  these  plans.     Henry  II.   left  no    issue.     After  his 
death,    Conrad  II.   (1024-39),   ascended  the  throne;  he  founded  the 
Frankish  or  Salic  house.     He  was  an  energetic,  and  in  his  way,  pious 
ruler,  who,  however,  lacked  all  deep  views  of  the  evils  of  the  Church, 
or  of  the  means  necessary  to  correct  them.     The  empire  was  greatly 
strengthened  and  extended  by  him,  but  the  reformatory  plans  of  his 
predecessor  were  wholly  disregarded  by  him.     Still  less  did  the  co- 
temporary  popes  attempt  any  thing  in  this  direction.     Benedict   VIII. 
was  followed  by  his  brother  Romanus,  as  John  XIX.  (1024-33),  who 
utterly  lacked  his  brother's  qualities   (Cf.  §07,   2).     When   he  died, 
Count  Alberich  of  Tusculum  persuaded  the  Romans,  by  bribes  and 
promises,  to  elect  his  son  Theophylact,  but  ten  years  old,  yet  an  adept 
in  the  most  scandalous  vices  ;  he  called  himself  Benedict  IX.  (1033-48), 
and  dishonoured  the  chair  of  St.  Peter  witli  the  most  vile  profligacy. 
Not  until  Henry  TIL,  Conrad's  son   (1039-50),  interfered,  did   matters 
improve.     He  aimed  at  establishing  a  universal  monarchy,  after  the 
idea  of  Charlemagne,  and  came  nearer  attaining  this  object  than  any 


THE     PAPACY     AND     TIIE     GERMAN     EMPIRE.  395 

other  German  emperor  ;  at  the  same  time  he  was  animated  with  a  strong 
desire  to  have  the  Church  reformed.  Benedict  IX.  was  expelled  the 
second  time  by  the  Romans,  in  1044.  They  sold  the  tiara  to  Sylvester 
III.,  whom,  however,  Benedict  drove  off  three  months  afterwards. 
Benedict  now  conceived  the  mad  fancy  of  marrying  as  Pope  ;  but  the 
father  of  his  chosen  bride  refused  his  assent.  Then  Benedict  sold  the 
papal  chair  to  the  archdeacon,  JohnGralian,  for  1000  pounds  of  silver. 
He,  though  a  pious,  unassuming  man,  subjected  himself  (by  advice  of 
his  Cluniacensian  friends,  among  whom  was  a  young  Roman  monk, 
Hildebrand,  the  son  of  a  blacksmith  at  Saona,  who  had  then  already 
distinguished  himself),  to  the  scandal  of  simony,  in  order  to  rescue  the 
papal  chair  from  ruin.  He  assumed  the  name  of  Gregory  VI.  (1045- 
46).  But  he  lacked  strength  for  his  onerous  task.  Benedict,  whose 
marriage  scheme  failed,  again  set  up  as  pope ;  likewise  Sylvester. 
Rome  had  three  popes  at  once,  and  all  notorious  simonists.  The 
Cluniacensian  party  abandoned  Gregory,  and  invoked  the  intervention 
of  the  German  king.  Henry  came,  and  at  the  Synod  of  Sutri  (1046), 
caused  all  three  popes  to  be  deposed  as  simonists.  The  Romans 
allowed  him  to  choose  a  successor.  He  selected  Bishop  Suidger  of 
Bamberg,  who  took  the  title  of  Clement  II.  (1046-47),  and  crowned  the 
king  emperor  on  Christmas  (1046).  The  Romans  were  so  overjoyed 
at  the  restoration  of  order  in  the  city,  that  they  conferred  upon  the 
emperor  the  patriciate,  and  the  right,  perpetually,  of  chosing  the  pope, 
and  swore  that  they  would  never  consecrate  a  pope  without  the 
emperor's  consent.  Henry  took  the  ex-pope,  Gregory,  to  Germany, 
where  he  died  in  Cologne.  Hildebrand,  his  chaplain,  attended  him  to 
the  last,  and  soon  after  his  death  entered  the  Clugny  monastery. 

3.  To  Gregory  VII.  (1046-73).  —  (Cf.  Hofler  and  Stenzel,  11.  cc.-X 
F.  Gaab,  Apologie  Gregor's  VII.  Tiibg.  1792.—/.  Voigt,  Hildebr.  als 
Gr.  VII.  u.  s.  Zeit,  2.  A.  Weimar,  1846.  —  G.  Cassander,  d.  Zeitalter 
Hildebr.  fur.  u.  wider  ihn.  Darmst,  1842.—/.  M.  Sbltt,  Greg.  VII.  Lpz. 
1847. — /.  Helfenstein,  Gregor's  VII.  Bestrebungen  nach  d.  Streitschfrr. 
s.  Zeit.  Frankf.  1856.  —  A.  F.  Gfrorer,  P.  Greg.  VII.  u.  s.  Zeitalt, 
Schaffh.  1859.  Bd.  I.—  /.  M.  Sold,  Heinr.  IV.  Miinch.  1823.— H.  Floto, 
Heinr.  IV.  u.  s.  Zeitalt.  2  Bde.  Stuttg.  1855  etc. — B.  A.  Lipsius,  zur 
Gesch.  Gr.  VII.  In  the  hist,  theol.  Ztschr.  1859,  II.)  —  Clement  II. 
was  the  first  of  a  long  series  of  able  German  Popes.  They  were  chosen 
by  Henry  III.,  and  under  his  protection  laboured  energetically  and 
effectually  at  reforming  the  Church.  All  the  reformatory  spirits  of 
that  age,  whether  disciples  of  Clugny,  pupils  of  Romuald,  or  hermits 
of  Vallambrosa  ($  97,  1),  acknowledged  simony  (or  the  procuring  of 
ecclesiastical  offices  by  purchase  and  bribery,  Acts  8  :  19),  and  Nico- 
laitanism  (§  19),  which  term  designated  all  the  carnal  sins  of  the 
clergy,  including  marriage  and  concubinage,  as  well  as  unnatural 
lecheries,  —  as  the  root  of  all  prevailing  evils  ;  and  loth  these  were  so 
common,   especially  in  Italy,  that  scarcely  an  ecclesiastic  could  tx» 


396     SECTION    II. — SECOND   PERIOD    (C  E  \  T.  10— 13  A.  D.). 

found  who  was  not  guilty  of  them.      Clement  II.  opened,  in  the  empe- 
ror's presence,  at  a  synod  in  Rome  (1047),  the  attack  on  simony.     But 
he  died  (possibly  of  poison)  before  the  end  of  a  year.     Whilst  Roman 
ambassadors  were  seeking  a  new  pope  at  the  German  court,  Benedict 
IX.,  supported  by  the  Tusculan  party,  resumed  the  papacy,  and  Henry 
had  to  use  severe  threats  before  his  choice,  Bishop  Poppo  of  Brixcn, 
could  ascend  the  papal  throne  as  Damasus  II.     In  twenty-three  days 
he  was  a  corpse.     This  fatality  cooled  the  ambition  of  German  bishops 
to  obtain  the  tiara.     After  long  resistance,  Bishop  Bruno  of  Toul,  the 
emperor's  cousin,  and  Clugny's  zealous  friend,   accepted  the  appoint- 
ment, but  only  on  condition  that  the  people  and  clergy  of  Rome  should 
assent  to  his  choice,  by  a  canonical  election.     At  Besan^on  he  met 
with  Ilildebrand,  who,  at  his  request,  joined  him,  and  induced  him  to 
lay  aside  his  papal  insignia,  and  proceed  to  Rome  in  the  garb  of  a 
pilgrim.     Bruno    entered  the  Eternal  City  barefoot,  and   once   mora 
elected  by  the  clergy  and  people,   ascended   the   throne  as  Leo  IX. 
(1048-54).    He  found  the  treasury  utterly  empty,  and  all  the  revenues 
from    estates   seized   by  the  nobility.     But  Ilildebrand   became    his 
treasurer,  and  soon  improved  the  finances  of  the  pope  and  his  retinue. 
Leo  displayed  unexampled  activity  for  the  reform  of  the  Church  and 
the  elevation  of  the  papacy.     No  pope  travelled  about  so  much  as  he, 
none  held  so  many  synods  at  different  places.     At  all  these  the  extir- 
pation  of  simony  was  the  burden  of  their  decisions.     Gratitude,  con- 
sanguinity,   and    inseparable    common    interests,    bound    him    to    the 
German   emperor.     He  could,  therefore,  not  yet  have  thought  of  an 
emancipation  of  the  papacy  from  imperial  supremacy.     But  in  France 
(Council  of  Rheims,  1049),  he  confirmed  the  Pseudoisidore  decretal,  and 
demanded  of  the  Greek  emperor  the  restitution  of  Constantine's  grant. 
In  the  war  with  the  excommunicated  Normans  in  South  Italy,  his  army 
was  routed,  and  he  was  taken  prisoner  (1053).     But  as  soon  as  he 
released  them  from  the  ban  they  kissed  his  feet  most  devoutly.     On 
the  other  hand  his  ambassadors  in  Constantinople  completed  the  schism 
between  the  Eastern  and  Western   Church  (§67,  3).  —  After  Leo's 
death,  Hildebrand's  friends  desired  him  to  wear  the  papal  robes;  but 
he   refused.     The   Church   had   not  yet  acquired   sufficient  power   to 
endure   the   deadly  conflict  with   imperial   supremacy.     He  therefore 
went  at  the  head  of  an  embassy  which  solicited  the  emperor  to  appoint 
a  new  pope.    Ilildebrand  had  fixed  upon  Bishop  Gebhard  of  Eichstadt, 
who  enjoyed  the  full  confidence  of  the  emperor,  and  Mas  his  ablest 
counsellor,  and  he  did  not  rest  until  he  had  overcome  Henry's  and 
then  the  bishop's  objections.     It  was  a  masterpiece  of  Cluniacensian 
policy;  for  thus  the  opposite  party  in  Germany  lost  its  ablest  leader, 
ami  Rome  obtained  a  competent  pope.     At  length  Gebhard  yielded  to 
the  plea  of  the  emperor  with  the  declaration :   "Well!    [  yield  myself 
soul  and   body  to  St.  Peter,  but  only  on  condition  that  you  likewise 
restore  to  him  what  belongs  to  him."     The  emperor  consented  to  a 


THE    PAPACY    AND    THE    GERMAN    EMPIRE.  397 

supplementary  election  in  Rome,  and  pledged  himself  to  restore  in 
full  the  patrimony  of  St.  Peter.  Gebhard  took  the  title  of  Victor  II. 
(1055-57).  Henry  kept  his  -word  ;  he  restored  the  papal  territories  in 
the  widest  sense,  and,  besides,  transferred  to  the  pope  the  governor- 
ship of  all  Italy.  Henry  died  in  1056,  having  first  conveyed  the 
regency  to  his  wife  Agnes,  and  earnestly  recommended  her  to  the 
counsel  and  support  of  the  pope,  then  present.  But  Victor,  likewise, 
died  in  1057.  Hildebraud  could  not  boast  of  having  ruled  over  him, 
influential  as  his  position  was  under  Victor's  reign. 

After  Victor's  death,  the  cardinals,  regardless  of  the  imperial  pre- 
rogative, forthwith  elected  Cardinal  Frederick  of  Lorraine,  then  abbot 
of  Monte-Cassino,  and  Hildebraud  went  to  Germany  to  obtain  the 
approbation  of  the  empress.  StephenlX.  (1057-58)  as  Frederick  called 
himself,  died  before  Hildebrand's  return.  During  his  absence  the 
Tusculan  party  elevated  a  pope  after  their  own  mind,  Benedict  X. 
(1058.)  But  an  embassy  of  Hildebrand  to  the  empress  procured 
the  selection  of  Bishop  Gerhard  of  Florence  as  the  successor  of  Peter. 
Benedict  had  to  flee,  and  Gerhard,  under  the  name  of  Nicholas  II. 
(1058-61)  ascended  the  papal  chair.  Then  Hildebrand's  greatness 
began  to  shine  forth  in  its  full  brightness ;  he  became,  until  his  own 
elevation,  the  ruling  spirit  of  the  Roman  court.  In  spite  of  obstacles, 
he  raised  the  papacy  and  Church  to  unprecedented  power  and  glory. 
He  advanced  systematically,  ever  more  boldly  and  irresistibly,  toward 
a  total  reformation  of  the  Church.  The  freedom  of  the  Church  from  the 
arbitrariness  and  power  of  the  State ;  independence,  in  the  election  of 
popes,  of  all  temporal  influences;  the  extermination  of  simony  ;  fearless 
severity  against  the  immorality  of  the  clergy;  the  enforcement  of 
celibacy  as  the  most  efficient  means  of  emancipating  the  clergy  from  the 
power  of  the  world  and  the  State ;  and  the  appointment  of  the  best  men 
to  the  respective  offices,  were  the  lever  of  this  reformation.  The  indis- 
pensable temporal  support  iu  these  measures  Hildebrand  sought  among 
the  Normans.  Hence  Nicholas  II.  early  applied  to  them;  released 
them  of  the  ban  under  which  they  had  rested  since  Stephen's  time; 
on  the  ground  of  Constantine's  grant,  invested  their  leader,  Robert 
Guiscard  (|  95,  1)  with  the  dominion  over  Apuleia,  Calabria,  and 
Sicily  (not  yet  wrested  from  the  Saracens) ;  took  from  him  an  oath  of 
vassalage,  by  which  he  bound  himself  to  pay  an  annual  tribute,  to 
protect  the  papal  chair  against  every  invasion  of  its  rights,  and  above 
all  to  maintain  the  papal  elections  of  the  "  meliores  cardinales."  After 
Nicholas,  aided  by  the  Normans,  had  overthrown  the  last  citadels  of 
the  Tusculan  counts,  he  issued  a  decree,  at  a  Lateran  Council  in  Rome 
(1059),  according  to  which  the  election  of  popes  was  thenceforth  to  be 
made  by  the  cardinals  alone,  and  then  recognized  by  the  clergy  and 
people,  yet  salvo  debito  honore  et  reverentia  dilecti  Jilii  nostri  Heinrici, 
qui  improisentiarum  rex  habetur,  et  futurus  imperator  Deo  concedente 
speralur,  shut  jam  sibi  concessimus  et  successoribus  illius,  qui  ab  apos- 
34 


398     SECTION    ir. SECOND    period   (cent.  10—13   A.  D.). 

tulica   sede  personaliter  hoc  jus  impetraverint. — This  decree,  and  no  less 
the    league  with    the  Normans,  was  a  public  insult  to  the  imperial 
rights    over  Italy  and  the  papal  chair.     The  empress,  therefore,  sum- 
moned a  council  of  German  bishops,  about  Easter,  1061,  at  which  a 
sentence  of  condemnation  was  passed  upon  Nicholas,  and  all  his  regu- 
lations were  annulled.    The  pope  soon  after  died.    The  Tusculan  party 
now  united  with  the  Germans,  under  the  Lombard  Chancellor  Wibert, 
requested  the  empress  to  furnish  a  new  pope.    At  the  Council  of  Basel 
(1001).  Bishop   Cadalus  of  Parma  was  appointed.     He  assumed  the 
title  of  Honorius  II.    (10(31-72).     But   Ilildebrand   had.   four  weeks 
before,  by  agreement  with  Beatrix  of  Canossa,  caused  Bishop  Anselm 
of  Lucca  to   be   elected   by  the  cardinals,  and  consecrated   as   Alex- 
ander II.    (1061—73)     Honorius,   led   by  Wibert,  went  to  Rome  and 
repeatedly  vanquished  the  party  of  his  opponent  in  bloody  conflicts. 
Duke  Godfrey  the  Bearded,  of  Lorraine,  the  husband  of  Beatrix,  now 
interfered  as  mediator.    lie  induced  both  popes  to  return  to  their  Sees, 
and  submit  their  controversy  to  the  decision  of  the  empress.     Mean- 
while, matters  in  Germany  were   tending  toward   a  most  pernicious 
catastrophe.    Archbishop  Anno  of  Cologne,  at  the  head  of  a  conspiracy 
of  princes,  allured  the  young  king,  then  twelve  years  old,  at  Kaisers- 
werth,  on  a  Rhine  vessel,  and  carried  him  off  to  Cologne  (10G2).     He 
now  secured   the   guardianship   of  the   royal  youth,  and  with   it  the 
government  of  the  empire.     A  Council  at  Augsburg  (1062)  deposed 
Honorius,  and  acknowledged  Alexander  as  the  legitimate  pope.     But 
Honorius  by  no  means  yielded  his  claims.     With   a  small  army  he 
marched  upon  Rome  (1064),  seized  the  Leonine  city,  fortified  himself 
in  St.  Angelo  castle,  and  repeatedly  routed  the  troops  of  his  opponent. 
But  Ilildebrand  reminded  the  Normans  of  their  oath.     The}7  therefore 
came,  and  for  two  years  besieged  the  anti-pope  in  St.  Angelo,  when 
he  escaped  by  flight.     At  the   Council  of  Mantua  (1067),  Alexander 
was  again  acknowledged,  and  Honorius,  who  tried  in  vain  to  split  the 
council  by  martial  force,  once  more  deposed.     After  that  he  sank  into 
obscurity,  and  died  forsaken  in  1072.    Meanwhile  the  proud,  ambitious 
priest  of  Cologne  had  to  surrender  the  training  of  the  young  king, 
Henri/  IV.  (1056-1106),  to  his  Northern  colleague,  Archbishop  Adalbert 
of  Bremen;  and  if  the  former,  by  his  excessive  severity,  had  exerted 
an  unhappy  influence  upon  the  royal  youth,  the  latter  spoiled  him  by 
excessive  leniency.     In  order  to  put  a  check  upon  his  debaucheries, 
Anno  persuaded  him  to  marry  the  Marchioness  Bertha.     Ere  long  he 
endeavoured  to  obtain  a  divorce,  but  his  attempt  was  frustrated  by 
the  opposition  of  the  papal  legate  Damiani,  at  the  Diet  of  Worms  (1069). 
This  was  Henry's  first  conflict  with  the  papacy.     Soon  afterwards  the 
Saxons  complained  to  the  pope  of  bis  extreme  oppression   of  his  sub- 
jects, and  making  merchandise  of  all  the  offices  of  the  Church.     Alex- 
aiiiler  II  had  the  unprecedented  boldness  to  cite  him  to  Rome.     The 
pope  died  soon  after,  and  escaped  Henry's  wrath,  and  the  matter  ended 


THE    PAPACY    AND    THE    GERMAN    EMPIRE.  399 

4.   Gregory  VII.  (1073-85). — (For  sources  see  the  preceding  section.) 
—  Hildebrand  had  now  sufficiently  strengthened  the  papacy,  and  no 
longer  hesitated  to  complete,  in  his  own  name,  the  work  which  he  had 
so  auspiciously  begun.     He  ascended  the  chair  of  Peter  by  the  name 
of  Gregory  VII.,  and  intimated  his  appointment  to  Henry  IV.  in  a 
letter  so  humble  and  conciliatory  as  to  procure  the  emperor's  con- 
firmation.    At  a  synod  held  in  Borne  in   1074,  he  re-enacted  the  old 
stringent  laws  of  celibacy;  declared  all  priests  who  lived  in  wedlock, 
or   had  obtained  their   offices  by   simony,    to   be  deposed,    and   their 
priestly  functions  invalid.     The    lower   clergy,   who  were   generally 
married,    violently  opposed   this   measure  ;    but  Gregory   carried   the 
point  (comp.  \  97,  2).     Papal  legates  visited  every  country,  and,  sup 
ported  by  the  popular  voice,  carried  the  order  of  the  Pope  into  exe 
cution.     At  another   synod   held   in  Rome   (1075),   the   real   contest 
against  simony  and  the  practice  of  receiving  investiture  from  secular 
lords  was  commenced.     Any  ecclesiastic  who  in  future  should  accept 
office  from  the  hands  of  a  layman  was  to  be  deposed,  and  the  secular 
lord  who  bestowed  investiture  to  be  excommunicated.    This  threat  was 
first  put  in  execution  in  the  case  of  Henry's  personal  advisers,  who 
had  been  guilty  of  the  most  shameless  simony.     The  emperor,  at  the 
time  fully  engaged  with  suppressing  a  revolt  of  the  Saxons,  concealed 
his  anger,  and  dismissed  his  advisers.     They  were,  however,  restored 
at  the  close  of  the  war,  and  the  former  simony,  spoliation  of  churches, 
and  oppression  recommenced.     Meantime  Gregory  himself  met  with 
opposition   in    Italy.      Cencius,   the   leader   of  that  party   among  the 
nobles  which  was  opposed  to  reform,  attacked  the  pope   in   church 
during  the  celebration  of  the  Christmas  festivities    (1075)  ;    but  the 
Romans  set  him  free,  and  Cencius  had  to  fly.     A  papal  embassy  was 
now  (107G)  despatched  to  the  court  at  Goslar,  to  cite  the  emperor  to 
appear  personally  at  Rome  under  pain  of  excommunication.     Henry 
no  longer  restrained  his  indignation  ;  he  insulted  the  legates,  and  at  a 
synod  held  at  Worms  in  1076  had  the  pope  deposed,  on  the  charges  of 
tyranny,  magic,  and  adultery.     Gregory  replied  by  excommunicating 
all  the  bishops  who  had  taken  part  in  the  synod,  and  by  solemnly 
deposing  and  excommunicating  the  emperor,  at  the  same  time  freeing 
his  subjects  from  their  oath  of  allegiance.     The  papal  ban  made  a 
deep    impression   on   the   people    and    princes    of  Germany,    and   the 
prelates  submitted  one  after  the  other.     At  a  diet  held  at  Tribur  the 
election  of  a  new  emperor  was  even  discussed,  when  the  weak  monarch, 
as  much  dismayed  as  formerly  he  had  been  obstinate  and  imperious, 
resolved  upon  humbling  himself  to  the  utmost.     Indeed,  such  a  step 
had  now  become  necessary,  and  took  not  the  pope  by  surprise,  although 
it  disconcerted  his  plans.  — In  the  cold  winter  of  1077,  from  the  25th 
to  the  27th  January,  the  emperor  stood  barefoot  in  the  garb  of  a 
penitent,  and   fasting  the  whole  day,  in  the  court  of  the  castle  of 
Cauossa,  belonging  to  the  Countess  Matilda,  whom  Gregory  was  at  the 


400    SECTION    II. — SECOND    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.    10— 13  A.  D.) 

time  visiting.  At  length  the  pope  consented  to  give  him  absolution, 
but  only  on  condition  of  his  not  assuming  the  royal  dignity  till  his 
cause  had  been  investigated  and  decided.  But  Henry  immediately 
broke  his  promise,  and  accepted  the  proffered  aid  of  the  Lombards. 
Gregory  again  hurled  his  anathema,  pope  and  emperor  deposed  each 
other,  and  both  parties  set  up  antagonists.  The  armies  of  Henry  were 
successful.  Rudolf  of  Sioabia,  his  opponent  in  the  empire,  died  soon 
after  the  battle  of  Merseburg  (1080),  and  Henry  escorted  the  anti- 
pope,  Clement  III.,  to  Italy.  Rome  was  taken;  but  still  Gregory 
refused  all  overtures  of  peace,  and  shut  himself  up  in  the  castle  of  St. 
Angelo,  till  the  Norman  duke,  Robert  Guiscard,  restored  him  to  liberty 
in  1084.     Gregory  died  the  following  year  at  Salerno  (1085). 

Gregory  VII.  also  came  in  conflict  with  King  Philip  I.  of  France, 
and  threatened  him  with  an  interdict  and  with  deposition  for  his  simony. 
But  the  result  of  this  attempt  was  compa.-atively  trifling.  Philip 
apparently  obeyed  the  command  of  the  Pope,  but  did  not  change  his 
course,  and  Gregory  thought  it  prudent  not  to  press  the  matter.  Still 
more  cautiously  did  he  act  towards  William  the  Conqueror,  of  England, 
although  William  tyrannized  with  an  iron  grasp  over  the  Church  of 
his  realm,  and  was  scarcely  less  guilty  of  simony  than  the  Kings  of 
Germany  and  France.  But  the  Pope,  who  hoped  to  engage  William  in 
a  war  against  Henry  IV.,  and  who  even  excited  expectations  of  obtain- 
ing the  imperial  crown,  closed  his  eyes  against  William's  faults,  and 
overloaded  him  with  favours.  The  primate  of  England,  also,  Lanfranc 
of  Canterbury,  who  was  displeased  with  the  Pope  for  protecting  the 
heretic  Berengar  (?102,  2),  showed  no  special  zeal  on  behalf  of  the 
reforms  desired  by  the  Pope.  Indeed  at  a  Synod  at  Winchester 
(1076),  the  law  of  celibacy  was  defeated,  though  with  the  restriction 
that  the  secular  clergy  should  no  longer  be  allowed  to  marry,  but 
priests  then  married  were  not  required  to  dismiss  their  wives. 

It  was  the  great  object  of  Hildebrand's  life  to  form  a  universal 
theocracy,  of  which  the  Pope,  as  vicar  of  Christ  upon  earth,  and  hence 
as  possessing  supreme  power,  should  be  the  visible  head.  Not  that 
the  royal  power  was  to  be  abrogated,  or  its  independence  limited  ;  it 
was  an  institution  of  God,  but  its  province  extended  only  to  secular 
matters,  and  any  invasion  of  spiritual  rights  was  to  be  corrected  and 
punished  by  the  Pope.  In  this  grand  papal  theocracy,  which  itself 
was  subject  only  to  God  and  His  law,  all  Christian  states  were  to  be 
joined  together  as  members  of  one  body.  It  was  the  spiritual  power 
which  consecrated  and  bestowed  divine  sanction  upon  secular  rulers ; 
they  reigned  by  the  grace  of  God,  but  mediately,  not  immediately  — 
the  Church  being  the  medium  between  them  and  God.  The  Pope  was 
supreme  arbiter  and  lord  over  them,  to  whose  decisions  they  were  im- 
plicitly to  submit,  The  relation  between  royalty  and  the  Papacy  was 
similar  to  that  of  the  moon  to  the  sun,  receiving  from  the  latter 
light  and  heat.     As  the  Church  gave  its  divine  authority   to  secular 


THE    PAPACY    AND    THE    GERMAN    EMPIRE.         401 

rule,  it  might  again  withdraw  it  where  power  was  abused,  and  in  such 
cases  subjects  were  absolved  from  their  allegiance. — Admitting  that 
this  system  was  not  consonant  with  the  Gospel,  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  during  this  period  of  transition  it  formed  a  necessary  counterpoise 
to  the  arbitrary  and  despotic  interferences  on  the  part  of  the  secular 
power.  Gregory,  and  with  him  the  ablest  men  of  his  age,  considered 
that  in  this  system  alone  lay  the  salvation  of  society,  the  sole  and  true 
preservation  both  of  Church  and  State,  of  princes  and  peoples.  And 
in  a  certain  sense  they  were  right.  If  the  Church  was  to  accomplish 
its  great  mission  in  the  training  of  those  nations  on  whom  the  future 
devolved,  if  it  was  not  to  perish  amidst  the  barbarism  of  that  period, 
it  must  have  been  concentrated  and  secured  in  a  power  such  as,  ac- 
cording to  Gregory,  the  Papacy  was  intended  to  establish.  —  It  was 
not  to  place  his  own  individuality  on  the  summit  of  human  authority, 
but  to  preserve  the  Church  from  imminent  destruction,  that  Gregory 
undertook  his  gigantic  woi'k.  Not  vulgar  love  of  power  nor  vain 
ambition  animated  him,  but  the  idea  of  the  high  destiny  of  the  Church, 
to  which  he  devoted  his  life  with  enthusiastic  ardour.  In  such  a 
service  only  would  he  have  spent  his  high  intellectual  and  moral 
powers.  True,  a  strong  individuality  supported  him  in  his  struggles, 
but  at  the  same  time  he  always  preserved  the  consciousness  of  being  a 
poor  sinner,  who  could  find  mercy  only  through  the  merits  of  the 
Saviour.  Occasionally,  indeed,  his  energy  degenerated  into  passionate 
obstinacy,  and  his  enthusiastic  devotedness  to  the  interests  of  the 
Church  led  him  to  forget  what  by  Divine  appointment  was  the  pro- 
vince and  authority  of  the  State ;  but  these  exaggerations  were  pro- 
voked by  the  determined  perversity  with  which  he  was  met.  Even  his 
bitterest  enemies  could  not  impugn  the  strict  morality  of  his  conduct. 
However  strict  and  unbending  in  matters  which  he  deemed  true  or 
necessary,  he  displayed  at  the  same  time,  not  unfrequently,  a  kindli- 
ness and  liberality  far  in  advance  of  his  age,  as,  for  example,  in  the 
dispute  of  Berengar  (g  102,  2),  and  in  his  decided  opposition  to  the 
belief  in  witchcraft  and  magic,  common  at  that  period. 

5.  To  the  Settlement  of  the  Dispute  about  Investiture  (1085-1123) — ■ 
(cf.  E.  Garvais,  polit.  Gesch.  Deutchl.  unter.  Heinr.  V  n.  Lothar  III. 
2  Bde.  Lpz.  1841,  2.)  —  The  immediate  successors  of  Hildebrand  had 
been  trained  in  his  views,  and  adopted  his  policy.  The  contest  between 
the  imperial  and  papal  parties  still  continued.  Urban  II.  (1088-1099), 
the  second  in  the  See  of  Peter  after  Gregory,  was  indeed  obliged  to 
vacate  Home  in  favour  of  Clement  III.,  the  imperial  anti-Pope  ;  but  the 
enthusiasm  for  the  deliverance  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  excited  by  Peter  of 
Amiens,  and  with  which  at  the  Council  of  Claremont  (1095)  the  Pope 
inspired  Western  Christendom,  gave  him  the  greatest  influence  among 
his  cotemporaries.  An  army  of  crusaders  chased  the  anti-Pope  from 
Rome  ;  and  Urban  was  able  to  resist  successfully  the  opposition  of  Philip 
J.  of  France,  whom  he  had  excommunicated  at  Clermont  on  account  of 
34* 


402     SECTION    II.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (CENT.  10—13  A.D.J. 

nis  adulterous  connection  -with  Bertrada.     Tidings  of  the  conquest  of  J& 
rusaiem  (1099)  reached  the  Pope  on  his  death-bed.     He  was  succeeded 
by   Paschal  II.  (1099-1118),  who  also  had  been  trained  at  Clugny. 
This  pontiff  completely  humbled  Henry  IV.  by  supporting  the  cause 
of  his    rebellious    son.     But   no    sooner    had    Henry    V.    ( HOG— lll_-3) 
attained  the  object  of  his  ambition,  than  the  dispute  about  investiture 
commenced  anew.     The  Pope,  choosing  to  see  the  Church  poor  rather 
than  in  bondage,  was  obliged  to  conclude  a  treaty  by  which  the  right 
of  investiture  was  conceded  to  the  Church,  on  condition  that  all  ecclesi- 
astical fiefs  obtained  since  the  time  of  Charlemagne  should  be  restored 
to  the  State  (1110).     The  bishops  and  abbots,  however,  resisted  this 
agreement,  and    rendered  its    fulfilment  impossible.     Henry  took  the 
Pope  prisoner,  and  obliged  him  to  make  a  new  treaty,  by  which  the 
investiture  of  bishops  with    ring    and    staff  (the  symbols  of  priestly 
authority)   before  consecration  was  formally  acknowledged  as  a  right 
belonging  to  the  Emperor.     But  at  a  synod  held  at  Borne  (1112)  the 
party  of  Ilildebrand   called   the  Pope   to   account.     His   concessions 
were  declared  invalid,  and  the  Emperor  excommunicated.     The  dispute 
now  broke  out  afresh.     Henry  took  Rome,  and  the  Pope  died  in  exile. 
At  last  the  controversy  terminated,  so  far  as  Germany  was  concerned, 
by  mutual  concessions  under   the   pontificate  of   Calixtus  II.  (11 19— 
1124).     Tue  Concordat  of  Worms  (1122)  settled  that  all  elections  of 
bishops  were  to  be  freely  conducted   according   to   the   laws   of  the 
Church,  but  under  the  supervision  of  the  Emperor;  and  that  the  right 
of  spiritual  investiture  by  ring  and  staff  belonged  to  the  Pope,  while 
that  of  secular  infiefment  with  the  sceptre  was  conceded  to  the  Empe- 
ror.    This  agreement  was  confirmed  by  the  First  General  Lateran 
Council  in  1123  (called  in  the  West  the  Ninth  CEcumenical  Council). 
— In  England  the  same  controversy  had  been  earlier  brought  to  a  close. 
Even    William    the    Conqueror  (10G6-1087)   had  been  guilty  of  gross 
simony.     The  abuse  reached  its  highest  point  under  the  reign  of  his 
son    William   Bufus.     Balph    Flambard,  Archbishop    of  Canterbury, 
acted  as  the  trusty  adviser  of  the  king  in  this  nefarious  traffic.    During 
a  severe  illness  William  promised  amendment,  deposed  Ralph  (1093), 
and  in  his  place  appointed  a  well-known  ecclesiastic,  Anselm,  Abbot 
of  Bee  (I  102,  1,  3).     But  the  good  resolutions  of  the  king  vanished 
with  his  illness ;  he  even  ventured  to  insist  upon  payment  of  a  large 
sum  from  Anselm  in  consideration    of  his    promotion.     As    this  was 
resisted  by  the  new  archbishop,  the  king  confiscated  the  estates  of  the 
archiepiscopal    see,  and  continued    to   oppress  Anselm  till  he  fled  to 
Rome  (1097).     Henry  Beavclerc,  the  son  of  William,  who  usurped  the 
throne  in  violation  of  the  claims  of  Robert,  his  elder  brother,  required 
the  support  of  the  clergy  to  maintain  his  position,  and   hence  recalled 
the  primate  (1099),  promising  to  abstain   from   every  form   of  simony. 
During  his  stay  in  Rome,  Anselm  had  attended  and  voted  at  a  synod 
against  lay  investiture.     Accordingly,  he  now  refused  to  take  even  the 


THE    PAPACY     AND     THE     GERMAN     EMPIRE.       403 

oath  of  fealty ;  and  as  the  king  insisted  upon  this,  left  England  a 
second  time  (1103),  and  lived  for  several  years  in  exile  at  Lyons. 
Pope  Paschal  II.  took  up  his  cause,  and  threatened  to  launch  an 
interdict.  Ultimately,  however,  the  king  and  archbishop,  with  con- 
sent of  the  Pope,  agreed,  at  a  meeting  held  in  the  monastery  of  Bee, 
wholly  to  dispense  with  the  ceremony  of  investiture  by  ring  and  staiF, 
and  to  go  through  the  formality  of  taking  the  oath  of  fealty  (HOG). 

G.  To  the  time  of  Innocent  III.  (1123-1198.)  —  (Cf.  Fr.v.  Raumer, 
Gesch.  d.  Ilohenstaufen,  4.  A.  G  Bde.  Lpz.  1871  etc.  —  W.  Zimmerman, 
die  Ilohenst.  oder  d.  Kampf  d.  Monarchic  gegen  d.  Papst  u.  d.  republ. 
Freiheit.  2  Bde.  Stuttg.  1838.  — IT.  Reuter,  Alex.  Ill  u.  d.  K.  sr.  Zeit. 

Berl.   18G0, Ring,  Friedr.  I  im  Kampf  gegen  Alex.  III.  Stuttg. 

1838.  —  H.  Franke,  Arn.  v.  Brescia  u.  sr.  Zeit.  Zurich  1825.  —  F.J. 
Buss,  d.  h.  Thomas  v.  Cantb.  Mainz  1856). — A  division  among  the 
cardinals  led  to  a  double  election  to  the  Papacy  in  1130.  Innocent  II. 
(1130-1143)  was  for  eight  years  kept  out  of  Rome  by  his  antagonist 
Auaclete  II. ;  but  the  two  oracles  of  that  period,  Peter  of  Clugny  and 
Bernard  of  Ciairvaux,  declared  in  his  favour,  nor  did  they  rest  satisfied 
till  the  authority  of  Innocent  had  been  recognized  in  the  Eternal  City. 
Meantime  a  dangerous  opponent  to  the  system  of  Ilildebrand  had  un- 
expectedly arisen  in  the  person  of  Arnold  of  Brescia,  a  young  and 
enthusiastic  priest.  To  him  a  complete  surrender  of  all  worldly-  pos- 
sessions and  authority  appeared  necessary  for  the  regeneration  of  the 
Church ;  at  the  same  time  the  ancient  republic  of  Rome  was  to  be  re- 
stored, and  to  take  the  place  of  the  Papal  Government.  Arnold  was 
formally  condemned  by  the  Second  General  Lateran  Council  (1139). 
But  his  appeals  to  the  people  had  found  an  echo  in  many  breasts.  In 
1143  the  Ptouians  renounced  the  secular  rule  of  the  Pope.  This  feeling 
continued  till  the  time  of  Eugene  III.  (1145-1153),  the  third  Pope 
alter  Innocent,  who  again  entered  Rome,  supported  both  by  the 
influence  of  Bernard  of  Ciairvaux,  his  teacher  and  friend,  and  by  the 
newly  awakened  zeal  for  a  Second  Crusade  (g  9-1,  2).  With  Hadrian 
IV.  (1154-1159)  commenced  the  contest  between  the  Papacy  and  the 
Ilohenstaufen  family,  which  lasted  during  a  whole  centuiy,  and  ended 
in  the  extermination  of  that  dynasty,  when  the  Papacy  reached  the 
summit  of  its  power  and  authority.  Frederic  I.  Barbarossa  (1152- 
1190)  ascended  the  throne  with  the  full  determination  of  carrying  into 
execution  the  ecclesiastical  scheme  of  Charlemagne  (whom  he  after- 
wards had  canonized  by  his  Pope,  Paschal  III.).  In  1154  Arnold  of 
Brescia  fell  into  his  hands.  Frederic  surrendered  him  to  the  Pope  ; 
the  reformer  was  hanged,  his  body  burned,  and  his  ashes  cast  into  the 
Tiber  (1155).  Still  the  Pope  sought  an  occasion  of  dispute.  At  last 
Frederic  consented  even  to  hold  the  stirrup  to  the  Pontiff,  while  he 
rejected  with  merited  scorn  the  offer  of  the  Romans,  to  receive  from 
their  hand  the  crown,  and  with  it  the  government  of  the  world.  He 
was  crowned  by  the  Pope  in  1155.     Fresh  dissensions  with  the  Pope 


404     SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.  10—13  A.  D.). 

and  the  hostile  attitude  of  the  Lombards  obliged  the  Emperor  to  pass 
a  second  time  into  Italy.  There  he  held  in  1158  a  diet,  at  which  the 
rights  of  the  Emperor  were  expounded  for  the  benefit  of  the  Lombards 
and  of  the  Pope.  The  indignation  of  the  Pontiff  was  about  to  find 
vent  in  an  anathema,  when  death  overtook  him.  lie  was  succeeded 
by  Alexander  III.  (1159-1181).  Three  imperial  anti-popes  died 
within  a  short  period ;  and  when  the  Emperor  himself  was  defeated  by 
the  Lombard  confederates  at  Legnano  (1176),  he  was  obliged  to  recog- 
nize Alexander  as  pontiff.  —  Shortly  before,  the  Papacy  had  achieved 
in  England  a  victory  even  more  complete  than  this.  Henry  II.  (1154— 
1189)  was  bent  on  recovering  the  former  supremacy  over  the  clergy, 
who  now  refused  to  acknowledge  any  other  authority  than  that  of  the 
Curia.  Among  his  councillors  none  seemed  better  fitted  to  aid  him  in 
carrying  out  this  plan  than  Thomas  a  Becket,  his  chancellor,  who 
accordingly  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The  king  con- 
voked an  assembly  of  the  estates  of  the  realm  at  Clarendon  (1164) ; 
and  Becket  was  prevailed  upon  to  take  an  oath  to  the  anti-papal  statutes 
there  promulgated.  But  the  Primate  of  the  English  Church  soon 
altered  his  conduct ;  he  did  public  penance  for  his  thoughtless  oath, 
from  which  Alexander  III.  solemnly  absolved  him.  Becket  had  to 
flee,  and  in  his  exile  in  France  continued  to  oppose  his  monarch. 
In  1170  a  reconciliation  took  place.  Thomas  a  Becket  returned,  to 
pronounce  the  ban  upon  all  bishops  who  should  submit  to  the  statutes 
of  Clarendon.  Four  knights  took  up  an  unguarded  expression  of  the 
king,  extorted  from  him  in  a  moment  of  anger,  and  murdered  the 
archbishop  at  the  altar  of  his  chapel.  The  Pope  canonized  the  martyr 
of  the  Romish  system,  and  the  king  was  compelled  to  expiate  his 
offence  by  submitting  on  the  grave  of  his  sainted  enemy  to  a  humilia- 
ting penance  (1174).  At  the  Third  Lateran  Council  (the  Eleventh 
(Ecumenical)  in  1179,  it  was  decreed  that  in  future  a  majority  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  votes  of  cardinals  should  be  required  to  render  a  papal 
election  valid. — Frederic  I.  died  far  from  his  country  (g  94,  3).  His 
son,  Henry  VI.  (1190-1197),  obtained  the  crown  of  Sicily  by  marrying 
Constance,  the  heiress  to  that  country.  He  continued  the  measures 
which  his  father  had  taken  to  secure  the  supremacy  of  the  Emperor. 
His  opponent,  Pope  Coclcstine  III.  (1191-1198),  a  man  ninety  years  of 
age,  was  too  weak  to  resist  the  monarch.  Soon  afterwards  Henry 
died,  leaving  an  infant  son,  Frederic,  only  three  years  of  age  (1197). 

7.  Innocent  III.  (1198-1216).  —  (Cf.  Ft.  Hurtcr,  P.  Innoc.  III.  u.  a. 
Zeitgen.  3.  A.  4  Bde.  Hamb.  1845.  —  O.  Abel,  Kiinig  Philipp  d. 
Hohenst.  Berl.  1852.  —  C.  Hofier  (Catholic),  Kaiser  Friedr.  II.  Ein 
Beitr.  z.  Bcrichtig.  li.  d.  Sturz  d.  Hohenst.  Munch.  1844.)  —  For  a 
time,  during  the  pontificate  of  Coelestine,  it  seemed  doubtful  whether 
the  results  achieved  by  the  policy  of  Hildebrand  would  prove  lasting. 
But  in  1198  Innocent  III.,  the  greatest  Pope  whom  Rome  has  ever 
Been,  ascended  the  chair  of  Peter.     With  him  the  Papacy  rose  to  the 


THE     PAPACY    AND    THE     GERMAN     EMPIRE.       405 

highest  conceivable  stage  of  influence  and  authority.     In  strength  of 
mind  and  purpose  Innocent  was  nowise  inferior  to  Gregory ;  in  learn- 
ing, acuteness,   and  general   ability,  he  was  his  superior ;  while  his 
piety,  moral  purity,  enthusiasm,  and  devoteclness  to  the  interests  of  the 
Church,  were  at  least  as  great,  and  indeed   more   deep   and  ardent 
than  in  the  case  of  his  great  predecessor.     He  came  forward  as  the 
avenger  of  every  species  of  wrong ;  towards  widows  and  orphans  he 
acted  like  a  father ;    he  proved  a  peacemaker  both  to  peoples  and 
princes ;  and  although  himself  living  in  poverty  and  simplicity,  he 
succeeded  in  accumulating  such  immense  treasures  as  enabled  him  to 
adopt  measures  for  protecting  the  interests  of  the  Papacy.     Indeed  his 
history  was  that  of  the  period,  inasmuch  as  his  influence  extended  to 
all  countries  and  courts,  not  excepting  that  of  Constantinople.     Even 
where  his  theocratic  authority  as  vicar  of  Christ  was  not  at  first  recog- 
nized, he  succeeded  by  his  power  and  energy,  by  his  prudence  and 
wisdom,  in  extorting  the  homage  claimed.     It  was  the  great  aim  of  his 
life  to  achieve  the  political  independence  of  the  Papal  See  by  strengthen- 
ing the  States  of  the  Church,  ridding  Italy  from  foreign  domination, 
and  emancipating  Sicily  and  Naples  from  the  rule  of  Germany.     But 
even  this  was  only  means  to  the  higher  end  of  securing  the  power  of 
exercising  unlimited   spiritual   supremacy   over   all   Christian   states, 
princes,  and  peoples.  —  The  most  important  of  his  conflicts  were  those 
with  Germany  and  England.     On  her  death-bed,  Constance,  the  widow 
of  Henry  VI.,  had  committed  to  him  the  tutelage  of  her  son  Frederic, 
who  had  been  recognized  as  Emperor   even  in  his  third  year.      The 
Pope  justified  her  confidence  by  giving  his  pupil  the  most  ample  and 
liberal  education.     But  the  circumstances  of  Germany  required  with- 
out  delay   a   strong   ruler.     The  choice   of  the  German   nobles  was 
divided ;  the  Guelph  party  elected  Otho  IV.,  the  Ghibellines  Philip  of 
Sioabia.     In  virtue  of  his  theocratic  authority,  Innocent  gave  his  sanc- 
tion to  the  choice  of  the  Guelphs.     Scarcely,  however,  had  Otho,  after 
the  murder  of  his  rival,  obtained  the  imperial  crown,  than  he  renewed 
the  old  claims  upon  Italy.     The  Pope  anathamatized  him  (1210),  and 
elevated  Frederic  II.   (1215-1250)   to  the  imperial  throne,  after  that 
prince  had  ceded  Sicily  in  favour  of  Henry,  his  son.  —  In  England, 
Innocent  displayed  his  authority  in  a  manner  even  more  decisive.     In 
consequence  of  a  divided  election  there  were  two  claimants  to  the  See 
of  Canterbury  (1207).     Innocent  rejected  both,  and  appointed  Stephen 
Langton  to  the  office.     The  resistance  of  King  John  was  punished  with 
excommunication  and  an  interdict  (1209).     John,  equally  tyrannical 
and  weak,  hated  by  the  nobles,  despised  by  the  people,  and  deposed  by 
the  Pope  (1212),  did  penance,  and  received  back  his  kingdom  as  a 
papal  fief  (1213).     But  soon  afterwards  the  estates  obliged  the  king  to 
grant  tho  Magna  Charta  (1215)  ;  the  protest  of  the  Pope,  his  threats 
of  excommunication,  and  promise  that  their  grievances  should  be  other- 
wise redressed,  were  equally  vain. — In  France,  Innocent  obliged  Philip 


406    SECTION    II. — SECOND   PERIOD    (CENT.  10—13  A.  D.). 

Augustus  to  take  back  Ingeburgis,  his  •wife,  whom  he  had  repudiated 
(1201).  Arragon  and  Portugal  submitted  to  a  yearly  tribute.  He 
frequently  interposed  in  the  affairs  of  Poland,  Hungary,  Dalmatia,  and 
Norway.  Lastly,  he  gave  a  king  to  Bulgaria  and  Wallaehia.  At  the 
close  of  his  life,  and  looking  back  upon  the  work  he  had  achieved,  he 
assembled,  in  1215,  the  representatives  of  the  Church  at  the  Fourth 
Lateran  Synod  (the  Twelfth  (Ecumenical),  where  the  Eastern  patri- 
archs were  also  represented.  The  chief  topics  discussed  in  that  assem- 
bly were,  a  new  crusade,  the  condemnation  of  the  Albigenses,  the  doc- 
trine of  transubstantiatiou  (which  was  formally  approved),  and  the 
coronation  of  Frederic  II. 

8.   To  Boniface   VIII.  (1216-1294).  —  (Cs.   Th.  Lau,  d.  Unterg.  d. 
Hohenst.     Hainb.  1856.)  —  After  the  death  of  Innocent,  Frederic  II. 
entirely  changed  his  conduct.     Pope  Honorius  III.   (1216-1227)  ab- 
solved him  from  the  obligation  of  separating  Sicily  from  Germany.     In 
return,  the  Emperor  guaranteed  to  the  Church  the  property  left  to  it 
by  the  Countess  Matilda,  and  promised  to  undertake  a  new  crusade. 
The  latter  he  delayed  under  various  pretexts,  till  Gregory  IX.  (1227- 
1241)  carried  into  execution  the  threat  of  anathematizing  him.     Upon 
this  Frederic  commenced  the  Fifth  Crusade  (1228),  without,  however, 
even  requesting  the  removal  of  the  papal  ban.     On  his  return,  an  ap- 
parent reconciliation  took  place  (1230).     But  the  energetic  measures 
which  the  Emperor  took  to  establish  his  supreme  rule  in  Italy,  soon 
brought  upon  him  another  anathema  (1239) — this  time  on  the  charge 
of  infidelity  and   blasphemy.     It  was  said  the  Emperor  had  declared 
the  miraculous  birth  of  the  Saviour  a  fable,  and  pronounced  Moses, 
Jesus,  and  Mohammed  the  three  greatest  impostors,  etc.    These  charges 
do  not  seem  to  have  been  wholly  ungrounded,  although  the  tractate 
"  De  tribus  impostoribus"  was  certainly  not  written  by  the  Emperor, 
being  a  later  production,  erroneously  imputed  to  Frederic  on  the  ground 
of  those  very  charges  made  by  the  Pope.      Frederic  conquered  the 
States  of  the  Church,  penetrated  to  the  gates  of  Rome,  and  prevented 
the  Meeting  of  the  General  Council  which  had  been  summoned  against 
him.     Gregory  died  in  1241,  and  his  successor.  Ccelestine  V.,  after  a 
pontificate  of  only  seventeen  days.     Two  years  the  Papal  See  remained 
vacant.     At  length,  Innocent  IV.  (1243-1254),  formerly  the  friend  of 
Frederic,  but  as  pope  his  mortal  enemy,  was  elected.     Innocent  fled  to 
Lyons ;  and  at  the  First  Council  of  Lyons  in  1245  (the  Thirteenth  Oecu- 
menical) excommunicated  and  deposed  the  Emperor,  as  guilty  of  blas- 
phemy and  sacrilege.     Neither  Emperor  nor  Pope  would  yield.     Each 
insisted  on  absolute  submission,  and  the  contest  with  pen  and  sword 
continued.     Frederic  died  in  1250  :  Innocent  four  years  later.     Urban 
IV.  (1261-64)  called  in  the  aid  of  Charles  ofAnjou,  the  brotheroi  Louis 
IX.  of  France,  for  the  purpose  of  conquering  Sicily.     Treason  had  pre- 
pared the  way.     Manfred,   the  son  of  Frederic,  fell  in   the  battle  of 
Benevolo  (1266),  and  Conradin,  the  grandson  of  Frederic,  and  tha 


THE     CLERGY.  407 

last  of  the  Ilohenstaufen  dynasty,  died  on  the  scaffold,  afto  the  battle 
of  Tagliacozzo  (1268).  — The  Papacy  had,  indeed,  obtained  the  vic- 
tory ;  but  its  triumph  was  only  apparent.  The  divisions  in  Germany 
and  the  partition  of  Italy  only  increased  the  power  of  France,  and 
enabled  that  country  effectually  to  subjugate  the  Papacy.  The  former 
enthusiasm  for  crusades  was  extinct,  and  with  it  a  powerful  bulwark  of 
the  Papacy  had  fallen.  By  a  pragmatic  sanction  (1269)  Louis  secured, 
indeed,  the  French  Church  against  simony,  but  at  the  same  time,  also, 
against  the  interferences  and  extortions  of  the  popes,  —  thereby  laying 
the  foundation  of  the  liberties  afterwards  claimed  by  the  Gallican 
Church. — Some  ultramontane  writers  have  unsuccessfully  attempted  to 
prove  that  this  document  is  a  forgery,  dating  from  the  fifteenth  century. 
Compare,  for  example,  Rosen,  die  pragm.  Sanct.,  M'unst.  1855  ;  and 
against  this  ultramontane  production,  Soldan  in  his  "  hist,  theol.  Zeit- 
schr."  for  1850,  III.  —  The  successors  of  Innocent  IV.  could  no  longer 
control  the  supremacy  of  the  French  in  Sicily  ;  they  hated  their  arro- 
gant liberators,  and  countenanced  the  conspiracy  which  issued  in  the 
bloody  Sicilian  Vespers  (1282).  French  influence  was  even  exerted  in 
elections  to  the  Papacy.  After  the  Papal  See  had  remained  vacant 
for  three  years,  Gregory  X.  (1271-1276)  decreed  in  1274,  at  the  Second 
Synod  of  Lyons  (the  Fourteenth  (Ecumenical),  that  in  future  the  elec- 
tion of  cardinals  should  be  conducted  in  conclave;  and  that,  in  order 
to  accelerate  a  harmonious  vote,  their  allowance  of  food  should  be  daily 
decreased.  Still  the  evil  continued.  After  another  vacancy  of  the 
Papal  See  which  lasted  two  years,  the  antagonistic  parties  agreed  in 
the  choice  of  a  pious  but  simple-minded  hermit— Ccslestine  V.  (1294), 
who  the  same  year  consented  to  abdicate  at  the  suggestion  of  the  cun- 
ning and  ambitious  Cardinal  Cajetan  (g  112,  6).  Cajetan  himself  now 
ascended  the  papal  throne,  by  the  name  of  Boniface  VIII. " 


§97.   THE   CLERGY. 

After  the  tenth  century,  canonical  life  (§  84,  4)  gradually  de- 
generated and  decayed.  The  attempts  made  to  reform  these 
abuses,  led  to  a  distinction  between  "  Canonici  seculares"  and 
"regulares."  The  latter  contended  for  the  ancient  discipline 
and  order  ;  but  in  course  of  time  also  shared  in  the  general  cor- 
ruption. The  most  distinguished  among  the  advocates  of  a 
stricter  discipline  were,  Geroch,  Provost  of  Reichersberg  in  Ba- 
varia (ob.  1169),  and  Norbert,  a  canon,  the  founder  of  the 'Order 
of  Prajmonstrants  (§  98,  3).  The  cathedral  chapters  were  in  the 
habit  of  themselves  filling  up  vacancies  in  their  number ;  since 
the  restoration  of  the  old  canonical  mode  of  election,  they  also 
chose  their  bishops  generally  from  among  themselves, 'and  with- 


408      SECTION   II. — SECOND   PERIOD    (c  E  NT.  10— 13  A.  D.). 

out  consulting  the  people.     From  the  large  incomes  attaching  to 
cathedral  stalls,  these  posts  were  commonly  filled  by  members  of 
the  aristocracy  —  an  abuse  against  which  the  popes  in  vain  pro- 
tested.    In  the  course  of  time  the  canons  became  more  and  more 
independent  of  episcopal  control  ;  they  generally  lived  outside 
their  chapters,   and  employed   vicars  to  discharge  their  duties. 
The  bishops  exercised  jurisdiction  over  all  the  clergy  in  their 
dioceses,  and  punished  offenders  by  deposition  or  by  imprison- 
ment in  a  monastery.     All  causes  connected  with  marriage,  tes- 
tamentary dispositions,  oaths,  etc.,  were  also  pleaded  before  their 
tribunals.     The    peculiarly   German    institution    of   Sends   gave 
place  to  the  Roman  form  of  judicial  administration.     The  arch- 
deacons threw  off  the  authority  of  their  bishops,  and  used  their 
power  in  so  arbitrary  a  manner  that,  in  the  twelfth  century,  the 
office  had  to  be  abrogated.     Their  duties  were  henceforth  dis- 
charged by  episcopal  officials  and  vicars.   The  office  of  chorepis- 
copi  had  ceased  in  the  tenth  century.     During  the  Crusades  a 
number  of  Catholic  sees  had,  however,  been  founded  in  the  East, 
the  occupants  of  which  retained  their  titles  even  after  their  expul- 
sion, and   found  employment  as  assistants  of  Western  prelates 
(suffragan  bishops).     This  gave  rise  to  the  institution  of  Episcopi 
in  partibus  (sc.  infidelium),  which  has  continued  ever  since,  in 
testimony  of  the  inalienable  rights  of  the  Church.  — The  wealth 
of  churches  was  greatly  augmented,  partly  by  tithes,  legacies, 
donations  (especially  during  the  Crusades),  and  royal  fiefs,  partly 
from  the  increasing  value  of   landed  property.     Of  course  the 
poor  shared  in  the  benefits  of  this  growing  prosperity.     Ecclesi- 
astical property  was  subjected  to  taxation  only  in  time  of  public 
calamity.     The  celibacy  of  the  clergy  preserved  the  Church  from 
inevitable  impoverishment,  if  its  property  had  been  allowed  to 
descend  to   the  children  of  the  clergy,  as  at  one  time   seemed 
likely  to  be  the  case.  —  Strict  moralists,  such  a,sRatherius  (Bishop 
of  Verona,  ob.  974),  and  especially  Petrus  Damiani,  Bishop  of 
Ostia  (ob.  107-)— the  friend  and  admirer  of  Gregory  VII.,  whose 
"liber  gomorrhianus"  contains  a  fearful  picture  of  the  dissolute- 
ness of  the  clergy — and  such  monitors  as  St.  Hildegard  and  the 
Abbo't  Jo'ichim  (§  108,  4\  made  fruitless  attempts  to  arrest  the 
moral  degeneracy  of  the  clergy.      Gregory  had,  indeed,  succeeded 
by  his  decrees  in  enforcing  clerical  celibacy,  but  not  in  putting 
an  end  to  concubinage,  and  even  to  worse  offences.     The  labours 
of  St  Dunslan,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (ob.  988),  were  greatly 


THE    CLERGY.  409 

blessed  to  the  moral  elevation  of  the  English  clergy.  —  It  must 
not,  however,  be  forgotten,  that,  despite  this  corruption,  a  large 
number  of  the  clergy  were  excellent  and  conscientious  men  ;  and 
that,  even  with  a  degenerate  clergy,  the  clerical  office,  which  the 
people  could  distinguish  from  its  occupants,  proved  the  salt 
of  the  age.  Like  other  professions,  the  ecclesiastical  reflected 
the  features  of  a  period,  big  not  only  with  gross  abuses,  but  with 
exalted  virtues,  deep  thoughts,  and  great  forces.  The  ignorance 
of  the  clergy,  especially  in  respect  to  religious  knowledge,  proved 
even  a  greater  hindrance  than  their  immorality  to  the  progress 
and  prosperity  of  the  Church.  The  Word  of  God  was  locked 
np  from  the  people  in  a  dead  language,  and  only  a  very  small 
proportion  of  the  clergy  were  sufficiently  educated  or  fitted  to 
declare  and  expound  its  blessed  truths. 

1.  The  Political  Influence  acquired  by  the  higher  Clergy  during  this 
period  was  very  great,  especially  in  Germany.  On  more  than  one 
occasion  did  the  sagacious,  firm,  and  consistent  measures  advocated  by 
the  German  clergy  —  forming  as  they  did,  under  the  leadership  of  the 
primates  of  Mayence,  a  united  and  compact  body — preserve  the  empire 
from  imminent  ruin,  or  from  division,  through  the  folly  of  ambitious 
princes  and  lords.  The  influence  of  these  prelates  was  not  only  derived 
from  their  sway  over  the  consciences,  but  also  from  their  having 
standing  in  the  Diet,  and  from  the  circumstance  that  they  were  terri- 
torial lords.  The  possibility  of  a  war  frequently  depended  on  the  con- 
sent or  refusal  of  the  spiritual  princes  to  furnish  contingents  to  the 
imperial  army.  The  clergy  desired  to  see  Germany  united  and  strong  ; 
the  neighbouring  countries  were  to  be  connected  with  the  German 
Church,  and  to  form  part  of  the  empire,  but  not,  as  the  emperors 
wished,  in  the  shape  of  personal  domains,  but  as  incorporated  with  the 
State.  The  German  clergy  always  opposed  those  expeditions  of  the 
emperors  to  Rome,  which  alienated  the  rulers  from  the  distinctive 
interests  of  Germany,  and  ruined  the  country.  They  desired  to  see 
the  chair  of  Peter  free  and  independent  —  a  European,  not  a  German 
institution — and  the  Emperor  its  protector,  not  its  oppressor;  but  they 
also  resisted  every  assumption  and  interference  on  the  part  of  the 
popes.  Such  a  type  of  the  good  old  German  prelates  was  Willigis  of 
Mayence,  to  whom  Germany  owed  one  of  its  wisest  and  happiest  admi- 
nistrations under  the  sway  of  Henry  II,  whose  elevation  to  the  throne  he 
had  procured.  Under  Henry  IV.  the  German  clergy  were  divided  into  three 
parties.  The  Papalists  were  headed  by  Gebhard  of  Salzburg,  and  num- 
bered almost  all  the  Saxon  bishops ;  the  Imperialists  were  led  by  Adal- 
bert of  Bremen,  who   intended  founding  a  northern    Patriarchate, 

probably  a  northern  papacy ;  while  the  purely  German  party  Was  o-uided 
bjArmo  of  Cologne,  the  last  genuine  representative  of  the  ancient  episco- 
35 


410      SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.  10—13  A.D.). 

pal  policy  of  the  country.  (Comp.  C.  GrYinhagen,  Adalb.  v.  Hamb.  a. 
d.  Idee  eines  nord.  Patriarchates.  Leips.  1854.)  Henry  V.  and  the 
first  Hohenstaufens  were  vigorously  supported  by  the  German  clergy. 
But  want  of  proper  respect  on  the  part  of  Frederic  II.,  and  his  oppres 
sion  of  the  bishops,  entirely  alienated  the  clergy  from  the  crown.— 
During  the  time  of  Otho  I.  those  high  imperial  offices  originated,  tc 
whom,  under  the  reign  of  Otho  IV.,  the  exclusive  right  of  nominating 
successors  to  the  empire  was  entrusted.  Thus  the  Archbishops  of 
Mayence,  Treves,  and  Cologne  were  elevated  to  the  rank  of  Spiritual 
Princes,  Electors,  as  holding  the  office  of  arch-chaplains  or  arch-chan- 
cellors. These  privileges  and  offices  were  confirmed  and  settled  by  the 
Golden  Bull  of  Charles  IV.  (1356). 

2.  The  Pataria  of  Milan.  —  Among  the  Lombard  clergy,  more  than 
any  other,  simony,  concubinage,  and  the  marriage  of  priests,  were  com- 
mon. Accordingly,  the  changes  introduced  by  Hildebrand  met  with 
most  strenuous  resistance  in  that  country.  The  oppostion  was  headed 
by  Wido  (Guido),  Archbishop  of  Milan,  whom  Henry  III.  had  in  1046 
appointed  to  that  diocese.  Indeed,  this  prelate  renewed  the  former 
claims  of  his  see  to  spiritual  independence,  and  even  renounced  his 
allegiance  to  Rome  ($  83,  1).  Wido  was  supported  by  the  nobility  and 
clergy.  But  two  deacons,  Ariald  and  Landidf  Cotta,  organized  a  con- 
spiracy among  the  common  people,  which  their  opponents,  by  way  of 
derision,  designated  Pataria,  Paterini  {i.e.,  blackguards).  The  papal 
party  adopted  this  name,  and  began  a  warfare  against  married  priests, 
which  for  thirty  years  led  to  continual  scenes  of  violence  and  bloodshed. 

I  98.   THE   RELIGIOUS  ORDERS. 

Comp.  I  2,  2.  c.  and  Fr.  Hurler,  Innoc.  III.  u.  s.  Zeitgen.  Bd.  Ill,  IV. 

Despite  growing  corruptions,  Monasticism  reached  at  this 
period  its  highest  stage,  and  more  than  ever,  before  or  after  it, 
earned  the  title  of  "  Knighthood  of  Asceticism."  A  number  of 
new  monastic  orders  were  founded  as  an  offset  to  the  degeneracy 
of  older  orders,  partly  in  the  form  of  branches  (or  so-called 
com /rogations)  of  the  Benedictines,  partly  as  independent  insti- 
tutions under  a  separate  and  distinct  rule.  Almost  everyday 
new  monasteries  rose  —  frequently  also  in  cities.  The  reformed 
Benedictine  monasteries  organized  themselves  into  a  general 
society,  under  the  management  of  the  parent  monastery,  and 
styled  themselves  congregations.  The  oldest  of  these  congrega- 
tions, and  for  two  centuries  the  most  influential,  was  that  of 
Glugny.  Its  glowing  zeal  for  high-church  reforms,  made  it  one 
of  the  main  instruments  in  elevating  the  Church  and  the  Papacy 


THE    RELIGIOUS    ORDERS.  411 

from  their  decay  during  the  tenth  century.  A  smaller  order,  that 
of  the  Camaldulites,  was  also  helpful  in  that  direction.  The 
monastery  of  Glairvaux  disputed  with  that  of  Clugny  the  vene- 
ration of  Christendom.  The  ??cm-reformed  monasteries  of  the 
Benedictines,  on  the  contrary,  persisted  in  their  self-satisfied 
isolation  and  their  luxurious  life.  To  distinguish  them  from  the 
Cistercians,  who  wore  a  white  dress,  they,  and  those  of  Clugny, 
were  called  Black  Monks.  To  prevent  too  great  a  subdivision 
of  the  monastic  orders,  Innocent  III.,  at  the  Fourth  Lateran 
Council  in  1215,  prohibited  the  formation  of  any  new  society. 
But  the  Pope  himself  assisted  in  founding  two  new  orders,  which, 
in  importance  and  influence,  soon  surpassed  all  others — we  mean 
the  two  celebrated  mendicant  fraternities.  The  monks  acted  as 
the  standing  army  of  the  Papacy,  and  to  them  Gregory  was 
chiefly  indebted  for  the  success  of  his  policy.  The  popes  readily 
exempted  monasteries  from  the  supervision  of  their  diocesans  ; 
princes  conferred  dignities  and  offices  on  abbots  ;  while  the  peo- 
ple, who  looked  upon  monasteries  as  representing  the  popular 
element  in  the  Church,  regarded  these  institutions  with  the  great- 
est veneration.  Legacies,  donations,  fiefs,  and  purchases  swelled 
the  wealth  and  increased  the  landed  property  attaching  to  mon- 
asteries. —  From  the  tenth  century  monks  were  regarded  aa 
constituting  a  special  ecclesiastical  order  (ordo  religiosorum)  ; 
the  secular  business  of  monasteries  was  entrusted  to  lay  brethren 
(conversi).  These  were  addressed  as  fratres,  whilst  the  others, 
who  had  received  clerical  orders,  were  called  patres.  The  mo- 
nastic orders  were  distinguished  from  each  other  by  different 
garbs.  Frequently  disputes  arose  between  these  ecclesiastics 
and  the  secular  clergy,  as  the  monks  too  often  and  improperly 
interfered  with  the  duties  and  emoluments  of  the  regular  priests. 
. — Besides  these  monastic  orders,  who  were  bound  by  a  perpetual 
vow  and  a  fixed  rule,  voluntary  associations  of  men  and  women — ■ 
the  Beghards  and  Beguins  —  were  formed.  The  members  of 
these  communities  were  not  under  any  monastic  constraint,  but 
voluntarily  agreed  to  retire  from  the  world,  and  to  devote  them- 
selves to  their  own  spiritual  advancement  and  to  labours  of 
Christian  love. — In  consequence  of  the  enthusiasm  evoked  by  the 
Crusades,  the  profession  of  monasticism  was  combined  with 
knighthood.  Thus  the  knightly  orders  originated,  of  which 
the  members,  under  their  grand-masters  and  commanders,  were 
arranged  into  knights,  priests,  and  serving  brothers. — (Cf.  §  112.) 


412     SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.   10— 13  A.  D.). 

1.  Soon  after  the  reformation  introduced  by  Benedict  of  Anian« 
($  85,  2),  the  Benedictine  monasteries  again  degenerated  in  discipline 
and  morality.  Accordingly,  William,  Duke  of  Aquitaine,  entrusted  to 
Berno,  a  Burgundian  count  (ob.  927),  who  had  already  restored  order 
in  two  Burgundian  cloisters  of  which  he  was  the  abbot,  the  duty  of 
founding  a  new  monastery.  Thus  arose  the  celebrated  Abbacy  of 
Clugny  (Cluniacum)  in  Burgundy,  which  its  founder  placed  under  the 
immediate  supervision  of  the  Pope  (910).  Under  Odo,  the  successor  of 
Berno  (ob.  942),  a  courtier,  who  had  renounced  the  world  during  a  dan- 
gerous illness,  this  monastery  became  the  centre  of  a  separate  "con- 
gregation"—  that  of  Clugny  —  which  formed  an  offshoot  from  the 
Benedictine  Order.  The  strict  asceticism  of  these  monks,  the  great 
splendour  displayed  in  the  celebration  of  all  the  rites  of  religion,  their 
zeal  for  science  and  literature,  their  efforts  for  the  education  of  youth, 
and  lastly  a  succession  of  distinguished  abbots — among  them,  especially 
Odilo  (ob.  1048),  the  friend  of  Ilildebrand,  and  Peter  the  Venerable  (ob. 
1156).  —  (Cf.  C.  A.  Wilkens,  Petrus  d.  Ehrw.,  &c,  Lpz.  1857)  —pro- 
cured for  the  "congregation"  an  influence  almost  unexampled  upon 
their  cotemporaries.  In  the  twelfth  century  it  numbered  no  fewer 
than  2000  monasteries  in  France.  At  the  head  of  this  powerful  order 
was  the  Abbot  of  Clugny  ;  he  appointed  the  priors  of  the  subordinate 
monasteries.  Under  the  rule  of  Pontius,  a  dissolute  man,  who  was  de- 
posed in  1122,  the  order  decayed,  but  again  rose  when  Peter  the  Ven- 
erable became  its  head.  —  (C.  Pelargus,  Gesch.  d.  Abtei  Clugny.  Tub. 
1858.) — In  Italy,  the  Camaldolitc  Order  occupied  a  position  analogous 
to  that  of  Clugny  in  France.  It  was  founded  in  1018  by  Pomuald,  a 
scion  of  the  ducal  family  of  Ravenna,  who  built  a  monastery  in  Camal- 
doli  (campus  Maldoli),  a  desolate  part  in  the  Apennines.  Nunneries 
were  also  erected  in  connection  with  these  monasteries.  Like  the  Order 
of  Clugny,  that  of  Camaldoli  espoused  the  High  Church  cause,  and 
acquired  considerable  influence  upon  their  cotemporaries,  although  not 
to  the  same  extent  as  their  French  brethren.  —  Twenty  years  later, 
Johannes  Gualbertus,  a  Florentine,  founded  the  Vallambrosian  Order, 
after  the  model  of  that  of  Camaldoli,  in  a  shady  vale  (Yallis  Umbrosa) 
of  the  Apennines.  It  was  the  first  to  receive  lay  brethren  for  the  pur- 
pose of  attending  to  temporal  matters,  that  so  the  monks  might  observe 
their  vows  of  silence  and  of  strict  confinement  to  the  walls  of  their  cloister. 
—  The  Congregation  of  the  Scotch  Benedictine  Monastery,  in  Germany, 
owed  its  origin  to  the  unabated  love  of  travel  which  animated  Irish  and 
Scotch  monks,  and  which  was  excited  anew,  in  the  tenth  century,  by 
the  invasions  of  the  Danes  and  Normans  (?  93,  1).  The  first  convent 
in  Germany,  designed  exclusively  for  the  reception  of  Irish  monks,  was 
St.  Martin's  at  Cologne  (tenth  century).  But  the  Benedictine  monas- 
tery of  St.  .lames  at  Rcgcnsburg  was  more  important.  It  was  founded 
by  the  Scot,  Marianus,  and  two  companions,  in  10(17.  From  it  sprang 
eleven  others  in  southern  Germany,  which  Innocent  III.,  at  the  Lateran 


THE    RELIGIOUS     ORDERS.  413 

Council  of  1215,  confirmed  as  separate  congregations.  At  first  they 
distinguished  themselves  by  their  zealous  asceticism,  strict  discipline, 
and  literary  labours  ;  but  later  they  became  notorious  for  immorality 
and  gluttony  (§  112).  —  (Cf.  Wattenbach,  d.  Congreg.  d.  Schottenkl.  in 
Deutschl.  In  Quast'  u.  Otte's  Ztschr.  f.  christl.  Archajol.  Bd.  I. 
Lpz.  185G.) 

2.  From  the  year  1098,  the  Congregation  of  Cistercians,  founded  at 
Citeaux  (Cistercium),  near  Dijon,  by  Robert,  proved  a  rival  to  the 
popularity  of  the  Order  of  Clugny,  from  which  it  differed  by  voluntarily 
submitting  to  episcopal  supervision,  and  by  avoiding  all  splendour  in 
their  churches  and  monasteries.  Instead  of  the  black  cowl  of  the 
Benedictines,  the  Cistercians  wore  the  white;  otherwise,  their  con- 
stitution was  similar  to  the  rule  of  the  Order  of  Clugny.  The  order 
enjoyed  comparatively  small  influence,  till  the  fame  of  Bernard,  Abbot 
of  Clairvaux— a  monastery  dependent  on  the  institution  at  Citeaux — 
elevated  it  to  the  highest  place  in  public  esteem.  In  honour  of  him, 
the  order  assumed  the  name  of  Bernardines.  (On  St.  Bernard,  comp. 
below,  I  103,  1.)  In  the  thirteenth  century  the  order  numbered  no 
fewer  than  2000  monasteries  and  6000  nunneries.  The  jealousy  sub- 
sisting at  one  time  between  the  monks  of  Clugny  and  those  of  Citeaux 
gave  place  to  more  proper  feelings,  chiefly  through  the  intimacy  of  St. 
Bernard  with  Peter  the  Venerable. 

3.  The  following  were  the  most  important  among  the  numerous 
other  monastic  orders  at  the  time  of  Innocent  III.:  —  1.  The  Order  of 
Grammont,  in  France,  founded  by  Stephen  of  Tigerno  (1073).  It  pro- 
fessed no  other  rule  than  the  Gospel.  Its  members  led  a  quiet,  unpre- 
tending life.  But  the  arrogance  of  their  lay  brethren  led  to  its  decay 
in  the  twelfth  century.  2.  The  Order  of  Fontevraux,  founded  in  100G  by 
Robert  of  Arbrissel,  at  Fontevraux  (Fons  Ebraldi),  in  Puitou.  The 
founder  travelled  through  the  country,  summoning  all  to  repentance, 
and  reared  nunneries  for  maidens,  widows,  and  fallen  females.  The 
abbess,  who  was  regarded  as  the  representative  of  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin, the  patroness  of  the  order,  had  the  supervision  even  of  the 
priests  employed  by  the  nuns.  3.  The  Order  of  Guttbertines,  a  parallel 
with  the  last-named,  founded  by  Guilbert,  an  English  priest,  of  noble 
descent.  In  it,  also,  women  constituted  the  chief  element,  holding  all 
the  property  of  the  order;  the  men  merely  managed  it.  Its  monaste- 
ries were  mostly  double  (for  men  and  women).  It  was  confined  to 
England,  where  the  Order  had  twenty-one  large  convents,  provided 
with  houses  for  paupers,  invalids,  and  orphans.  4.  The  Carthusians, 
founded  by  Bruno  of  Cologne,  Principal  of  the  Cathedral  School  at 
Rheims  (1084).  From  disgust  at  the  dissolute  life  of  Manasse,  his 
archbishop,  he  retired  with  some  like-minded  friends  into  a  solitary 
valley,  near  Grenoble,  called  Chartreuse.  He  imposed  on  his  monks 
the  obligations  of  the  most  rigid  asceticism,  of  strict  silence,  study, 

35* 


414      SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.   10— 13  A.  D.) 

prayer,  and  contemplation.  5.  The  Order  of  Prcemonstrants.  Its 
founder,  Nbrbert  (1121),  had  been  a  rich  and  worldly  canon  at  Xanthen, 
in  the  diocese  of  Cologne.  Ilis  conversion  was  completed  during  a 
furious  tempest,  when  the  lightning  struck  close  by  him.  lie  now 
changed  not  only  his  own  conduct,  but  attempted  to  introduce  a  refor- 
mation among  his  colleagues.  Baffled  in  this,  he  retired  with  a  few 
friends  into  the  desolate  valley  of  Premontre  (Praemonstratum),  near 
Laon.  His  rule  imposed  on  his  followers  the  ordinary  duties  of  the 
cure  of  souls,  while  at  the  same  time  it  bound  them  to  a  life  of  rigid 
monasticism.  When  on  a  visit  to  Spires,  where,  at  the  time,  the  Em- 
peror, papal  legates,  and  deputies  from  the  clergy  of  Magdeburg,  were 
met,  ho  was  chosen  Archbishop  of  Magdeburg,  and  was  received  with 
great  pomp  in  his  diocese,  still  wearing  the  habit  of  his  community. 
The  order  numbered  many  monasteries  and  nunneries.  6.  The  Order 
of  the  Carmelites  was  founded  (1156)  by  Berthold  of  Calabria,  a  cru- 
sader, who,  along  with  some  companions,  settled  in  the  cave  of  Elijah, 
on  Mount  Carmel.  The  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem  drew  up  a  very  rigid 
rule  for  them.  When  expelled  by  the  Saracens,  the  order  settled  in 
Europe  (1238),  and  became  a  mendicant  fraternity.  The  Carmelites 
traced  their  origin  to  no  less  a  personage  than  Elijah  himself,  and 
stoutly  denied  that  their  order  had  been  founded  by  Berthold.  They 
also  maintained  that  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  person  had  handed  to 
Simon  Stock,  the  general  of  the  order,  the  holy  Scapulary,  as  its  dis- 
tinctive badge,  with  the  promise,  that  Avhoever  died  wearing  it,  was 
sure  of  eternal  bliss.  Every  Saturday  the  Virgin  descended  into  pur- 
gatory to  fetch  thence  the  souls  of  those  who  had  worn  tin1  Scapulary. 
7.  The  Order  of  Trinitarians  (called  also  "  ordo  sanctge  Trinitatis  de 
redemptione  captivorum")  was  founded  by  Innocent  III.,  for  the  re- 
demption of  Christian  captives.  8.  The  Humiliati,  in  the  eleventh 
century, — an  association  of  pious  trades-people  at  Milan,  of  which  the 
members  wrought  at  their  crafts  —  had  their  possessions  in  common, 
and  engaged  in  spiritual  exercises.  The  fraternity  declined  in  the 
sixteenth  century. 

4.  The  Mendicant  Orders. —  (Cf.  E.  Vogt,  d.  h.  Franz,  v.  Assisi. 
Tubg.  1840.  —  K.  Hase,  Franc,  v.  Assisi,  &c.  Lpz.  1856.  —  Dcmore, 
Leben  d.  h.  Clara  v.  Assisi  ;  transl.  from  the  French  by  Lochner. 
Rcgensb.  1857. —  Lacordaire,  Vie  de  St.  Dominique.  Par.  L841.  —  E. 
Caro,  d.  h.  Dominicus  u.  d.  Dominicaner,  libers,  v.  E.  W.  Regensburg. 
1854.) — These  Orders  originated  in  the  desire  of  literally  carrying  out 
the  vow  of  poverty.  The  idea  was  first  conceived  by  St.  Francis,  the 
son  of  a  rich  merchant  at  Assisi  (born  1182).  lie  seems  to  have  been 
greatly  struck  by  tin'  injunction  of  tin1  Saviour  (Matt.  x.  8-10)  to  His 
disci),!.'-,  in  go  forth  carrying  neither  gold  nor  silver,  stall'  nor  scrip. 
Accordingly,  he  gave  away  al!  his  property,  and  henceforth  depended 
on  charity  for  the  necessaries  of  life.  Cursed  by  his  father,  sometimes 
derided  by  the  populace  as  mad,  at  others  worshipoed  as  a  saint,  he 


THE     RELIGIOUS     ORDERS  415 

travelled  through  the  East  and  West,  everywhere  calling  to  repentance 
(from  1208).     His  complete  renunciation  of  the  world  and  of  self,  the 
simplicity  of  his  faith,  the  ardour  of  his  love  towards  God  and  man, 
and  the  deep  treasures  of  his  poverty,  made  St.  Francis  appear  like  a 
heavenly  stranger  in  the  midst  of  a  selfish  world.     His  sympathy  with 
nature  was  truly  marvellous.     In  childlike  simplicity,  he  would  hold 
converse  with  the  birds  of  the  air  and  the  beasts  of  the  field  as  with 
brothers  and  sisters,  calling  upon  them  to  praise  their  Maker ;  in  fact, 
the  saint  seemed  again  to  restore  the  original  position  of  man  towards 
the  lower  creation.     When  attempting  to  address  the  Pope  and  his 
cardinals  in  a  set  oration,  he  utterly  broke  down ;  but  when  he  ad- 
dressed them  in  language  unprepared,  and  coming  directly  from  the 
fulness  of  his  heart,  his  speeeh  was  like  a  mighty  stream  sweeping 
away  all  resistance.     Innocent  III.,  "  overcome  by  his  simplicity  and 
humility,  allowed  the  strange  saint  to  go  on."     (According  to  an  old 
legend,  he  had  first  ordered  him  to  take  up  his  abode  with  swine,— an 
injunction  which  the  saint  literally  obeyed.)     HonoriiCs  III.,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Innocent,  gave  in  1223  his  formal  sanction  to  the  association 
which  had  gathered  around  Francis,  and  bestowed  on  the  order  of  the 
Fratres  minores  (Minors  or  Franciscans)  the  right  of  preaching  and 
exercising  the  cure  of  souls  in  any  district  or  country.     But  according 
to  the  idea  of  the  founder,  the  order  was  to  preach  by  deeds  of  complete 
self-abnegation  rather  than  by  words.     Its  peculiar  garb  consisted  of  a 
brown  habit  with  a  hood ;  a  rope  round  the  waist  served  as  girdle. 
This  contempt  of  the  world,  combined  with  unfeigned  humility,  and 
ardent,  self-denying  love,  made  a  deep  impression  on  their  cotempo- 
raries,  and  procured  for  the  order  the  designation  of  seraphic.    A  female 
branch  of  the  order  (the  Sisterhood  of  St.  Clare)  was  founded  in 
1212  by  Clara,  a  noble  virgin  of  Assisi.     St.  Francis  drew  up  a  rule 
for  this  sisterhood.     The  fraternity  of  Tertiaries  (Tertius  ordo  de 
poenitentia)  consisted  of  persons  who  were  allowed  to  continue  in  the 
world,  but  were  bound  by   a  semi-monastic  rule,  drawn  up  by  St. 
Francis.     The    church   of   Portiuncula,   at  Assisi,   became    the   great 
centre  of  the  Franciscan  Order,  and  successive  popes  enriched  this 
sanctuary  with  the  most  plenary  indulgences.      St.  Francis  died  in 
1226,  stretched  on  the  pavement  of  this  church,  and  literally  naked  as 
he  had  entered  the  world.     A  legend  declares  that  during  the  last  two 
years  of  his  life  the  saint  had  borne  the  marks  of  the  crucifixion  of  the 
Saviour  (stigmata),  which,  during  a  trance,  a  seraph  had  impressed  on 
his  body.     The  story,  though  strenuously  attested  by  many  witnesses, 
does  not  bear  the  test  of  impartial  criticism  (comp.  Hase,  u.  s.).     Gre- 
gory IX.  canonized  him  in  1228.    In  the  fourteenth  century  the  General 
Chapter  of  the  Franciscans  at  Assisi  gave  its  sanction  to  a  book,  enti- 
tled "  Liber  Conformitatum,"  by  one  Bartholomew  of  Pisa,  which  enu- 
merated forty  points  of  similarity  between  Christ  and  St.  Francis.    At 
the  time  of  the  Reformation  a  new  edition  of  it  appeared,  with  a  pre- 


416      SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T  .  10— 13  A.  D.). 

face  by  Luther,  bearing  the  title,  "  Der  Barflissermb'nche  Eulenspiegel 
una  Alkoran." 

Even  while  St.  Francis  was  alive,  Elijah  of  Cortona,  who  during  the 
absence  of  the  saint  in  the  East  had  been  intrusted  with  the  superin- 
tendence of  the  order,  had  attempted  to  soften  its  rigid  discipline. 
St.  Francis  resisted  the  innovation  ;  but  when,  after  his  death,  Elijah 
was  nominated  general  of  the  order,  he  carried  out  his  project.     The 
more  rigid  party  joined  St.  Anthony  of  Padua,  who  lived  and  acted  in 
the  spirit  of  St.  Francis,  and  even  preached  to  fishes  when  men  refused 
to   give   audience.     Violent  discussions   arose  within   the    order,  and 
Elijah  was  twice  deposed.     He  afterwards  supported  the  cause  of  Fre- 
deric II,  and  was  excommunicated  along  with  him,  but  again  recon- 
ciled to  the  Church  before  his  death  (12.33).     The  fanaticism  of  the 
rigid  party  increased  in  proportion  as  their  more  lax  opponents  grew 
in  number.     The  popes  supported  the  majority.     At  length  the  dispu- 
tants separated.     The  milder  party  (fratres  de  communitate)  strove  to 
reconcile  the  principles  of  their  founder  respecting  poverty  with  their 
actual  tenure  of  property  by  distinguishing  between  absolute  posses- 
sion and  usufruct,  and  by  the  formality  of  making  over  their  posses- 
sions to  the  Romish  Church.    The  stricter  party  (spirituals,  zelatores, 
FratricelU)  gradually  became  avowed  opponents  of  the  Church  and  of 
its  rulers,  who  had  disowned  them,  and  even  denounced  the  Pope  as 
Antichrist  (comp.  \  108,  4).— The  Franciscans  were,  also,  the  first 
barefoot  monks.     Their  example  in  this  respect  was  followed,  subse- 
quently, by  many  other  orders  (as  by  the  Augustines),  but  not  by  the 
Dominicans.      Beyond  Italy,   in  coider  climates,   however,   even  the 
Franciscans  were  exempted  from  this  peculiarity  ;  at  least  they  might 
wear  sandals. 

The  Order  of  Dominicans  was  founded  by  Dominicus  Guzman  (born 
in  1170),  the  scion  of  a  noble  Castilian  family.     Dominic  was  a  priest 
at  Osma,  and  a  man  of  considerable  prudence  and  learning.     From 
zeal  for  the  salvation  of  souls,  he,  along  with  some  associates,  went  to 
the  south  of  France  (1208),  there  to  labour  for  the  conversion  of  the 
Albigenses.     In  1215,  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome.     Innocent  III. 
gave  to  this  order  a  rule,  which  was  afterwards  enlarged  by  Ilonorius 
III.     The  Dominicans,  or  Order  of  Preachers  (ordo  fratrum  praedica- 
torum),  were  empowered  everywhere  to  preach  and  to  hear  confession, 
fur  the  special  object  of  restoring  heretics  to  the  bosom  of  the  Church 
by  their  sermons  and  teaching.    At  a  later  period  (1220),  Dominic  and 
his  order  adopted  the  rule  of  St.  Francis,  and  became  a  mendicant  fra- 
ternity.    He  died  in  1221,  pronouncing  an  anathema  on  any  one  who 
should  contaminate  his  order  by  bestowing  upon  it  worldly  possessions 
1  lominic  w  as  canonized  by  Gregory  IX.     A  female  branch  of  the  order 
was  formed  by  some  of  the  Albigensian  converts.     Like  the  Francis- 
cans, the  Dominicans  had  male  and  female  Tertiaries  (fratres  et  sorcres 
de  militia  Christi). 


THE     RELIGIOUS     ORDERS.  417 

Various  circumstances  combined  to  give  these  two  orders  an  extra- 
ordinary popularity.  Not  only  did  they  specially  meet  the  wants  of 
the  time,  but  the  fact  that  they  required  no  endowment,  a_d  obtained 
considerable  privileges  from  the  popes,  enabled  them  to  spread  rapidly 
throughout  Western  Europe.  Each  of  these  orders  was  under  the 
supreme  rule  of  a  general,  who  resided  at  Rome;  provincials  super- 
intended the  monasteries  of  particular  countries ;  while  every  monas- 
tery had  its  own  guardian  (among  the  Franciscans)  or  prior  (among 
the  Dominicans).  From  the  first  the  Dominicans  gave  themselves  to 
literary  pursuits;  their  primary  object  —  the  conversion  of  heretics  — 
rendering  such  studies  necessary.  Afterwards,  they  also  displayed 
considerable  zeal  in  missionary  labours;  but  their  influence  proved 
greatest  in  the  academic  chair.  Thus  incited,  the  Franciscans  also 
began  to  cultivate  these  departments  of  labour,  and  sought  to  obtain  a 
standing  in  the  universities.  The  veneration  shown  them  by  the  com- 
mon people,  who  preferred  confessing  their  secrets  to  such  migratory 
mendicants,  excited  the  envy  of  the  secular  clergy,  as  their  increasing 
influence  in  the  universities,  that  of  the  learned.  The  opposition  to 
their  growing  interference  was  chiefly  carried  on  by  the  University  of 
Paris.  William  of  St.  Amour,  a  doctor  of  that  college,  in  1156,  charac- 
terized them,  in  his  controversial  tractate,  "Depericulisnovissimorum 
temporum,"  as  the  forerunners  of  Antichrist.  To  this  attack  learned 
members  of  the  order  (such  as  Thomas  Aquinas  and  Bonaventura) 
replied,  and  they  were  supported  both  by  papal  authority  and  royal 
power.  But  no  sooner  was  this  contest  ended,  than  the  former  jealousy 
and  rivalry  subsisting  between  the  two  orders  reappeared.  The  feeling 
of  hostility  increased  as  on  scholastic  questions  they  took  opposite  sides. 
— (Comp.  I  104,  1,  and  g  112,  2.) 

Only  two  other  mendicant  orders  of  later  origin  attained  great  influ- 
ence, viz.:  the  Augustines,  whom  Pope  Alexander  IV.  drew  from  the 
members  of  monastic  orders  which  had  been  scattered  (125G)  ;  and  the 
Semites  (Servi  b.  Marias  Virg.),  instituted  by  seven  pious  Florentines 
for  the  service  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  in  1233  — an  order  very  popular, 
both  in  Italy  and  Germany. 

5.  The  Beguins  and  Beglmrds. —  (Comp.  Moslienn,  de  Beghardis  et 
Beguinabus.  Lps.  1790. — E.  Hattmann,  Gesch.  d.  Ursp.  d.  belgischen 
Beghiden  (Hist,  of  the  Orig.  of  the  Beg.  in  Belg.).  Beil.  1843.)  — 
Female  associations  of  Beguins  existed  undoubtedly  prior  to  those  of 
the  Beghards.  But  the  exact  period  when  they  arose,  and  even  the 
origin  of  the  name,  are  matter  of  controversy.  Older  historians  were 
wont  to  trace  the  Beguins  to  St.  Begga,  a  daughter  of  Pepin  of  Landen, 
in  the  seventh  century  ;  but  on  no  other  ground  than  the  similarity  of 
name.  Mosheim  derived  the  name  from  the  word  beggen,  to  pray; 
latterly,  however,  Hallmann  has  shown,  on  grounds  which  to  us  seem 
convincing,  that  both  the  name  and  the  association  were  derived  from 
Lambert  le  Beghe,  a  celebrated  preacher  at  Liege,  during  rhe  twelfth 


418      SECTION    II. — SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.   1., — 13  A.  D._). 

century.  The  Beguins  took  the  three  monastic  vows,  but  only  for  the 
period  during  which  they  remained  members  of  the  society.  Thej 
were  free  to  leave  the  society  at  any  time,  to  marry,  or  to  undertake 
other  duties.  They  placed  themselves  under  the  superintendence  of  a 
lady-superior  and  a  priest,  and  lived  in  what  was  called  a  Beginagium, 
or  curtis  Beguinarum,  which  generally  consisted  of  a  number  of  small 
houses  within  a  common  enclosure.  Each  of  the  Beguins  kept  house 
for  herself.  On  entering  the  society,  they  entrusted  their  property  to 
the  community,  and  received  it  back  on  leaving.  The  Beguins  employed 
themselves  in  manual  labour  —  such  as  sewing,  washing,  or  taking 
charge  of  the  sick.  They  were  also  engaged  in  teaching  young  females, 
or  attending  to  the  spiritual  wants  of  their  own  sex.  Any  profit  derived 
from  these  employments  was  applied  in  works  of  charity.  Each  asso- 
ciation wore  a  distinctive  habit.  They  soon  spread  over  Belgium, 
Germany,  and  France.  By  and  by  male  associations  of  the  same  kind, 
and  for  the  same  purposes  (the  Beghards),  were  founded.  Those  sup- 
ported themselves  also  by  manual  labour,  especially  by  weaving.  But 
in  the  course  of  the  thirteenth  century  such  associations  became  greatly 
demoralized.  Brothers  and  sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit  (114,  3),  Fratri- 
celli,  and  other  heretics,  sought  refuge  among  them  from  the  persecu- 
tions of  the  Church,  and  infected  them  with  their  errors.  Accordingly, 
the  Inquisition  (§  109)  directed  its  inquiries  to  their  doings,  and  many 
of  their  members  were  executed,  especially  in  the  south  of  France. 
At  the  Fifteenth  General  Council  of  Vienne,  in  1311,  eight  heretical 
tenets,  supposed  to  be  held  by  them,  were  condemned.  A  number  of 
their  houses  were  closed  ;  others  only  allowed  to  continue  on  condition 
of  their  inmates  joining  the  Franciscan  or  Dominican  Tertiaries.  Pepe 
John  XXIII.  (1410-1415)  again  extended  protection  to  them,  when  the 
community  of  Beguins  once  more  increased.  But  their  growing  disso- 
luteness, and  concubinage  with  Beghards  and  secular  priests,  obliged 
the  secular  and  spiritual  authorities  to  interfere.  At  the  time  of  the 
Reformation  these  houses  were  secularized  ;  in  Belgium  alone,  some  of 
their  communities  still  exist. 

G.  Knightly  Orders. — (Cf.  Biedenfeld,  Gesch.  u.  Yerfass.  aller  geistl. 
u.  weld.  Ritterorden.  2  Bde.  Weim.  1841.  —  W.  F.  WilcTce,  Gesch.  d. 
Tempelherrnord.  2  Bde.  Lpz.  1826. — F.  M'unter,  Statutenbuch  d.  Orel, 
d.  Tempi.  Berl.  1794. —  {Kiethammer)  Gesch.  d.  Malteserord.  nach 
Verst.  Jena.  2  Bde.  Dresd.  1833. — J.  Voight,  Gesch.  Pressens  bis  zum 
Unterg.  d.  Herrsch.  d.deutsch.  Ord.  4  Bde.  Ko;sb.  1827.  &c. — /.  Voight, 
Gesch.  d.  deutsc.  R.-Ord.  in  s.  12  Balleien.  Berl.  1857,  Bd.  I.  — J.  M. 
Watierich,  d.  GrUndung  d.  deutsch.  Ordenstaates  in  Preus-;en.  Lpz. 
1827.—  C.  Ileum)/,  Statutt.  d.  deutsch.  Ord.  Kgsb.  1806.  — X  v.  Win- 
terfeld,  Gesch.  d.  ritterl.  Ordons  St.  Johannis.  Berl.  1859. — The  Orders 
of  Knights  took,  besides  the  three  monastic  vows  (of  poverty,  chastity, 
and  obedience),  that  of  continual  contest  with  the  infidels.  Among 
►  hese  orders  we  reckon:  —  1.  The  Order  of  the  Templars,  founded  by 


ECCLESIASTICAL    JURISPRUDENCE.  419 

Hugh  de  Payens  (1118),  for  the  protection  of  pilgrims  in  the  Holy 
Land.  They  wore  a  white  cloak,  with  a  red  cross  on  the  hreast.  St. 
Bernard  warmly  interested  himself  in  favour  of  this  order,  and  accord- 
ing^, procured  a  large  accession  to  its  membership.  When  St.  Jean 
d'Acre  fell  (in  1291),  the  Templars  retired  to  Cyprus;  but  soon  after- 
wards returned  to  the  West,  when  Paris  became  the  head-quarters  of 
the  order.  The  name  of  the  order  was  derived  from  the  circumstance, 
that  the  palace  which  King  Baldwin  of  Jerusalem  assigued  for  their 
use,  was  built  on  the  site  of  the  temple  of  Solomon  (cf.  §  112,  2). 
2.  Originally  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  or  Hospitallers,  were  ordinary 
inmates  of  a  monastery,  whose  special  duty  it  was  to  take  charge  of 
sick  pilgrims,  to  relieve  their  wants,  and  to  extend  hospitality  to  them 
(middle  of  11th  century).  With  these  duties  Raymond  du  Puy,  the  sec- 
ond general  of  the  order,  combined,  in  1118,  the  obligation  of  fighting 
against  the  infidel.  They  wore  a  black  dress,  with  a  white  cross  on 
the  breast,  and  had  a  red  cross  on  their  banners.  When  expelled  by 
the  Saracens,  they  settled  first  in  Rhodes  (1310),  and  lastly  in  Malta, 
in  1530.  3.  The  Order  of  the  Teutonic  Knights  consisted  also,  at  first, 
of  the  inmates  of  an  hospital,  or  inn,  founded  during  the  siege  of  St. 
Jean  d'Acre,  in  1190,  by  some  citizens  of  Bremen  and  Lubeck.  The 
knights  wore  a  white  cloak,  with  a  black  cross  on  the  breast.  At  a 
later  period  the  order  settled  in  Prussia,  where  in  1237  it  amalgamated 
with  that  of  the  Livonian  Brethren  of  the  Sword.  —  During  the  contest 
with  the  Moors  several  knightly  orders  were  founded  in  Spain.  The 
most  important  of  these  was  the  Order  of  Calatrava,  founded  by  Velas- 
quez, a  Cistercian  monk,  for  the  purpose  of  defending  the  town  of 
Calatrava.  In  1164  it  obtained  the  formal  sanction  of  Pope  Alexander 
III.  At  present,  like  the  Order  of  Malta,  it  is  only  an  honorary 
distinction. 

§99.   ECCLESIASTICAL  JURISPRUDENCE. 

The  forged  Decretals  of  Isidore  (§  87,  2)  were  not  the  only 
collection  of  ecclesiastical  laws  made.  But  with  the  increase  of 
such  works,  contradictions  only  multiplied,  and  no  attempt  was 
made  to  remove  them.  Among  these  compilations,  that  by  Bur- 
chard,  Bishop  of  Worms,  about  1020,  that  by  Anselm,  Bishop 
of  Lucca  (ob.  1086),  and  that  by  Ivo,  Bishop  of  Chartres  (ob. 
1025),  were  the  best  known.  In  the  twelfth  century,  Gratian,  a 
Camaldulite  monk,  at  Bologna,  undertook  the  difficult  task  of 
making  a  complete  collection  of  these  laws,  and  of  solving  the 
contradictions  with  which  they  abounded,  by  means  of  certain 
scholastic  deductions.  The  work,  which  appeared  about  the 
year  1150,  under  the  title  "  Concorclantia  discordantium  cano- 
mim,"  commonly  bears  the  name  of  Decretum  Gratiani.     This 


420     SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.   10— 13  A.  D.). 

work  gave  a  fresh   impulse  to  the  study  of  ecclesiastical  law, 
especially  in  the  universities  of  Paris  and  Bologna.     "While  the 
so-called  Legist*  lectured  on  Roman  law,    the  Decretists  taught 
canonical  law,  wrote  commentaries  on  the  work  of  Gratian,  and 
made  compilations  similar  to  his.     To  put  a  stop  to  the  confu- 
sion which  threatened  to  ensue,  Gregory  IX.   commissioned,  in 
1234,  Raymundus  de  Pennaforti,  a  Dominican,  to  make  a  new 
compilation  (Decretnm  Gregorii,  consisting  of  five  books),  which, 
besides  the  older  decretals,  contained  his  own  and  those  of  his 
immediate  predecessors.     This  work  served  as  text-book  for  the 
lectures   delivered   at    Paris   and   Bologna.     To   this  collection 
Boniface  VIII.  added  a  sixth  book,  containing  his  own  decretals  ; 
and  lastly,  Clement  V.,  those  issued  under  his  pontificate,  with 
the  special  title  of  Clementina.     To  this  compilation  the  most 
important  decretals  of  later  popes  were  added,  in  the  year  1500, 
under  the  title  of  Extramgantes,  which  completed  the  Corpus 
juris  canonici. 


III.  THEOLOGICAL  SCIENCE  AND  CONTROVERSIES. 

Comp.  H.  Bitter,  Gesch.  d.  christl.  Philos.  Vols.  III.  IV.  By  the 
same  author,  Uebersicht  liber  d.  Gesch.  d.  scholast.  Philos.,  in  Retu- 
rner's hist.  Tascbenb.  Ill,  7,  p.  2G9  etc.  Lpz.  185G.  —  B.  Ilaureav,  la 
philos.  scolast.  2  Voll.  Par.  1850.  —  //.  Schmid,  d.  Mystic,  d.  M.  A.  in 
g.  Entstehungsper.  (Mystic,  of  the  M.  A.  dur.  the  Per.  of  its  Orig.). 
Jena  1824.  —A  Helfferich,  d.  christl.  Mystik  in  ihrer  Entw.  u.  ihr. 
•  Denkm.  (Chr.  Myst.,  its  Develop,  and  Momim.).  Gotha  1842.  2  Vols. 
—  J  Gorres,  d.  chr.  Myst.  Regensb.  1836.  3  Vols.  —  VaugTian,  Hours 
with  the  Mystics. 

\  100.  GENERAL  VIEW   OF   SCHOLASTICISM. 

Notwithstanding  the  intellectual  decay  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
that  period  witnessed  the  growth  of  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
productions  of  the  human  mind,  which  can  only  be  likened  to 
those  cathedrals  reared  in  the  Gothic  style.  Scholasticism, 
which  derived  its  name  from  the  cathedral  and  monastic  schools 
where  it  originated,  has  aptly  been  designated  as  "the  knight- 
hood of  theology."     In  liberality  and  enthusiasm,  loyalty  and 


GENERAL     VIEW     OF     SCHOLASTICISM.  421 

perseverance,  courage  and  ardour,  the  schoolmen  emulated  the 
knights  properly  so  called;  only  that  their  weapons  were  not 
the  sword  and  lance,  but  speculation  and  dialectics  ;  and  their 
ideal  not  knightly  honour,  but  ecclesiastical  orthodoxy.  It  was 
the  great  object  of  scholasticism  to  analyze  Christian  dogmas  by 
means  of  dialectics,  to  develop  them  by  speculation,  and  to  show 
their  inherent  truth  and  necessity.  Generally  speaking,  scholas- 
ticism adopted,  expounded,  and  defended  the  ecclesiastical  views 
already  in  vogue  (dogmatism)  ;  sometimes,  however,  a  sceptical 
tendency  also  appeared — at  least  for  a  time.  In  the  latter 
case,  certain  philosophical  principles  were  laid  down,  and  it  was 
attempted  by  means  of  these  to  harmonize  reason  with  ecclesias- 
tical dogmas.  Along  with  scholasticism,  sometimes  in  combina- 
tion, at  others  in  antagonism  with  it,  another  tendency  appeared. 
If  scholasticism  sought  rationally  to  elucidate  and  develop 
theology,  it  was  the  object  of  mysticism  to  apprehend  the 
salvation  offered  by  the  Church  not  by  means  of  the  intellect, 
but  by  the  feelings,  and  to  develop  it  not  by  dialectics,  but  by  in- 
ward contemplation.  These  intellectual  strivings,  which  con- 
tinued throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  may  historically  be  arranged 
into  four  periods,  each  of  which  almost  comprised  a  century.  1. 
The  first  traces  of  the  new  science  occur  during  the  tenth  century 
. —  a  period  in  other  respects  intellectually  barren,  and  aptly 
called  the  "  Seculnm  obscururn."  The  distinctive  features  of 
scholasticism,  however,  did  not  yet  appear.  2.  These  tendencies 
became  more  manifest  during  the  eleventh  century,  at  first  in  the 
form  of  dialectics,  which  again  took  either  a  sceptical  or  dog- 
matical turn,  and  led  to  a  contest  betwixt  these  two  directions. 
3.  During  the  twelfth  century,  mysticism  appeared  as  a  distinct 
tendency  by  the  side  of  the  dialectics  of  the  schoolmen.  The 
conflict  which  now  ensued  between  mysticism  and  sceptical 
dialectics  ultimately  ended  in  an  alliance  with  dogmatic  dialectics, 
which  proved  mutually  useful.  4.  During  the  thirteenth  century, 
dialectic  scholasticism,  or  dogmatism,  attained  its  highest  stage. 
Generally  speaking,  the  former  alliance  with  mysticism  was  con- 
tinued, although  some  of  the  schoolmen  again  tended  towards 
scepticism. 

1.  Nurseries  of  Scholasticism.  —  At  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century, 

Universities  Mere  planted  for  the  same  purposes  as  the  cathedral  and 

monastic  schools,  only  with  a  wider  range  of  subjects  in  view.     These 

seminaries   originated   independently  both  of  State  and  Church    of 

3G 


422      SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.   10—13  A.  D.). 

Emperor  and  Pope.  Celebrated  teachers  appeared  in  the  larger  cities, 
pupils  from  all  countries  gathered  around  them ;  by  and  by  other 
lecturers  joined  those  -who  had  first  taught  in  these  cities ;  and  then 
teachers  and  scholars  constituted  themselves  by  mutual  agreement  into 
an  independent  corporation,  and  thus  the  University  was  founded. 
But  tliis  designation  did  not  imply  anything  like  a  "universitas 
literarum,"  in  which  all  the  sciences  should  be  cultivated.  —  Separate 
faculties  for  different  sciences  did  not  as  yet  exist ;  and  where  the 
number  of  teachers  and  students  rendered  some  division  necessary,  it 
was  made  according  to  nations,  not  sciences.  The  name  University 
was  only  intended  to  designate  the  "universitas  magistrorum  et 
scholarium"  as  an  organised  society.  The  studies  carried  on  in  these 
seminaries  were  called  "  studium  generale  "  or  "universale,"  because 
every  person  had  free  access  to  the  lectures.  At  first  one  special  science 
was  particularly  —  sometimes  even  exclusively— cultivated  in  different 
universities.  Tims  theology  was  studied  at  Paris,  at  Oxford,  and  at  a 
later  period  at  Cologne;  jurisprudence  at  Bologna;  and  medicine  at 
Salerno.  The  first  university  expressly  founded  for  the  cultivation  of 
all  sciences  was  that  which  Frederic  II.  instituted  at  Naples  in  1224. 
Our  present  arrangement  into  faculties  originated  from  the  circum- 
stance, that  the  mendicant  orders  in  Paris,  being  proscribed  by  the 
other  teachers  in  the  University  (g  98,  4),  constituted  themselves  into 
a  separate  theological  faculty  (1259).  The  number  of  students  in  the 
universities  —  among. them  many  persons  advanced  in  life  —  was  very 
Large,  amounting  in  the  most  celebrated  seats  of  learning  occasionally 
to  from  10,000  to  20,000.  All  the  members  of  the  congregation  of 
Clugny  had  to  pass  through  a  curriculum  of  ten  years  (two  years  being 
devoted  to  Logicalia,  three  years  to  Literse  Naturales  et  Philosophic*, 
and  five  years  to  Theology).  The  Council  of  Tours  enjoined,  in  1236, 
that  every  priest  should  go  through  a  preparatory  course  of  five  years' 
study.  (Comp.  C.  E.  Bulceus,  Hist.  univ.  Paris,  et  aliarum  univers. 
Par.  1665.  6  Voll.  f. — A.  Wood,  Hist,  et  ant.  univ.  Oxon.  Oxon.  1674. 
2  Voll.  f.—Dubarle,  H.  de  l'Univ.  Par.  1829.— Orevier,  Hist,  de  l'Univ. 
de  Paris.  Par.  1761.  7  Tom.  12.  —  Clir.  Meiners,  Gesch.  d.  hohen  Schu- 
len.  [Hist,  of  Univ.].  Gottg.  1802.—  V.  A.  Huber,  d.  engl.Univ.  Cassel 
1839.  2  Vols.  —  F.  C.  v.  Savigny,  Gesch.  d.  rom.  Rechtes  in  M.  A.  Bd. 
Ill,  2.  A.  Heidelb.  1834.). 

2.  The  writings  of  Aristotle  were  introduced  among  the  learned  of 
the  West  by  the  Moors  of  Spain,  who  since  the  eleventh  century  had 
successfully  prosecuted  these  studies.  The  Philosophy  of  Scholas- 
ticism was  derived  from  the  dialectics  of  Aristotle,  whose  works  were 
translated  into  Latin,  either  from  the  Arabic  (with  tin'  Commentaries 
of  Avicenna,  oh.  1036,  of  Ghazali,  oh.  1111,  and  of  Averrhoes,  ob.  1217), 
or  else  directly  from  the  Greek.  Hitherto  tin'  philosophy  of  Aristotle 
had  only  been  known  at  second  hand,  chiefly  from  the  writings  of 
Boethius.     But  now,  when  scholars  had   the  opportunity  of  perusing 


GENERAL     VIEW     OF     SCHOLASTICISM.  423 

the  works  of  the  "master"  himself,  their  study  was  prosecuted  with 
great  enthusiasm.  At  the  commencement  of  the  thirteenth  century 
this  philosophy  was  for  a  short  time  in  disrepute,  and  the  study  of 
Aristotle  prohibited  by  ecclesiastical  ordinance — the  origin  of  the  pan- 
theistic sect  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (§  108,  2)  being  traced  to  the  teaching 
of  the  Stagyrite.  But  when  by  the  extinction  of  the  sect  this  danger 
was  at  an  end,  Gregory  IX.  again  authorized  the  favourite  study  (1231) ; 
and  such  was  the  esteem  in  which  Aristotle  was  held,  that  he  was 
ranked  with  John  the  Baptist  as  the  precursor  of  Christ,  and  that  on 
all  scientific  questions  his  writings  enjoyed  the  same  authority  in  the 
Church  as  that  of  the  Bible  and  tradition  in  matters  of  faith.  At  the 
same  time,  there  was  also  in  the  Middle  Ages  a  school  attached  to  the 
philosophy  of  Plato.  The  study  of  the  writings  of  Augustine  and  of 
the  Areopagite  pointed  towards  Platonism,  while  the  school  of  specu- 
lative mystics  was  always  opposed  to  the  exclusive  claims  set  up  on 
behalf  of  Aristotle.  —  Scholasticism  started  with  a  speculative  inquiry 
about  the  relation  subsisting  between  thinking  and  being,  or  between  the 
idea  of  a  thing  and  its  essence.  In  answer  to  this  question,  the  Nomi- 
nalists, following  up  the  views  of  the  Stoics,  maintained  that  those 
general  conceptions  or  generic  ideas  (universalia)  which  constitute  the 
common  essence  of  a  genus,  were  merely  intellectual  abstractions 
(nomina)  derived  from  the  common  properties  of  individual  objects, 
and  possessing  no  real  existence  beyond  the  human  intellect  (univer- 
salia post  res).  The  Realists,  on  the  other  hand,  insisted  on  the 
reality  of  these  general  conceptions,  and  believed  in  their  objective 
existence  prior  to  and  beyond  the  mere  thinking  of  man.  The  Realists 
were  divided  into  two  sections :  the  one,  adopting  the  Platonic  view  of 
ideas,  held  that  these  general  conceptions  existed  prior  to  the  actual 
origin  of  individual  objects,  being  their  archetypes  in  the  Divine  reason  ; 
and  that  hence  they  also  existed  in  the  intellect  of  man,  even  before  he 
came  to  the  contemplation  of  things  as  outwardly  presented  to  him 
(universalia  ante  res).  The  other  school  of  Realists,  following  in  the 
wake  of  Aristotle,  held  that  these  general  conceptions  were  inherent  in 
the  objects  themselves,  and  thence  passed  by  experience  into  the  intel- 
lect of  man  (universalia  in  rebus).  Hence  the  former  school  of  Real- 
ists expected  to  reach  the  essence  of  things  (or  truth)  by  pure  think- 
ing, through  the  ideas  innate  in  the  intellect  of  man,  while  the  second 
school  expected  to  attain  that  result  by  a  contemplation  of  things 
through  experience  and  thinking. 

3.  Object  and  Method  of  Scholastic  Theology. — The  theological  studies 
carried  on  during  the  rule  of  the  Carolingians  had  been  directed  exclu- 
sively to  practical  objects,  and  fostered  or  prosecuted  by  practical  men 
(such  as  princes,  bishops,  and  abbots)  with  the  view  of  meeting  present 
ecclesiastical  wants.  But  from  the  eleventh  century  this  was  no  longer 
the  case.  Gradually  practical  objects,  and  the  immediate  requirements 
of  the  Church,  gave  place  to  purely  scientific  pursuits.     Theological 


424      SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.   10—13  A.D.). 

studies  and  writings  now  breathe  a  spirit  of  speculation;  the  ancient 
dogmas  of  the  Church  are  explained  and  defended  in  a  philosophical 
manner  :  and  the  great  aim  is  to  convert  what  had  been  an  object  of  faith 
into  logical  truths,  and  to  arrange  Christian  doctrines  into  a  compact 
system.  For  this  purpose  the  schoolmen  employed  dialectics,  in  order 
by  means  of  it  to  resolve  and  analyze  the  dogmas  of  the  Church  into 
their  constituent  ideas,  to  explain  and  to  demonstrate  them,  to  marshal 
and  to  combat  all  possible  objections  raised  by  scepticism,  with  the 
view  of  thus  establishing  and  proving  the  rationality  of  the  dogmas 
of  the  Church.  Withal,  no  attempt  was,  however,  made  to  place  theso 
doctrines  on  an  exegetical  basis,  or  to  prove  their  truth  from  Scripture; 
philosophic  proof  was  the  only  object  sought,  and  dogmatics  and  ethics 
the  only  departments  of  scholastic  theology.  If  exegesis  was  at  all 
cultivated,  writers  either  adopted  the  old  allegorical  method  or  com- 
posed catena?,  while  historical  theology  was  entirely  neglected.  The 
mystics  among  the  schoolmen,  on  the  other  hand,  sought  more  than 
merely  to  understand,  to  vindicate,  and  to  compose  a  system  of  dog- 
matics. Thev  recommended  the  practice  of  contemplation,  by  which 
thinking  and  feeling  would  descend  directly  into  the  depths  of  Divine 
truth,  there  to  behold,  to  experience,  and  to  enjoy  what  was  Divine. 
The  necessary  condition  for  this  was  purity  of  heart,  deep  love  to  God, 
and  complete  abnegation  of  self.  What  had  thus  been  perceived  in 
contemplation,  discovered  by  means  of  speculation,  or  experienced  in 
immediate  contact  with  the  Divine,  was  afterwards  to  be  presented  in 
a  scientific  and  systematic  form. 

I  101.  THE  SECULUM  OBSCURUM  (TENTH  CENTURY). 

Comp.  A.  Yogel,  Ratherius  von  Verona  u.  d.  10  Jahrh.  Jen.  1854.  2 
y0]s.  —  ]\f,  Budinger,  liber  Gerbert's  wissenschaftl.  u.  pol.  Stellung. 
(On  the  Scientif.  and  Pol.  Place  of  Gerbert).  1  Sect.  Kass.  1851.—  Fr. 
Hock,  Gerbert  u.  s.  Jahrh.  Vienna  1837.  —  Gu.  Giesebrechf,  de  littera- 
rum  studiis  opud  Italos  primis  medii  aevi  sosculis.  Berol.  1845. 

The  darkness  and  ignorance  of  the  tenth  century,  which  also 
witnessed  the  deepest  decay  of  the  Papacy,  contrasts  most  un- 
favourably not  only  with  the  culture  and  the  science  which  at  the 
time  flourished  in  the  portion  of  Spain  subject  to  the  Moors, 
more  especially  at  the  celebrated  school  of  Cordova,  but  with 
the  learning  and  activity  of  the  Church  during  the  preceding 
(ninth)  century.  And  yet,  during  this  very  period  of  the 
Church's  deepest  decay,  and  of  the  complete  secularization  of 
the  clergy,  old  classical  heathenism  and  its  literature  were 
enthusiastically  cultivated  in  Italy.  Hut  all  this  stood  in  avowed 
opposition  to  Christian  theology  and  the  Church,  and  proclaimed 


THE     SECULUM     OBSCURUM.  425 

the  praises  of  the  most  ungodly  frivolity  and  the  most  unblushing 
sensuality.    A  grammarian,  Wilgard,  taught  publicly  in  Ravenna, 
that  Virgil,  Horace,  and  Juvenal,  were  incomparably  better  and 
nobler  than   Paul,  Peter,  or  John.     True,  the   Church  still  had 
sufficient  power  to  condemn  him  to  death,  as  a  heretic  ;  but  men 
of  his  spirit  abounded  in  the  cities  of  Italy,  including  clergymen 
no  less  than  others.     This  spirit  was  not  wholly  banished,  until 
the  influence  of  the  monks  of  Clugny,  the  efforts  of  Romaald, 
and  St.  Nilus,  combined  with  the  elevation  of  the  Church  through 
the  Saxon  Emperors,  for  its  suppression.— The  efforts  of  Alfred 
the  Great,  and  their  results,  ceased  with  the  life  of  that  monarch 
(ob.  901).     But    in    959    the    reformatory  labours    of   Dunstan 
(§  91)   were    crowned    with    success,  and    with    them    both  the 
interest  and  the  zeal  for  theological  and  national  culture  again 
revived  ;  while  the  connection  between  the  family  of  the  Emperor 
Otho  and  Byzance  proved  the  means  of  awakening,  also  out- 
side of  Italy,  a  desire  for  the  revival    of  classical  lore.     The 
imperial  chapel,  founded  by  Bruno    (Archb.   of   Cologne)   the 
brother  of   Otho   I,  became  the  nursery  of  the  higher  German 
clergy,    who    were    there     trained,    as    thoroughly    as   the    age 
allowed,  in  politics,  classics  and  theology.  —  Towards  the  close 
of  the  century,  the  literary  activity  of  the  Moors  attracted  the 
attention  of  Western    Christendom,  and    incited    to    imitation. 
Thus   the   seeds    of  learning   were    once    more    scattered   over 
Europe. 

1.  The  writings  of  Roswitha,   a  learned   nun  in   the   convent  of 

Grandersheim  (Helen  of  Rossow,  ob.  984),  who  made  religious  subjects 

the  test  of  comedies  composed  after  the  model  of  Terence,  may  serve  as 

index  of  the  classical  learning  of  that  period.     She  also  wrote  a  "  Car- 

mende  gestisOttonis  I,"  and  a  "  Carmen  de  primordiis  eoenobii  Gander- 

sheim"Cf.  Fr.  Loher,  Hrotswitha  u.  ihre  Zeit.  In  d.  Munch,  wissench. 

Vortr.  Braunschu.  1858;  p.  405  etc.  —  Dunstan  was  ably  supported  iu 

his  labours  by  Etiielwold,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  a  prelate  who  with 

his  followers  zealously  prosecuted  the  study  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  tongue. 

The  most  celebrated  of  his  pupils  was  Aelfric  of  Malmesbury,  a  monk, 

who  preached  in  the  Anglo-Saxon,  and  commenced  a  translation  of  the 

Bible  into  that  language.  —  Notker  Labeo,  Abbot  of  St  Gall,  ob.  1022, 

translated  the  Book  of  Psalms,  the  Organon  of  Aristotle,  the  -Moralia 

of  Gregory  the  Great,  and  a  number  of  the  tractates  of  Boethius  into 

the  old  German.     Ratiierius,  Bishop  of  Verona,  and  afterwards  of 

Lieges  (from  both  which  seats  he  was  repeatedly  expelled,  ob,  974), 

a  rigid  reformer  and  reprover  of  clerical  dissoluteness,  equally  insisted 

36* 


426    SECTION    II. —  SECOND    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.  10— 13  A.  D.). 

on  the  duty  of  studying  the  Bible,  and  censured  the  hare  heathenism  of 
the  learned  Italians,  as  well  as  work  righteousness,  superstition,  and  ev- 
ery kindof  ecclesiastical  abuse.  On  this  account,  and  from  his  attachment 
to  the  interests  of  Germany, he  frequently  suffered  persecution.  Ratherius 
was  certainly  the  ablest  divine  of  the  tenth  century.  Along  with  him 
we  mention  Atto,  Bishop  of  Vercelli,  distinguished  as  an  exegetieal 
writer,  a  preacher,  and  a  strenuous  advocate  of  the  Church  against  the 
oppression  of  the  secular  power  (de  pressuris  ecclesias) ;  ob.  9G0.  Odo 
of  Clugny  composed  hymns  and  homilies  ;  —  his  Collationum  LI.  III. 
contains  a  philippic  against  the  corrupt  morals  of  his  time.  Lastly, 
at  the  close  of  the  century,  we  have  Gerbert — ob.  1003 — a  man  versed 
in  classical  and  Arabic  lore,  highly  celebrated  as  a  theologian,  mathe- 
matician, astronomer,  and  natural  philosopher,  but  regarded  by  the 
people  as  a  magician.  His  presence  shed  for  the  last  time  a  passing 
lustre  on  the  school  of  Rheims.  —  Among  historians  of  the  tenth 
century,  Luitprand,  secretary  to  Otho  I.,  and  afterwards  Bishop  of 
Cremona,  ob.  972  (Antapodosis,  Hist,  of  Otho  I.)  ;  Flodoard  of  Rheims, 
ob.  900  (Hist.  eccl.  Rhemcnsis)  ;  Richer,  a  monk  and  pupil  of  Gerbert 
(author  of  a  history  of  his  own  time,  883-998)  ;  and  Widukind,  from 
940,  a  monk  at  New  Corbey  (author  of  a  Saxon  hist,  in  3  vols.)  — 
deserve  special  notice. 

?  102.  DIVISION  AMONG   THE   DIALECTICIANS  (ELEVENTH 

CENT.). 

When  in  the  eleventh  century  the  Church  rose  from  its  late 
decay,  the  ardour  for  scientific  literary  pursuits  also  revived. 
The  anxiety  so  generally  felt  to  put  an  end  to  former  abuses  and 
stagnation  manifested  itself  also  in  every  department  of  theologi- 
cal study.  At  first  this  new  zeal  appeared  chiefly  among  the 
Cistercian  monks  and  their  brethren  of  Clugny  ;  but  towards  the 
close  of  the  century  it  extended  to  the  various  universities.  The 
dialectic  method  was  now  almost  exclusively  employed  in  the 
discussion  of  theological  questions;  and  dogmatism  gained  its 
first  triumphs  over  scepticism  in  the  Eucharistic  controversy  be- 
tween Lanfranc  and  Berewgar,  in  that  concerning  the  existence 
of  Cod  between  Anselm  of  Canterbury  and  Gaunilo,  and  in  the 
discussion  between  that  prelate  and  Roscellinus  about  the 
Trinity. 

1.  The  series  of  schoolmen  opens  with  FtJLBERT,  a  pupil  of  Gerbert, 
and  from  1007  Bishop  of  Chartres.  Even  before  his  elevation  t..  the 
episcopate  he  founded  at  Chartres  a  theological  school.  His  fame 
spread    throughout    Western    Christendom,    and    students    from    all 


DIVISION    AMONG    THE    DIALECTICIANS.        427 

countries  attended  his  seminary.  —  One  lC  bis  pupils  was  Berengar 
of  Tours,  a  canon  and  teacher  in  the  cathedral  school  of  his  own  city, 
and  afterwards  Archdeacon  of  Angers.     His  fame  shed  great  lustre 
upon  the  school  of  Angers.     For  further  prrticulars  see  below.  —  Lax- 
franc,  the  antagonist  of  Berengar,  was  first  a  monk,  then  Abbot  of 
Bee  in  Normandy.     In  1070  he  was  elevated  to  the  archiepiscopal  See 
of  Canterbury.     Under  his  superintendence  the  school  of  Bee  attained 
its  highest  eminence.  —  Petrus  Damiani,  ob.  1072,  Cardinal-Bishop  of 
Ostia,  a  friend  of  Hildebrand,  and  a  zealous  supporter  of  his  views  on 
the    subject    of   simony,    of  clerical    purity,    monastic    austerity,  and 
priestly  celibacy.     His  tractrate,  "  Liber  Gomorrhianus,"  contains  an 
unsparing  exposure  of  the  vices  of  the  clergy.     His  own  indulgences 
consisted  in  retiring  into  his  cell,  there  to  scourge  himself  till  the  blood 
flowed  from  his  shoulders.  (A.  Vogel,  Petr.  Damiani,  Ein  Vortrag.  Jena 
1856.)  — Anfelm  of  Canterbury,  born  at  Aosta  in  Italy,  educated  in 
the  monastery  of  Bee,  of  which  he  was  afterwards  abbot,  and  finally 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  ob.  1109,  comp.    \  96,  5.     It  will  be   re- 
membered  that  his  courageous   defence   of  the  independence   of  the 
Church,  at  least  in  the  sense  of  Hildebrand,  cost  that  prelate  three 
years  of  exile.     Anselm  has  been  compared  to  St.  Augustine,  whose 
theology  he  adopted  and  developed.     By  a  rare  combination,  he  united 
acuteness  with  philosophic  depth  and  ardent  Christian  feeling  —  the 
practical  tendency  with  dialecticism,  and  even  mysticism.     Like  his 
great  model,  he  regarded  faith  as  the  necessary  condition  of  all  true 
knowledge,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  he  aimed  at  elevating  belief  into 
knowledge  ("  credo  ut  intelligam").     His  most  celebrated  tractate  was 
that  on  the  Incarnation  of  God    ("Cur  Deus  homo?"),  in  which  he 
defended,  on  philosophical  grounds,  and  developed  the  doctrine  of  the 
vicarious  atonement.     Best  ed.  of  his  writings  by    G.  Gerberon,  Par. 
1075  f.  Comp.  G.  F.  Frank,  Anselm  von  Canterb.  Tlibg.  1842.— F.  R. 
Basse,  Ans.  v.  C.  Leips.  1843,  1852.  2  Vols.     C.  de.  Remusat,  Ans.  de 
Cant,  transl.  into  German  by  AVUrzbach. — Anselmus  of  Laox  (Laudu- 
nensis),  surnamed  Scholasticus,  a  pupil  of  his  namesake  of  Canterbury. 
From  1076  he  lectured  with  great  success  at  Paris,  where  indeed  he 
may  be  said  to  have  originated  the  University.    Afterwards  he  returned 
to  Laon,  became  archdeacon  and  scholasticus,  and  founded  a  theologi- 
cal school;  ob.  1117.     His  theological  views  were  the  same  as  those  of 
his    teacher.     His    "  Glossa    interlinearis "    (being   the  Vulgate  with 
brief  interlineal   exposition)  and   Walafrid's    Gl.  ordinaria  ($  90,  6) 
were  favourite  exegetical  manuals  of  the  Middle  Ages.  —  William  of 
CnAMPEAUX  (De  Campellis),  the  real  founder  of  the  University  of  Paris. 
He  had  for  some   time  lectured  with    great    success  in   that   city  on 
rhetoric  and  dialectics,  when  the  fame  of  Anselm  brought  him  to  Laon. 
He  returned  to  Paris  in  1108,  delivered  theological  lectures,  and  became 
archdeacon.     Every    year    the    number    of    his    students    increased. 
Ainonj  them  was  Abelard,  whose  arrogance  and  continual  disputations, 


4?8     SECTION    II. — SECOND   PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.  10— 13  A.  D.). 

in  which  the  celebrated  teacher  ultimately  had  to  own  himself  worsted, 
so  embittered  his  existence,  that  he  retired  from  the  chair.13  He  died  in 
1113  as  Bishop  of  Chalons.  —  Among  the  chroniclers  of  this  century 
we  mention  the  names  of  Ditmar,  Bishop  of  Merseburg,  ob.  1018  ; 
Hermann  the  Lame  (Contractus),  a  monk  at  Reich enau,  ob.  1054: 
Makianus  Seotus,  a  monk  at  Mayence,  ob.  1086 ;  Lambert,  a  monk  at 
Hcrsfeld,  ob.  1100  (Chronicon  historicnm  apud  Germanos) ; — as  Church 
historians  Adam  of  Bremen  (Gestallammen-burgens.  eccles.  Pontificum, 
from  788-1072)  ;  as  Danish  historians  Saxo  Gramm.,  ob.  12(14  (Hist. 
Danica  to  1186).  Amatus  of  Salerno  wrote  a  history  of  the  Normans 
in  Italy. 

2.  Eucharistic   Controversy  of  Berengar  (1050-1079). — Berengar  of 
Tours  had  adopted  views  concerning  the  Eucharist  in  direct  opposition 
to  the  prevailing  theory  of  Radbertus  on  the  subject.     He  taught  that 
the  elements  were  indeed  changed,  and  that  the  body  of  Christ  was 
really  present  in  the  Eucharist;  but  he  denied  that  this  change  Avas 
one  of  substance,  or  the  presence  one  of  essence  (essentialiter).     The 
presence  of  the  body  of  Christ  consisted  in  that  of  His  power  in  these 
elements,  and  the  change  of  the  bread  in  the  real  manifestation  of  this 
power   under   the   form   of  the   bread.     But  in   order   to   secure  the 
presence  of  this  power,  consecration  alone  was  not  sufficient ;  it  also 
needed  faith  on  the  part  of  him  who  partook  of  it,  without  which  the 
bread  remained  an  empty  and  powerless  sign.     These  views  he  dis- 
seminated among  his  numerous  pupils  at  Tours  and  Angers,  without 
for  some  time  meeting  with  opposition.     But  when  he  expressed  them 
in   an    epistle    addressed  to  Lanfranc,  that  divine   entered   the   lists 
against  him.     At  a  synod  held   in  Home  (1050),  he  was  condemned 
unheard;  at  another  synod  held  the  same  year  at  Vercelli,  before  which 
Berengar  would  have  appeared,  if  in  the  meantime  he  had  not  been 
imprisoned  in  France,   the  tractate  of  Ratramnus  on   the  Eucharist 
(which  was  erroneously  ascribed  to  Erigena)  was,  in  an  excess  of  zeal, 
torn  to  pieces  and  consigned  to  the  flames,  and  the  views  of  Berengar 
were  again  condemned.     Meantime  Berengar  had,  by  the  intercession 
of  influential  friends,  been  restored  to  liberty,  and  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Ilildebrand,  at  that  period  legate  of  the  Pope.     While  llilde- 
brand  believed  the  simple  doctrine  of  the  scriptures,  that  the  bread  and 
wine  in  the  sacrament  were  really  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  he 
probably  took  a  middle  view,  equally  avoiding  the  gross  literalism  of 
Radbertus  and  the  opinions  of  Berengar.     The  legate  disapproved  of 
the  fanaticism  displayed  by  the  opponents  of  Berengar,  ami  at  a  synod 
held  in  Tours  (1054)  declared  himself  satisfied  with  a  statement  upon 
oath,  that  so  far  from  denying  the  presence  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist, 
he  regarded  the  consecrated  elements  as  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ. 
But  even  this  formal  acquittal  did  not  satisfy  the  opponents  of  Beren- 
gar, wlio  accordingly  in  1059  undertook  a  journey  to  Rome,  in  the  hope 
uf  securing,  through  the  influence  of  Ilildebrand,  the  protection  of  the 


DIVISION     AMONG     THE    DIALECTICIANS.  429 

Papal  See.  His  expectations  were  doomed  to  disappointment,  and  he 
found  himself  confronted  by  a  powerful  party,  under  the  leadership 
of  Cardinal  Humbert.  At  a  synod  held  in  Rome  (1059)  the  unprinci- 
pled man  was  obliged  to  consign  his  writings  to  the  flames,  and  to 
subscribe  a  formula  which  in  its  gross  literalism  went  far  beyond  even 
the  expressions  used  by  Radbertus.  On  his  return  to  France  he  re- 
tracted his  subscription,  and  once  more  defended,  against  Lanfranc 
and  others,  his  former  views.  This  step  excited  a  fresh  storm.  Hilde- 
brand,  who  in  the  meantime  had  been  elevated  to  the  Papacy  (in  1073), 
vainly  endeavoured  to  allay  the  dispute  by  getting  Berengar  to  sub- 
scribe a  formula  which,  in  temperate  language,  asserted  the  real 
presence  in  the  Eucharist.  The  opposite  party  even  ventured  to 
attaint  the  orthodoxy  of  the  Pope  himself;  and  Hildebrand  was  obliged, 
at  a  second  synod  held  in  Rome  (1079),  to  insist  upon  a  full  and  un- 
ambiguous declaration  of  belief  in  the  conversion  of  the  substance  of 
the  elements.  Berengar  was  bold  enough  to  appeal  to  his  private 
interviews  with  the  Pope, — when  Hildebrand  ordered  him  immediately 
to  fall  down  and  abjure  his  errors.  Berengar  tremblingly  obeyed,  and 
was  dismissed  with  testimonials  of  orthodoxy,  and  the  injunction  to 
abstain  from  further  discussions.  Bent  under  the  weight  of  years  and 
sorrows,  he  retired  to  the  island  of  St.  Come,  near  Tours,  where  he 
lived  in  solitude  and  penitence,  a  rigid  ascetic,  and  died,  in  1088,  at  a 
very  advanced  age,  reconciled  to  the  Church.  —  The  principal  treatise 
of  Berengar,  "  de  Coena  s.  adv.  Lafranc,"  was  discovered  by  Lessing 
in  the  library  of  Wolfenbiittel,  and  has  been  edited  by  Yischer,  Berol. 
1834.  —  (Comp.  Lessing,~Qev.  Turon.  od.  Anklind.  e.  wicht.  Werkes 
dess.  (or  Notice  of  an  import.  Tract,  of  his).  Bruns.  1770.  4  ;  H.  Su- 
dendorf,  Be;-.  Tur.  od.  e.  Sammlung  ihn  betr.  Br.  (or  a  Collect,  of 
Letters  concern,  him).    Hamb.  1850.) 

3.  Controversies  of  Anselm. — I.  Following  up  his  philosophical  views 
a3  a  Realist,  Anselm  of  Canterbury  deduced  an  ontological  and  a  priori 
argument  for  the  being  of  a  God,  and  maintained  that  the  idea  of  an 
entirely  perfect  Being  was  inherent  in  reason,  real  existence  forming 
one  of  the  necessary  attributes  of  this  Being.  This  argumentation  he 
embodied  in  two  treatises,  the  Monologium  and  the  Proslogium.  The 
unsatisfactory  character  of  this  ratiocination,  however,  was  ably  ex- 
posed by  Gaunilo  of  Marmontiers,  an  Aristotelian  Realist,  who,  in 
answer  to  Anselm,  wrote  the  "Liber  pro  insipiente"  (as  Anselm  had 
asserted  that  only  an  "  insipiens"  would  deny  that  the  existence  of  God 
could  be  demonstrated).  Anselm  replied  in  a  tractate  entitled  "Apo- 
logeticus  c.  Gaunilonem,"  and  the  discussion  terminated  without  lead- 
ing to  any  definite  result.  —  II.  Of  greater  importance  was  the  contro- 
versy between  Anselm  and  Roscelj.imjs,  a  canon  of  Compiegne.  The 
latter,  a  Nominalist,  asserted  that  our  generic  conception  of  the  Deity 
was  only  an  intellectual  abstraction,  and  that  the  three  Persons  of  the 
Godhead  could  not  be  spoken  of  as  Una  Res  (pvalo.),  as  otherwise  they 


430     SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.   10— 13  A.  D.). 

must  all  have  become  incarnate  in  Christ.     In  a  tractate,  entitled  "De 
fide  trinitatis  et  de  incarnatione  verbi-  contra  blasphemias  Rucelini," 

Anselm  showed  the  fallacy  of  this  argumentation.     A  synod  held  at 
Soissons  in  1092  condemned  Roscellmus  as  a  Tritheist. 


1 103.  SEPARATION  AND  REUNION  OF  DIALECTICS  AND 

MYSTICISM. 

In  the  writings  of  Anselm  dialectics  and  mysticism  had  still 
been  united ;  soon  afterwards,  however,  their  champions  were 
marshalled  in  opposite  camps.  The  great  representative  of  dia- 
lectic scepticism  was  Abelard,  a  man  of  singular  boldness  and 
acuteness,  who  had  already  come  victorious  out  of  many  a  con- 
test. But  he  was  obliged  to  succumb  before  his  great  opponent, 
St.  Bernard.  Of  less  importance  was  the  discussion  between 
Bernard  and  Gilbertvs  Porretanus. — After  the  defeat  of  Abe- 
lard, the  tendency  which  he  represented  was  for  a  considerable 
time  in  the  minority,  nor  indeed  did  it  ever  again  assert  itself  in 
the  same  daring  and  reckless  manner.  In  fact,  dialectics  was 
now  chiefly  employed  in  the  support  and  explanation  of  the 
dogmas  of  the  Church.  Thus  mysticism  and  dialectics  were  once 
more  reconciled  and  combined  for  a  common  purpose.  This 
union  was  accomplished  by  Petrus  Lornbardus,  so  far  as  dialec- 
tics, and  by  Hugo  of  St.  "Victor,  so  far  as  mysticism  was  con- 
cerned. The  combination  proved  mutually  helpful  ;  dialectics 
gained  in  depth  and  ardour,  mysticism  acquired  scientific  dis- 
tinctness and  precision.  —  But  even  at  that  time  men  were  not 
wanting  who  perceived  and  exposed  the  defects  and  dangers  of 
scholasticism,  however  much  it  was  in  repute  at  the  period. 
Such  divines  chiefly  inveighed  against  the  neglect  of  Scripture 
in  the  study  of  theology,  against  the  barrenness  of  scholastic 
speculations  so  far  as  the  Christian  life  was  concerned,  and  the 
vain  wrangling  and  pedantry  of  the  schoolmen. 

1.  The  Separation. — Petrus  Abelard  was  born  in  1079  at  Palais  in 
Brittany.  In  acuteness,  learning,  dialectic  readiness,  and  boldness  of 
speculation,  as  well  as  in  arrogance  and  disputatiousness,  he  far  Bur- 
passed  all  his  contemporaries.  In  Paris  he  attended  the  lectures  of 
William  of  Champeaux,  the  most  celebrated  dialectician  of  his  age. 
But  soon  the  pupil  silenced  his  teacher  in  public  discussion.  Abelard 
settled  in  Melun  near  Paris,  -where  thousands  of  students  attended  his 
prelections.  Soon  afterwards  he  transported  his  school  to  Corbeil  in 
order  to  be  nearer  Paris,  and  thence  to  the  walls  of  that  capital.     Nor 


DIALECTICS     AND     MYSTICISM.  431 

did  he  cease  to  provoke  and  to  humble  William,  till  the  latter  had  to 
give  place  to  him.  In  the  hope  'of  attaining  yet  greater  distinction, 
Abelard  now  commenced  the  study  of  theology,  under  the  tuition  of 
Anselm  of  Laon.  Very  soon,  however,  the  arrogant  student  deemed 
himself  superior  to  this  teacher  also.19  He  returned  to  Paris,  where 
once  more  a  crowd  of  enthusiastic  students  gathered  around  him.  A 
canon,  Fulbert,  engaged  him  to  instruct  his  niece  Heloise  —  a  woman 
equally  distinguished  for  beauty,  talent,  and  learning.  Abelard  gained 
her  affections;  but  refusing  to  bear  the  name  of  his  wife,  in  order  to 
enable  her  lover  to  attain  the  highest  dignities  in  the  Church,  she  was 
clandestinely  married  to  him.  As  Heloise  persisted  in  denying  this 
marriage,  and  on  that  account  was  harshly  used  by  her  relatives,  Abe- 
lard carried  her  off  to  the  nunnery  of  Argenteuil.  The  revenge  of 
Fulbert  was  fearful ;  Abelard  was  surprised  during  the  night,  and 
mutilated.  In  shame  and  despair  he  fled  to  the  monastery  of  St.  Denis ; 
Heloise  took  the  veil  at  Argenteuil.  But  his  former  pupils  followed 
him  to  St.  Denis ;  and,  yielding  to  their  entreaties,  he  resumed  his  lec- 
tures. The  supercilious  and  sarcastic  manner  in  which  he  discussed 
the  doctrines  of  the  Church,  excited  powerful  opposition ;  and  at  the 
Synod  of  Soissons,  in  1121,  Abelard  was  obliged  to  consign  his  text- 
book on  theology  (Introductio  in  theologiam)  to  the  flames,  and  was 
condemned  to  imprisonment  in  a  monastery.  By  the  intercession  of 
friends,  he  was  again  restored  to  liberty,  and  allowed  to  return  to  St. 
Denis.  But  when  he  published  the  discovery  that  Dionysius  of  Paris 
had  been  a  different  person  from  the  Areopagite,  he  was  exposed  to 
such  violent  persecution  on  the  part  of  the  monks,  as  to  render  it  neces- 
sary for  him  to  flee  into  a  wood  near  Troyes.  Thither  also  his  pupils 
followed,  and  prevailed  upon  him  again  to  resume  his  lectures.  His 
hermitage  became  transformed  into  the  large  Abbacy  of  "the  Para- 
clete." Renewed  persecutions  induced  him  to  transfer  this  cloister  to 
Heloise,  who  in  the  meantime  had  become  Abbess  of  Argenteuil,  in 
which  capacity  she  had  met  with  opposition  from  her  nuns.  Abelard 
himself  became  abbot  of  a  monastery  in  Brittany.  After  having  for 
eight  years  vainly  endeavoured  to  restore  its  monastic  discipline,  he 
once  more  appeared  as  teacher  at  St.  Genevieve,  near  Paris.  He  wrote 
a  work  on  ethics,  entitled  "  Scito  te  ipsum  ;"  re-edited  his  former 
manual,  under  the  title  "  Theologize  Christiana?  LI.  V. ;"  and,  by  way 
of  exposing  the  follies  of  traditionalism,  composed  a  tractate,  "Sic  et 
non,"  which  presented  in  juxtaposition  a  number  of  contradictory  pas- 
sages from  the  Fathers.  His  prelections  excited  great  sensations.  St. 
Bernard  was  now  induced  to  oppose  views  which  were  deemed  so  dan- 
gerous. At  a  synod  held  in  Sens  (1140),  Abelard  was  declared  a 
heretic.  Pope  Innocent  II.  condemned  the  writings  impeached  to  the 
flames,  and  their  author  to  imprisonment  in  a  monastery.  His  last 
years  were  spent  in  retirement  at  Clugny,  where,  by  intercourse  with 
Peter  the  Venerable,  his  spirit  mellowed.     Ultimately  a  reconciliation 


432     SECTION   II.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (CENT.  10—13  A  D.). 

was  also  effected  between  him  and  St.  Bernard.  He  died  in  1 142. — 
Reversing  the  statements  of  Augustine  and  of  Anselm,  that  faith  must 
precede  knowledge,  Abelard  maintained  that  only  what  was  known 
could  he  believed.  Though  professedly  aiming  to  employ  dialectics  in 
defence  of  the  teaching  of  the  Church,  yet,  as  he  commenced  by  calling 
everything  in  question,  he  transformed  each  dogma  into  a  problem 
which  required  to  be  proved  before  it  could  be  received.  Thus  faith 
became  merely  an  intellectual  act,  while  at  the  same  time  the  objects 
of  faith  were  frequently  narrowed  to  bring  them  in  accordance  with 
the  requirements  of  supposed  rationality.  This  remark  applies  espe- 
cially to  the  views  of  Abelard  about  the  Trinity,  which  little  differed 
from  the  ancient  heresy  of  Sabellian  Modalism. — (Comp.  F.  C.  Schlos- 
ser,  Abalard  u.  Dulcin,  Leben  e.  Schwarmers  u.  e.  Philosophen.  Goth. 
1807.  — J.  Wilkens,  Pet,  Abal.  Brem.  1855.  —  M.  Carriere,  Ab.  u. 
Hcloise.  Giesscn.  1844.—/.  L.  Jacohi,  Ab.  u.  Hel.  Berl.  1850. 

Gilbert  de  la  Porree  (Porretanus)  —  teacher  of  theology  at  Paris, 
and  from  1142  Bishop  of  Poictiers,  ob.  1154  —  soon  afterwards  excited 
a  fresh  controversy.  A  rigid  Realist,  he  was  led  to  ascribe  such  real 
existence  to  the  universale  God,  that  in  his  hands  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  became  almost  transformed  into  one  of  Quaternity.  His  views 
were  opposed  by  St.  Bernard,  and  condemned  by  the  Synod  of  Rheims 
in  1148  ;  but  Gilbert  himself  was  not  further  molested. 

History  has  recorded  the  names  of  few  personages  who  exercised  a 
greater  influence  on  their  cotemporaries,  than  Bernard  of  Clairvaux 
(g  98,  2)  ;  ob.  1153.  Regarded  in  popular  esteem  as  able  to  work 
miracles,  and  endowed  with  a  gift  of  rare  eloquence,  he  was  both  the 
support  and  the  reprover  of  the  vicars  of  Christ,  and,  while  restoring 
peace  among  princes,  ever  stood  forward  an  avenger  of  wrongs.  His 
deep  humility  induced  him  to  refuse  ecclesiastical  promotion  ;  his 
attachment  to  the  hierarchy  did  not  hinder  his  exposing  its  many 
abuses  and  scandals ;  the  power  of  his  eloquence  kindled  throughout 
Europe  the  enthusiasm  requisite  for  a  second  crusade,  and  restored 
many  heretics  and  fanatics  to  the  bosom  of  the  Church.  "While  him- 
self seeking  heavenly  things,  and  leading  a  life  of  contemplation, 
prayer,  and  study,  he  seemed  almost  to  rule  upon  earth,  and,  by  his 
advice,  admonition,  and  reproof,  influenced  all  departments  and  rela- 
tionships. In  him  sincere  attachment  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Church 
was  combined  with  ardent  mysticism  of  a  practical  and  contemplative 
character.  Like  Abelard,  he  controverted  the  great  theological  axiom 
of  Anselm — only  from  a  different  point  of  view.  The  theology  which 
he  loved  was  not  one  whose  great  object  it  was  to  elevate  faith  into 
knowledge  by  means  of  speculation,  but  rather  to  make  the  light  of 
faith  more  clear  and  bright  by  sanctification  of  the  heart  and  life.  Not 
that  Bernard  was  opposed  to  scientific  researches ;  but  the  dialectic 
wrangling  of  an  Abelard,  which  recklessly  undermined  the  eternal 
foundations  of  saving  truth,  in  order  to  rear  them  again  in  a  manner 


DIALECTICS     AND     MYSTICISM.  433 

conformable  to  his  ideas  and  for  purposes  of  self-exaltation,  appeared 
to  him  equally  destructive  of  all  true  theology  and  of  the  sanctifying 
influences  of  faith.  In  his  view  only  a  theology  of  the  heart,  based 
on  inward  piety,  and  fostered  by  prayer,  contemplation,  inward  en- 
lightenment, and  sanctification,  constituted  true  divinity.  (Tantun* 
Deus  cognoscitur,  quantum  diligitur.— Orando  facilius  quam  disputando 
et  dignius  Deus  quaeritur  et  invenitur.)  During  his  discussion  with 
Abelard  he  wrote  the  "  Tractatus  de  Erroribus  Petri  Abfelardi."  Among 
his  other  works  the  most  important  is  that  "de  Consideratione  LI.  V.," 
in  which,  with  the  affection  of  a  friend,  the  earnestness  of  a  teacher, 
and  the  boldness  of  a  prophet,  he  set  before  Pope  Eugene  III.  both  the 
duties  and  the  dangers  of  his  position.  All  the  depth  and  ardour  of 
his  devout  mysticism  found  utterance  in  his  commentary  on  the  Book 
of  Canticles.  Bernard  was  canonized  by  Alexander  III.  in  1173,  and 
in  1830  Pope  Pius  VIII.  solemnly  received  him  into  the  number  of  the 
great  Latin  Fathers  (Doctores  ecclesiae:  Ambrose,  Jerome,  Augustine, 
Gregory  the  Great). — (Comp.  Neander,  The  Life  and  Times  of  St.  Ber- 
nard; transl.  by  Matilda  Wrench.  Lond.  1843. —  C.  Ellendorf,  Bernh. 
v.  Clairvaux  u.  s.  Zeitalt.  Essen  1837.  —  Th.  Ratisbonne,  Hist,  de  S. 
Bernarde.  2  Vols.  Par.) 

2.  Reconciliation. — Among  the  seats  of  learning  in  which  it  waa 
attempted  to  combine  scholasticism  with  mysticism,  the  most  distin- 
guished was  that  "  a  Sancto  Victore,"  a  monastery  at  Paris,  which 
William  of  Champeaux  founded  after  he  had  given  way  before  Abelard. 
But  this  new  school  may  be  said  to  have  originated  with  Hugo  a  St. 
Victore,  the  scion  of  a  noble  German  family,  a  friend  of  St.  Bernard, 
and  the  real  successor  of  Anselm.  His  cotemporaries  were  wont  to 
designate  him  as  "  alter  Augustinus,"  or  "  lingua  Augustini.'--  Tantum 
Deus  cognoscitur,  quantum  diligitur.  Tantum  de  veritate  quisque 
potest  videre,  quantum  ipse  est.)  Hugo  was  one  of  the  profoundest 
thinkers  of  the  Middle  Ages,  a  man  of  great  learning,  enthusiastically 
devoted  to  study,  and  at  the  same  time  of  warm  and  deep  affections. 
Though  carried  off  in  the  prime  of  life,  he  exercised  a  beneficial  influ- 
ence upon  his  age,  on  which  he  left  the  impress  of  his  mind  (ob.  1141). 
His  principal  work  is  entitled  :  De  sacramentis  fidei  christians)  LI.  II. 
(Comp.  A.  Licbner,  Hugo  v.  St.  Victor  u.  d.  theol.  Richtungen  sr.  Zeit. 
Leips.  1832.) — The  exposure  of  Abelard's  errors  and  his  condemnation, 
made  professed  students  of  dialectics  more  careful ;  they  adhered  more 
closely  to  the  dogmas  of  the  Church,  which  they  endeavoured  to  explain 
and  support,  and,  after  the  precedent  of  Augustine  and  Anselm,  intro- 
duced certain  mystical  elements  into  their  favourite  science.  Among 
the  representatives  of  this  school,  Petrus  Lombardus,  teacher,  and 
from  1159  Bishop  of  Paris  (ob.  11G4),  was  the  most  celebrated.  Like 
Hugo,  whom  he  surpassed  in  dialectic  talent,  but  not  in  depth  of  intel- 
lect or  of  heart,  he  was  a  friend  of  St.  Bernard.  His  celebrated  manual 
of  dogmatics  (Sententiarum  LI.  IV,),  which  procured  for  him  the  title 
37 


434     SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T  .  10— 13  A.  D.) 

"  magister  sententiarum,"  consists  of  a  collection  of  doctrinal  statements 
from  the  Fathers,  strung  together  and  connected  by  the  author  accord- 
ing to  the  favourite  dialectic  method.  Himself  was  wont  to  compare 
bis  work  t.i  the  widow's  mite  cast  into  the  treasury  of  the  Church  ;  hut 
it  became  the  great  standard  of  orthodoxy  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
was  frequently  edited  with  commentaries,  and  finally  obtained  the 
solemn  sanction  of  the  Church  at  the  Lateran  Council  in  1215.  Besides 
Lombardus,  Alanus  ab  Insulis  deserves  special  mention.  He  was 
born  at  Lille  or  Ryssel  (Lat,  Insukoe),  educated  under  Bernard  of  Clair- 
vaux,  and  afterwards  became  Rector  of  the  University  of  Paris  and 
Bishop  of  Auxerre.  Alanus  died  in  1203  at  Clairvaux,  whither  he  had 
retired  in  1107.  A  peculiarity  in  that  writer  was  his  strictly  mathe- 
matical method  of  demonstration  (almost  like  that  of  the  school  of 
Wolf  in  the  eighteenth  century).  Among  other  tractates,  he  wrote 
"  de  fide  catholica  contra  Waldenses,  Albigenses,  Judseos  et  Paganoa 
8.  Mohametanos." 

3.  Renewed  Controversies.  —  After  the  death  of  Hugo  the  school  of 
St.  Victor  gradually  gave  up  its  former  interest  in  dialectics.     Even 
the  successor  of  Hugo,  Richard  a  St.  Victore  (ob.  1173),  characterized 
the  method  of  Lombardus  as  too  dry  and  barren  (comp.  Engelhardt, 
Rich,  of  St.  Vict,  and  John  Ruysbroek.     Erl.  1838).  —  The  following 
abbot,  Walter  of  St.  Victor,  published,  in  1180,  a  virulent  tractate, 
"  Contra  quatuor  labyrinthos  Franciae  s.  contra  manifestas  baereses, 
quas  Abadardus,  Lombardus,  Petrus  Pictaviensis  et  Gilbertus  Pone- 
tanus  libris  sententiarum  suarum  acuunt,  limant,  roborant  LI.  IV." 
He  accused  Lombardus  of  Nihilism,  because  he  had  maintained  that 
since  the   human   nature  of  Christ  was   impersonal.  He  was  in  that 
respect  not  an  aliquid,  i.  e.,  an  individual. — More  moderate  in  the  tone 
of  his  opposition  was  Jons  of  Salisbury,  the  faithful  friend  of  St. 
Becket,  and  afterwards  Bishop  of  Chartres  (ob.  1182).     In  his  "  Poly- 
craticus  s.  de  nugis  curialium  et  vestigiis  pbilosophorum  LI.  VIII."  he 
predicted  that,  in  its  anxiety  for  scientific  form,  scholasticism  would  by 
and  by  lose  all  divine  substance..    (Comp.  H.  Renter,  John   of  Sal. 
Bcrl.  1843.)  — Petrus  Cantor,  teacher  of  theology  at  Paris,  and  after- 
wards Bishop  of  Tournay  (ob.  1197),  showed,  in  his  "  Sumraa  Theolo- 
gize," that  all  the  doctrines  necessary  for  salvation  might  and  should 
be  deduced  directly  from  the  Scriptures.     The  Commentaries  on  Isaiah 
and  on  the  Epistlesof  Paul,  which  IlERVEUSof  Bourgdieu,  aBenedictine, 
published  about  1130,  contained  a  most  accurate  ami  clear  exposition 
of  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith.  —  More  earnestly  than  any 
other  divine  in  the  Middle  Ages,   Rupert,  Abbot  of  Deutz,  at  the 
beginning  of  this  century,   insisted  on  the  necessity  of  studying  the 
Word  of  God.     To  him  the  Bible  appeared  the  great  text-book  for  all 

ages  and  i pics,  and  the  field  where  the  precious  pearl  of  salvation 

lay  concealed,  which  every  person, whose  vision  faith  had  enlightened, 
might  there  discover.     But  with  all  his  veneration  for  t\ie  Scriptures, 


HIGHEST     STAGE     OF     SCHOLASTICISM.  435 

he  saw  not  the  absolute  necessity  of  eliciting,  in  the  first  place,  the 
literal  meaning  of  the  text,  and  rather  endeavoured  by  means  of  alle- 
gorical interpretaions  to  bring  out  the  dogmatic  and  mystic  import  of 
the  Word,  although  he  seems  to  have  consulted  the  Hebrew  and  Greek 
text.  Kupert  wrote  commentaries  on  most  of  the  Biblical  books,  au 
explanation  of  the  Liturgy  (de  Divinis  officiis),  a  "  Dialogus  intei 
Christianum  et  Judasum,"  etc.  On  the  subject  of  the  Eucharist,  he 
adopted  the  view  known  as  that  of  consubstantiation  (since  it  wag 
not  the  way  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  "  destruere  vel  corrumpere  substantiam, 
quam  in  usus  suos  assumit,  sed  substantias,  permanenti  quod  erat, 
invisibiliter  adjicere,  quod  non  erat").     Rupert  died  in  1135. 

4.  The  most  celebrated  among  the  Historians  of  this,  century  were  : 
Sigbertvs  Gcmblacensis,  monk  at  Gemblours,  ob.  1113;  Otlw,  Bishop 
of  Freisingen,  ob.  1158,  the  author  of  a  Chronicon  in  eight  books ; 
Martinus  Gallus,  c.  1113,  (Chron.  Polonorum)  ;  Cosmas  Pragensis,  ob. 
1125,  (Chron.  Bremor.)  ;  Helmold,  c.  1170,  (Chron.  Slavorum)  ;  an 
English  Benedictine,  Odericus  Vitalis,  of  Normandy,  who  wrote  a  hist, 
ecclest.  in  thirteen  books,  and  Hist.  Normannorum  LI.  13;  William  of 
Mahnesbury,  ob.  1143,  (de  reb.  gest.  Anglorum ;  de  reb.  gest.  Pontiff. 
Anglor.,  etc.). 

§  104.  HIGHEST  STAGE  OF  SCHOLASTICISM  (13TH  CENT.). 

Mediaeval  Theology  attained  its  highest  stage  in  the  thirteenth 
century.  After  the  defeat  of  William  of  St.  Amour  (§  98,  4), 
the  direction  of  theological  studies  was  almost  wholly  left  to  the 
Dominican  and  Franciscan  monks.  Scholasticism,  which  had 
now  got  rid  of  all  sceptical  tendencies,  was  chiefly  cultivated  in 
the  University  of  Paris.  The  introduction  of  the  writings  of 
Aristotle,  which  had  lately  been  imported  from  the  seats  of 
Moorish  literature  in  Spain  (§  100,  2),  gave  a  considerable  im- 
pulse to  the  labours  of  the  schoolmen.  The  variety  and  richness 
of  form  characteristic  of  that  philosophy  became  now  for  the  first 
time  fully  known.  These  logical  forms  were  adopted  and  em- 
ployed in  the  construction  of  systems  of  dogmatics,  and  afforded 
opportunity  for  all  the  acuteness  and  ingenuity  of  the  schoolmen. 
Scholasticism  addressed  itself  exclusively  to  the  elucidation  of 
ecclesiastical  dogmas  by  means  of  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle. 
To  Scripture  these  divines  appealed  not ;  yet,  withal,  it  was  not 
wholly  forgotten  that  the  Bible  alone  was  the  source  and 
ultimate  ground  of  all  belief;  and  even  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
those  were  not  wanting  who  insisted  on  bringing  back  theology 
to  this  its  great  standard  of  authority.  —  fCf.  §  116,  &C.V0 


436     SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.   10—13  A.  D  ). 

1.  The  most  celebrated  scholastics  of  this  century  were :  — 
(1.)  Alexander  Halesius.  educated  at  Hales  in  England,  surnamea 
"Doctor  irrefragabilis,"  the  first  Franciscan  professor  at  Paris;    ob. 
1245.     He  wrote  commentaries  on  Aristotle,  and  on  the  sentences  of 
Lombardus  (Summa  theologios  universal,  in  four  books).     He  was  the 
lirst  to  assign  to  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle  its  peculiar  authority,  so 
far  as  form  was  concerned;  on  which  ground  he  has  been  called  the 
first  scholastic  (in  the  narrower  sense).     This   method  of  discussing 
theological  subjects  became  now  prevailing ;  and  his  successors  wcVe 
called  Summists,  as  those  of  Lombardus  had  been  called  Sententiaries. 
(2.)  Albertus  Magnus,  born  Count  of  Bollstadt  in  Swabia,  a  Domini- 
can, and  teacher  of  theology  at  Paris  and  Cologne,  afterwards  Bishop 
of  Regensburg ;  ob.  1280,  at  a  very  advanced  age.     He  surpassed  all 
other  scholastics  in  learning,  being  equally  conversant  with  philosophy, 
theologv,  natural    sciences,  and    even    cabalistic   lore.     This  mass  of 
knowledge  he  had  acquired  with  much  labour;  but  as  he  had  never 
repaired  to  the   great  fountains  of  Scripture  and  nature,  his  learning 
was  of  little  real  value.     The    people,   however,   regarded    him   as  a 
magician.     So  far  as  individuality  and  native  talent  are  concerned,  he 
was  much  below  the  average  of  the  great  men  of  his  age.     The  edition 
of  his  works  published  at  Leyden,  in  1651,  consists  of  twenty-one  folio 
vols. ;  among  them,  five  volumes  of  commentaries  on  Aristotle,  three 
vols,  on    Lombardus,  a  Summa  Theol.  in  2  vols.,  and    a  number  of 
works  on  natural  science.  —  (Cf.  /.  Sic/hart,   Alh.   M.,  s.   Leben  u.  s. 
Wsch.  Regensb.  1857). 

(3.)  The  great  ornament  of  the  Franciscans,  Johannes  Fidanza, 
better  known  by  the  name  of  Bonaventura,  commenced  his  lectures 
on  theology  in  Paris  the  same  day  on  which  Thomas  Aquinas  occupied 
tor  the  first  time  the  chair  among  the  Dominicans  (1253).  These  two 
divines  successfully  resisted  the  opposition  of  William  of  St.  Amour. 
In  gratitude  for  the  service,  Bonaventura  was  chosen  general  of  his 
order  (125G),  and  in  1273  Gregory  X.  appointed  him  Cardinal-B:shop 
of  Ostia.  By  desire  of  the  Pope,  he  attended  the  Council  of  Lyons  in 
1274  (§67,  4).  and  took  an  active  part  in  its  deliberations,  but  died 
before  its  close  (1274).  A  few  years  later  he  was  canonized,  and  in 
1587  Sixtus  V.  added  his  name  to  those  of  the  Church-teachers.  When 
still- a  youth,  his  instructor  designated  him  a  "  verus  Israelita,  in  quo 
Adam  non  peccasse  videtur ;  "  while  his  cotemporaries,  in  their  admira- 
tion of  his  "angelic  purity,"  styled  him  "Doctor  seraphicus."  His 
writings  have  chiefly  a  practical  bearing,  and  in  his  case  dialectics 
were  always  combined  with  a  deep  mystic  tendency.  His  works 
(Rom.  1588)  are  comprised  in  eight  folio  vols. 

(4.)  By  far  the  ablest  of  the  schoolmen  was  TnoMAs  Aquinas 
(Doctor  angelicus).  He  was  the  son  of  a  Count  of  Aquino  in  Calabria  ; 
he, Time  Dominican  ami  a  pupil  of  Albertus  Magnus,  and  afterwards 
teacher  in  Cologne,  Paris,  and  Rome,  whence  he  retired  into  a  Domini- 


HIGHEST     STAGE     OF     SCHOLASTICISM.  437 

can  monastery  at  Naples.  Gregory  X.  requested  him  to  attend  the 
Council  of  Lyons;  but  he  died  suddenly  soon  after  leaving  Naples, 
perhaps  from  the  effects  of  poison  administered  to  him  by  order  of  his 
sovereign,  Charles  of  Sicily  (1274).  He  was  canonized,  and  ranked 
among  the  Fathers.  Aquinas  was  undoubtedly  the  most  profound  and 
acute  thinker  of  his  age,  exceedingly  popular  as  a  preacher,  and 
equally  enthusiastic  in  his  attachment  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Church 
and  in  the  prosecution  of  philosophical  investigations.  An  admirer 
and  disciple  of  Augustine,  he  inclined  towards  mysticism,  and  was  dis- 
tinguished for  genuine  and  deep  piety.  His  principal  work,  the 
"  Summa  Theologize,"  is  in  many  respects  a  model  for  dogmatic 
compositions,  lie  also  wrote  a  commentary  on  Lombardus,  a  valuable 
controversial  tractate  directed  against  the  Jews  and  Mohammedans 
(Summa  fidei  catholicise  contra  Gentiles),  commentaries  on  Aristotle, 
and  a  "Catena  aurea"  on  the  Gospels.  (Comp.  Soertel,  Thomas  Aqu. 
u.  s.  Z.  Augsb.  184G.  —  D.  Mettenleiter,  Gesch.  d.  h.  Th.  v.  Aq. 
Regensb.  1850.  —  K.  Werner,  d.  h.  Thorn,  v.  Aq.  Regensb.  1859. — /. 
N.  P.  Oischinger,  d.  specul.  Theol.  d.  h.  Th.  v.  Aq.  Landsh.  1859). 

(5.)  The  fame  of  St.  Thomas,  which  shed  fresh  lustre  upon  the  Order 
of  the  Dominicans,  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  Franciscans.  At  length 
one  of  their  own  number  appeared  to  rival  the  honours  of  Aquinas. 
John  Duns  Scotus,  called  "Doctor  subtilis,"  was  inferior  to  Aquinas 
in  acuteness  and  moral  depth,  though  not  in  dialectic  talent.  His  sub- 
tilty  in  analyzing  and  developing  ideas  was  specially  vaunted ;  but  his 
ecclesiastical  orthodoxy  was  not  free  from  suspicion,  while  occasionally 
he  laid  himself  open  to  the  charge  of  propounding  rationalistic  views. 
He  was  teacher  at  Oxford,  Paris,  and  Cologne,  where  he  died  in  1308. 

The  views  held  by  these  two  teachers  were  afterwards  adopted  by 
their  respective  orders,  and  rigidly  adhered  to  and  defended.  Accord- 
ingly the  Dominicans  were  called  Thomists,  and  the  Franciscans  Scot- 
ists.  In  philosophy  both  orders  were  Realists — only  that  the  Domini- 
cans were  Aristotelians,  the  Franciscans  Platonists.  More  important 
were  their  differences  in  theology.  The  Thomists  adhered  strictly  to 
the  tenets  of  the  Church,  while  the  Scotists  were  rationalistic  in  some 
of  their  views.  On  the  doctrines  of  human  depravity  and  of  grace, 
the  Thomists  held  moderate  Augustinian.  the  Scotists  semi-Pelagian 
opinions.  The  Dominicans  adopted  the  views  of  Anselm  on  the  atone- 
ment—  the  merits  of  Christ  as  the  God-man  were  of  infinite  value 
(satisfactio  superabundans),  and  hence  in  themselves  a  sufficient  equiva- 
lent for  our  redemption.  The  Scotists,  on  the  other  hand,  maintained 
that  the  merits  of  Christ  were  an  equivalent  for  our  redemption,  not  in 
themselves,  but  only  in  consequence  of  the  declaration  of  God  that  He 
accepted  them  as  such  (acceptatio  gratuita).  Lastly,  the  Franciscans 
were  strenuous  advocates  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Virgin 
Mary  ($  105,  2) — a  view  easily  accounted  for  from  their  leaning  towards 
Pelagianism,  while  the  Dominicans  rejected  this  dogma. 
37* 


438     SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.    10—13   A.  D.). 

2.  Raimundus  Lullus  may  be  designated  "the  reformer  of  the  scho- 
lastic method."  His  zeal  for  missionary  work  (#  93,  5)  made  him 
anxious  to  devise  some  method  more  suitable  for  demonstrating  the 
truths  of  the  Gospel.  After  considerable  labour,  he  succeeded  in  in- 
venting a  process  by  which — at  least  in  his  opinion — the  highest  truths 
might  be  made  patent  to  the  weakest  capacity,  by  using  certain  letters 
and  figures  to  represent  ideas  and  their  connections.  This  method  he 
called  "  ars  magna"  or  "  generalis,"  and  largely  employed  it  in  his 
discussions  with  the  Saracens.  He  also  translated  into  Arabic  the 
work  in  which  he  explained  his  new  method. 

3.  Among  the  divines  who  were  opposed  to  scholasticism,  and  in  its 
stead  insisted  on  the  necessity  of  studying  the  Bible,  we  mention  : 

(1.)  Robert  Grosshead,  teacher  at  Oxford,  and  afterwards  Bishop 
of  Lincoln  (ob.  1253),  —  a  prelate  equally  eminent  for  personal  worth, 
and  for  his  reform  of  many  abuses  in  his  diocese. 

(2.)  Roger  Bacon  (Doctor  mirabilis),  a  pupil  of  Grosshead  and  a 
teacher  at  Oxford  (ob.  1294).  He  was  undoubtedly  the  most  learned 
man  in  the  Middle  Ages ;  thoroughly  versed  in  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew, 
and  Arabic,  and  conversant  with  mathematics,  the  natural  sciences, 
astronomy,  and  even  medicine.  With  equal  clearness  and  openness. 
he  pointed  out  the  defects  and  dangers  of  scholasticism,  and  at  the 
same  time  insisted  on  the  necessity  of  studying  the  Scriptures  in  the 
original.  In  return  for  these  bold  assertions  he  was  charged  with 
heresy  and  magic,  and  had  to  spend  great  part  of  his  life  within  pri- 
son-walls. The  only  one  of  his  cotemporaries  who  seems  to  have  un- 
derstood and  admired  the  genius  of  Bacon,  was  Pope  Clement  IV.,  who 
as  legate  had  made  his  acquaintance  in  England,  and  afterwards  re- 
stored him  to  liberty. 

(3.)  Robert  of  Sorbonne  in  Champagne,  a  teacher  and  canon  at 
Paris,  and  the  founder  of  the  Sorbonne  (originally  a  seminary  for  poor 
young  secular  priests,  but  which  soon  acquired  such  fame  that  it  be- 
came the  theological  faculty  of  the  University).  Robert  earnestly 
recommended  his  hearers  to  prosecute  zealously  the  study  of  the  Bible. 

(4.)  Hugo  a  St.  Caro  (de  St.  Chers,  a  suburb  of  Vienne),  a  Domini- 
can and  cardinal  (ob.  1260).  This  divine  likewise  insisted  on  the 
necessity  of  having  continual  recourse  to  the  Scriptures,  and  endea- 
voured to  promote  their  study  by  publishing  a  "Postilla  (Commentary) 
in  universa  Biblia,"  and  a  "  Concordantia  Bibliorum."  To  his  labours 
we  also  owe  our  present  division  of  the  Bible  into  chapters. 

(5.)  Ravmum)  Martini,  a  Dominican  of  Barcelona  (ob.  after  1286), 
was  untiring  in  his  labours  for  the  conversion  of  Jews  and  Mohamme- 
dans, spoke  Hebrew  and  Arabic  as  fluently  as  Latin,  and  wrote:  Dugio 
i  contra  Mauros  et  Judseos. 
As  a  precursor  of  German  Mysticism,  which  was  in  its  full  bloom 
in  the  fourteenth  century  (g  117),  we  must  name  David  of  Augsburg, 
teacher  of  theology,  and  master  of  novitiates,  in  the  Franciscan  mon 


PUBLIC     WORSHIP     AND     THE     FINE     ARTS.        439 

astery  at  Augsburg  (ob.  1271).  His  writings,  partly  in  Latin,  partly 
in  German,  are  introductions  and  treatises  upon  contemplative,  mystic 
asceticism,  equally  distinguished  by  depth  and  fervour,  as  by  pious 
earnestness  and  meek  humility.  The  German  portions  especially  (in 
Pfeiffer's  deutsch.  Mystikern  d.  14.  Jahrh.  Bd.  I.  Lpz.  1845)  combine, 
with  excellence  of  matter,  the  attractions  of  beautiful  and  flowing  lan- 
guage, and  belong  to  the  choicest  productions  of  any  age. 

5.  Among  the  distinguished  Historians  of  that  century  are :  Arnold 
of  Lubek,  ob.  1212  (Chron.  Slavorum),  Alberich,  a  monk  of  Driibek  or 
Tres-fontes,  at  Liege  (Chron.  to  1241),  Matthew  Paris,  a  monk  of  St. 
Alban's,  England,  ob.  1259  (Hist.  Major),  and  Martin  Polonus,  who 
died  as  designated  Bishop  of  Gnesen,  1278  (Chron.)  ;  William  de  Nan' 
gis,  a  monk  of  St.  Denis,  ob.  1302  (Chron.). 


IV.  THE  CHURCH  AND  THE  PEOPLE. 
I  105.  PUBLIC  WORSHIP  AND  THE  FINE  ARTS. 

In  the  services  of  the  Church,  preaching  occupied  a  subordi- 
nate place,  chiefly  owing  to  the  ignorance  of  the  priesthood.  Ou 
the  other  hand,  the  externalism  in  religion  prevalent  among  the 
people  rendered  this  want  comparatively  less  felt.  Popes  and 
synods,  however,  insisted  on  the  necessity  of  employing  priests 
capable  of  teaching ;  and  the  sermons  of  the  Franciscans  and 
Dominicans  were  eagerly  listened  to  by  multitudes.  Except  in 
Spain,  the  Romish  Liturgy  was  now  everywhere  introduced. 
At  a  synod  held  in  Toledo  (1088),  an  attempt  was  made  to  set 
aside  the  old  Mozarabic  Ritual  (§  89,  1).  But  the  people  were 
violently  opposed  to  such  a  change  ;  and  the  decisions  of  a  trial 
by  single  combat  and  of  the  ordeal  by  fire  were  equally  in  favour 
of  the  established  order.  After  that,  both  liturgies  were  used. 
The'  old  Slavonic  Ritual  had  been  abolished  in  Moravia  and 
Bohemia  so  early  as  the  tenth  century.  The  Latin  was  and 
continued  the  ecclesiastical  language  of  all  countries.  —  The 
worship  of  saints,  of  relics  and  of  images,  came  more  and  more 
into  vogue,  and  at  last  formed  the  principal  part  of  the  devotions. 

1.  New  zeal  for  preaching  kindled  with  the  revival  of  monasticism 
from  the  tenth  century,  especially  among  the  Cluniacensians  and  Cis- 
tercians ;  but  these  Orders,  from  the  thirteenth  century  allowed  their 
reputation,  in  this  respect  also,  to  pass  over  to  the  Franciscans  and 


'140  SECTION  II. SECOND  PERIOD  (CENT.  H-13A.D.). 

Dominicans.  Nearly  all  the  heroes  of  monasticism  and  scholasticism 
acquired  renown,  likewise,  as  preachers.  In  ordinary  public  worship 
the  sermon,  when  one  was  delivered,  was  preached  in  Latin.  But 
where  the  design  was  to  work  upon  the  people  (sermons  calling  to  re- 
pentance, advocating  crusades),  the  vernacular  was,  of  course,  em- 
ployed. Then  such  crowds  pressed  to  hear,  that  few  churches  could 
hold  them.  St.  Bernard  is  expressly  said  to  have  preached  in  French. 
But  of  all  mediaeval  preachers,  none  equalled  in  depth,  fervour,  sim- 
plicity, power,  impressiveness,  and  popular  style,  Berthold  of  Regens- 
burg,  the  pupil  and  friend  of  David  of  Augsburg  (§  104,  4)  ;  he  used 
tin'  German,  went  from  town  to  town,  and  often  had  100,000  hearers. 
His  themes  were:  the  grace  of  God  in  Christ,  the  abuse  of  indulgences, 
false  confidence  in  saints,  the  madness  of  trusting  in  pilgrimages,  etc. 
(ob.  1272).  A  complete  edition  of  his  sermons  has  been  prepared  by 
PfeiJ/'er.  Vien.  1862.  In  regard  to  their  language,  also,  they  are  in- 
valuable treasure,  and  a  glorious  evidence  of  the  power,  depth,  plea- 
santness, and  euphony  of  the  German  of  that  age. — As  yet,  the  views 
of  divines  on  the  subject  of  the  Sacraments  were  far  from  settled. 
Petrus  Damiani  computed  their  number  at  twelve  ;n  Lombardus  reduced 
them  to  seven,  and  his  influence  prevailed  in  this  respect  also  (the 
seven  Sacraments :  Baptism,  Confirmation,  the  Eucharist,  Penance, 
Extreme  Unction,  Marriage,  and  Ordination).  At  the  Fourth  Lateran 
Council  in  1215,  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  was  formally  sanc- 
tioned. Apprehension  lest  some  of  the  blood  of  the  Lord  might  be 
spilt,  led  in  the  twelfth  century  to  the  withdrawal  of  the  cup  from  the 
laity,  which  henceforth  was  given  only  to  priests.  This  alteration  was 
vindicated  on  the  ground  of  what  was  called  "  concomitantia,"  or  the 
doctrine  that  communicants  necessarily  received  with  the  body  the 
blood  also.  The  practice  of  using  wafers  (the  host),  instead  of  break- 
ing bread,  arose  from  a  similar  anxiety  for  precaution.  At  the  Fourth 
Latcrati  Council  it  was  enjoined,  on  pain  of  excommunication,  that 
every  one  of  the  faithful  should  go  to  confession  and  to  the  communion 
at  least  once  a  year,  at  Easter  ;  and  auricular  confession  was  declared 
to  be  necessary  before  receiving  absolution.  As  marriage  was  regarded 
a  sacrament  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term,  divorce  was  of  course 
absolutely  prohibited,  even  in  case  of  adultery.  Innocent  III.,  who 
enacted  this  law,  diminished,  however  (1215),  the  former  excessive 
restrictions,  by  limiting  the  prohibition  of  marriage  to  the  fourth, 
instead  of  the  seventh,  degree  of  consanguinity. 

2.  New  Festivals. — In  honour  of  the  Virgin  ($  57,  2)  a  new  feast  was 
instituted,  under  the  name  of  the  Festival  <f  the  Nativity  if  Mary, 
which  was  celebrated  on  the  8th  September.  Another  ceremonial  in 
connection  with  the  growing  reverence  paid  to  the  Virgin,  was  tiie 
feast  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  on  the  8th  December,  which  wan 
introduced  in  the  twelfth  century.  It  will  lie  remembered  that  Rad> 
berlus  Paschasius  taught  that  both  the  parturition  of  the  Virgin  and 


PUBLIC    WORSHIP    AND    THE     FIN!    ARTS         441 

her  own  conception  had  been  exempted  from  the  taint  and  consequences 
of  original  sin  ($  91,  3).     In  the  twelfth  century  the  canons  of  Lyons 
followed  up  this  idea,  and  in  honour  of  it  instituted  a  festival.     But 
St.  Bernard  protested  equally  against  this  doctrine  and  festival,  and 
Bonaventura  and  Thomas  Aquinas  were  also  opposed  to  it.     From  the 
time  of  Duns  Scotus,  the  Franciscans,  however,  again  contended  for 
this  doctrine,  which  only  induced  the  Dominicans  to  oppose  it  all  the 
more  energetically.     Still  the  festival,  at  least,  was  pretty  generally 
observed  during  the  thirteenth  century ;  and  in  1389  Clement  VII. 
sanctioned  it  as  one  of  the  regular  feasts  of  the  Church.     In  993  the 
congregation  of  Clugny  introduced  the  Feast  of  All  Souls'  (on  2d  No- 
vember), which  immediately  followed  upon  the  Feast  of  All  Saints  (on 
1st  November).     Its  object  was  to  procure,  by  the  prayers  of  the  faith- 
ful, the  deliverance  of  souls  from  purgatory.     During  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, Trinity  Day,  being  the  Sunday  after  Pentecost,  was  observed. 
The  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  gave  rise  to  the  institution  of  Corpus 
Christi  Day,  on  the  Thursday  following  Trinity  Sunday.    It  originated 
in  a  vision  vouchsafed  during  prayer  to  Juliana,  a  pious  nun  of  Liege. 
According  to  her  statement,  she  discerned  the  fuil  moon  with  a  small 
speck  in  it,  which,  as  was  revealed,  implied  that  among  the  festivals 
of  the  Church  one  was  awanting  in  honour  of  the  ever-recurring  mira- 
cle of  the  Eucharist  (1261).     Urban  IAT.  gave  his  sanction  to  its  ob- 
servance ;  but  it  was  not  generally  celebrated  till  1311,  when  Clement 
V.  enjoined  it  as  a  regular  ecclesiastical  festival.     From  that  time  the 
Church  displayed  all  its  pomp  and  splendour  in  the  celebration  of  this 
feast. 

3.  Pilgrimages  to  Rome  and  Palestine  continued  in  the  tenth  century, 
in  spite  of  Roman  misrule  (g  96,  1)  and  the  tyranny  of  the  Seljiks. 
On  the  contrary,  the  expectation  that  the  end  of  the  world  was  at  hand 
(3  106,  1),  served  to  increase  the  fanaticism  of  the  people  in  this  re- 
spect; the  crusades  even  assumed  the  form  of  conquering  armies. — The 
ancient  opposition  of  the  Frankish  clergy  to  the  worship  of  images 
seems  to  have  entirely  ceased  in  the  eleventh  century  ($  92,  1).  The 
veneration  now  paid  to  images,  so  far  from  conflicting  with  the  service 
of  relics,  rather  increased  the  former  ardour  for  this  species  of  devo- 
tion. On  their  return  to  Europe,  the  Crusaders  brought  with  them  a 
large  quantity  of  new  relics,  some  of  them  sufficiently  strange  in  char- 
acter. Despite  their  almost  endless  number,  these  articles  continually 
increased  in  value.  Castles  and  domains  were  occasionally  not  consi- 
dered an  exorbitant  price  to  give  for  the  relics  of  some  celebrated 
saint,  which  not  unfrequently  were  stolen  by  devotees  at  the  risk  of 
their  lives.  No  story,  related  by  traffickers  in  relics,  was  too  extrava- 
gant to  be  believed.  Frequent  canonizations — which,  since  the  twelfth 
century,  were  considered  the  exclusive  right  of  the  popes- — furnished 
ever  new  objects  for  the  worship  of  saints.  Jacobus  a  Voragine,  a 
Dominican  (06.  1298),  may  be  considered  the  last  writer  of  legends  of 


142      SECTION    II. — SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT    10— 13  A.  D.). 


the  saints.  His  "  Legenda  aurea"  consists  of  a  collection  of  the  most 
extraordinary  stories.  Yet  a  French  theologian,  who  had  ventured  tc 
style  the  work  "  Legenda  ferrea,"  was  obliged  publicly  to  retract  from 
the  pulpit  this  insult.  In  the  homage  paid  to  the  Virgin,  the  angelic 
salutation  (Luke  i.  28)  formed  a  principal  part  of  the  devotions.  To 
assist  the  memory  in  the  frequent  repetition  of  this  formula  during  the 
prayers,  the  Dominicans  devised  the  rosary  (the  fundamental  idea 
being  that  a  garland  of  spiritual  roses  was  to  be  formed  from  the  dif- 
ferent prayers).  The  idea  must,  however,  ultimately  be  traced  to 
Macarius,  a  monk  in  the  fourth  century,  who  took  three  hundred  little 
stones  into  his  lap,  throwing  away  one  of  them  after  each  prayer  —  a 
practice  which  afterwards  was  frequently  imitated.  In  the  monasteries 
Saturday  was  generally  set  apart  in  honour  of  the  blessed  Virgin,  and 
a  special  "Officium  s.  Marise"  celebrated. 

4.  Hymnology.  —  About  the  time  when  scholasticism  attained  its 
highest  stage,  great  progress  was  also  made  in  the  hymnology  of  the 
Church.  The  most  celebrated  among  the  many  religious  poets  of  that 
age  were,  Odo  of  Clugny,  Robert,  King  of  France  ("Veni  sancte 
Spiritus  et  emitte"),  Petrus  Damiani,  Abelard,  St.  Bernard,  Adam  of 
St.  Victor,  Bonaventura,  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  the  two  Franciscans, 
Thomas  of  Celano,  ob.  1260  ("Dies  irae"),  and  Jacobus  de  Benedict  us 
or  Jacoponus,  Giacopone  da  Todi,  ob.  130G  ("Stabat  mater").  The 
last-mentioned  author  was  an  eccentric  enthusiast,  and  frequently  in- 
veighed against  the  clergy  and  Papacy,  especially  against  the  ambition 
of  Boniface  VIII.  When  imprisoned  by  order  of  that  pope,  he  replied 
to  his  taunt,  "  When  will  you  get  out?"  by,  "  When  you  shall  net  in  " 
—  a  prediction  which  soon  afterwards  was  accomplished.  —  A  number 
of  hymns  were  also  composed  in  the  vernacular,  although  they  were 
not  employed  in  the  public  services  of  the  Church  (§  89,  2).  Th« 
oldest  German  Easter  hymn  dates  from  the  twelfth  century  :  "  Christua 
ist  erstanden  Von  der  Marter  Banden."  Some  of  the  poems  of  the 
" Minne-singers "  in  the  thirteenth  century  had  also  a  religious  bear- 
ing, being  specially  devoted  to  the  celebration  of  the  Virgin,  and  form- 
in;;-  a  kind  of  spiritual  "  Minne-Songs."  Occasionally  religious  poetry 
was  composed  for  the  use  of  different  classes  —  such  as  pilgrims,  boat- 
men, etc.  —  or  to  be  sung  in  battle.  The  best  of  the  relics  of  German 
popular  hymns,  of  the  thirteenth  century,  is  that  for  Pentecost:  "  Nu 
bitten  wir.  den  heil'gen  Geist."  But  the  twofold  merit  of  introducing 
into  the  public  service  the  German  religious  poetry  already  existing, 
and  of  greatly  adding  .to  this  kind  of  literature  and  promoting  its 
spread  among  the  people,  belongs  to  the  heretical  sects  of  that  period 
rather  than  to  the  Church.  —  St.  Francis  wrote  a  number  of  hymns  in 
Italian.  One  of  these  compositions,  written  in  honour  of  "brother 
Sun  "  (de  lo  frate  Sole),  with  characteristic  boldness  of  figure  introduces 
brother  Son,  sister  Moon,  brother  Wind,  sister  Wafer,  mother  Earth, 
{Liid    lastly    brother   Death,   as   praising   the   Creator.     The   religious 


PUBLIC    WORSHIP    AND     THE    FINE    ARTS.        443 

poetry  of  some  of  the  disciples  of  St.  Francis,  however,  was  greatly 
superior  to  that  of  the  founder  of  their  order.  Among  them  we 
mention  the  names  of  Fra  Pacifico  (formerly  a  troubadour,  whom 
Frederic  II.  had  crowned  poet  laureate),  Bonaventura,  Giacomo  da 
Verona,  Thomas  da  Celano,  and  Giacopone  da  Todi.  The  latter  (and 
not  St.  Francis)  indited  that  hymn  "  In  foco  amor  mi  mise,"  which 
breathes  such  ardent  love  to  the  crucified  Saviour.  (Comp.  Hoffmann 
v.  Fallersleben,  Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Kirchenliedes  bis  auf  Luther  (Hist, 
of  Germ.  Ch.  Poetry  to  the  Time  of  Luther).  Han.  1854.  — X  F. 
Ozanam,  les  Poetes  Franciscans  en  Italie ;  transl.  into  Germ.,  with 
add.,  by  Julius). 

5.  Ecclesiastical  Music.  —  The  Gregorian,  or  cantus  firmus,  soon  fell 
into  decay.  This  result  was  chiefly  owing  to  the  scarcity  and  ex- 
pensiveness  of  the  Antiphonaria,  as  also  to  the  frequent  mistakes 
occurring  in  them,  to  the  difficulty  of  their  system  of  notation,  and  to 
the  paucity  of  regularly  trained  singers.  Errors  committed  in  copying, 
and  even  alterations  or  embellishments  introduced  to  suit  the  taste  of 
some  of  the  professional  singers,  multiplied.  Thus  the  cantus  firmus 
became  by  and  by  a  discantus,  or  cantus  Jiguratus  (figura?  =  embellish- 
ments), and,  instead  of  singing  in  unison,  duets  were  introduced. 
Gradually,  definite  rules  of  harmony,  of  chords  and  intervals,  were 
framed.  The  merit  of  these  improvements  belongs  chiefly  to  Hucbald, 
a  monk  of  Rheims  (about  the  year  900)  ;  to  Reginus,  a  German  monk 
(about  the  year  920)  ;  and  to  Odo,  Abbot  of  Clugny.  Guido  of  Arezzo 
(1000-1050)  invented,  in  room  of  the  curious  Gregorian  mode  of  nota- 
tion, our  present  notes,  which  rendered  it  possible,  along  with  the 
cantus,  to  mark  also  the  discantus  (hence  the  term  counterpoint,  i.  e., 
punctum  contra  punctum).  The  measurement  of  the  tones  was  in- 
vented by  Franco  of  Cologne,  about  1200.  The  organ  was  almost 
universally  in  use  ;  and  Germany  was  celebrated  as  possessing  the  best 
builders  of,  and  the  ablest  performers  upon,  this  instrument. 

G.  Ecclesiastical  Architecture.  —  (Comp.  U.  Otte,  Handb.  d.  kirchl. 
Kunstarch'aol.  d.  deutsch.  M.  A.  Leips.  1854.  —  /.  Kreuser,  d.  chr. 
Kirchenbau  (chr.  Eccl.  Archit.).  2  Vols.  Bonn  1851.  —  A.  H.  Springer, 
d.  Bauk.  d.  chr.  M.  A.  Bonn  1854.  —  Quatremere  de  Quincy,  Hist,  de 
la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  des  Architectes  du  XL  S.  jusqu'a  la  fin  du 
XVIII.  2  T.  Par.  1832). —  The  general  decay  prevailing  during  the 
tenth  century,  and  the  common  expectation  of  the  approaching  end  of 
the  world  at  the  close  of  the  first  1000  years,  operated  unfavourably  on 
the  progress  of  the  fine  arts,  especially  so  far  as  architecture  was  con- 
cerned. But  these  hindrances  were  only  of  a  temporary  character. 
The  Romanesque  style  of  architecture,  which  prevailed  chiefly  in  the 
twelfth  century,  originated  in  the  desire  to  give  a  distinctively  German 
mould  to  the  older  forms  of  ecclesiastical  structures.  But  during  the 
entire  period  of  its  prevalence  we  mark  a  continual  progress ;  hence, 


i44     SECTION    II.  —  SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.   10—13    A.  D.). 

while   retaining    its   fundamental   character  as  a  transition   style,  it 
appeared    in   forms   more   varied    than    any   other.     In    Romanesque 
architecture  the  ancient  Christian  basilica  still  continued  the  type;  the 
chief  innovation  consisted  in  introducing  the  vaulted  roof  (especially  in 
the  shape  of  a  cross)  instead  of  the  flat  wooden  roof,  whereby  the  in- 
terior became  more  lofty,  and  gained  in  perspective  effect.     In  other 
respects  also,  marked  progress  was  made.     To  this  period  belong  the 
general  introduction  of  the  rounded  arch,  and  that  increase  of  architec- 
tural  ornaments,  which  afforded  scope  for  various  symbolical  devices 
and  for  the  vagaries  of  fancy.     Its  materials  were  derived  from  the 
peculiar  German  view  of  the  animal  and   vegetable  kingdoms,  from 
legend  or  from  local  tradition.     Finally,  ecclesiastical  structures  were 
completed  by  the  addition  of  towers  (as  it  were  finger-posts  pointing 
upwards),  which  it  was  now  attempted  to  connect  with  the  body  of  the 
church  (sometimes  by  rearing  them  above  the  entrance  to  the  central 
nave,  or  over  both  ends  of  the  aisles,  or  where  the  central  and  tho 
cross  nave  intersected,  or  on  opposite  sides  of  the  choir).     Frequently, 
however,  only  a  cupola  rose  over  the  central  nave.     The  finest  speci- 
mens of  this  style  are  the  cathedrals  of  Spires,  of  Mayenee,  and  of 
Worms.  —  But  already  the  Gothic  (or,  more  correctly,  the  Germanic) 
style  of  architecture  was  introduced,  which  attained  highest  perfec- 
tion during  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries.     This  claims  to  bo 
an  independent  branch  of  the  Romanesque  style,  in  which  the  native 
genius  of  Germany  cast  oft*  its  traditional  adherence  to  ancient  forms, 
and  displayed  all  its  richness  and  boldness  of  imagination,  and  all  its 
depth  and  fulness  of  conception.     So  far  as  the  vault  was  concerned, 
the  Romanesque  style  may  be  regarded  as  preparatory  to  the  Gothic — ■ 
the  ancient   Christian  basilica  still  continuing  the  fundamental  type. 
But  while  the  Romanesque  cross  vault  and  the  rounded  arch  rendered 
it  impossible  to  rear  a  very  lofty  building,  and  required  heavy  walls  to 
support  the  superincumbent  weight,  the  pointed  arch,  by  which  any 
breadth  could  be  spanned  and  any  height  reached,  removed  the  ap- 
pcarance  of  heaviness  even  from  the  most  massive  structures.     Admit- 
ting- that  the  first  knowledge  of  the  pointed  arch  was  derived  from  the 
Saracens  in  Spain,  in   Sicily,  or  in  the  East,  its  application  in  Gothic 
structures  was  distinctively  German  ;  for  whilst  among  the  Saracens  it 
was  used  merely  for  decoration,  it  was  in  Germany  mainly  applied  for 
construction,  especially  for  the  support  of  the  vault.     The  stilt'  wall 
was  transformed  into  supporting  pillars,  and  formed  a  grand  architec- 
tural skeleton,  admitting  of  tasteful  and  varied  designs  for  windows. 
On  the  fundamental  type  of  a  cross,  the  Gothic  cathedral  rosr  like  a 
primeval  architectural  forest,  exhibiting  rich  variety,  and  far  surpass- 
ing in  beauty  every  structure  for  secular  purposes.     Light  and  grace- 
ful the  must  massive  buildings  rose:  the  tall  supporting  pillars  symbol- 
ized the  spirit  tending  heavenwards.     Long   rows   of  such    columns 
ipruiif;,  as  it  were  from  the  earth,  up  towards  the  lofty  vault.     Every- 


POPULAR    LIFE    AND    NATIONAL    LITERATURE.       445 

thing  seemed  to  live,  to  bud,  and  to  bear.  The  pillars  and  the  walls 
were  covered  with  leaves  and  blossoms,  exhibited  fantastic  emblems, 
or  set  forth  holy  persons.  A.n  immense  rose  (or  round  window)  above 
the  entrance  —  the  symbol  of  silence  —  proclaimed  the  fact  that  every- 
thing worldly  was  excluded  from  these  walls.  Those  large  arched 
windows,  with  their  gorgeous  paintings,  threw  a  strange  mellow  light 
into  the  sanctuary.  Everything  about  the  structure  seemed  to  tend 
upward,  even  to  the  towers  in  which  the  stone,  dug  out  of  the  dark 
depths  below,  appeared  to  become  light  and  almost  transparent.  High 
upwards  they  reached,  till  they  were  almost  lost  to  view  in  the  blue 
sky.  The  victory  also  over  the  kingdom  of  darkness  was  represented 
in  that  brood  of  dragons  and  demoniac  forms  which  lay  crushed 
beneath  pillars  and  door-posts,  or  were  otherwise  made  subservient  to 
the  convenience  of  the  building.  Nay,  occasionally,  by  a  bold  stroke, 
bishops  and  popes  even  were  represented  in  such  situations,  just  as 
Dante  placed  some  of  the  popes  in  hell.  The  most  splendid  specimens 
of  this  style  are  the  cathedral  of  Cologne  and  the  Munster  of  Strasburg. 
The  former  was  founded  in  1248  by  Archbishop  Conrad  of  Hochsteden, 
the  plan  having  been  designed  by  Henry  Sunere,  an  architect  of 
Cologne ;  but  the  choir  alone  was  finished  and  consecrated  in  1322. 
The  building  of  the  Strasburg  Munster  was  commenced  by  Erwin  of 
iSteiriback  in  1275. 

7.  The  Plasiic  Art,  which  had  been  neglected  by  the  ancient  Church, 
was  much  cultivated  during  the  reign  of  the  Hohenstaufen.  Its  first 
great  master  in  Italy  was  Nicholas  of  Pisa  (Nicolo  Pisano,  ob.  1274). 
Even  before  that  period  a  school  of  sculptors  had  sprung  up  in  Germany, 
whose  works  (in  the  churches  of  Hildesheim,  Halberstadt,  Freiberg, 
etc.)  have  descended  to  posterity,  though  their  names  are  lost  to  fame. 
Similarly,  the  art  of  the  goldsmith  and  the  coppersmith  was  largely 
employed  in  the  service  of  the  Church.  —  Byzantine  artists  became  the 
teachers  of  the  Italians  in  painting,  from  whom,  in  turn,  the  Germans 
learned  the  art.  A  school  of  painters  was  formed  at  Pisa  and  Sienna 
early  in  the  thirteenth  century,  which,  in  honour  of  its  patron 
saint,  was  called  the  School  of  St.  Luke.  It  was  the  aim  of  these 
painters  to  impart  life  and  warmth  to  the  stiff  pictures  of  the  Greeks. 
Guido  of  Sienna,  Giunta  of  Pisa,  and  Cimabuc,  a  Florentine,  ob.  1300, 
were  the  great  masters  of  this  school.  Mosaic  painting,  principally  on 
a  ground  of  gold,  was  much  in  vogue  in  Italy.  The  art  of  glass  paint- 
ing originated  in  Germany,  early  in  the  eleventh  century,  and  was 
first  employed  in  the  monastery  of  Tegernsee,  Bavaria,  whence  it  spread 
through  the  West.  —  (Cf.  W.  Wackemagel,  d.  deutsche  Glasmalerei. 
Lpz.  1855). 

\  106.  POPULAR  LIFE  AND  NATIONAL  LITERATURE. 
This  was  a  period  full  of  strangest  contradictions,  and  pre- 
senting most  remarkable  transitions  in  popular  life.    Everything, 
33 


44G     SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T  .  10—13  A.  D.). 

however,  gave  indication  of  unabated  vigour,  and  still  on  the 
unhewn  block  did  the  Church  lay  the  fashioning  chisel.  If,  on 
the  one  hand,  rude  violence  prevailed  throughout  Europe,  on 
the  other,  men,  willingly  or  unwillingly,  owned  the  higher  and 
invisible  power  of  thought.  The  grossest  sensuality  was  found 
alongside  the  most  entire  renunciation  of  the  world  ;  the  most 
unmitigated  selfishness  side  by  side  with  the  rarest  self-denial 
and  the  deepest  love  ;  keen  and  frivolous  sarcasm,  which  made 
parody  even  of  what  was  most  holy,  occurred  along  with  the 
most  thorough  earnestness  and  tender  anxiety  for  the  salvation 
of  souls.  If  boundless  superstition  prevailed,  so  did  the  boldest 
liberalism,  and  in  the  midst  of  general  ignorance  and  barbarism, 
lofty  ideas,  broad  views,  and  singular  individuality  of  mind, 
were  found  to  exist.  Above  all,  there  was  one  characteristic 
distinguishing  this  from  every  other  age — we  mean  the  capacity 
and  susceptibility  for  enthusiasm  of  every  kind. 

1.  Popular  Life.  —  The  consciousness  of  deep  religious  and  moral 
decline,  during  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries,  manifested  itself  in 
the  confident  expectation  of  the  approaching  end  of  the  world,  which  in 
turn  led  to  fresh  acts  of  devotion  in  the  shape  of  pilgrimages,  pious 
donations,  and  foundations.  If  the  secular  power  was  too  weak  to 
check  the  practice  of  private  revenge,  the  Church  exercised  a  beneficial 
influence  by  enjoining  the  so-called  truce  of  God  (treuga  Dei),  which 
ordained  that  during  Advent  and  till  eight  days  after  Epiphany,  during 
Lent  and  till  eight  days  after  Pentecost,  and  during  every  week  from 
Wednesday  evening  till  Monday  morning,  all  such  quarrels  should  he 
suspended.  This  ordinance,  which  originated  in  1032  in  France,  after 
several  years  of  famine,  gradually  spread  into  all  other  countries.  (Cf. 
A.  Kluckhohn,  Gesch.  d.  Gottesfr.  Lpz.  -1857  ;  E.  Semichon,  la  paix  et 
la  treve  de  Dieu.  Par.  1857)  — Despite  its  barbarism,  there  was  a  reli- 
gious cast  about  knichthood,  which  was  greatly  fostered  in  Spain  by 
the  contest  with  the  Saracens,  and  throughout  all  Europe  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Crusades.  All  the  tendencies  and  mental  peculiarities 
of  the  people  found  their  appropriate  expression  in  the  various  orders 
of  monasticism.  Nor  must  we  forget  the  important  effects  achieved  by 
the  Crusades.  Not  only  was  the  religious  sense  of  the  people  roused, 
but  their  narrow  horizon  was  enlarged,  and  the  anient  lunging  of  the 
age  became  deepened.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  superstition  and  moral 
laxity  also  increased  ;  ami  along  with  expanding  commerce,  the  wants 
or  demands  of  the  people  also  grew.  In  the  fervent  homage  paid  to 
saints,  the  people  forgot  the  worship  due  to  Christ  and  to  the  Father. 
Every  business  and  calling,  every  age  and  station,  had  its  patron 
saint  ;  and  under  every  mischance  or  disease,  there  was  some  special 
saint  to  whom  to  apply  for  relief.     The  religion  of  the  people  was  little 


POPULAR   l:fe    and    national   literature.  447 

other  than  a  kind  of  magic ;  salvation  Avas  obtained  by  indulgences 
and  good  works.  A  large  amount  of  superstition  had  been  imported 
from  heathenism.  Belief  in  witchcraft,  amulets,  dreams,  good  and 
bad  omens,  fairies,  brownies,  etc.,  merged  with  the  dogmas  of  the 
Church  about  saints,  angels,  and  demons,  and  gave  rise  to  a  kind  of 
Christian  mythology.  The  poetic  spirit  of  the  people  found  utterance 
in  legends,  traditions,  and  fables,  mostly  rich  in  meaning,  and  having 
6ome  religious  bearing.  Almost  in  them  all  the  devil  plays  the  chief 
part ;  but  he  is  ever  represented  as  a  poor  stupid  being,  who  at  last  is 
only  cheated  for  his  pains.  Nay,  the  light-mindedness  of  the  people 
turned  even  holy  subjects  into  extravagant  follies.  At  the  Feast  of 
Fools,  which  was  celebrated  in  France  about  New  Year's  time,  popes, 
bishops,  and  abbots  arrayed  as  fools  mimicked  in  the  church,  with 
grotesque  jokes,  the  sacred  functions  of  these  ecclesiastics.  A  similar 
comedy  was  enacted  at  Christmas  by  boys  (the  so-called  festum  inno- 
centum).  At  the  Feast  of  the  Ass,  which  was  also  celebrated  at 
Christmas,  in  honour  of  the  animal  on  which  Christ  had  made  His 
entry  into  Jerusalem,  an  ass,  adorned  with  a  surplice,  was  brought 
into  the  church,  and  his  praises  sounded  in  a  comic  liturgy  composed 
for  the  purpose.  Bishops  and  popes  inveighed  against  these  substitutes 
for  the  ancient  heathen  festivities  of  December.  But  the  lower  clergy 
and  the  people  enjoyed  the  sport.  At  Easter,  instead  of  preaching  of 
Him  who  had  burst  the  bonds  of  death,  the  priests  —  to  make  some 
amends  for  the  previous  long  fast  —  amused  their  audiences  with  stories 
and  jokes,  to  which  the  people,  as  in  duty  bound,  responded  by  the 
so-called  Easter-laughter  (Risus  paschalis).  When  councils  and 
bishops  at  last  succeeded  in  banishing  these  follies  from  the  churches, 
the  people  took  compensation  in  the  amusements  of  the  Carnival,  which 
preceded  Easter  quadragesima. — In  imitation  of  the  trade  guilds  which 
originated  in  the  twelfth  century,  a  kind  of  spiritual  guilds  were 
instituted,  which  enjoyed  the  countenance  and  fostering  care  of  the 
secular  clergy,  in  the  hope  of  their  proving  a  counterpoise  to  the  influ- 
ence which  the  mendicant  orders  had  acquired  among  the  people 
through  their  Tertiaries.  In  many  parts  of  Germany  and  France 
associations  of  priests  and  laymen  were  formed,  which  undertook  to 
say  a  certain  number  of  prayers  and  masses  for  the  members  and  for 
their  relatives,  whether  living  or  dead.  Such  unions  were  called 
Calends,  from  the  circumstance  that  their  meetings  took  place  on  the 
calends  (or  first)  of  every  month.  By  voluntary  contributions  and 
legacies,  these  unions  obtained  ample  means  for  founding  special 
"  calend-houses."  But  their  original  pious  object  was  soon  forgotten, 
and  these  meetings  became  by  and  by  only  occasions  for  feasting  and 
revelry.  At  the  time  of  the  Reformation  the  calends  were  abolished, 
and  their  possessions  applied  tc  useful  purposes. 

2.  Popular  Culture, —  The  learned  schoolmen  cared  little  or  nothing 
for  the  instrustion  of  the  common  people.     But  some  of  the  earnest 


418      SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T  .  10— 13  A.  D.j. 

"preachers  of  repentance  addressed  themselves  to  those  "who  were  other* 
wise  neglected,  generally  with  remarkable  success,  especially  in  the 
case  of  notorious  or  obstinate  sinners.  Unfortunately,  those  who  were 
thus  converted  retired  into  monasteries,  instead  of  proving  the  salt  of 
the  earth.  No  attempt  was  made  to  instruct  the  people  ;  and  although 
the  Ilohenstaufen  endeavoured  to  establish  elementary  schools  in  Italy 
—  making  attendance  on  them  even  obligatory  —  these  institutions  did 
not  succeed.  From  the  eleventh  century,  associations  were  formed  in 
the  south  of  France  for  the  study  of  the  Bible ;  but  their  members  by 
and  by  generally  took  up  a  position  hostile  to  the  Church.  The 
spread  of  the  Cathari  and  Waldonses  (g  108)  was  mainly  due  to  the 
fact  that,  by  preaching,  reading  the  Bible,  singing  and  prayer  in  the 
vernacular,  they  met  the  felt  religious  wants  of  the  people.  St.  Domi- 
nic proposed  to  counteract  their  influence  by  employing  a  similar 
agency.  In  1229,  the  Council  of  Toulouse  prohibited  laymen  from 
possessing  the  Old  or  the  New  Testament,  and  even  from  reading  the 
Psalter  or  the  Breviary,  in  the  vernacular.  In  lieu  of  the  Bible  thus 
withheld,  and  of  the  martyrologies,  which,  being  written  in  Latin, 
were  inaccessible  to  the  masses,  the  Church  introduced,  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  legends  in  rhyme,  composed  in  the  vernacular.  The  oldest 
work  of  this  kind  in  German,  by  an  unknown  author,  consists  of  three 
books  comprising  about  100,000  lines.  Book  I.  treats  of  Christ  and  of 
Mary;  Book  II.  of  the  Apostles  and  the  other  personages  mentioned  in 
the  Gospels  ;  while  Book  III.  gives  a  sketch  of  the  lives  of  the  saints, 
according  to  their  order  in  the  Calendar.  The  first  two  books  (edited 
by  K.  A.  Hahn,  d.  alte  Passional.  Frkf.  1845)  contain  a  number  of 
apocryphal  stories,  couched  in  the  genuine  mediaeval  stylo.  As  few 
of  the  people  were  able  to  read,  wandering  minstrels  were  wont  to  re- 
late these  stories  to  the  people.  Another  and  more  effectual  mode  of 
conveying  religious  instruction  was  by  means  of  religious  theatrical*, 
which  were  introduced  in  the  eleventh  century,  probably  in  France. 
jP.  /.  Mone  has  lately  edited  a  number  of  these  dramas  in  German 
(Schauspiele  d.  M.  A.  2  Vols.  Karlsr.  184G).  They  originated  in  those 
antiphonal  chants  in  which  it  was  the  custom  to  celebrate  the  hero  of 
a  festival  during  the  worship  in  his  honour.  By  and  by  these  poems 
were  enlarged  into  dramas  ;  and  in  course  of  time  a  cycle  of  such 
pieces  existed  for  all  the  saints'  feasts,  which  were  acted  by  the  clergy 
in  the  churches,  at  first  with  Latin  words,  but  afterwards  in  the  ver- 
nacular (of  course  with  the  exception  of  the  prayers  introduced  in 
them).  Besides  these  historical  dramas,  which  were  called  mysteries, 
and  the  material  of  which  was  derived  from  the  Bible,  or  the  legends 
of  saints,  allegorical  moral  plays  were  prepared  :  these  were  called 
moralities.  They  represented  general  moral  truths,  or  personified 
Biblical  parables.  Such  dramatic  representations  flourished  most 
'hiring  the  succeeding  period  (I  114,  4).  Cf.  H.Alt,  Theater  u.  Kirclie. 
lk-rl.  184G;  K.  Hase,  d.  geistl.  Schauspicl.  Lpz.  1858).— The  images, 


POPULAR     LIFE     AND     NATIONAL     L     TEEATURE.    449 

mosaics,  and  reliefs,  which  covered  the  doors  and  walls  of  the  churches, 
were  also  a  means  of  recalling  to  mind  Biblical  events  and  legends 
of  saints. 

3.  National  Literature. — (Cf.  K.  Bartlicl,  d.  class.  Perioded.  deutsch. 
Nat.-Literat,  im  M.  A.  Braunschu,  1857).  — The   tenth  and  eleventh 
centuries  produced  scarcely    any  works    either  in  science  or  poetry. 
But  during  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  when  the  Church  rose 
from  its  former  decay,  German  national  literature  developed  rapidly, 
and   in   a   manner   most   surprising.     The   writings    of   that   period 
occasionally  breathe  a  spirit  hostile  to  the  clerical  rule  — a  remark 
which  specially  applies  to  the  compositions  of  Wolfram  of  Esehenbach. 
Even  the  legend  of  Reinecke   and  Isegrimm   are   really,  though  not 
intentionally,  a  cutting    satire    on    the    rapacity    of  the    monks,   the 
hypocrisy  of  the  clergy,  the  avarice  of  the  popes,  and  the  abuse  of  in- 
dulgences.    In  the  mind  of  the  German  troubadours,  "those  nightin- 
gales of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  whole  fair  sex  appeared  as  the&Holy 
Virgin."     Thus,  while    Walter  von  der   Vogelweide  sang  in  happiest 
strain  of  earthly  love,  he  at  the  same  time  sounded  the  praises  of  the 
Lord,  of  the  Holy  Virgin,  and  of  the  Church.     The  Lay  of  the  Nibe- 
lungen  was  essentially  heathen  in  its  conception,  and  its  last  editor, 
in  the  twelfth  century,  imparted  to  it  only  a  slight  Christian  gloss! 
But  Wolfram  of  Esehenbach,  a  Christian  poet  in  the  highest  sense  of 
the  term,  completely  recast  in  his  Parcival  the  ancient  heathen  legend 
of  St.  Gral,  and  the  Knights  of  the  Round  Table.     The  Parcival  con- 
tains continuous  reference  to  the  Christian  life,  as  a  contest  for  salva- 
tion through  the  blood  of  the  Son  of  God.     A  strain  vastly  different 
was  that  from  the  lyre  of  Got/fried  of  Sir assburg,  whose  "  Tristan  and 
Isolt"  celebrates  the  pleasures  of  earthly  love  in  language  of  the  most 
fervent  and  sensuous  character,  while  he  completely  ignores  both  the 
Church  and  its  sacrament  of  marriage.     But  Tristan  remained  incom- 
plete, the  poet  having  died,  not  a  corporeal  death,  but  that  spiritual 
death,  by  which  he  died  to  the  lust  of  the  world  and  the  flesh,  that  he 
might  live  in  Christ.     For  Tristan  he  now  substituted  a  poem  which 
glowed  with  the  tenderest  piety,  the  holiest  inspiration,  and  the  most 
ardent   longing    after  heaven,  and    another   upon  voluntary  poverty 
which  is  pervaded  by  the  Spirit  of  St.  Franciscus,  with  his  fanatical 
fervor   for  poverty.     The   most   recent   investigations   appear  (J.  M 
WaUerich,  Gottfr.  v.   Str.,   ein  Sanger  d.  Gottesminne.  Lpz.  1858)  to 
have  clearly  shown  that  Master  Gottfried  and  St.  Franciscus  must  have 
personally  met  each  other,  and  that  St.  F.  conferred  upon  Gottfried 
both  the  garb  and  spirit  of  his  order.     In  the  south  of  France,  the 
merry  strains  of  the   Troubadours  were  interspersed  with  poem's  in 
honour  of  the  Church  and  of  its  saints ;  while  occasionally  their  com- 
positions became  the  vehicle  for  heretics,  giving  expression  to  their 
indignation  against  the  Romish  Babylon.     Gonzalo  of  Berceo,  the  first 
38  * 


450      SECTION    IT. SECOND    PERIOD    (c  E  NT.    /0— 13  A.  D.). 

celebrated  Spanish  poet  (in  the  thirteenth  century),  sung  of  th« 
Virgin,  of  St.  Dominic,  and  the  Last  Judgment.  On  the  poets  of  Italy 
comp.  I  105,  4. 

3  107.  ECCLESIASTICAL  DISCIPLINE  AND  INDULGENCES. 

Those  terrible  engines,  excommunication ,  which  was  directed 
against  individuals  guilty  of  open   sin,  and  the  interdict,  which 
rested  on   a   whole    district,  rarely  missed  their  aim.      Till    the 
interdict  was  removed,  the  church-hells  were  silent,  worship  was 
celebrated    with   closed    doors,  and    only  priests,  beggars,  and 
children  under  two  years  of  age,  received  at  burial  the  rites  of 
the  Church.     Thus  a  whole  district  was  made  responsible  for 
the  sin  committed  or  tolerated  in  it,  and  seldom  did  the  people 
long  brook  this  painful    state    of  matters.     Yet   all  this  while 
ecclesiastical  discipline,  which  Petrus  Lombardus  had  described 
as  "contritio  cordis,  confessio  oris,  and  satisfactio  operis,"  con- 
tinually declined  in  moral  earnestness.     The  expiation  demanded 
by  the  Church  consisted  of  outward  works  (alms,  fasts,  pilgrim- 
ages, etc.)  ;   and  even  these  might  be  compensated  for  by  fines, 
in  the  shape  of  contributions  for  ecclesiastical  purposes.     This 
moral  aberration  increased  during  the  Crusades,  when  all  who 
took  the  cross    received    plenary    indulgence    for   ecclesiastical 
punishments  incurred  from  any  cause  ;   and  even  those  who  gave 
of  their  means  to  the  promotion  of  these  undertakings,  thereby 
purchased  a  similar  dispensation.      The  popes  bestowed  also  on 
individual  churches  the  right  of  granting  more  or  less  extensive 
indulgences  to  those  who  visited  them.      Sincere  repentance  and 
amendment  was  indeed  expressly  mentioned,  or  tacitly  understood 
to  be  the  condition  of  such  indulgences;  but  this  important  point 
was  too  frequently  lost  to  view  in  mere  external  observances. — 
In  opposition  to  this  lax  mode    of  discipline,   many  priests  — 
especially  the  members  of  monastic  orders — earnestly  contended 
for  more  serious    measures.        Some,  indeed,   fell  into  opposite 
extravagance,  and  seemed  to  take  a  pride  in  excelling  each  other 
in  their  flagellations  (administered  while  reciting  the  Psalter). 
A  formal    account    was    kept    of  the    number    of   stripes    thus 
inflicted.      Three  thousand  lashes  were  the  number  requisite  for 
one  year  of  penance,  etc.      Self-inflicted  scourging  was  regarded 
as  a  voluntary  and   meritorious  imitation   of  Christ  and  of  the 
martyrs.      This  species  of   superstition   was  carried   to  frightful 
excess  amid    the  calamities    of  the    thirteenth    and    fourteenth 


OPPOSITION     TO    ECCLESIASTIC1SM.  451 

centuries  (the  wars,  pestilence,  famine,  and  earthquakes  of  that 
period).      Compare  §  114,  1. 

1.  The  ingenuity  of  the  schoolmen  supplied  theological  arguments 
and  a  dogmatic  vindication  in  favour  of  Indulgences.  Lombarchis 
applied  for  this  purpose  the  doctrine  of  purgatory  (which  had  received 
ecclesiastical  sanction  at  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great),  or  of  the  inter- 
mediate state  in  which  the  souls  of  believers  underwent  punishment 
for  those  venial  sins  which  they  had  committed  after  baptism-.  But 
according  to  Lombardus,  the  Church,  in  virtue  of  the  merits  of  Christ, 
possessed  the  power  of  changing  these  purifying  torments  of  purgatory 
into  earthly  punishments,  from  which,  in  turn,  it  might  grant  dispen- 
sation in  consideration  of  certain  advantages  accruing  to  the  Church 
as  a  whole.  Albert  us  Magnus  and  Thomas  Aquinas*  went  even  farther 
than  this,  and  propounded  the  view  that  the  Church  was  the  depositary 
and  absolute  dispenser  of  an  inexhaustible  treasure,  consisting  of  the 
superfluous  merits  of  Christ  and  of  the  saints  (thesaurus  supererogationis 
perfectorum),  since  the  latter  also  had,  although  in  the  strength  of 
Christ,  done  more  good  than  was  requisite  for  the  discharge  of  their 
own  transgressions.  —  Still  these  divines  continued  to  lay  great  stress 
on  the  fact,  that  such  indulgences  were  not  in  themselves  equivalent 
to  the  forgiveness  of  sins,  but  that  they  merely  implied  the  remission 
of  ecclesiastical  punishments  and  exemption  from  the  torments  of  pur- 
gatory, and  even  these  only  in  the  case  of  such  who  combined  with 
them  genuine  repentance.  But  the  generality  of  preachers  of  indul- 
gences intentionally  concealed  or  avoided  these  explanations. 


V.    OPPOSITION    TO    THE    PREVAILING    SYSTEM    OF 
ECCLESIAST1CISM. 

I  108.   ACTIVE   OPPOSITION   TO   PREVAILING  ECCLE- 

SIASTICISM. 

Jomp.  J.  C.  Fiisslin,  unparth.  K.  u.  Ketzerhist.  d.  mittle.  Zeit.  (Im- 
part. Hist,  of  the  Ch.  and  of  Heret.  Part,  during  the  M.  A.).  Leips. 
1770.  3  Vols.  —  L.  Flathe,  Gesch.  d.  Vorl.  d.  Reform.  (Hist,  of  the 
Precursors  of  the  Ref.).  Leips.  1835.  2  Vols.  —  Ulr.  Hahn,  Gesch.  d. 
Ketzer  im  M.  A,     Stuttg.  1845.     3  Vols. 

With  the  varied  and  catholic  doctrines  of  Christianity  which 
had  been  established  during  the  course  of  the  ancient  history  of 
the  Church,  a  number  of  spurious  elements  concerning  govern- 
ment,  doctrine,   discipline,    and  worship,   had  been  introduced. 

*  And  Alexander  of  Hales. 


452     SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.   10-13  A.D.). 

Thus,  along  with  the  truth,  abuses  had  been  imported  into  thft 
German  Church.     These  seeds  of  error  sprung-  up  ami  spread 
during    the   Middle   Ages,    fostered    by   the    barbarism   of   that 
period,  the  sensuous  disposition  of  the  people,  the  ignorance  of 
the  clergy,  and  the  selfishness  of  the  hierarchy.     They  manifested 
themselves  chiefly  as  boundless  superstition   of  every  kind,  lax 
and  demoralizing  discipline,  spurious  asceticism,  work-righteous- 
ness, secularism  in  the  Church,  ignorance  and  looseness  among 
the  clergy,  and  the  abuse  of  hierarchical  power.     These  evils, 
however,  were  not  only  felt  during  the  Middle  Ages,  but  frequent 
attempts  were  made  to  remove  them.     Throughout  that  period  we 
can  discern  a  reformatory  tendency,  which  by  various  agencies — 
properly  or  improperly  —  sought  to  make  way  for  itself.      Some- 
times it  manifested  itself  in  combination  with  attachment  to  the 
Church,  when   the   attempt  was  made  to  introduce  an  internal 
reformation,  and  thereby  to  bring  back  the  Church  to  apostolic 
purity  ;   in  other  cases,  a  sense  of  the  hopelessness  of  such  a  task 
led  to  separation  from  the  Church,  and  to  determined  opposition 
to  prevailing  ecclesiasticism.      Such  movements,  however,  rarely 
continued  within  the  bounds  of  evangelical  moderation  ;  more 
commonly,  along  with  error,  part  of  the  truth  was  also  rejected, 
fanaticism  and  heresy  ensued,  all  social  relationships  were  under- 
mined, and  the  existence  of  the  State  as  well  as  of  the  Church 
endangered.     Among  the  numberless  sects  of  that  period,  the 
most  influential  and  revolutionary  were  those  who  held  Mani- 
chean  views,  and  to  whom  the  general  name  of  Gathari  has  been 
given.     But  in  other  directions  also,  parties  hostile  to  the  Church 
sprung  up.     Thus  the  enthusiasm  of  the  Montanists  reappeared 
in  different  prophetic  and  apocalyptical  communities  ;  while  the 
Sect  of  the  Holy  Spirit  entertained  pantheistic  views,  and  even 
the  errors  of  the  Ebionites  were  again  mooted  by  the  Passagiere. 
Another  kind  of  sects  owed  their  origin  to  the  efforts  of  indi- 
viduals, whose  eyes  had,  by  a  perusal   of  1  lie   Scriptures,  been 
opened  to  the  defects  in  the  Church,  but  who,  failing  to  perceive 
at  the  same  time  the  blessed  truths  of  the  Gospel,  only  aimed  at 
a   complete   subversion   of  the  Church,   and,   along  with  error, 
rejected  also  the  truth.     Among  all  these  different  parties,  the 
community  of  the  Waldenses  alone  continued  within  the  bounds 
of  evangelical  moderation. 


OPPOSITION     TO     ECCLESTASTICISM.  453 

1.  The  Catltari. — (Comp.  Dr.  Maitland,  Facts  and  Documents  illustr. 
jf  the  Hist.,  etc.,  of  the  Albig.  and  Waldons.,  Lond.  1832 ;  and  that 
writer's  Eight  Essays,  Lond.  18-52. —  C.  Schmidt,  Hist,  et  doctrines 
des  Cathares  ou  Albigeois.  Par.  1849.  2  Yoll.  —  E.Kunitz,  ein  katha- 
risches  Ilituale.  Jen.  1852.)  —  From  the  eleventh  century  a  disposition 
unfavourable  to  the  hierarchy  and  the  prevailing  ecclesiastical  system 
began  to  manifest  itself  in  many  places,  chiefly  in  Italy  and  in  France. 
This  led  to  the  formation  of  sects,  which  rapidly  spread.  It  is  not 
difficult  to  account  for  the  existence  of  this  estrangement ;  it  originated 
in  felt  religious  wants,  which  the  Church  failed  to  satisfy.  Such  aspi- 
rations became  deeper  and  stronger  in  proportion  as  spiritual  and  intel- 
lectual life,  in  all  its  departments,  was  quickened  during  the  period 
succeeding  the  lethargy  of  the  tenth  century.  Accordingly,  a  strong 
desire  sprung  up  to  procure  for  oneself  what  the  Church  could  not  or 
would  not  give.  But  this  desire  must,  to  some  extent  at  least,  have 
been  quickened  and  fostered  from  without.  As  in  the  East  ($  71),  so 
in  the  West,  Gnostic  speculations  had  in  all  probability  continued  to 
exist,  though  by  secret  tradition.  In  point  of  fact,  we  know  that  the 
Vandals  had  transported  shiploads  of  Manicheans  to  the  shores  of  Italy, 
while  the  Priscilianists  openly  avowed  their  tenets  in  Spain,  so  late  as 
the  seventh  century.  Probably,  however,  the  movement  issued  again 
from  the  East,  in  all  likelihood  from  Bulgaria,  where,  since  the  time 
the  Paulicians  had  settled  in  that  district,  Gnostic  and  Manichean 
views  were  widely  entertained  and  zealously  propagated.  Even  the 
names  of  these  sects  prove  the  correctness  of  this  assertion.  The  most 
general  designation  was  that  of  CatJiari  (za^apot)  ;  but  they  were  also 
called  Bulgari  (whence,  in  popular  parlance,  the  opprobrious  name 
Bougre)  or  Gazari,  perhaps  after  the  inhabitants  of  the  Crimea  (the 
Chazars),  or  else  a  different  mode  of  pronouncing  the  word  xaSapou,  and 
Publicani,  probably  a  transposition  by  which  the  foreign  term  of  Pauli- 
cians was  converted  into  a  well-known  term  of  reproach.  They  were 
also  designated  Patareni  or  Paterini ;  either  in  the  original  sense  of 
that  term  ($  97,  2),  or  because,  since  the  contest  between  the  Pataria 
at  Milan  and  the  clergy,  the  term  implied  in  general  a  spirit  of  hostility 
to  the  priesthood.  The  name  of  Tisserands  originated  from  the  circum- 
stance that  many  of  their  adherents  were  weavers  by  trade.  The  com- 
mon characteristic  of  all  these  sects  was  opposition  to  the  clergy  and 
the  hierarchy.  They  differed  in  the  extent  to  which,  and  the  grounds 
on  which,  they  opposed  the  prevailing  ecclesiasticism,  or  attempted  to 
set  up  a  church  of  their  own.  Several  of  the  charges  preferred  against 
them  may  probably  have  arisen  from  misunderstanding  or  calumny. 
The  Paulician  or  Bogomile  opinions  which  they  had  embraced  —  while 
of  a  practical  rather  than  of  a  speculative  character,  and  variously 
modified  or  kept  in  check  —  affected  all  their  tenets  and  practices 
Thus  they  held  Dualistic  views,  though,  in  many  cases,  only  in  the 
way  of  carrying  the  scriptural  doctrine  of  the  devil  and  of  original  sin 


454     SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.   10— 13  A. D.). 

to  an  extreme  (in  opposition  to  the  Pelagianism  of  the  Church);  they 
rejected  the  Old  Testament ;  marriage  they  regarded  as  a   hindrance 
to  Christian  perfection;  they  contemned  baptism,  the  eucharist,  and 
clerical  ordination  ;  prohibited  the  worship  of  saints  and  relics  ;  objected 
to  the  use  of  images  and  crucifixes  ;  insisted  on  a  literal  observance  of 
all  the  injunctions  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount;  and,  despite  their 
spiritualism,  laid  great  stress  on  fasting,  genuflexions,  and  the  frequent 
repetition  of  certain  prayers,  especially  the  Lord's  Prayer.     Along  with 
prayer,  preaching  occupied  the  most  prominent  place  in  their  public 
services.     Their  adherents  were  divided   into    Crezentz    (credentes  = 
catechumeui)  and  bos  homes  or  bos  Crestias  (boni  homines,  boni  Chris- 
tiani  =  perfecti,  electi).     The  so-called  "  auditores"  formed  a  lower 
class  of  catechumens,  who  were  received  among  the  credentes  after  a 
term   of  instruction  and  probation   (astenenzia  =  abstinentia).     The 
admission  of  credentes  was  marked  by  a  formal  delivery  of  the  holy 
prayer  (or  Lord's  Prayer)  and  of  the  New  Testament  to  the  catechu- 
mens, by  exhortations  and  other  ceremonies,  such  as  washing  of- hands, 
etc.     The  credentes  were  received  into  the  number  of  perfecti  by  the 
baptism  of  the  Spirit  (or  the  Consolamentum),  without  which  it  was 
impossible  to  have  a  part  in  eternal  life.     The  ordinance  was  adminis- 
tered by  the  elder  (Ancia)  laying  a  copy  of  the  Gospels,  and  the  other 
bos  Crestias  their  hands,  on  the  head  of  the  candidate.     Those  who 
were  thus  set  apart  were  required  to  abstain  from  marriage,  from  the 
use  of  animal  food,  and  from  all  polluting  intercourse  with  those  who 
were    not    members  of  the    sect,   on   which    account   they  commonly 
delayed  till  death  receiving  the  Consolamentum.     Generally  they  took, 
on  their  admission  among  the  credentes,  a  vow  (Convenensa)  of  joining 
the  bos  Crestias  (or  Ordo)  at  a  future  period  ;  while  some,  after  having 
received  the  Consolamentum,   underwent  the  Endura,  i.  e.,  henceforth 
abstained  from  all  food  and    drink.     At  the   time   of  their   greatest 
prosperity  they  had  a  regular  hierarchy,  with  a  pope,  who  resided  in 
Bulgaria,  twelve  magistri.  and  seventy-two  bishops,  each  of  whom  had 
a  filius  major  and  minor  as  their  assistants.  —  Even  their  opponents 
admitted  their  deep  and  moral  earnestness;  but  the  doctrine  of  justifi- 
eation  by  faith  had  no  place  in  their  system.     Prayer,  abstinence,  and 
the  so-called  baptism  of  the  Spirit,  were  regarded  as  the  sole  means  of 
obtaining  salvation.     It  may  be  true  that  occasionally  some  went  to 
the  opposite  extreme  of  antinomian  excesses  ;  but  more  frequently  such 
charges  originated  in  calumny.     Generally  they  went  to  the  stake  with 
the  heroism  and  joyfulness  of  martyrs.  —  Sects  of  this  kind  were,  since 
the  eleventh  century,  discovered  in  several  places;  first  in  Aquitaine 
in  1010;   then  in  1022  at  Orleans,  where  thirteen  of  them  were  bound 
to   tb.e   Make:   in   1025   at  Cambrai   and  Arras;   in  lOP.O  in  the  diocese 
of  Turin;   in  1052  at  Goslar,  where  their  adherents  were   executed   by 
order  of  the  Emperor ;  and  in  other  places.     During  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury *hey  rapidly  increased  in  membership,  and  spread  into  different 


OPPOSITION     TO     ECOLESIASTICISM.  455 

countries.  Kindness  and  rigorous  measures  were  equally  unavailing 
to  reclaim  them.  His  deep  love  to  erring  sinners  made  St.  Bernard 
more  successful  than  any  other  among  them.  At  a  later  period  learned 
Dominicans  tried  the  efficacy  of  preaching  and  discussions.  The  prin- 
cipal centres  of  the  Cathari  were  in  Lombardy  and  in  the  south  of 
France  ;  but  numerous  communities  also  existed  in  Germany,  Belgium, 
and  Spain.  Indeed,  such  was  their  influence  in  France,  that  they 
ventured  to  summon  a  general  Council  at  Toulouse  in  1167,  which  was 
numerously  attended. 

The  contest  between  the  Ghibellines  and  the  Guelphs  afforded  them 
an  opportunity  of  manifesting  their  enmity  to  the  papal  hierarchy,  and 
Frederic  II.  openly  protected  them.  They  continued  so  late  as  the 
fourteenth  century,  despite  the  fearful  persecution  raised  against  them 
(|  109).  lieinerius  Sachoni  {oh.  1259),  a  Dominican  from  Lombardy, 
who  at  one  time  had  himself  been  a  "  heresiarch"  (Summade  Catharis 
et  Leonistis  et  Pauperibus  de  Lugd.),  was  the  most  distinguished  con- 
troversialist against  the  sect.  The  liturgy  lately  discovered  by  Kunitz 
dates  from  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  gives  a  more  favour- 
able view  of  them  than  had  formerly  been  entertained. 

The  small  sect  of  the  Passagieri  in  Lombardy  (during  the  twelfth 
century)  went  to  an  opposite  extreme  from  the  Manichsean  rejection  of 
the  Old  Testament  by  the  Cathari.  With  the  exception  of  sacrifices, 
they  insisted  on  the  obligation  of  the  whole  Mosaic  law,  including  cir- 
cumcision (along  with  baptism)  ;  they  also  entertained  Arian  views 
about  the  person  of  Christ.  Their  name  (from  pasagium  =  passage) 
seems  to  point  to  the  practice  of  pilgrimages  or  crusades  to  the  Holy 
Land.     Indeed,  they  may  have  originated  in  this  manner. 

2.  Towards  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century  &  pantheistic  movement 
commenced  in  France,  and  found  expression  in  the  so-called  Sect  op 
the  Holy  Spirit.  The  party  originated  with  Amalric  of  Bena,  a 
teacher  at  Paris.  The  first  germs  of  this  pantheistic  mysticism  were 
probably  derived  from  the  writings  of  the  pseudo-Dionysius  and  of 
Erigena.  The  University  of  Paris  and  Innocent  III.  obliged  Amalric 
to  recant  his  apparently  Christian,  but  according  to  his  own  interpreta- 
tion of  it,  really  pantheistic  statement,  that  none  could  be  saved  who 
believed  not  that  he  was  a  member  of  the  body  of  Christ.  Chagrin  at 
this  humiliation  may  have  hastened  his  death,  which  took  place  soon 
afterwards  (1204).  In  the  hands  of  his  pupil,  David  of  Dinanto,  the 
pantheism  of  Amalric  received  a  more  Aristotelian  and  dialectic  cast. 
Besides  these  two,  Simon  of  Tour  nay,  a  celebrated  dialectician  at 
Paris,  entertained  similar  views.  While  professing  to  teach  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Church,  he  took  care  to  indicate  sufficiently  that  it  was 
much  easier  to  refute  than  to  demonstrate  them.  The  opinions  of  these 
men  found  way  among  the  laity.  Soon  afterwards  a  goldsmith  pro- 
claimed the  advent  of  the  age  of  the  Holy  Sjjirit,  when  all  positive 
religion  and  every  form  of  outward  worship  should  cease,  and  God  be 


456    section  ii. — Second  period  (cent.  10— 13  a.d.). 

all  in  all.  As  formerly  in  Christ,  so  now  in  every  believer,  did  God 
become  incarnate ;  and  on  this  ground  the  Christian  was  God  in  the 
same  sense  in  which  Christ  had  heen.  The  Pope  was  Antichrist. 
These  views  were  condemned  at  a  Synod  held  at  Paris  in  1209,  the 
writings  of  Erigena  were  reprobated,  and  several  members  of  the  sect 
consigned  to  the  stake.  The  hones  of  Amalric  shared  the  same  fate.— 
(Comp.  Engelhardt,  Am.  v.  Bena,  in  his  "  kirchengesch.  Abh. ;"  and 
/.  II.  Krbnlcin  in  the  "  theol.  Studien  u.  Kritt."  for  1847.  II.) 

3.  Revolutionary  Reformers. —  (Comp.  E.  Francke,  Arn.  v.  Bresc.  u 
seine  Zeit.  Zur.  1825.  —  Mosheim,  Gesch.  d.  Apostelord.,  in  his  "Vers, 
e.  unparth.  u.  griiudl.  Ketzergesch."  Helmst.  1748. — J.  Krone,  Fra 
Dolcino  u.  die  Patarener.  Leips.  1844. —  Schlosser,  1.  c,  §103,1. — 
Mariotti,  Fra  Dolcino  and  his  Times.  Lond.  1853.)  — Among  them  we 
reckon : 

(1.)  The  Petrobrusians,  founded  by  Peter  of  Bruys,  a  priest  in  the 
south  of  France,  about  1104.  He  rejected  the  outward  or  visible 
Church,  and  only  acknowledged  the  true  (invisible)  Church  in  the 
hearts  of  believers.  In  his  opinion  all  churches  and  sanctuaries  should 
be  destroyed,  since  God  might  he  worshipped  in  a  stable  or  tavern.  He 
used  crucifixes  for  cooking  purposes ;  inveighed  against  celibacy,  the 
mass,  and  infant  baptism ;  and  after  twenty  years  of  continual  dis- 
turbances, ended  his  days  at  the  stake  by  the  hands  of  an  infuriated 
mob  (1124).  He  was  succeeded  by  one  of  his  associates,  Henry  of 
Lausanne,  formerly  a  monk  of  the  order  of  Clugny.  Under  him  the 
sect  of  the  Petrobrusians  greatly  increased  in  numbers.  St.  Bernard 
succeeded  in  converting  many  of  them  from  their  errors.  Henry  was 
6cized  and  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  life.     He  died  in  1149. 

(2.)  Among  these  revolutionaries  we  must  also  include  Arnold  op 
Brescia  {ob.  1155,  comp.  g  90,  6),  a  pupil  of  Abelard.  His  fervent 
oratory  was  chiefly  directed  against  the  secular  power  of  the  Church, 
and  its  possession  of  property,  —  views  which  probably  were  based  on 
a  more  spiritual  conception  of  what  the  Church  really  was.  Other- 
wise his  doctrinal  opinions  seem  to  have  been  in  accordance  with  those 
commonly  entertained.  Long  after  his  death,  a  party  of  so-called 
Arnoldists  cherished  the  political  and  ecclesiastical  dreams  of  their 
founder. 

(3.)  During  the  thirteenth  century  the  "  Apostolic  Brethren,"  or 
"  Apostolicals,"  caused  considerable  excitement,  especially  in  Italy. 
In  opposition  to  the  luxuriousness  of  a  wealthy  clergy,  they  formed 
religions  societies  which  were  to  be  entirely  destitute  of  earthly  pos- 
sessions. As  the  popes  prohibited  their  associations,  they  took  up  an 
attitude  of  hostility  to  the  clergy  and  the  Church,  and  retired  from 
persecution  to  caves  and  woods.  Anton  Segarelli,  their  leader,  was 
Beized,  and  died  at  the  stake  in  Parma  in  1300.  His  successor,  Dolcino, 
excited  thesa  sectaries  to  utmost  fanaticism  by  his  denunciations  of 
tho  new  Babylon,  and  by  his  apocalyptic  predictions.     With  2000  fob 


OPPOSITION     TO     ECCLESIASTICTSM.  457 

lowers  he  retired  to  a  mountain,  where  he  entrenched  himself,  and  for 
two  years  defied  the  army  of  crusaders  summoned  for  the  suppression 
of  the  sect.  Ultimately  he  had  to  succumb  to  superior  forces  and  to 
famine,  and  died  at  the  stake  in  1307. 

4  Prophetic  and  Apocalyptic  Opposition.  —  (Comp.  Engelhardt,  d. 
Abt  Joachim  u.  d.  ewige  Evangel.,  in  his  "  kirchenhist.  Abhandl." 
Erlg.  1832. —  Ulrich  Halui,  d.  apokal.  Lehren  d.  Joach.  v.  Floris,  in 
the  "theol.  Studien  u.  Kritt."  for  1849.  II.  2.) — The  opposition  to  pre- 
vailing abuses  which  appeared  in  all  directions,  found  also  vent  in  pro- 
phetic denunciations. 

(1.)  St.  Hildegardis,  the  founder  and  abbess  of  a  nunnery  near 
Bingen,  where  she  died  in  1197  at  the  advanced  age  of  ninety-nine 
years,  had  visions  and  revelations,  and  was  considered  an  oracle  by 
persons  of  all  ranks.  Even  St.  Bernard  and  Pope  Eugenius  III.  re- 
garded her  as  divinely  commissioned.  Her  prophetic  denunciations 
were  specially  directed  against  the  looseness  of  the  clergy  and  the 
assumptions  of  the  hierarchy,  to  both  of  which  she  traced  the  decay 
of  the  Church.  She  announced  impending  terrible  judgments  for  the 
purification  of  the  Church. 

(2.)  St.  Elizabeth,  Abbess  of  the  nunnery  of  Schbnau  (ob.  1165), 
an  elder  cotemporary  of  Hildegard,  also  claimed  to  be  a  prophetess, 
and  in  that  capacity  inveighed  against  the  luxuriousness  of  the  clergy. 
Her  predictions  were  translated  and  published  by  Ecbert,  her  brother. 
The  well-known  legend  about  St.  TJrsida,  a  British  princess,  who,  along 
with  her  11,000  virgins,  had  been  martyred  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Cologne  while  on  a  pilgrimage,  rests  on  the  authority  of  her  visions. 

(3.)  The  prophetic  visions  of  Joachim  of  Floris,  an  abbot  in  Cala- 
bria (ob.  1202),  deserve  fuller  notice.  These  apocalyptic  predictions 
breathe  a  spirit  of  deep  sorrow  on  account  of  the  corruptions  in  the 
Church,  and  of  ardent  longing  for  better  times.  According  to  Joachim, 
scholasticism  had  paralyzed  the  energies  of  theology,  while  the  deifi- 
cation of  man  in  the  Papacy,  the  avarice  and  abuses  of  the  clergy,  and 
the  practices  of  indulgences,  had  converted  the  Church  into  a  harlot. 
Hence  fearful  judgments  were  impending.  These  were  to  be  executed 
by  the  German  Empire,  in  which  Antichrist  should  become  manifest. 
The  only  source  of  spiritual  restoration  still  extant  was  to  be  found  in 
the  monastic  orders.  Work-righteousness  and  pilgrimages  -were  devices 
of  the  enemy,  but  asceticism  and  contemplation  delivered  from  destruc- 
tion. The  history  of  revelation  was  comprised  within  three  periods — 
that  of  the  Father  in  the  Old  Covenant,  that  of  the  Son  in  the  New 
Testament,  and  the  approaching  period  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Peter  was 
the  representative  of  the  first,  Paul  of  the  second,  and  John  of  the 
third  of  these  periods.  During  the  third  era,  which  was  to  commence 
about  1260,  but  to  last  only  a  short  time,  the  glory  of  Christianity 
ivould  be  fully  manifested.  —  Joachim  was  held  in  high  esteem  by  ail 
39 


458     SECTION    II. — SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.    10— IS   A.  D.). 

ranks,  and  their  protection  proved  his  safeguard  against  the  enmity  of 
the  hierarchy. 

(4.)  The  views  broached  by  Joachim  vrere  eagerly  adopted,  espe- 
cially by  the  Franciscan  sectai'ies  or  Frattucelli  (#  98,  4),  and  the 
Beghards  who  had  joined  them  (§  98,  5).  In  their  hands  the  tenets  of 
Joachim  became  what  was  called  the  doctrine  of  the  "Everlasting 
Gospel,"  or  the  message  concerning  the  age  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  These 
views  were  expressed  in  the  "  Introductorius  in  Evangelium  jeternum," 
—  a  treatise  composed  either  by  John  of  Parma  (formerly  General  of 
the  Franciscans,  but  deposed  and  succeeded  by  Bonaventura),  or  by 
Gerhard,  a  monk  whose  tenets  were  impeached  about  the  same  time. 
At  the  request  of  the  University  of  Paris,  the  book  was  condemned  by 
Alexander  IV.  in  1254.  At  length  Nicholas  III.  decided  in  1279  the 
controversy  so  long  raging  among  the  Franciscans  as  to  the  lawfulness 
of  holding  property.  The  Pontiff  ruled  that  the  disciples  of  St.  Francis 
were  only  prohibited  the  possession,  but  not  the  usufruct  of  property. 
This  decision  gave  great  offence  to  the  extreme  party,  and  their  leader, 
Johannes  Pctrus  Oliva  (ob.  1297),  fulminated  apocalyptic  visions  and 
prophetic  denunciations  against  the  Romish  Antichrist.  Such  visions 
and  outbursts  of  fanaticism  rose  almost  to  the  pitch  of  madness  in  the 
case  of  Tanchelm,  a  Dutchman,  who  designated  himself  God  in  virtue 
of  his  having  received  the  Holy  Ghost,  celebrated  his  affiancing  to  the 
Virgin  Mary,  and  was  killed  by  a  priest  in  1124.  A  similar  remark 
applies  to  another  fanatic,  a  native  of  Gascoigne,  Eon,  or  Fudo  de 
Stella,  who,  applying  to  his  own  name  the  ecclesiastical  formula  "  Per 
eum,  qui  venturus  est  judicare  vivos  et  mortuos,"  claimed  to  be  the 
judge  of  the  quick  and  the  dead,  and  died  in  prison  in  1148. 

5.  The  Waldenses. —  (Comp.  Jean  Leger,  hist.  gene>ale  des  £glises 
evang.  de  Piemont  ou  Vaudoises.  Leyde  1G6C>.  Transl.  into  German  by 
de  Sphweinitz.  Bresl.  1750.  2  Vols. — A.  Monastier,  Hist,  des  egl.  Vaud. 
Gen.  1847.  2  T.—A.  Muston,  ITsrael  des  Alpes.  Par.  1851.  4  T.  (re- 
peatedly transl.  into  Engl.).  —  F.  Bender,  Gesch.  d.  Wald.  Ulm.  1850. 
— A.  W.  Dieckhqf,  d.  Wald.  im  M.  A.  Gott,  1851.  — J.  /.  Herzog,  d. 
roman.  Wald.  Halle  1853. — Maitland,  u.  s.  Note  \.)—Waldus  (Valdez, 
or,  as  later  authorities  also  call  him,  Prints  Waldus)  was  originally  a 
rich  citizen  of  Lyons.  For  his  personal  instruction  he  got  the  New 
Testament  and  a  selection  of  pregnant  passages  from  the  Fathers 
translated  into  the  Romaunt  by  some  clerical  friends.  By  such  studies 
his  mind  became  imbued  with  Gospel  truth,  when  the  sudden  death  of 
a  friend  aroused  and  decided  him  to  change  his  former  mode  of  life 
(about  1170).  In  pursuance  of  this  resolution,  he  distributed  all  his 
goods  among  the  poor,  and  founded  "an  apostolic  association"  for 
preaching  the  Gospel  to  the  country  people.  In  literal  obedience  to 
the  directions  of  Scripture,  these  missionaries  were  to  go  forth  by  two 
and  two,  without  staff  or  scrip,  their  feet  shod  with  woodeD  sandals 
(sabates,  sabots),  they  were   to  devote   themselves   to   preaching  and 


OPPOSITION     TO     ECCLESIASTICISM.  459 

teaching,  and  in  every  respect  to  imitate  apostolic  poverty  and  sim- 
plicity.   They  were  called  Pauperes  de  I/ugduno,  Leonistce,  or  Sabatati. 
It  certainly  formed  no  part  of  the  original  plan  of  Waldus  that  his 
adherents  should  take  up  a  position  of  hostility  to  the  Church  ;  but 
when  the  Archbishop  of  Lyons  prohibited  their  preaching,  when  Pope 
Alexander  III.  sullenly  refused  his  sanction  to  their  associations,  and 
when,  soon  afterwards,  a  papal  Council  at  Verona,  under  Lucius  III. 
(1183),  excommunicated  them,  the  Catholic  Church,  by  driving  them 
from  its  bosom,  swept  away  those  barriers  which  had  hitherto  restrained 
them  in  their  search  after  truth.     Waldus  himself  was  obliged  to  flee 
from  France.     He  laboured  for  some  time  in  Italy  and  in  other  coun- 
tries; lastly  in  Bohemia,  where  he  died  in  1197.     Even  at  that  early 
period  his  adherents  had  already  spread  throughout  the  West.     They 
were  most  numerous  in  the  south  of  France,  in  the  east  of  Spain,  and 
in  the  north  of  Italy ;  but  many  of  their  converts  were  also  found  in 
Germany,  in  Switzerland,  and  in  Bohemia.    The  so-called  "  Winkeler" 
(or  conventiclers),  who  were  discovered  and  persecuted  in  the  districts 
along  the  Rhine  in  1212,  were  probably  also  Waldenses.— Innocent  III., 
with  his  wonted  sagacity,  perceived  the  injustice  and  impolicy  of  his 
predecessors,  whose  blind  zeal  had  deprived  the  Catholic  Church  of 
what  might  have    proved  valuable    auxiliaries.     Accordingly,  he  at- 
tempted (1210)  to  transform  the  community  of  Pauperes  de  Lugduno 
into  a  monkish  association  of  Pauperes  Catholici,  to  whom,  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  bishops,  he  granted  permission  to  preach,  to 
expound  the  Scriptures,  and  to  hold  meetings  for  religious  purposes. 
But  the  concession  came  too  late ;  already  the  Waldenses  had  suffi- 
ciently advanced  to  know  the  unscriptural    character  of    the    papal 
Church,  and  they  now  refused  to  purchase  immunity  by  a  sinful  com- 
promise.    The  cruel  persecutions  to  which  they  were  exposed,  and  in 
which  thousands  were  brought  to  the  stake,  proved  even  less  efficacious 
than  the  advances  of  the  Pope  in  restoring  them  to  the  bosom  of  the 
Church.     They  gradually  retired  from  France,  Spain,  and  Italy  into 
the  remote  valleys  of  Piedmont  and  Savoy. 

According  to  modern  Waldensian  tradition,  which  a  number  of  Pro- 
testant writers  (most  zealously  U.  Hahn,  ut  supra)  have  followed,  the 
name  and  origin  of  the  Waldenses  should  be  traced  much  beyond 
Waldus  of  Lyons.  By  their  account,  Waldensian  or  Vallensian  con- 
gregations existed  in  the  valleys  of  Piedmont  from  the  time  of  Claudius 
of  Turin  (§92,  2),  if  not  from  apostolic  times,  and  among  them  the 
doctrines  of  the  Gospel  had  throughout  been  preserved  in  their  purity. 
From  them  Petrus  of  Lyons  had  derived  his  religious  knowledge  and 
the  surname  of  Waldus,  i.  e.,  the  Waldensian.  In  support  of  this 
tradition  they  refer  to  the  ancient  Waldensian  literature.  But  the 
impartial  and  full  investigations  of  DicckJtoff  and  Herzog  have  un- 
fortunately shown  that  these  statements  are  wholly  ungrounded.  The 
ancient  Waldensian  literature  may  be  divided  into  two  very  different 


4G0     SECTION    II. SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.  10-13  A.I).). 

Blasses.     The  writings  of  the  first  period,  dating  from  the  close  of  the 
twelfth  and  the  commencement  of  the  thirteenth  century,  hear  evidence 
that  at  that  time  the  community  had  not  completely  separated  from 
tlie  Chinch.     Accordingly,  while  the  corruptions  of  the  Church  are 
indeed  deplored,  the  Catholic  Church  itself  is  not  denounced;  fasting 
and    almsgiving    are    urgently    recommended    as    meritorious    works, 
auricular  confession  is  approved,  the  service  of  the  Virgin  and  of  saints 
is  still  acknowledged,  the  priesthood  of  the  Catholic  Church  recognized, 
monastieism  extolled  as  the  highest  stage  of  evangelical  perfection,  and 
lastly  the  seven  sacraments  and  the  mass  are  owned.     On  all  essential 
points  these  writings  tally  with  the  statements  of  the  Catholic  con- 
troversialists {Reinerius,  1.  c,  Note  1;    Alanus  ad  Insulis,  $103,  2; 
Slephanus  de  Borbone,  and  others).     Above  all,  they  make  no  allusion 
to  the  existence  of  Waldenses  in  Piedmont  hefore  the  appearance  of 
Waldus.     It  is  otherwise  with  the  writings  which  belong  to  the  second 
period  of  their  history.     In  them  Rome  is  denounced  as  Babylon,  the 
Pope  as  Antichrist,  the  worship  of  saints  as  idolatry,  monastieism  is 
reprobated,  while  the  doctrine  of  indulgences  and  of  purgatory,  the 
mass  and  auricular  confession,   are  rejected.     If  the  writings  of  the 
former  period  show  what  the  Waldenses  we're,  and  what  they  sought, 
before  their  separation  from  the  Church,  those  of  the  second  disclose 
what  they  became  after  their  expulsion,  and   in  consequence  of  the 
fearful  persecutions  to  which  they  had  been  subjected.     But  from  the 
very  first  there  was  this  fundamental  difference  between  them  and  the 
Romish  Church,  that  they  were  deeply  impressed  with  the  right  and 
duty  of  every  Christian  to  study  the  Scriptures  for  himself;  that  they 
ardently    desired    to    restore    the    pristine   purity    and    simplicity    of 
Christian  life  —  an  object  they  sought  to  accomplish  by  a  literal  ob- 
servance of  the  injunctions  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount;  and  lastly, 
that,  like  some  of  the  later  reformers,  they  believed  that  reverence  and 
obedience  were  due  only  to  pious  priests.     In  imitation  of  monastic 
arrangements,  their  adherents  were  divided  into  the  "perfect!"  and 
the   "  credentes,"    the   former   alone   being    bound    to    celibacy   and 
absolute  poverty.     After  their  expulsion  from  the  Church,  they  were 
of  course  obliged  to  make  ecclesiastical  provision  for  themselves.     The 
apostolic    succession  in  their  ordination  was    preserved  by  means  of 
some  bishops  who  had  joined  them.     The  presidents  of  particular  con- 
gregations were  called  Barbes  (uncles).     Even  their  opponents  were 
obliged  to  admit  the  purity  of  their  morals  and  their  separation  from 
the  world ;    they  were  struck    chiefly,   however,   with  the  knowledge 
which  they  possessed  of  the  Scriptures.     A  third  era  in  their  history, 
when   their  dogmatic  views  underwent   a  complete  change,   and  they 
received  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone,  commenced  about 
the  tunc   of  Huss,  and  was  completed    under   the  influence  of  the  Re- 
formers, specially  of  Zwingle  and  Calvin. 


REACTION     IN     THE     CHURCH.  461 

\  109.  RExlCTION  IN  THE  CHURCH. 

It  will  readily  be  understood  that  the  rapid  spread  of  heretics 
and  sectaries  during-  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  excited 
considerable  alarm  in  the  Church.  Indeed,  its  very  existence 
seemed  now  endangered.  So  early  as  the  eleventh  century,  lead- 
ing ecclesiastics  saw  no  other  remedy  than  the  stake  (a  kind  of 
prelude  to  those  torments  which  hereafter  awaited  heretics). 
Only  one  voice,  that  of  Bishop  Wazo  of  Liege  (ob.  1048),  was 
lifted  against  this  iniquitous  mode  of  conversion.  Happily  the 
opponents  of  this  favourite  and  easy  method  of  terminating  con- 
troversy were  more  numerous  in  the  twelfth  century.  Petrus 
VenerabilU  (§  98,  1),  St.  Hildegard,  and  St.  Bernard,  pro- 
tested against  attempts  at  conviction  by  fire  and  sword  ;  while 
the  latter,  by  Irs  own  example  and  success,  proved  that  affec- 
tionate admonition  and  kindly  teaching  were  likely  to  produce 
more  satisfactory  results  than  measures  which  only  converted 
simple-minded  men  into  enthusiastic  martyrs.  But  executioners 
and  stakes  were  more  readily  procured  than  men  like  St.  Bernard, 
of  whom,  specially  in  the  twelfth  century,  there  was  not  a  super- 
abundance. At  a  later  period,  St.  Dominic  despatched  his  dis- 
ciples to  teach  and  convert  heretics  by  preaching  and  discussions. 
So  long  as  they  confined  themselves  to  these  means,  their  labours 
were  not  unsuccessful.  But  by  and  by  they  also  found  it  more 
easy  and  efficacious  to  employ  the  thumb-screw  than  syllogisms. 
The  crusade  against  the  Albigehses  and  the  tribunals  of  the  In- 
quisition  finally  arrested  the  spread  of  heresy.  The  scattered 
members  of  these  sects  sought  safety  in  concealment.  Through- 
out, the  Church  made  no  distinction  between  different  sectaries, 
and  one  and  the  same  sentence  was  pronounced  on  Cathari  and 
Waldenses,  on  Petrobrusians,  Arnoldists,  and  Fratricelli  (species 
quidem  habentes  diversas,  wrote  Innocent  III.,  sed  caudas  ad 
iuv'cem  colligatas)  ;  and  indeed,  so  far  as  their  opposition  to  the 
Papacy  and  hierarchy  was  concerned,  they  were  all  at  one. 

1.  Crusade  against  the  Albigenses  (1209-1229). —  (Comp.  Sismonde 
di  Sismondi,  les  croisad.  contre  les  Albig.  Par.  1828.  —  J.  S.  Barrau 
et  A.B.  Darragon,  Hist,  des  crois.  c.  les  Alb.  Par.  1843).  —  The  great 
stronghold  of  the  numberless  sects  which  were  designated  as  Cathari, 
Bulgarians,  Manicheans,  etc.,  was  in  the  south  of  France,  where  they 
had  secured  the  protection  of  Raymond  VI,  Count  of  Toulouse,  and  of 
other  powerful  vassals.  Innocent  III,  who  stigmatized  them  as  worse 
than  the  Saracens,  commissioned  the  order  of  Cistercians  to  effect  their 
39* 


iG2     SECTION    II.  —  SECOND    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.  10— 13  A.  D.). 

conversion,  but  their  labours  were  unsuccessful.  Upon  this  the  Pope 
despatched,  in  1203,  Peter  of  Castelnau  as  his  legate,  with  ample 
powers  for  their  suppression.  Peter  was  murdered  in  1208,  and  sus- 
picion fell  on  Rayinund.  By  order  of  the  Pontiff,  Arnold,  Abbot  of 
Citeaux,  now  proclaimed  a  crusade  against  the  sectaries.  The  army 
thus  raised  was  commanded  by  Simon,  Count  of  Monlfort.  The  little 
town  of  AIM,  in  the  district  of  Albigeois,  was  regarded  as  the  great 
centre  of  the  party;  whence  the  name  of  Albigenses,  by  which  all 
these  sects  were  designated,  though  in  many  respects  they  greatly 
differed.  The  murderous  Avar  which  now  ensued,  and  which  in 
fanaticism  and  cruelty  (on  both  sides)  was  unparalleled,  lasted  for  no 
less  than  twenty  years.  Alike  the  guilty  and  the  innocent,  men  and 
women,  children  and  aged  persons,  fell  its  victims;  the  country  was 
changed  into  a  desert,  and  the  Albigenses  were  almost  exterminated. 

2.  The  Inquisition.  —  So  early  as  at  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council 
(1215).  measures  had  been  concerted  against  a  revival  of  the  Albigen- 
sian  heresy.  No  sooner  was  the  crusade  finished  than  a  synod  met  at 
Toulouse  (1229)  to  cany  out  these  precautions.  Bishops  were  enjoined 
to  employ  persons,  whose  sole  duty  it  should  be  to  hunt  out  heretics, 
and  to  hand  them  over  to  the  proper  tribunals.  Any  secular  or  clerical 
official  who  spared  a  heretic  was  to  lose  his  property  and  office,  every 
house  in  which  a  heretic  was  sheltered  should  be  levelled  with  the 
ground:  the  people  were  to  take  the  sacrament  three  times  a  year ; 
every  two  years  they  were  again  to  make  declaration  of  their  adherence 
to  the  Romish  Church  ;  those  suspected  of  heresy  were  to  be  refused 
every  assistance,  medical  or  otherwise,  even  in  case  of  mortal  illness, 
etc.  But  the  bishops  were  slow  in  enforcing  these  iniquitous  ordinan- 
ces. On  this  account  Gregory  IX.  instituted  special  Tribunals  of  In- 
quisition (Inquisitores  hsereticae  pravitatis),  which  were  confided  to 
the  Dominicans  (1232).  Let  loose  against  the  heretics  as  "Domini 
canes"  (a  designation  which  they  coveted  as  an  honour),  the  in- 
quisitors possessed  unlimited  power.  Any  party  suspected  or  de- 
nounced could  be  imprisoned  and  tried  without  being  confronted  either 
with  accuser  or  witnesses,  and  torture  was  freely  employed  to  extract 
confession.  Those  who  recanted  were  generally  condemned  to  im- 
prisonment for  life  ;  those  who  proved  obstinate  were  (in  accordance 
with  the  principle,  ecclesia  non  sitit  sanguinem)  handed  to  the  secular 
tribunal  to  be  consumed  at  the  stake. 

The  first  Grand  Inquisitor  of  Germany  was  a  Dominican,  Conrad  of 
Marburg,  known  also  for  his  unyielding  harshness  as  confessor  to  St. 
Elizabeth,  princess  of  Thuringia  and  Hesse.  After  having  for  two 
years  carried  on  his  dreadful  occupation  with  implacable  severity  and 
cruelty,  he  was  killed  by  some  nobleman  (1233).  It  w;.s  also  due  to 
Conrad  that  Gregory  IX.  ordered  a  crusade  to  be  preached  (1234)  against 
the  "  Stedingers,"  a  tribe  inhabiting  Oldenburg,  who.  in  their  indigna- 
tion at  the  oppression  of  the  nobility  and  clergy,  refused  socage  and 
tithes,  and  on  that  ground  were  declared  Albigeusian  heretics. 


THIRD    PERIOD 


OP 


ECCLESIASTICAL      HISTORY 

IN  ITS  MEDIEVAL  AND  GERMANIC  FORM  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 

FOURTEENTH    AND    FIFTEENTH    CENTURIES. 


I.  THE  HIERARCHY,  THE  CLERGY,  AND  MONASTICISM. 

I  110.    THE   PAPACY. 

At  the  accession  of  Boniface  VIII.  the  see  of  St.  Peter  still 
possessed  that  power  and  influence  with  which  Gregory  and 
Innocent  had  invested  it.  The  first  breach  was  now  to  be  made 
in  the  proud  fortress.  During  the  seventy  years  of  (so-called) 
Babylonish  exile  at  Avignon  the  Papacy  became  the  tool  of 
French  intrigue,  and  fell  into  fearful  decay.  Nor  was  this  all. 
When  at  length  the  Curia  was  again  transported  to  Rome,  a 
papal  schism  ensued.  For  forty  years  Europe  had  the  spectacle 
of  two,  or  even  three,  pretended  representatives  of  God  on  earth, 
hurling  against  each  other  the  most  awful  anathemas.  At  the 
Councils  of  Pisa,  Constance,  and  Basle,  an  attempt  was  made 
to  put  an  end  to  these  abuses,  and  to  introduce  a  thorough 
reformation  in  head  and  members.  Yet  so  deep  was  the  con- 
viction still  entertained  of  the  necessity  for  some  central  govern- 
ment of  the  Church  generally,  such  as  the  Papacy  had  hitherto 
represented,  that  even  the  most  determined  reformers,  the  Fathers 
of  Constance  and  Basle, were  the  most  strenuous  advocates  for  its 
continuance.  But  the  abuses  and  the  degeneracy  of  the  Papacy, 
the  vileness  and  dissoluteness  of  most  of  its  occupants  at  the 
time,  and  of  those  by  whom  they  were  surrounded,  the  continual 
demands  for  money  made  by  the  Curia  under  every  kind  of  pre- 

(463) 


'104       SECTION    II. THIRD   PERIOD    (CENT.  14  &  15  A.  D.). 

text,  which  led  to  almost  incredible  simony,  obliged  the  divines 
of  that  age  to  fall  back  upon  the  old  principle,  that  the  infalli- 
bility of  the  Church  rested  not  in  any  one  individual,  but  in  the 
representation  of  the  Church  universal  in  General  Councils,  and 
that  these   assemblies  were  superior  to  the  popes.      The  general 
acknowledgment  and  establishment  of   this  principle  depended, 
however,  on  the  union  and  combination  of  individual  or  national 
churches —  which  now  more  than  ever  felt  that  they  were  inde- 
pendent members  of  the  great  hierarchical  body  —  in  their  oppo- 
sition to  the  corrupt  Papacy.    Unfortunately  the  different  churches 
were  not  prepared  for  such  measures.      Content  to  make  separate 
treaties  with  the  Papacy,  in  which  even  the  most  selfish  demands 
of  a  particular  church   were   scarcely   met,   they  neglected  the 
general  good.     Most  successful,  but  also  the  most  selfish,  were 
the  policy  and   measures  of  the  Gallican  Church.     Thus  papal 
cunning  ultimately  succeeded   in    disappointing   and  frustrating 
the  hopes  and  labours  of  these  councils.     From  this  its  severest 
conflict  the  Papacy  issued  once  more  triumphant;   but  only,  as 
in  the  tenth,  so  now  in  the. fifteenth  century,  again  to  descend  to 
the  lowest  depth  of  moral  degeneracy  and  vileness. —  Luxurious- 
ness   and    dissoluteness,   pomp  and   worldliness,   nepotism,    and, 
since   the   return   to   Rome,  incessant  wars,  had   helplessly  dis- 
ordered the  papal  finances.     The  felt  necessity  of  opening  fresh 
sources  of  income  led  to  the  adoption  of  new  devices.      Among 
them  we  reckon  the  Annatce,  a  full  year's  income  being  claimed 
at  every  vacancy  by  the  pontiffs,  as  those  who  conferred  bene- 
fices ;  the  Beservationes,  the  popes  claiming  the  ri<rht  of  appoint 
ing  to  rich  benefices,  and  exacting  large  sums  for  the  nomination  ; 
the  Exspectantice,  the  popes  nominating  successors  to  rich  bene- 
fices before  the  death  of  the  incumbent,  as  that  event  did  not 
always  take  place  at  the  period  when  papal  requirements  rendered 
it  desirable;  the  Commendce,  appointments  being  made,  not  defi 
nitely,  but  provisionally,  "in  comniendam,"  on  condition  of  pay- 
ing an  annual  tax;  the  Jus  spoliorum,  the  see  of  Peter  declaring 
itself  the  sole  rightful  heir  of  all  property  acquired  by  dignitaries 
of  the  Church  during  their  tenure  of  office;   the  tithing  of  the 
property  of  churches  for  argent  wants;  the  innumerable  indul- 
gences, dispensations,  appeals,  and  many  other  rights,  all  of  which 
swelled  the  treasury'of  the  Church.  —  Boniface  VIII.  added  to 
the  papal  tiara  a  second  crown,  in  token  of  spiritual  and  secular 
rule;   Urban  V.  surmounted   it  with   a   third,  to  indicate   that  its 
wearer  was  the  representative  of  Christ,     The  doctrine  of  pa- 
pal infallibility  made  no  progress  in  this  period. 


THE    PAPACY.  465 

1.  Boniface  VIII.  (1294-1303).— (Comp.  W.  Drumann,  Gesch.  Bonif. 
VIH.  Konigsb.  1852.  2  Vols.) — In  point  of  sagacity  and  energy, 
Boniface  was  no  way  inferior  to  any  of  his  predecessors.  Otherwise, 
however,  he  was  more  concerned  about  the  gratification  of  his  immode- 
rate personal  ambition  than  the  welfare  of  the  Church.  He  commenced 
his  reign  by  expelling  the  influential  Roman  family  of  the  Oolonnas, 
who  had  declared  the  abdication  of  Coelestine  V.  to  be  unlawful.  But 
a  more  dangerous  opponent  to  the  Pontiff  was  Philip  the  Fair  of  France 
(1285-1314).  The  first  collision  between  them  arose  during  the  wax 
of  Philip  with  Edward  I.  of  England.  In  virtue  of  his  hierarchical 
supremacy,  the  Pope  claimed  to  be  arbiter  between  the  monarchs 
(1295).  These  pretensions  were  disdainfully  rejected  by  the  King  of 
France,  who  also  levied  on  the  clergy  a  heavy  contribution  for  the  pay- 
ment of  the  expenses  of  the  war.  Upon  this,  Boniface  issued,  in  129G, 
the  bull  "  Clericis  laicos,"  which  pronounced  excommunication  against 
all  laymen  who  exacted  contributions  from  the  clergy,  and  against 
those  of  the  clergy  who  paid  such  taxes.  Philip  avenged  himself  by 
prohibiting  the  exportation  of  money  from  the  country.  The  Pope  soon 
felt  the  inconvenience  of  being  deprived  of  his  French  revenues ;  he 
made  overtures  to  the  king,  consented  to  certain  concessions,  and 
canonized  Louis  IX.,  the  grandfather  of  Philip.  The  king  on  the 
other  hand  accepted  his  arbitration,  but  only  in  the  character  of  a 
personal  confidant,  not  as  Pope.  But  when  the  sentence  of  the  Pontiff 
proved  adverse  to  Philip,  the  breach  between  them  became  irremedi- 
able. The  legate  of  the  Pope  —  a  French  bishop  —  was  seized  on  a 
charge  of  treason  ;  Boniface  denounced  Philip  as  a  heretic,  and  the 
latter  retorted  by  calling  the  Pope  a  fool.  (The  Pope  wrote:  Scire  te 
volumus,  quod  in  spiritualibus  et  temporalibus  nobis  subes.  Aliud 
credentes,  hosreticos  reputamus.  The  king  replied:  Sciat  maxima  tua 
fatuitas,  in  temporibus  nos  alicui  non  subesse.  Secus  credentes  fatuos 
et  dementes  reputamus.)  The  view  that,  in  its  own  province,  the 
secular  power  was  perfectly  independent  of  the  spiritual,  was  branded 
asManicheanism  in  the  bull  "Unam  Sanctam"  (1302).  This  measure 
was  soon  followed  by  excommunication  and  the  interdict,  by  suspen- 
sion of  the  clergy  and  absolution  of  the  people  from  their  oath  of  alle- 
giance. The  French  Parliament  now  preferred  some  most  serious 
charges  against  the  orthodoxy  and  the  life  of  the  Pope,  and  appealed 
to  a  general  council  (1303).  William  of  Nogaret,  the  French  chancel- 
lor, and  one  of  the  expelled  Colonnas,  by  force  of  arms  seized  the 
Pope,  who  received  his  executioners  in  the  most  dignified  manner, 
sitting  on  his  throne,  and  arrayed  in  all  the  gorgeousness  of  his  robes. 
The  people  soon  restored  Boniface  to  liberty.  He  died  the  same  year 
of  an  inflammatory  disease.    Dante  has  assigned  him  a  place  in  hell. 

2.  The  Papacy  in  Us  Babylonish  Exile  (1309-1377).— After  the  brief 
interregnum  of  an  Italian  pope,  Bertrand  de  Got,  Archbishop  of  Bor- 
deaux and  a  favourite  of  Boniface,  was  unanimously  elected  as  Clk- 


466       SECTION    II. THIRD    PEHIOP    (CENT.   14  4  15  A.  D.). 

MEN-i  V.  (1305-1314).     But  this  prelate  had  previously  made  a  secret 
BomDaet  with   Philip,   and   bound  himself  to   support  French  policy. 
Clement  preferred  remaining  on  the  other  side  of  the  Alps,  and  in  13U'J 
formally  transferred  the  papal  Curia  to  Avignon,  where  it  continued 
for  nearly  seventy  years.     Throughout    this  period   the  Papacy    was 
almost  entirely  the  tool  of  the  French  rulers,  while  at  the  same  time  it 
assumed  the  most  arrogant  tone  towards  other  countries.     If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  secular  power  in  France  supported  these  hierarchical 
pretensions,  it  also  took  precautions  to  secure  the  liberties  of  the  Galli- 
can  Church.     At  Avignon  the  papal  court  became  increasingly  the 
centre  of  moral  and  religious  frivolity  and  looseness.     At  the  Fifteenth 
General  Council  held  in  Vienna  (1312),  Clement  sacrificed  to  the  rapa- 
city of  Philip  the  rich  order  of  the  Templars;  in  return,  he  had  the 
satisfaction  that  the  memory  of  Boniface  VIII.,  whom   Philip  would 
have  had  condemned,  was  vindicated.    Clement  died  in  131-1.    For  two 
years  the  French  and  Italian  parties  among  the  cardinals  contended 
for  the  succession  ;  at  last  the  former  prevailed,  and  John  XXII.  was 
chosen   Pontiff.     He  had  promised   the   Italians  upon   oath,   never  to 
mount  horse,  except  for  the  purpose  of  going  to  Home —  and  took  ship 
to  Avignon.     At  the  time,  Louis  of  Bavaria  (1314-1347)  and  Frederic 
of  Austria  contended  for  the  crown  of  Germany.     The  Pope  declared 
that  the  right  of  settling  the  question  rested  with  him  alone.     But  vic- 
tory decided  for  Louis,  who,  in  vindication  of  his  title,  appealed  to  the 
vote  of  the  prince-electors,  and  referred  the  objections  of  the  Pope  to 
a  future  general  council.     The  pontiff  replied  by  pronouncing  excom- 
munication and  the  interdict  (1324).     But  Louis  went  to  Italy  (1327), 
received  in  Borne  the  imperial  crown,  and  appointed  a  pious  Francis- 
can  of  the  extreme  party  in   that   order   [Nicholas  V,)   counter-pope. 
This  rival,  however,  was  not  properly  supported;  and  fresh  anathemas 
issuing  from  Avignon,  imperilled  the  position  of  the  Emperor.     John 
died   in  1334.     His  successor,  Benedict  XII.  (oft.  1342),  was  sincerely 
desirous  of  setting  himself  free  from  French  domination  and  making 
his  peace  with  the  Emperor,  but  he  was  unable  to  carry  out  his  inten- 
tions.    It  was  at  this  time  that  the  princes  electors  solemnly  declared, 
at  their  first  meeting  in  It/iense  (1338),  that  the  office  of  Roman   king 
depended,   not  on   the  Pope,   but  only  on    the  choice  of  the  electors. 
Clement  VI.  [ob.  1352)  again  pronounced  the  ban  upon  Louis,  and  ap- 
pointed as  his  successor  Charles  IV.  of  Bohemia  (1346),  who,  after  the 
death  of  Louis,  was  acknowledged  by  the  electors.     He  had  formally 
obligated  himself  to  renounce  all  imperial  prerogatives  in  the  temporal 
management  of  the  State  of  the  Church,  and  at  his  coronation  in  Borne, 
performed  by  two  cardinals  (1355)  by  order  of  the  absenl  pope,  repeated 
this  pledge,  notwithstanding  that  the  Romans  urged  him  to  maintain 
his  imperial  rights.     In  1347,  Cola  di  Eienzi,  the  new  tribune  of  the 
people,  restored  the  ancient  Republic  of  Home,  in  the  full  anticipation 
that   \i  would   again  achieve  the  conquest  of  the  world.     These  and 


THE     PAPACY.  467 

other  disturbances  in  Italy  rendered  it  increasingly  necessary  for  the 
popes  to  return  to  their  ancient  capital.  Accordingly,  Urban  V.  left 
Avignon  in  1307  ;  only  a  few  of  the  cardinals,  unwillingly,  accompanied 
him  ;  and  so  early  as  1370  the  Pope  was  obliged  to  go  back  to  Avignon. 
But  under  the  rule  of  his  successor,  Gregory  XL,  in  1377,  the  papal 
court  was  again  transported  to  Rome,  where  Gregory  died  the  year 
following. 

3.  The  Papal  Schism  and  the  Reforming  Councils  (1378-1443) 
Comp.  /.  H.  v.  Wessenberg,  die  grossen  Kirchenversamml.  d.  15.  16. 
Jahrh.  (the  Great  Councils  of  the  15th  and  16th  Cent.)  Const.  1840.  4 
Vols.  —  After  the  death  of  Gregory,  the  Romans  obliged  the  cardinals 
to  choose  an  Italian  pope  (Urban  VI.).  After  the  election,  the  French 
party  in  the  conclave  fled,  declared  the  election  illegal,  and  appointed 
a  Frenchman  (Clement  VII.),  who  took  up  his  residence  at  Avignon. 
Thus  commenced  the  papal  schism  (1378-1409),  in  consequence  of 
which  two  popes,  each  surrounded  by  a  college  of  cardinals,  anathe- 
matized each  other,  and  jointly  contributed  to  the  destruction  of  that 
fabric  which  Gregory  VII.  had  reared.  For  thirty  years  Europe  sub- 
mitted to  this  state  of  matters, — not,  however,  without  strenuous  pro- 
testation against  the  scandal,  especially  on  the  part  of  the  University 
of  Paris  (the  chancellor  Pierre  d'Ailty,  and  the  rector  Nicholas  de  Cle- 
manffis).  After  much  fruitless  negotiation  even  the  cardinals  on  both 
sides  became  tired  of  this  state  of  matters,  and  summoned  a  General 
Council  at  Pisa  (1409)  to  pronounce  on  the  claims  of  the  two  popes 
(Gregory  XII.  in  Rome,  and  Benedict  XIII.  in  Avignon).  This 
seasonable  measure  was  chiefly  due  to  the  exertions  of  John  Charlier 
de  Gerson  ($  118),  at  the  time  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris. 
That  divine,  while  admitting  the  necessity  of  a  visible  chief  of  the 
Church  at  Rome,  insisted  on  the  necessity  of  a  reformation  in  head 
and  members,  and  laid  down  the  principle  that  a  general  council  was 
superior  to  the  Pope.  The  assembly  at  Pisa  numbered  among  its 
members  the  most  influential  churchmen  of  the  time.  The  two  popes 
were  summoned  to  its  bar ;  they  failed  to  appear,  and  were  deposed. 
But  instead  of  now  addressing  itself  to  the  work  of  reformation,  the 
Council  hastened  to  elect  another  pontiff.  Alexander  V.,  the  new 
Pope,  immediately  adjourned  the  Council  for  three  years,  on  pretext 
that  the  necessary  preparations  for  the  proposed  reformation  had  not 
yet  been  made.  Accordingly,  the  only  result  achieved  was  —  that 
there  were  three  instead  of  two  popes  anathematizing  each  other. 

Alexander  V.  died  in  1410  at  Bologna,  probably  in  consequence  of 
poison  administered  to  him  by  Cossa,  the  cardinal  legate,  a  most  de- 
praved person,  who  in  youth  had  been  a  pirate,  and  now  exercised  at 
Bologna  the  most  despotic  sway.  Cossa  ascended  the  paral  throne  as 
John  XXIII.  The  new  Pontiff  was  bold  enough,  in  1412,  to  summon 
the  long-promised  General  Council  to  Rome.  At  the  same  time,  he 
took  care  that  all  the  passes  leading  into  italy  should  be  occupied  by 


468        SECT  I  OK    II. — THIRD    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.   14  &  15  A.  D.). 

his  friends  the  banditti.  Ilenee  only  a  few  Italian  bishops  appeared, 
and  the  Council  came  to  nothing.  But  D'Ailly  and  Gerson  continued 
their  exertions.  They  were  supported  by  the  Emperor  Sigismund 
(1410-1437),  who  insisted  on  a  free  and  general  council  to  initiate  a 
thorough  reformation.  As  John  required  the  aid  of  the  Emperor 
against  Naples,  he  had  reluctantly  to  yield,  and  accordingly  the 
Council  of  Constance  (1414-1418)  was  summoned.  This  assembly 
was  more  numerously  and  influential!?  attended  than  any  previous  or 
subsequent  council  (by  18,000  clerics,  and  innumerable  princes,  counts, 
inul  knights).  It  attracted,  moreover,  about  50,000  strangers  to  the 
city,  and  among  them  many  of  the  most  disreputable  character.  From 
the  first,  the  calculations  and  intrigues  of  John  proved  futile.  D'Ailly 
and  Gerson  carried  it,  and  the  Council  immediately  declared  itself 
supreme  in  every  respect,  and  competent  to  depose  all  the  three  popes 
if  it  saw  cause ;  also,  that  the  reformation  in  head  and  members  was 
taken  in  hand  as  the  main  business  before  them  ;  and  that  the  vote  was 
taken,  not  according  to  persons,  but  according  to  nations,  which 
previously  met  and  deliberated  in  separate  assemblies.  When  an 
accusation  was  now  laid  before  the  Council,  charging  the  Pope  with 
murder,  immorality,  and  simony,  John  hastily  fled  in  the  disguise  of 
a  groom.  It  was  with  some  difficulty  that  Gerson  managed  to  keep 
the  Council  together.  The  Pontiff  was  deposed,  and  soon  afterwards 
made  prisoner.  Of  the  other  two  popes,  one  abdicated,  the  other  was 
deposed  (1417)  The  Emperor  and  the  Germans  now  insisted  that  the 
proposed  reformation  should  precede  a  new  election  to  the  Papacy;  but 
they  were  unsuccessful.  Cardinal  Colonna  was  chosen  as  Martin  V., 
and  all  hones  of  a  reformation  were  again  at  an  end.  The  intrigues 
of  the  new  Pontiff  proved  only  too  efficacious;  separate  agreements 
were  made  with  individual  nations;  and  the  Council,  which  had  at  any 
rate  grown  tired  of  its  protracted  labours,  was  dissolved  after  the 
forty-fifth  general  session.  The  Pope  granted  to  all  the  members 
plenary  indulgence  to  the  hour  of  their  death,  and  left  the  town  in 
triumph. 

It  had  been  resolved  at  Constance  that  the  next  General  Council 
should  meet  at  Pavia  in  1423.  But  before  its  members  assembled,  tho 
Pope  transferred  the  assembly  to  Sienna,  and  then  dissolved  it  after  a 
few  sessions,  on  pretext  that  it  did  not  command  sufficient  sympathy. 
Tin'  next  council  was  to  have  been  convened  seven  years  later  at  Basle. 
Pope  Martin  V.  died  shortly  after  that  term.  His  successor,  Eugenics 
r\"'.,  sent  Cardinal  Julianus  Cesarini  as  legate  to  the  Council  of  Basle 
(1431-1443).  The  Council  from  the  first  took  an  independent  position, 
and  re-asserted  the  principle  of  the  absolute  authority  of  general 
s\  o  ids.  The  Pope  now  proposed  to  transfer  the  Council  to  Bologna— 
a  measure  against  which  even  Cesarini  protested.  After  some  fruit- 
less negotiations,  the  Pontiff'  formally  dissolved  the  Council  (14.".:;). 
But  the  assembled  fathers  continued  their  deliberations,  and  the  Popo 


THE     PAPACY.  469 

was  obliged  from  political  reasons,  again  to  recognize  their  validity 
(1434).  But  as  measures  were  now  introduced  for  a  reformation  in 
head  and  members,  Eugenius  once  more  transferred  the  Council,  after 
its  twenty-fifth  session,  to  Ferrara  (1438),  and  thence  to  Florence. 
The  solemn  reconciliation  of  the  Greeks  to  the  Romish  Church  which 
there  took  place  (§  67,  6),  gave  it  the  appearance  of  work  and  success. 
Meantime  the  Council  of  Basle  continued  its  sittings,  although 
Cesarini  had  left  it.  Its  new  president,  Cardinal  d'Allcmand,  filled 
the  places  of  the  bishops  who  absented  themselves  with  the  relics  of 
the  churches  at  Basle.  The  Pope  excommunicated  the  Council,  which 
in  turn  deposed  him  (1439),  and  chose  another  Pontiff  (Felix  V.). 
Europe,  however,  was  tired  of  these  disputes.  The  authority  of  Felix 
was  scarcely  acknowledged  by  any,  and  the  Council  itself  daily  lost  in 
cumbers  and  influence.  One  by  one  the  ablest  members  left  its  ranks  ; 
many  even  joined  the  party  of  Eugenius,  among  them,  the  astute 
JEneas  Sylvius  Piccolomiiii,  a  native  of  Sienna,  and  the  learned  and 
worthy  Nicholas  of  Cusa  (§  118,  2,  3).  After  its  45th  session  in  1443, 
the  Council  continued  merely  in  name  ;  its  last  representatives  ulti- 
mately recognized,  in  1449,  the  authority  of  Nicholas  V.,  the  successor 
of  Eugenius. 

4.  The  Last  Pojjss  before  the  Reformation  (1443-1517).  —  From  its 
contest  with  the  reforming  councils  the  Papacy  had  issued  triumphant. 
It  almost  seemed,  like  a  phoenix,  to  have  sprung  from  its  ashes.  But 
the  abuses  prevalent  in  the  Church — most  notably  those  caused  by  the 
Papacy  itself — were  as  deeply  and  generally  felt  as  ever.  The  desire 
among  all  the  more  noble-minded,  both  princes  and  subjects,  for  a  re- 
formation in  head  and  members,  was  not  abated ;  and  so  long  as  it  con- 
tinued, the  Papacy,  as  then  constituted,  was  imperilled.  The  man 
who  was  now  at  the  helm  of  the  Church  was  nowise  fitted  for  the 
emergency.  Even  under  the  successors  of  Eugenius,  JEneas  Sylvius, 
who  had  left  the  ranks  of  the  Basle  reformers  to  make  his  peace  with 
the  Holy  See,  really  wielded  the  authority  of  the  Papacy.  Shortly 
afterwards  he  was  elevated  to  the  Chair  of  Peter  as  Pius  II.  (1458- 
1464).  iEneas  would  fain  have  been  a  second  Hildebrand,  but  times 
had  changed  ;  besides,  the  Pontiff  was  in  every  respect  inferior  to  his 
great  model.  Ilildebrand's  accession  took  place  after  a  period  during 
which  the  Papacy  had  reached  its  lowest  depth.  In  the  case  of  /Eneas 
it  was  exactly  the  reverse  ;  a  similar  degradation  followed  his  pontifi- 
cate. In  point  of  learning,  astuteness,  and  energy,  he  was  however 
equal  to  any  of  his  predecessors,  while  in  diplomatic  skill  he  surpassed 
them.  The  French  Church  alone  succeeded  in  concluding  a  second 
pragmatic  sanction  (1438),  by  which  the  principles  asserted  at  Basle 
were  secured,  and  maintained  even  against  Pius  II.  The  attempts  of 
the  German  Church  to  obtain  similar  privileges  proved  fruitless.  All 
the  efforts  of  the  Germans  and  their  princes  were  frustrated  by  the 
40 


470       SECTION    II. — THIRD    PERIOD    (CEN  T.  14  &  15  A.  D  "). 

callousness  of  the  Emperor  Frederic  III.  (1439-1493),  and  by  th< 
manoeuvres  of  iEneas.  At  a  General  Council  held  in  Mantua  in  1459, 
the  principles  laid  down  at  the  Council  of  Constance  were  condemned 
as  heretical;  and  shortly  before  his  death  the  Pope  himself  expressly 
retracted,  in  a  bull  addressed  to  the  University  of  Cologne,  his  own 
former  liberal  principles  and  writings. — The  conquest  of  Constanti- 
nople by  the  Turks  (1453)  seemed  a  loud  call  to  take  measures  of  pre- 
caution against  the  great  enemy  of  Christianity.  Like  his  two  prede- 
cessors, Pious  II.  entered  with  spirit  into  this  question.  Even  before 
this  time  Calixtus  III.  had  despatched  a  licet  of  his  own  against  the 
Turks,  after  having  in  vain  appealed  to  the  secular  princes  on  the 
subject.  But  the  victories  it  achieved  led  to  no  lasting  result.  Calix- 
tus had  next  demanded  tithes  from  all  churches  for  the  purpose  of 
carrying  on  the  holy  war;  but  the  call  was  treated  as  merely  a  pre- 
text for  raising  money.  Pius  II.  again  reverted  to  this  plan  ;  but  his 
enthusiastic  appeal  at  the  Council  of  Mantua  failed  to  evoke  the  spirit 
which  fired  the  Council  of  Claremont.  Like  Hildebrand  of  old,  he 
would  fain  have  headed  a  crusade  in  person  ;  but  the  most  important 
element — an  army — was  wanting.  lie  also  addressed  a  letter  to 
Mohammed  II.,  the  conqueror  of  Constantinople,  in  which  he  earnestly 
urged  the  claims  of  Christianity  on  his  reception  —  it  need  scarcely  be 
added,  without  effect.  (Conip.  G.  Voigt.  Enea  Silvio  Pice,  als  P 
Pius  II.  Bd.  I.  Berl.  185G). 

Almost  all  the  successors  of  Pius  II,  till  the  Reformation,  were  dis 
;inguished  for  their  dissoluteness,  vileness,  or  at  least  for  want  of  piety 
Probably  the  best  among  them  was  Paul  II.  (ob.  1471),  though  he  also 
was  fond  of  pomp  and  extravagance.  Sixties  IV.  (oh.  14S4)  increased 
the  revenues  of  his  see  by  instituting  brothels  in  Pome.  Under  his 
pontificate  the  nepotism  of  his  predecessors  reached  the  highest  stage  ; 
nor  did  the  Pope  scruple  to  take  part  in  the  frightful  conspiracy 
against  the  Medici  at  Florence.  Ixxocext  YIII.  (ob.  1492),  while 
summoning  Christendom  to  a  war  against  the  Turks,  was  at  the  same 
time  in  receipt  of  regular  pay  from  the  Sultan  for  keeping  his  brother 
a  captive.  To  his  zeal  it  was  due  that  criminal  procedure  against 
witches  was  introduced  into  Germany.  His  paternal  care  for  his  six- 
teen  illegitimate  children  procured  for  him,  in  common  parlance,  the 
title  of  "  father  of  his  country"  (Octo  Nocens  genuit  pueros,  totidem- 
que  puellas,  —  Hunc  merito  potuit  dicere  Roma  patrem).  Alexander 
VI.  (ob.  1503)  was  not  without  political  abilities,  and  proved  an  encr 
getic  although  despotic  ruler.  He  never  scrupled  at  any  measure  te 
attain  his  own  objects,  and  even  entered  into  a  league  witli  the 
hereditary  enemy  of  Christendom  against  the  most  Christian  King  (of 
Prance).  In  short,  nepotism  and  immorality  were  at  no  time  carried 
(o  a  higher  pitch  than  in  the  person  and  under  the  reign  of  Alexander. 
Among  other  enormities,  he  was  greatly  suspected  of  incest  with  his 
daughter  Lucrezia.     Under  his  pontificate,  Savonarola,  the  Florentine 


the   Clergy  471 

preacher,  had  to  expiate  his  zeal  and  devotion  at  the  stake  (§  119,  7) 
The  Pontiff  died  in  consequence  of  poison,  which  his  son  Ccesar  Borgia, 
a  monster  of  every  vice,  had  destined  for  a  wealthy  cardinal.  Julius 
II.  lob.  1513)  was  a  great  warrior.  His  main  object  was  to  liberate 
Italy  from  foreign  domination,  in  order  to  aggrandize  the  States  of  the 
Church.  He  expelled  the  French  from  the' Peninsula,  on  account  of 
which  a  French  National  Council  assembled  at  Tours,  in  1510,  re- 
nounced his  allegiance.  Germany  also  showed  signs  of  rebellion  ; 
and  the  Emperor  Maximilian  (1493-1519)  commissioned  the  learned 
and  liberal  Wimpfeling  to  draw  up  a  list  of  many  and  serious  griev- 
ances against  the  Papacy,  and  to  make  a  draft  of  a  pragmatic  sanction 
for  Germany.  At  last  the  French  and  German  monarchs  summoned  a 
general  Council  at  Pisa  in  1511,  when  the  resolutions  of  Basle  were 
re-enacted,  and  the  Pope  was  deposed.  As  Julius  was  at  the  time 
dangerously  ill,  Maximilian,  who  had  just  lost  his  wife,  conceived  the 
idea  of  assuming  the  Papacy  himself.  But  Julius  recovered,  and  with 
his  Swiss  mercenaries  dispersed  the  Council  of  Pisa,  which  fled  to 
Lyons.  At  the  Fifth  General  Lateran  Council  in  1512,  Louis  XII.  of 
France  was  excommunicated,  and  a  concordat  concluded  with  Maxi- 
milian, by  which  the  most  crying  grievances  of  the  Germans  were  re- 
moved. Upon  this  Louis  had  a  medal  struck,  bearing  the  inscription, 
"Perdam  Babylonis  nomen,"  and  marched  against  the  Pope.  But  his 
army  was  beaten  by  the  papal  troops  in  the  Milanese  territory,  and 
obliged  to  retire  from  Italy.  Julius  was  succeeded  by  Leo  X.  (ob. 
1521),  one  of  the  Medici  — a  man  of  the  highest  culture  and  the  finest 
taste,  hut  luxurious  and  lavish,  light-minded  and  careless,  and  destitute 
of  all  genuine  interest  either  in  religion  or  in  the  Church.  In  1517 
the  Pontiff  celebrated,  at  a  splendid  Lateran  Council,  the  triumph  of 
the  Papacy,  when  Francis  I.  of  France,  in  return  for  other  concessions, 
surrendered  the  pragmatic  sanction.  The  Councils  of  Constance  and 
Basle  were  also  again  condemned.  In  the  same  year,  and  only  a  few 
months  later,  the  word  of  a  poor  German  monk  effected  what  the  com- 
bined power  of  all  the  nations  of  the  West  had  failed  to  achieve  in 
these  councils. 

I  III.  THE  CLERGY. 

During  this  period  Provincial  Synods  lost  almost  all  their 
former  importance.  They  were  rarely  held,  and  only  under  the 
presidency  of  a  papal  legate.  At  Constance  and  Basle  the 
bishojis  attempted  to  break  the  yoke  of  papal  despotism  and 
pecuniary  exactions;  but  the  selfishness  which  marked  the  policy 
of  the  nations  represented  at  these  councils,  prevented  the  suc- 
cess of  such  beneficial  measures.  Despite  the  proposals  made  at 
Basle,  the  cathedral  chapters  continued  to  furnish  a  provision 
for  the  younger  and  unportioned  sous  of  the  nobility,  who  ic 


472      SECTION    II. THIRD    PERIOD    (C  E  X  T.    M  4  1  o  A.  D.). 

worldliness  and  excesses  yielded  nothing  to  their  brothers.     This 
clergy  no  longer  gave  itself  tc  the  pursuit  of  study.     In  France 
the    political   influence    of  the    hierarchy  was    small  ;    and   the 
liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church  were  protected,  not  by  the  pre- 
lates, but  by  the  University  and  the  Parliament.      In  England 
the  bishops  formed  an  important  part  of  the  estates  with  strictly  . 
defined  rights.      In  Germany  also  they  occupied   an  influential 
position,   as  holding  temporal  sovereignty,   while    the  spiritual 
princes  electors  frequently  swayed  the  destinies  of  the  empire. 
The  moral  condition   of   the  clergy  was    sufficiently  sad.     The 
bishops  commonly  lived  in  open  concubinage.    The  lower  secular 
clergy  followed  their  example,  and  in  many  cases  paid  for  this 
indulgence  a  yearly  tax  to  the  bishop.     To  this  arrangement  the 
people  —  who  distinguished  between  the  office  and  its  holder  — 
made  no  objection  ;  in  fact,  it  secured  their  wives  and  daughters 
from  the  temptations  of  the  confessional.      Thousands  of  lowse 
women  from  all  countries  had  assembled  at  Constance  and  Basle 
during  the  sittings  of  the  councils.     Unnatural  vices  also  were 
too  common  among  the  clergy,  at  least  in  Italy.     Any  move- 
ment at  Constance  and  Basle  towards  putting  an  end  to  these 
vices  of  the  clergy,  by  giving  them  leave  to  marry,  was  checked 
by  the  fear  that  benefices  might  become  hereditary,  and  that  the 
clergy  would  be  made  still  more  dependent  on  the  State.     Ac- 
cordingly the  advice  of  Gerson  was  taken   in   the  matter,  who 
held,  that  as  the  vow  of  celibacy  only  referred  to  the  marriage 
of  priests,  concubinage  was  not  a  breach  of  that  obligation,  but 
merely  of  the  general  commandment  of  chastity. 

I  112.  THE  MONASTIC  ORDERS. 

The  Monastic  Orders  shared  the  general  corruption  of  the 
jlergy.  Too  frequently  the  cloisters  became  the  seats  of  dis- 
soluteness, debauchery,  idleness,  crimes,  and  unnatural  vices. 
Monks  and  nuns  of  adjoining  cloisters  lived  in  open  immorality, 
on  which  account  Nicholas  of  Clemangis  was  wont  to  say  that 
"  virginem  velare  "  was  in  reality  little  else  than  "  virginem  ad 
scortandum  exponere."  The  Councils  of  Constance  and  Basle 
had  their  attention  directed  to  these  dreadful  abuses,  which 
bishops  and  secular  princes  also  endeavoured  to  remedy.  But 
all  such  attempts  proved  unavailing.  The  papal  Curia,  so  far 
from  seconding    any  measures  of  reform,  rather  interposed  tc 


THE     MONASTIC     ORDERS.  473 

aires-1;  them.  Among-  the  various  orders,  the  Benedictines,  with 
their  different  branches,  were  probably  most  deeply  tainted, 
while  the  mendicant  orders  stood  highest  in  the  moral  scale. 
Following-  the  example  of  the  cathedral  chapters,  the  rich 
monasteries  distributed  their  revenues  among  their  inmates 
(Proprietarii).  The  gratification  of  the  palate,  and  not  the 
pursuit  of  science,  was  the  object  of  study  in  these  cloisters. 
The  celebrated  Scottish  monastery  of  St.  James,  at  Kegens- 
burg  (§  98,  1 ),  had  a  regular  tavern  within  its  walls,  and  a  pro- 
verb said  :  Uxor  amissa  in  monasterio  Scotorum  quaari  debet. 
The  Franciscans  and  Dominicans  were  still  the  great  representa- 
tives of  monasticism  ;  they  proved  the  pillars  of  the  Papacy,  and 
in  some  measure  contributed,  at  least  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
to  theological  science.  In  the  fifteenth  century,  however,  they 
became  involved  in  the  general  corruption.  The  Carthusians 
alone  continued  their  ancient  practice  of  asceticism. 

1.  The  Benedictine  monasteries  having  become  socially  and  morally 
corrupt,  Clement  V.,  at  the  Council  of  Vienne  (1311),  issued  a  series 
of  decrees,  aiming  at  the  revival  of  monastic  discipline  and  literature. 
They  were,  however,  scarcely  regarded.  Hence  Benedict  XII.  was 
constrained,  with  the  co-operation  of  influential  Franciscan  abbots,  to 
prepare  a  new  constitution  for  the  Benedictines  (133G),  called  after 
him,  Benedictina.  According  to  this,  all  the  monasteries  of  black 
monks  were  to  be  divided  into  thirty-six  provinces,  each  of  which  was 
to  hold  a  triennial  chapter  for  mutual  consultation  and  decisions. 
Moreover,  in  every  abbey  daily  penitential  chapters  should  be  held, 
for  the  maintenance  of  discipline,  and  an  annual  chapter  for  the 
rendering  of  accounts.  For  the  resuscitation  of  literary  tastes  and 
efforts,  it  was  enjoined  upon  each  monastery  to  keep  a  number  of  its 
members  at  a  university  for  the  study  of  theology  and  canon  law.  But 
the  disciplinary  rules  of  the  Benedictina  proved  futile  against  habits 
of  good  living,  and  those  contemplating  reorganization  were  impotent 
before  the  insuperable  feelings  of  independence,  which  the  monks  and 
abbots  cherished.  The  measures  proposed  for  the  revival  of  learning 
were  moi-e  effectual ;  they  did  not,  necessarily,  militate  against  deeply- 
rooted  luxurious  habits. — A  general  chapter  of  Benedictines,  accord- 
ingly, met  under  the  supervision  of  the  Council  of  Constance,  in  order 
to  effect  a  reformation  of  the  order.  But  this  too  proved  unavailing. 
At  the  instance  of  the  Council  of  Basle,  congregations  of  reformed 
monasteries  were  organized,  which  for  a  time  preserved  stricter  dis- 
cipline, but  soon  again  relapsed  into  their  old  ways. — The  Olivetans, 
founded  by  Bernard  Ptolemais,  formed  a  new  and  independent  branch 
of  the  Benedictines.  Bernard  taught  philosophy  in  Siena,  his  native 
40* 


174       SECTION    II. — THIRD    PERIOD    (CE>'T.   14  A  15  A.  D.). 

town,  but  was  compelled  by  blindness  to  desist.  Healed  by  the  inter- 
cession of  the  Virgin  Mary,  he  renounced  the  world,  and  retired,  with 
several  companions,  into  an  almost  inaccessible,  rocky  wild,  ten  miles 
fiom  Siena  (1313).  As  disciples  gathered  to  him  from  all  sides,  he 
built  a  monastery  on  a  hill,  called  it  Mt.  Olivet,  and  founded,  upon  the 
rule  of  the  Benedictines,  the  congregation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  which 
John  XXII.  confirmed.  Not  until  the  fourth  election  for  a  general, 
which  was  at  first  held  annually,  then  triennially,  did  he  consent  to 
assume  this  dignity  for  himself  (1332)  ;  he  then  filled  the  office  until 
his  death,  caused  by  his  attentions  to  those  prostrated  by  the  plague 
(1348).  The  Abbots  were  also  chosen  triennially.  The  Olivetans 
were  long  distinguished  by  their  zealous  worship  of  the  Virgin  and 
by  strict  abstinence.  They  also  prosecuted  diligently  theological  and 
philosophical  studies  in  some  of  their  monasteries,  which  exceeded  a 
hundred  in  number.  An  order  of  nuns,  founded  by  Francisco,  Romana 
(1433),  also  joined  the  Olivetans. 

2.  The  Dominicans,  who  were  entrusted  with  the  conduct  of  the  In- 
quisition, and  were  largely  employed  as  confessors  among  the  higher 
classes,  gradually  ceased  to  be  a  mendicant  order.     Accordingly,  they 
now  explained  their  vow  of  poverty  as  applying  only  to  personal,  not 
to  common  possessions,  and  maintained  that  the  latter  had  been  held 
even  by  Christ  and  His  apostles.     This  proposition  was  controverted 
by  the  Franciscans,  who,   in  virtue  of  the  nominal  surrender  of  all 
their  property  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  professed  still  to  adhere  to  their 
original  vow.     When  in  1321  the  Inquisition  at  Narbonne  condemned 
a  Beghard'to  the  stake  for  asscrttng  that  Christ  and  the  apostles  had 
held  neither  personal  nor  common   property,   the   Franciscans  main- 
tained the  orthodoxy  of  this  statement,  and  accused  the  Dominicans 
before  Pope  John  XVII.     The  Pontiff  took  the  part  of  the  Dominicans, 
and  declared  that  the  nominal  donation  of  Franciscan  property  was 
merely  an  illusion.     This    decision    occasioned  a  rupture    among  the 
Franciscans.     The  more  rigorous  members,  with  the  general,  Michael 
of  Cesena,  and  the  celebrated  William  Occam,  joined  the  party  of  the 
"  spiritualists,"  and  took  the  side  of  Louis  of  Bavaria  against  the  Pope. 
Forcible  measures  against  them  proved  unavailing.    Accordingly,  they 
were  appeased  at  Constance  by  their  formal  recognition  as  brethren  of 
the  stricter  observance  [observantes).     The  more  lax  party  among  the 
Franciscans  took   the  name  of  Conventiiales,  and  continued  to  regard 
their  properties  as  really  belonging  to  the  donors,  and  themselves  as 
only  enjoying  their  usufruct.     The  controversy  about  the  Immaculate 
Conception  still  continued  to  rage.     St.  Catharine  had  visions  which 
confirmed  the  dogma  of  the   Dominicans,  while  St.  Bridget  gave  the 
same  kind  of  sanction  to  the  opinions  of  the  Franciscans.     The  latter, 
however,  gained  influence  and  authority.     It  was  sanctioned  by  the 
University  of  Paris  in  1387  ;  while  the  Council  of  Basle  (in  1439)  and 
Pope  Sixtus  IV.  anathematized  any  one  who  should  declare  the  doctrine 


THE     MONASTIC     ORDERS.  475 

of  the  Immaculate  Conception  to  be  heretical,  or  the  festh  il  in  its 
honour  sinful.  For  the  same  purpose  a  comedy  was  enacted  at  Berne 
in  1509,  which,  however,  had  a  tragical  termination.  The  Dominicans 
of  that  city  imposed  on  the  simplicity  of  a  poor  tailor  called  Jetzer. 
The  tailor  had  visions  and  revelations  of  the  Virgin.  Even  the  prints 
of  the  nails  which  pierced  the  Saviour  were  reproduced  in  him  by  a 
red-hot  iron,  and  a  picture  of  the  Virgin  shed  in  his  sight  bloody  tears 
over  the  godless  opinions  of  the  Franciscans.  The  clumsy  imposture 
was  at  last  discovered,  and  the  prior,  with  three  of  his  monks,  were 
condemned  to  the  stake.  —  In  14G2  another  controversy  broke  out 
between  the  two  orders.  In  Brescia,  a  Franciscan,  Jacob  of  Marchia, 
had  on  Easter  day  maintained  in  the  pulpit  that  the  blood  which 
Christ  shed  on  the  cross  had,  till  His  resurrection  and  consequent  re- 
assumption  of  it  into  His  nature,  continued  separate  from  the  hypostatic 
union  with  the  Logos,  and  hence  had  not,  during  that  time,  been  an 
object  of  adoration.  The  Grand  Inquisitor,  Jacob  of  Brescia,  declared 
this  sentiment  heretical.  A  controversy  arose  ;  and  during  Christmas 
14G3  three  Dominicans  and  as  many  Minors  discussed  the  question  for 
three  days  before  the  Pope  and  cardinals,  but  without  leading  to  any 
result.  The  Pope  at  the  time  reserved  his  decision,  which,  indeed, 
was  never  pronounced. 

St.  Catharine  of  Siena,  the  daughter  of  a  dyer,  was  one  of  the 
chief  ornaments  of  the  Dominicans  [ob.  1308).  Even  when  a  child  she 
had  visions  and  ccstacies,  during  which  Christ  was  said  to  have 
formally  betrothed  Himself  to  her,  and  to  have  given  her  His  heart 
instead  of  her  own.  She  also  bore  the  prints  of  the  nails,  but  only  in- 
wardly. Notwithstanding  her  deep  humility,  the  influence  and 
authority  which  she  enjoyed  were  unparalleled.  She  became  the 
oracle  of  the  Dominicans,  and  all  Italy  almost  worshipped  at  her  feet. 
Contrary  to  her  inclination,  she  was  made  the  arbiter  of  the  religious 
and  political  controversies  of  the  time.  To  her  admonitions,  and  to 
those  of  St.  Bridget,  it  was  mainly  due  that  the  Babylonish  captivity 
at  Avignon  came  to  a  close. 

The  Order  of  St.  Augustine  had  also  its  congregations  for  the  re- 
storation of  pristine  discipline.  But  these  branches  continued  in  con- 
nection with  the  order  itself,  though  they  were  subject  to  a  vicar- 
general  of  their  own.  Such  a  congregation  existed  in  Saxony  from 
1493,  and  to  it  both  Staupitz  and  Luther  belonged. 

3.  Abolition  of  the  Order  of  Templars,  1312. —  (Comp.  Michelet, 
proces  des  Templiers.  Par.  1841-51.  2  T.  —  Maillard  de  Caambure, 
Regie  et  statuts  secrets  des  Temp.  Par.  1841. —  W.  Havemann,  Gesch. 
d.  Ausgangs  d.  Templerord  — Hist,  of  the  cess,  of  the  Order  of  T. — 
Stuttg.  1R4G. — J.  v.  Hammer-Purgstall,  d.  Schuld  d.  Tcmpler  —  the 
Guilt  of  the  T.  —  Vienna  1855. — /.  Choicanctz,  d.  gewaltthat.  Aufheb 
u.  Ausrott.  d.  Ordens  d.  Tempelherren.  Monster.  1856).  —  Among  all 
the  knightly  orders,  the  Templars,  who  since  their  return  to  Europe 


476       SECTION    II. — THIRD    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.   14  &  15  A.  D.) 

chiefly  resided  at  Paris,  had  attained  greatest  power  and  wealth,  hut 
were  also  charged  with  most  pride,  rapacity,  and  dissoluteness.  T  leir 
independence  of  the  State  was  as  galling  to  Philip  the  Fair  of  France, 
as  their  untold  riches  were  attractive  to  his  cupidity.  Among  the 
common  people  rumours  circulated  that  the  members  of  the  order  were 
secretly  Mohammedans,  that  they  practised  the  black  art,  and  indulged 
in  unnatural  vices.  It  was  whispered  that  they  even  worshipped  an 
idol  called  Baffomet  (Mohammed)  ;  that  a  black  cat  appeared  in  their 
meetings;  that  at  their  reception  into  the  order  the  knights  blasphemed 
the  Saviour,  and  spat  and  trampled  upon  the  crucifix.  On  these 
grounds,  or  at  least  on  such  pretences,  Philip  ordered  all  the  Templars 
in  his  dominions  to  be  imprisoned,  and  forthwith  commenced  a  process 
against  them  (1307).  Pope  Clement  V.  was  obliged,  at  the  Council  of 
Vienne  (1312),  formally  to  dissolve  the  order.  Jacob  of  Molay,  the  last 
grand  master,  with  many  of  the  knights,  suffered  at  the  stake.  It  is 
difficult,  at  this  period  of  time,  to  pronounce  with  certainty  as  to  their 
guilt  or  innocence.  Thus  much  at  least  is  true,  that  they  had  deserted 
the  Christian  cause  in  the  East.  Besides,  it  is  also  supposed  by  many 
that  they  entertained  Gnostic  and  Antinomian  views  akin  to  those 
formerly  held  by  the  Ophites. 

4.  The  principal  New  Orders  founded  at  this  time  were:  — 

(1.)  The  Order  of  the  Ccelestines,  founded  by  Peter  of  Murrone 
(afterwards  Pope  Coelestine  V.,  comp.  \  96,  6),  who  lived  in  a  cave  on 
Mount  Murrone,  in  Apulia,  in  the  practice  of  strictest  asceticism. 
The  fame  of  his  sanctity  soon  attracted  companions  of  his  solitude,  who 
built  a  monastery  on  Mount  Majella.  Urban  IV.  imposed  on  them 
the  rule  of  the  Benedictines.  When  Peter  was  elevated  to  the  papal 
see  (1294),  his  companions  adopted  in  his  honour  the  name  of  Coeles- 
tines.     The  new  congregation  rapidly  extended  throughout  the  AVest. 

(2.)  The  Jeromites.  This  order  arose  from  associations  of  hermits, 
to  whom  Gregory  XI.  in  1374  gave  a  rule  similar  to  that  of  the  Augus- 
tines.  They  chose  St.  Jerome  as  their  patron  saint.  From  Spain, 
whore  the  order  originated,  it  spread  into  Italy. 

(3.)  The  Jesfates,  founded  by  Johannes  Columbini  of  Sienna.  With 
an  imagination  inflamed  byporing  over  the  legends  of  saints,  Colombini, 
with  some  like-minded  companions,  resolved  to  found  an  association  for 
the  twofold  object  of  self-chastisement  and  attendance  on  the  sick. 
Urban  V.,  after  his  return  to  Rome,  imposed  on  them  the  rule  of  the 
Augr.stines  (13G7).  Their  name  was  derived  from  the  circumstance 
that  they  hailed  every  one  whom  they  met  with  the  name  of  Jesus. 

(4.)  The  Minimi,  a  kind  of  Minors,  founded  by  Franciscus  de  Paula, 
in  Calabria  (1435).  Their  rule  was  exceedingly  strict;  the  members 
were  prohibited  the  use  of  animal  food,  of  milk,  butter,  eggs,  etc,  on 
which  account  their  mode  of  life  Avas  also  designated  as  "vita  quadra- 
gesimalis." 

(5.)  The  Nuns  of  St.  Elizabeth,  an  order  founded  by  St.  Elizabeth 


THE     MONASTIC     ORDERS.  47 1 

of  Thuringia  (ob.  1231).  After  having  in  the  most  exemplary  manner 
discharged  the  various  duties  of  a  wife,  a  mother,  and  a  princess,  Eli- 
zabeth took  the  grey  habit,  confined  at  the  waist  with  the  Franciscan 
cord,  as  also  the  three  vows,  and  retired  to  a  wretched  cot  near  Mar- 
burg, where  she  devoted  herself  to  prayer,  self-chastisement,  and  deeds 
of  beneficence.  Her  example  was  followed  by  a  number  of  pious 
women  and  maidens.  These  were  in  the  fourteenth  century  regularly 
organized  into  an  order,  which  devoted  itself  exclusively  to  the  care 
of  the  poor  and  the  sick. 

(G.)  The  Nuns  of  St.  Bridget.  St.  Bridget  was  a  Swedish  princess, 
who  early  in  life  had  visions,  in  which  the  Saviour  appeared  to  her, 
smitten  and  wounded.  But  her  father  obliged  her  to  marry,  and  she 
became  the  mother  of  eight  children.  On  the  death  of  her  husband, 
she  subjected  herself  to  the  most  rigid  ascetic  exercises,  and  in  conse- 
quence of  some  visions,  founded  at  Wadstena  near  Linkoping  a  nun- 
nery for  sixty  inmates,  who  devoted  themselves  to  the  service  of  the 
Virgin.  Connected  with  this  institution  was  a  separate  dwelling  for 
thirteen  priests  (in  imitation  of  the  apostles),  for  four  deacons  (after 
the  four  great  fathers),  and  for  eight  lay  brethren  who  had  charge  of 
all  secular  affairs.  All  these  persons  were  subject  to  the  rule  of  the 
abbess.     The  order  spread,  especially  in  the  north  of  Europe. 

5.  The  most  famed  among  the  Hermit*  of  this  period,  was  Nicholas 
von  der  Fliie,  in  the  Alps,  a  worthy  and  pious  man,  who,  after  an  active 
life  in  the  world,  spent  his  last  twenty  years  in  solitude  and  commun- 
ion with  God  (ob.  1487).  Like  St.  Anthony  of  old,  he  acted  as  peace- 
maker and  adviser,  not  merely  to  the  shepherds  around  him,  but  amid 
the  political  troubles  of  his  own  country.     Pius  IX.  canonized  him. 

6.  The  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life  were  an  association  of  pious 
clergymen,  founded  by  Gerhard  Groot,  at  Deventer,  in  the  Netherlands 
(1384).  Gerhard  died  that  same  year  of  pestilence  ;  but  the  work  was 
continued  by  Florentius  Radewin,  his  likeminded  pupil.  The  house 
of  the  brethren  at  Deventer  became  the  centre  and  nucleus  of  similar 
institutions  throughout  the  north  of  Europe.  The  members  of  this 
association  consisted  of  clergy  and  laity,  who,  without  submitting  to 
any  formal  vow  or  rule,  devoted  themselves  to  the  concerns  of  then- 
own  souls.  Their  earnest  and  evangelical  sermons,  their  attention  to 
the  spiritual  interests  of  those  with  whom  they  were  brought  into  con- 
tact, and  their  sehxds,  gave  them  a  wide  and  very  beneficial  influence 
among  the  people.  The  most  frequented  of  their  seminaries  were  those 
of  Deventer  and  the  Hague,  which  at  times  numbered  more  than  1200 
scholars.  Similar  institutions  for  Sisters  of  the  Common  Life  were  also 
founded.  Florentius  somewhat  enlarged  the  original  plan  by  buildino- 
at  Windesheim,  near  Zwoll,  a  monastery  for  regular  canons  (138G), 
(also  called,  Kugelherren,  Kappelherren,  from  cuculla,  from  the  peculiar 
covering  they  used  for  the  head).  More  celebrated  even  than  this 
uloif  ter  was  that  on  Mount  St.  Agnes,  at  Zwoll,  of  which  The  mas  a 


478       SECTION    II. — THIRD   PERIOD    (CENT.   14  <t  15  A.  D.). 

Kcinpis  was  an  Inmate.  The  labours  of  Florentius  were  seconded  by 
Gerhard  of  Ziltohen,  who  was  wont  to  insist  on  the  necessity  of  reading 
the  Bible  in  the  vernacular,  and  on  its  importance  both  in  preaching 
and  praying.  Of  course,  the  mendicant  orders  were  violent  enemiea 
of  this  pious  association.  At  last  a  Dominican,  Matthew  Grabow,  ac- 
cused them  before  the  Bishop  of  Utrecht,  and  also  wrote  a  large  volume 
against  them.  The  Bishop  refused  his  suit ;  and  when  Grabow  appealed 
to  the  Pope,  the  prelate  carried  the  matter  to  the  Council  of  Constance. 
Gerson  and  d'Ailhj  took  the  part  of  the  brethren  ;  and  Martin  V.  not 
only  gave  his  sanction  to  their  associations,  but  accorded  their  mem- 
bers the  privilege  of  claiming  ordination  at  any  time.  The  brethren 
in  many  respects  prepared  the  way  for  the  Reformation  ;  indeed,  most 
of  them  afterwards  became  its  cordial  adherents.  After  that  period 
they  gradually  declined,  and  ceased  to  exist  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
(Comp.  Gerardi  Magni  Epp.  XIV.,  ed.  /.  G.  Acqvoy.  Amst.  1857. — 
G.  II.  31.  Delprat,  over  d.  Brocderschap  van  G.  Groote  (2d  ed.  Arnh. 
1856),  1st  ed.  transl.  into  German  with  add.  by  Mohnike.  Leips.  184G. — 
A".  Ullmann,  Reformers  before  the  Reformation  (transl.  by  Menzies,  in 
Clark's  For.  Theol.  Libr.).  Edinb.  2  Vols.  —  B.  Bcihriny,  Gerh.  Groot 
u.  Florentius.     Ilamb.  1849.) 


II.  THE  CHURCH  AND  THE  PEOrLE. 
I  113.   PUBLIC   WORSHIP   AND   THE  FINE   ARTS. 

The  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,  the  Mystics,  and  a  number 
of  sectaries,  especially  the  Waldenses,  Wickliffites,  and  Hussites, 
had  insisted  on,  and  by  their  example  promoted,  the  practice  of 
preaching  ill  the  vernacular.  Great  activity  was  also  displayed, 
especially  during  the  fifteenth  century,  in  the  catechetical  instruc- 
tion of  the  people,  both  by  means  of  books  and  pictures.  The 
ante-reformatory  spirit  of  that  period  also  exerted  itself  in  pre- 
paring hymns  in  the  vernacular  for  general  use  ;  church  music, 
likewise,  was  turned  to  similar  account.  And  whilst  the  glory  of 
architect  are  is  evidently  waning,  the  plastic  art  and  painting 
reach  their  lull  bloom.  The  Feast  of  the  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion was  generally  introduced  in  France.  Germany,  and  England, 
during  the  fourteenth  century.  Other  festivals  were  also  insti- 
tuted in  hono  r  of  Mary.  The  Council  of  Constance  had  given 
its  sanction   and   authority  to  the  practice  of  "connnuuio  sub 


I'  UBLIC     WORSHIP     AND     THE     FINE     ARTS.        479 

una."  In  consequence,  the  miracle  of  a  bleeding  host  now  fre- 
quently occurred,  although  the  fraud  was  exposed  in  a  number 
of  instances.  The  excessive  anxiety  for  and  veneration  of  relics 
still  continued  and  increased.  In  the  fifteenth  century  originated 
the  legend,  that  angels  had  carried  through  the  air  the  house  of 
Mary  from  Nazareth  to  the  coast  of  Dalmatia  (1291)  ;  thence, 
on  the  10th  December,  1294,  to  Recanati,  and  lastly,  after  the 
lapse  of  eight  months,  to  Loretto.22 

1.  The  following  were  the  New  Festivals  in  honour  of  the  Virgin 
(|  105,  2  ;  57,  2) :  the  Feast  of  the  Presentation  of  Mary,  on  the  21st 
November  (according  to  Leviticus  xii.  5-8),  a  solemnity  introduced  in 
the  East  at  a  much  earlier  period  ;  and  the  Festival  of  the  Visitation  of 
Mar;/,  on  the  2d  July,  in  allusion  to  Luke  i.  39-56.  During  the  fif- 
teenth century,  the  Feast  of  the  Seven  Dolors  of  Mary,  on  the  Friday 
or  Saturday  before  Palm-Sunday,  was  instituted.  The  worship  of  the 
Virgin  was  chiefly  promoted  by  the  Dominicans,  who  had  special  Fra- 
ternities of  the  Rosary.  Dominic  himself  is  said  to  have  observed  the 
Festival  of  the  Rosary  on  the  1st  of  October  (for  the  protection  and 
intercession  of  the  Virgin).  It  Avas,  however,  only  observed  by  the 
Dominicans,  till  after  the  victory  of  Lepanto  (1571),  which  was  re- 
garded as 'due  to  this  species  of  devotion,  when  Gregory  XIII.  made  it 
a  general  festival. 

2.  Preaching,  in  the  vernacular,  now  became  much  more  common. 
But  it  is  a  peculiar  characteristic  of  this  period,  that  even  those  who 
thus  preached,  thought  in  Latin,  or  at  least  first  wrote  their  sermons  in 
Latin  before  preaching  them.  Vocabidariapredicantium  were  prepared 
for  the  use  of  less  practised  preachers.  A  Homiletics  and  Catechetics, 
valuable  for  that  age,  was  prepared  by  J.  Ulr.  Surgant,  a  preacher  in 
Basel  (Manuale  Curatoritm),  about  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  centuy. 
Among  other  points,  he  treated  cle  regulis  vulgarizandi,  i.e.,  of  render- 
ing sermons  written  in  Latin  into  the  vernacular.  Great  stress  was 
also  laid  upon  hearing  sermons,  by  those  who  had  the  cure  of  souls: 
the  neglect  thereof  was  reproved  as  a  sin.  In  opposition  to  the  scho- 
lastic style  of  preaching,  which  used  the  pulpit  only  for  the  display 
of  learned  ostentation  and  theological  subtleties  (as  by  Gabriel Biel,  &c), 
popular  preachers  arose,  who  laid  practical  hold  of  actual  life,  and 
denounced  social  vices,  of  high  and  low  life,  in  plain,  and  sometimes  in 
ludicrous  terms.  Among  these  was  Gabriel  Marietta  (ob.  1480),  whose 
spicy  sermons  so  pleased  the  taste  of  his  age,  that  it  was  usual  to  say: 
Qui  nescit  barlettare,  nescit  prcedicare.  He  was  imitated  by  Oliver 
Maillard,  a  Franciscan  and  royal  court-preacher,  ob.  1502,  and  Michael 
Menot,  also  a  Franciscan,  ob.  1518.  The  German  minister,  at  Strass- 
burg.  Geiler  of  Kaisersberg  (ob.  1510),  equalled  the  preachers  just 
named  in  quaint  plainness  and  cutting  wit,  but  surpassed  them  all  in 
moral  earnestness  and  spiritual  depth  ($  114,  4). 


480       SECTION    II. THIRD    PERIOD    (CENT.   14  &  15  A.  D.). 

3.  Catechization. — (Cf.  /.  Gcfkcn,  d.  Bilderkatechismus  d.  15.  Jahrli., 
u.  d.  katech.  Hauptstiicke  in  dieser  Zeit  bis  auf  Luther.  I.  Die  10 
Gebote.  Lpz.  1855.)  —  Next  to  preaching,  the  confessional  afforded 
opportunities  for  the  instruction  of  the  people.  The  subsecpuent  division 
of  the  catechism  sprang  rather  from  the  mode  of  baptism  and  of  making 
confession,  than  from  the  actual  instruction  of  the  people  and  youth; 
and  among  these,  it  is  remarkable  that  the  decalogue  first  found  a  place 
since  the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  century.  Previously  the  enumeration 
of  the  seven  cardinal  sins  and  seven  cardinal  virtues  was  substituted 
for  the  ten  commandments.  The  more  deeply  to  impress  the  doctrines 
of  the  catechism,  pictorial  illustrations  were  employed.  The  wealth 
of  the  catechetical  literature  of  that  period,  both  in  books  of  instruc- 
tion for  the  clergy,  and  in  doctrinal  books  in  the  vernacular  for  the 
people,  may  be  learned  from  Geffken's  work  above  named. 

4.  Hymnology.  —  A  very  marked  contrast  is  noticeable  between  the 
number  and  value  of  the  Latin  hymns  dating  from  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries  and  those  of  the  preceding  period.  Only  the  Mys- 
tics (as,  for  example,  Thomas  a  Kempis)  still  produced  such  composi- 
tions. On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  said  that  German  hymnology 
originated  during  this  period.  Strange  though  it  may  appear,  the 
processions  of  Flagellants  in  the  fourteenth  century  contributed  not  a 
little  to  the  spread  of  religious  poetry  in  the  vernacular.  The  hymns 
or  chants  of  the  Flagellants  were  in  the  vernacular,  and  thus  found 
ready  access  to  the  hearts  of  the  people.  But  it  was  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  during  the  Hussite  movement,  that  really  useful  popular 
hymns  were  composed,  and  for  the  first  time  introduced  into  the  ser- 
vices of  the  Church.  Huss  himself  insisted  on  the  necessity  of  the 
people  taking  part  in  the  service  of  song,  and  composed  a  number  of 
excellent  hymns  in  the  Bohemian.  The  various  hymns  used  by  the 
"Bohemian  Brethren"  (400  in  number)  were  collected  and  published 
in  1504  by  Lucas,  a  senior  or  Bishop  of  the  "Brethren."  The  intro- 
duction of  German  hymns  was  mainly  due  to  Petrus  Dresdensis,  for- 
merly assistant  to  Huss  at  Prague,  and  since  1420  rector  at  Zwickau. 
His  efforts  were  not  unsuccessful.  In  some  churches  German  hymns 
were  now  sung  at  the  great  festivals,  and  at  special  ecclesiastical 
solemnities,  while  in  isolated  cases  they  were  even  used  at  the  principal 
service  and  at  mass.  The  religious  poetry  of  that  age  was  of  a  fourfold 
character: — 1.  Mixed  hymns,  half  German  and  half  Latin  (such  as  "  Puor 
natus  in  Bethlehem,  Dess  freuet  sich,  Jerusalem,"  etc.).  —  2.  Trans- 
lations and  adaptations  of  Latin  hymns.  So  early  as  the  close  of  the 
fourteenth  century  an  attempt  at  such  translations  was  made  by  Johan- 
nes, "  the  monk  of  Salzburg,"  and  at  a  somewhat  later  period  by  Brother 
Dietric.  A  collection  of  these  versions  appeared  in  1494;  but  the 
majority  of  the  hymns  were  so  badly  rendered,  that  the  force  and  point 
of  the  original  was  completely  lost. — 3.  Original  German  hymns,  com- 
monly by  monks  or  master  singers.  These,  however,  were  too  frequently 


PUBLIC     WORSHIP     AND    THE     FINE     ARTS.         481 

destitute  of  all  religious  fervour  or  poetic  value.  —  4.  Adaptations  of 
secular  01  of  Minne-songs.  Thus  the  popular  ditty,  originally  intended 
for  wandering  apprentices,  which  commenced :  "  Inspruck,  I  must  leave 
thee,  and  go  my  lonely  way,  Far  hence  to  foreign  lands,"  etc.,  was 
transformed  into :  "  0  world,  I  must  leave  thee,  and  go  my  lonely  way, 
Unto  my  Father's  home,"  etc.  Henri/  of  Laufenberg,  a  priest  at  Frei- 
burg, about  1450,  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  attempt  this  kind  of 
poetry.  In  all  cases  the  melody  of  the  original  was  retained.  Although 
many  of  these  adaptations  were  little  better  than  a  burlesque,  they  be- 
came the  means  of  associating  popular  ideas  and  melodies  with  the 
hymns  of  the  Church,  thus  preparing  the  way  for  the  following  period. 

5.  Church  Music.  —  Great  improvements  were  made  at  this  period 
in  the  building  of  organs  ;  the  keys  were  made  smaller,  the  pedal  was 
added,  etc.  Henri/  Cranz,  who  flourished  about  1500,  was  reputed  the 
most  successful  builder  of  organs  at  that  period.  Equally  distinguished 
as  an  organist  was  Antonio  dagV  Organi  at  Rome,  who  gathered 
around  him  pupils  from  all  countries  (ob.  1498).  A  great  deal  was 
also  done  for  the  improvement  of  church  music  ;  the  rules  of  counter- 
point, and  other  musical  rules,  were  enlarged  or  applied,  and  singing 
in  parts  came  into  vogue.  At  this  time  the  Dutch  bore  the  palm  in 
music.  William  Dufaij,  the  founder  of  the  first  Dutch  School  (ob. 
14.'J2),  introduced  his  improvements  even  into  the  chapel  at  Rome, 
although  a  century  had  not  elapsed  since  John  XXII.  pronounced  an 
anathema  against  the  practice  of  "discantare."  John  Ockenheim,  the 
founder  of  the  second  Dutch  school  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
invented  the  canon  and  the  fugue  ;  but  his  system  of  counterpoint  was 
very  artificial,  and  he  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  who  corrupted  the 
musical  taste  of  the  time.  The  greatest  composer  of  this  school  was 
Josquin  de  Friz  (Jodocus  Pratensis),  about  1500.  His  only  rival  in 
the  art  was  Adam  of  Fulda,  a  German. 

6.  Architecture  and  the  Plastic  Art. — The  Gothic  style  was  universally 
adopted  in  Germany,  France,  and  England.  Into  Italy  it  penetrated 
no  farther  than  Milan.  The  new  Church  of  St.  Peter  at  Rome,  the 
foundation  of  which  was  laid  in  1506  by  Pope  Julius  II.,  presents  the 
most  splendid  specimen  of  the  antique  Rcwanesque  style.  The  plastic 
art  was  carried  to  its  highest  perfection  by  such  masters  as  Lorenzo 
Ghiberti  (ob.  1455)  and  Michael  Angelo  (ob.  15G4).  The  Art  of  Paint- 
ing al?3  reached  its  highest  stage  in  the  fifteenth  century.  There 
were  at  this  time  four  different  schools  of  painters.  The  Florentine 
School,  which  chiefly  devoted  itself  to  the  representation  of  Scriptural 
events,  was  founded  by  Giotto  (ob.  133G),  and  numbered  among  its 
members  such  masters  as  Angelica  of  Fiesole,  who  always  joined  pravei 
with  punting.  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (the  Last  Supper),  Fra  Bartolomeo 
and  Michael  Angelo.  The  Lombard  School,  of  which  Bellini  (ob.  1516) 
was  th 3  most  distinguished  representative,  also  gave  itself  at  first  tc 

41 


482       SECTION    II. THIRD    PERIOD    (CENT.   14  &  15  A.  D.). 

the  study  of  sacred  subjects,  but  soon  afterwards  abandoned  this  foi 
the  secular  department.  It  reached  the  pinnacle  of  its  renown  through 
the  works  of  Corregio  (ob.  1534,  Night,  The  penitent  Magdalen),  and 
Titian  (ob.  1576.  Venus,  Ecce  homo,  the  ascension  of  Mary).  The 
Umbrian  School  seemed  almost  to  breathe  the- spirit  of  St.  Francis.  Its 
most  celebrated  master  was  Raphael  of  JJrbino  (the  Sixtine  Madonna 
paintings  on  the  walls  of  the  Vatican,  the  Madonna  della  Sedia,  etc.) 
The  German  School  was  represented  by  such  men  as  the  brothers 
Hubeit  and  John  van  JEyk,  AWrecht  Durcr,  and  Huns  Holbein. 

I  114.  POPULAR  LIFE   AND   NATIONAL  LITERATURE. 

The  fearful  decay  of  the  Papacy,  as  well  as  the  deep  degeneracy 
of  the  clergy  and  of  the  monastic  orders,  were  not  without  their 
effects  upon  the  people.     At  no  previous  period  had  the  Church 
less  influence  on  the  moral  and  religious  condition  of  the  com- 
munity.    In  truth,  the  ancient  reverence  for  the  Church  and  its 
rites    had  been    rudely  shaken,  though  not    entirely  destroyed. 
But  the  religious  enthusiasm   and  the  deep  poetry   of  popular 
life  gradually  disappeared.     Such  personages  as  a  Catharine  of 
Sienna,  a  maid  of  Orleans,  or  a  Nicholas  von  der  Flue  were  only 
isolated  phenomena  in  the  history  of  that  period.      As  the  prac- 
tice of  indulgences  increased,  all  moral  earnestness  ceased,  and 
all  religious  fervour  gave  way.     Yet,  happily,  not  entirely  ;  the 
existence  of  the  Beghards  and  Lollards,  nay.  even   the  excesses 
of  the  Flagellants,  proved  that  men  still  thought  seriously  on  the 
most  serious  of  subjects.     The   religious   fervour  still  existing 
among  the  people  was  nourished  and  cherished  by  the  faithful 
teachings  of  the  Mystics,  and    found  vent  in    the  wide-spread 
association    known  as  the  Friends  of   God.     In    an    opposite 
direction,    though,  perhaps,  ultimately   traceable    to    the    same 
source,  we  have  the  Brothers  and  Sisters  of  the  Free   Spirit. 
But  along  with  such  piety,  superstition  also  greatly  increased,  all 
the  more  dangerous  now  that'  it  was  no  longer  associated  with 
the  poetry  and  naive  irony  of  a  former  age.     The  men  of  this 
period,  on  the  contrary,  firmly  believed  in  the  black  art,  in  witch- 
craft, in  compacts  with  the  devil,  and   similar  absurdities.     To- 
wards the  close  of  our  period,  however,  a  new  era  dawned.     The 
former  mode  of  conducting  warfare  ceased,  on  the  invention  of 
powder;    while  the  municipal    institutions  of*    the    various    and 
flourishing  towns  of  Germany  called  forth  and  afforded  scope  for 
civic  virtues  for  love  of  freedom,  energy,  and  industry.      Lastly, 


POPULAR     LIFE     AND     NATIONAL     LITERATURE.    483 

the  invention  of  the  art  of  printing  initiated  the  great  changes 
of  which  modern  society  is  the  result.23 

1.  Religious  Associations  amour)  the  People. — Besides  the  Beghards 
and  Benguins,  (§  98,  5)  another  association  was  formed  at  Antwerp  in 
1300,  on  occasion  of  a  pestilence.  The  Lollards  (from  lull  =  sing) 
devoted  themselves  chiefly  to  attendance  on  the  sick  and  the  interment 
of  the  dead.  They  also  were  exposed  to  the  persecutions  of  the 
Inquisition,  till  John  XXII.  in  1318  granted  them  toleration  on  certain 
conditions.  —  But  the  strangest  sight  presented  at  that  period  were 
those  long  trains  of  Flagellants,  who,  with  faces  covered,  wandered 
from  country  to  country,  amidst  weeping,  lamentation,  and  the  chant 
of  penitential  hymns,  continually  applying,  as  they  marched,  the 
scourge  to  their  naked  backs.  These  revolting  processions  had 
suddenly  appeared  in  Italy  (in  12G0,  at  Perrugia)  even  at  a  former 
period,  during  the  horrors  of  the  war  between  the  Guelphs  and 
Ghibellines.  They  again  paraded  the  cities  of  Europe  on  different 
occasions  during  the  fourteenth  century,  especially  in  1348-50,  during 
the  ravages  of  the  "  black  death."  The  Flagellants  made  their  appear- 
ance along  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  whence,  growing  like  an  avalanche, 
they  passed  through  Germany,  Belgium,  Holland,  Switzerland,  Sweden, 
and  England.  On  the  advice  of  Pope  Clement  VI.,  whom  they  had 
summoned  to  join  them,  they  were  refused  admittance  into  France. 
The  paroxysm  lasted  for  three  years.  It  was  raised  anew  in  1399, 
when  famine,  pestilence,  war  with  the  Turks,  and  expectation  of  the 
approaching  end  of  the  world,  excited  the  minds  of  men,  and  Flagel- 
lants again  passed  through  Lombardy.  This  time  they  were  arrayed 
in  white  garments,  on  which  account  they  were  called  Bianchi  or  Al- 
bati.  In  1417,  St.  Vincent  Ferreri,  a  celebrated  Spanish  preacher,  led 
a  long  train  of  Flagellants  through  Italy,  France,  and  Spain.  Princes, 
popes,  universities,  and  councils  expostulated  against  this  mad  fanati- 
cism, without,  however,  being  able  to  suppress  it.  But  after  the 
Council  of  Constance  had  denounced  this  species  of  pena,nce,  St.  Vincent 
himself  ceased  to  take  part  in  it.  Some  of  the  Flagellants  fell  into 
sectarianism  and  heresy  ;  they  denounced  the  hierarchy  as  Antichrist, 
rejected  the  rites  of  Christianity,  and  declared  that  the  baptism  of 
blood,  obtained  by  means  of  the  scourge,  was  the  only  efficacious 
sacrament.  Many  of  these  fanatics  were  condemned  to  the  stake  by 
the  Inquisition.  (Comp.  E.  G.  Forstemann,  d.  chr.  Geisslerges.  —  the 
Clir.  Flag.  — Halle  1828;  G.  Mohnike,  d.  Geisslerges.,  in  "  Illgen's 
Journal,"  III.  2  ;  L.  Schneegans,  le  grand  pilgrimage  des  Flag.,  transl. 
into  Germ,  by  Teschendorf,  Leips.  1840;  —  L.  Heller,  Vine.  Ferreri 
Leben  u.  Wirken.  Berl.  1830 ;  Comes  de  Hohenthal-Stcedteln,  de  Vine. 
Ferr.  Lips.  1839.) 

Another  and  kindred  form  of  madness  was  that  of  the  Jumpers  or 
Danceri  (Chorisantes),  who,  by  way  of  penance,  commenced  frantic 


4M       SECTluiN    ,  l.< — THIRD   PERIOD    (CENT.  14  4  15  A.D.j. 

and  hysteric  dances,  which  by  some  infection  carried  away  even 
accidental  and  indifferent  spectators.  These  fanatics  appeared  along 
the  hanks  of  the  Rhine  in  1347  and  1418.  They  were  regarded  as 
possessed,  and  the  aid  of  St.  Vitus  was  invoked  for  their  cure  (hence, 
the  name  of  St.  Vitus'  dance).  Comp.  Heeler,  die  Tanzwuth  e.  Volk- 
skrankh.  d.  M.  A.  (Dancing  Madness  an  Epid.  of  the  M.  A.)  Berl. 
1832.  H.  Haser,  Lehrb.  d.  Gcsch.  d.  Mcdicin  u.  d.  Volkskrankhh. 
Jena,  1315,  p.  282,  etc. 

2.  T/te  Friends  of  God.  (Comp.  C.  Schmidt,  d.  Gottesfreunde  im  14. 
Jahrh.  Jen.  1854.  —  During  the  fourteenth  century  a  wide-spread  and 
deep  spirit  of  mysticism  seemed  to  pervade  all  Western  Germany,  from 
the  Low  Countries  to  the  borders  of  Italy.  In  truth  a  religious 
awakening  had  taken  place  among  the  people,  though  from  peculiar 
causes  it  bore  a  mystic  and  contemplative  character.  All  ranks  and 
classes,  inmates  of  monasteries  and  Eeguins,  knights  in  their  castles, 
artisans  in  their  workshops,  and  merchants  in  their  warehouses, 
equally  came  under  its  influence.  Ultimately  it  led  to  the  formation 
of  a  great  fraternity  of  so-called  Friends  of  God,  the  various  associa- 
tions of  which  kept  up  personal  or  epistolary  intercourse.  This  revival 
was  chiefly  felt  at  Cologne,  Strasburg,  and  Basle.  Its  preachers  be- 
longed mostly  to  the  Dominican  Order,  and  the  views  which  they  ex- 
pressed or  propagated  Avere  drawn  from  the  writings  of  the  German 
Mystics  (g  117).  They  were  entirely  free  from  sectarianism,  and 
cherished  the  ceremonies  of  the  Church  as  symbols  and  vehicles  of 
Divine  grace.  But  from  the  year  1340  a  mysterious  personage 
evidently  presides  over  this  movement,  and  results  wider  than  those 
formerly  sought  began  to  be  aimed  after.  Most  of  "the  Friends" 
themselves  seem  to  have  been  ignorant  of  the  name  or  resideuce  of  this 
man.  They  call  him  "  the  enlightened  layman/'  and  "  the  great 
friend  of  God  from  the  Oberland."  Twice  only  is  the  mystery  partly 
cleared  away,  and  we  hear  of  the  name  of  Nicholas  of  Basle.  About 
1340  he  appeared  at  Strasburg,  where  he  exercised  a  decisive  influence 
upon  Joint  Tattler  (g  117,  2).  Again  in  1356,  when  Basle  was  visited 
by  a  fearful  earthquake,  he  addressed  a  letter  to  universal  Christendom 
calling  to  repentance.  In  13G7  he  retired  into  the  Swiss  mountains 
with  four  of  his  most  intimate  associates;  and  when  Gregory  A' I.  re- 
turned to  Rome  in  1377,  Nicholas  and  one  of  his  associates  confronted 
him,  and  urged  upon  him  the  present  situation,  the  dangers,  and  the 
requirements  of  the  Church.  The  Pope  at  first  received  him  with  dis- 
trust, but  dismissed  him  in  a  very  different  spirit.  It  is  difficult  ex- 
actly to  ascertain  what  Nicholas  really  aimed  after,  and  by  what 
means  he  intended  to  accomplish  his  plans.  This  alone  is  certain,  that 
in-  had  conceived  some  great  plan  for  the  Church,  the  execution  of 
which  he  deferred  till  the  time  which  God  should  indicate  to  him.  In 
1379  those  friends  which  belonged  to  the  inner  circle  held  a  meeting 
in  a  mountain  solitude,  and  finally  resolved  to   adjourn   for  another 


POPULAR    LIFE    AND    NATIONAL    LITERATURE.    485 

year.  After  that  term  they  again  assembled  on  the  same  spot,  when 
it  is  said  a  letter  from  heaven  fell  among  them,  informing  them  that 
God  had  delayed  His  judgments  for  other  three  years.  From  that 
period  we  lose  sight  of  them  ;  but  several  years  later  Nicholas  and  two 
of  Ins  associates  were  burned  by  order  of  the  Inquisition  at  Vienne,  on 
the  charge  of  being  Beghards,  and  the  same  punishment  was  awarded 
at  Cologne  in  13(J3  to  Martin,  a  Benedictine  from  Reichenau,  one  of 
the  adherents  of  Nicholas.  The  writings  of  Nicholas  which  are  still 
extant  have  been  published  by  C.  Schmidt,  1.  c.  and  in  his  Life  of 
Tauler. 

3.  The  Brothers  and  Sinters  of  the  Free  Spirit.  —  Originally  they 
may  have  been  an  offshoot  from  the  sect  of  the  Holy  Spirit  ($  108,  2), 
or  else  the  result  of  a  tendency  similar  to  that  which  led  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Friends  of  God,  only  that  in  this  case  it  led  to  the  opposite 
extreme  of  pantheism  and  antinomianism.  They  seem  to  have  existed 
in  many  parts  of  Germany  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
especially  along  the  Rhine,  Cologne  being  their  principal  centre. 
They  held  essentially  pantheistic  views.  Every  pious  person  was  a 
Christ,  in  whom  God  became  incarnate.  Whatever  was  done  in  love 
was  right.  The  perfect  were  free  from  the  law,  and  could  not  sin. 
The  Church,  its  sacraments  and  rites,  were  a  deception  or  an  impos- 
ture ;  purgatory,  heaven,  and  hell,  so  many  fables ;  marriage  was 
against  nature,  and  property,  theft.  Their  secret  services  appropriately 
closed  with  orgies.  The  Inquisition  proceeded  against  them  by  the 
sword  and  the  stake.  —  Other  parties  of  a  kindred  character  were  the 
Adamites  in  Austria  (1312),  the  Luciferians  in  Angermunde  (132G), 
and  the  Turlupines  in  the  Isle  of  France  (1372).  At  the  commence- 
ment of  the  fifteenth  century  they  reappeared  at  Brussels  under  the 
name  of  "Homines  intelligentias ;"  and  in  1421  Ziska  exterminated 
the  Bohemian  Adamites,  who,  by  way  of  imitating  the  paradisiacal 
state,  lived  naked  on  an  island  in  the  Danube,  and  had  their  wives  in 
common.     Hidden  traces  of  them  yet  remain. 

4.  National  Literature.  —  At  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  and  the 
commencement  of  the  fourteenth  century  a  new  literature  sprung  up  in 
Italy,  which  in  many  respects  affected  the  Church.  To  three  Floren- 
tine writers  does  Europe  owe  it,  that  the  spell  was  broken  by  which 
poetry  and  science  had  so  long  been  bound  to  the  Latin  language. 
The  importance  of  this  can  scarcely  be  over-estimated.  Not  only  have 
these  writers  left  unperishing  monuments  of  their  own  genius  ;  they 
also  became  the  fathers  of  the  Italian  language,  and  gave  a  great  im- 
pulse to  national  literature  generally.  The  general  prevalence  of  the 
Latin  was  one  of  the  means  by  which  the  Church  of  Rome  retained  its 
absolute  hold  on  the  minds  of  men,  repressed  all  independent  aud 
national  movements,  and  prevented  the  expression  of  those  anti-papal 
sentiments  which  were  rapidly  pervading  the  peoples  of  Europe.     In 

41* 


48G     SECTION    II. THIRD    PERIOD    (CENT.   14  &  15  A.  D.). 

all  these  respects  it  "was  important  that  former  restraints  should  he 
removed.  But  the  three  writers  to  whom  we  allude  were  also  enthusi- 
astic admirers  of  classical  literature;  indeed,  they  prepared  the  way 
for  the  study  of  the  classics,  and  became  the  precursors  of  the  Human- 
ists [l  120).  Withal  they  were  opposed,  though  not  to  the  same  de- 
gree, to  the  suhtleties  of  scholasticism,  and  boldly  satirised  the  abuses 
in  the  Church,  the  arrogance  of  the  hierarchy,  the  rapacity  and  disso- 
luteness of  the  Papacy,  as  also  the  moral  and  intellectual  decay  of  the 
clergy  and  of  the  monastic  orders.  Dante  Aligiiieri  (born  at  Florence 
1256,  ob.  in  exile  at  Ravenna  1321)  stood  on  the  boundary  line  of  two 
centuries  and  two  epochs.  His  "Divina  Comedia"  may  be  regarded 
as  embodying  the  views  and  tendencies  of  his  own  age,  and  forecasting 
the  advent  of  another.  He  was  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  St.  Thomas 
and  his  theology;  but  his  scholasticism  was  transformed  and  spiritual- 
ized by  the  finest  aesthetic  taste  and  the  most  fervid  imagination.  In 
deep  anguish  of  spirit  he  mourned  over  the  decay  of  the  Church.  Thus 
he  relegated  a  Boniface  VIII.,  but  also  a  Frederic  II.,  to  hell.  In 
sharpest  language  he  exposed  the  degeneracy  of  the  monks,  while  he 
at  the  same  time  extolled  the  bliss  of  St.  Francis  and  St.  Dominic.  He 
could  admire  the  classic  beauties  of  Virgil;  but  more  than  all  the  rest, 
he  dwelt  with  peculiar  delight  on  the  fulness  of  Christian  truth. 
While  reprobating  the  practice  of  indulgences,  he  continued  to  adhere 
to  the  dogmas  of  the  Church.  Petrarch  (born  at  Arezzo  in  1304,  ob. 
near  Padua  in  1374)  went  much  beyond  his  predecessor.  His  opposi- 
tion to  scholasticism  brought  upon  him  the  hatred  and  persecution  of 
schoolmen  and  monks;  and  although  he  still  ranked  the  classics  as  far 
subordinate  to  the  teaching  of  the  Church,  his  admiration  of  antiquity 
occasionally  led  him  beyond  the  bounds  of  proper  moderation.  Boc- 
caccio (l)orn  in  1313,  ob.  1375)  was  a  most  violent  opponent  of  scholas- 
ticism, monasticism,  and  the  hierarchy.  He  speaks  of  them  not  in 
language  of  indignation,  but  of  irony  and  contempt.  At  the  same 
time,  however,  he  also  deals  too  lightly  with  the  great  moral  and  reli- 
gious requirements  of  Christianity.  In  later  years  he  expressed,  in 
his  "  Decainerone,"  deep  regret  for  expressions  of  this  kind  occurring 
in  his  youthful  writings. 

German  national  literature  decayed  along  with  the  dynasty  of  the 
Hohenstaufen.  The  only  department  deserving  mention  was  that  of 
popular  poetry,  secular  and  religious.  The  compositions  of  the  master- 
singers  bear  the  character  of  proud  self-consciousness  on  the  part  of 
those  towns  of  Germany  whence,  they  sprung.  German  prose  writing 
was  richly  cultivated  by  the  Mystics  (g  117),  and  German  satin  was 
inaugurated  by  the  " Narrenschiff "  of  Sebastian    Brandt,  1494    the 

adicof  Strassburg.  Among  popular  preachers,  John  Tauler  of  Strass- 
burg  [l  117.  2)  wore  the  palm.  The  very  original  John  Geiler  of 
Kaisersberg  {ob.  1510)  was  also  a  brilliant  preacher  in  Strassburg;  his 
i    rmons    abounded    in    pointed  wit,  biting    sarcasm,  and  bold,   often 


ECCLESIASTICAL     DISCIPLINE.  487 

quaint,  applications,  but  also  with  deep  and  penetrating  earnestness. 
Among  Lis  numerous  writings,  his  412  sermons  on  Brandt's  "Narren- 
schiff,"  are  best  known.  (Cf.  C/u:  Fr.  v.  Amnion,  G.  v.  Kaisersb. 
Leben,  Lehren  u.  Sehriften.  Erl.  1826.  A.  Strober,  essai  hist,  et  lit. 
sur  la  vie  et  les  sermons  de  G.  Strassb.  1834.  See  Herzog's  (translated) 
Theol.  and  Eccl.  Encyclop.  Art.  Geiicr.  Philad.  1859. 

The  Religious  Drama  ($  106,  2)  reached  its  highest  bloom  in  the 
14th  century.  During  the  festival  weeks,  such  dramas  were  performed 
in  almost  every  village.  Their  poetical  value  was,  on  the  whole,  small. 
But  in  the  Lamentations  of  Mary,  they  sometimes  rose  to  an  unusual 
pitch  of  beauty.  Comedies  and  burlesques  (in  which  the  characters 
of  Judas,  the  spice  pedlars,  and  Mary  Magdalene,  still  unconverted, 
played  a  .prominent  part)  were  allowed.  Theod.  Schernberg  composed 
a  "  Schon  Spiel  von  Frau  Jutte"  (the  popess  Joanna  \  82,  3),  which 
represented,  in  a  very  earnest  way,  her  fall  and  repentance.  '  In  the 
plays  performed  during  the  Shrove  Tuesday  Carnival,  reformatory 
tendencies  became  obvious  in  the  ridicule  cast  upon  the  clergy  and 
monks.  Hans  Sosenplut,  a  painter  of  escutcheons  in  Nurenberg,  1450, 
was  celebrated  as  the  author  of  such  plays  for  the  carnival.  In 
France,  near  the  end  of  the  14th  century,  some  young  persons,  con- 
nected with  higher  families,  formed  a  society  called  enfans  sans  souci, 
which  performed  Sotiies,  in  cities  and  at  Courts,  with  great  success; 
they  did  not  spare  the  Church.  The  principal  of  their  composers  was 
Pierre  Gringore,  Avho  alluded  very  plainly,  in  his  Cha'sse  du  Cerf  des 
Cerfs,  to  the  Servus  servorum,  and  represented  the  Church  under  the 
fools;  mother  with  a  cap  on  (early  in  the  16th  century).  In  Spain, 
during  the  15th  century,  the  Aato's  appeared, — a  development  of  the 
old  mysteries,  and  rather  allied  in  their  form  to  the  allegorical  moral- 
ites  of  the  Middle  Ages  ($  106,  2).  They  breathed  a  true  Spanish 
Spirit,  and  were  partly  Autos  al  vasciemento,  but  mainly  Autos  sacra- 
mentales.  Their  earliest  composers  were  Juan  de  la  Encina,  and  the 
Portuguese  Gil  Vincente. 

I  115.  ECCLESIASTICAL   DISCIPLINE. 

In  1343  Clement  VI  cave  his  sanction  to  the  teaching  of  the 
schoolmen  regarding  indulgences  (§  107,  1).  Nor  was  this  mea- 
sure in  opposition  to  the  view  taken  by  the  reformatory  councils 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  which  only  disapproved  of  their  abuse, 
for  the  purpose  of  raising  money.  In  1477  Sixtus  IV.  confirmed 
the  tenet,  that  indulgences  might  lie  granted  for  those  who  were 
defunct,  and  that  they  delivered  souls  from  purgatory.  In  reply 
to  the  somewhat  impertinent  question,  why  the  Pope,  who 
possessed  such  ample  powers,  did  not  at  once  deliver  all  souls 
from  purgatory,  it  was   said,  that  the   Church  followed  in  the 


488    SECTION    II. — THIRD  PERIOD    (CENT.    i4  &  15   A.  D.). 

wake  of  Divine  justice,  and  dispensed  its  benefits  only  "discrete 
et   cum    moderamine."     The  practice  of  indulgences  was  still 
further  carried  out  by  the  institution  of  years  of  Jubilee.     On 
the  testimony  of  a  man  107  years  of  age,  that  100  years  before 
a  jubilee  had  been  proclaimed,  Boniface  VIII.  promised,  in  1320, 
an  indulgence  of  100  years  to  all  Christians  who   should   peni- 
tently visit  for  fifteen  days  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Apostles  at 
Rome.      No    fewer    than    200,000    availed    themselves    of    the 
privilege.      His  successors  shortened  the  intervening  period  of 
jubilees  to   fifty,  to  thirty-three,  and  lastly  to  twenty-five  years. 
Instead  of  making  a  personal  pilgrimage   to  Rome,  it  was  de- 
clared sufficient  to  pay  the  travelling  expenses.      Nepotism  and 
extravagance  were  emptying  the  coffers  of  the  Pope,  and  the 
traffic  in  indulgences  offered  the  readiest  means  of  replenishing 
them.     Wars   with  the   Turks  and  the  building  of  St.  Peter's 
Church  served  as  a  ready  pretext  for  a  fresh  sale   of  these  new 
spiritual  wares.     The  venders    of   indulgences    did    all  in  their 
power  to  vaunt  the  excellency  of  their  articles,  and  the  necessity 
for  penitence  and  amendment  were  no  longer  mentioned.     Indul- 
gence  was   even    granted  for  sins  contemplated.      Such  abuses 
rendered  anything  like  ecclesiastical  discipline  impossible;   and 
if  any  respect  still  existed  fur  the  confessional,  it  was  speedily 
destroyed   by    the    interference    of  the    mendicant    orders,  who 
claimed  the  privilege  of  attending  to   penitents  at  any  time  and 
place.     Already  excommunication   and   the   interdict  had   lost 
their   terrors.      On    Corpus    Christi    Day,    the    bull  "In    ccena 
Domini  "  (issued  by  Martin  V.   at  the  close  of  the  Council  of 
Constance,    and    greatly    enlarged    by    succeeding    popes)    was 
solemnly  recited  at  Rome,  and  the  anathema  against  all  heretics, 
which  it  embodied,  renewed.      The  Inquisition   had  still  enough 
to  do,  persecuting  and  burning  Beghards,  Lollards,  Flagellants, 
Fratricelli,  Friends  of  God,  and  other  sectaries.     Innocent  VIII. 
gave   his  formal  sanction   (1484)    to    the    popular    superstition 
about    witches,   and  appointed  two   judges    for  such  causes   in 

Germany perhaps  in  some  measure  as  a  compensation  for  the 

circumstance,  that  the  Inquisition  had  never  properly  thriven  in 
that  country. 

1.  The  Inquisition  attained  greatest  power  in  France  and  Italy. 
The  Spanish  Enquisition  (sanctum  officium)  was  institute!  in  1  isl  by 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  and  organized  in  1483  by  the  Inquisitor- 
General,  Thomas  de  Torquemada.  In  seme  respects  it  was  as 
much    a    political    as    an    ecclesiastical    institution,    since    the    conhV 


ECCLESIASTICAL     DISCIPLINE.  489 

catiou  of  property  served  to  enrich  the  public  treasury  and  to  humble 
the  proud  aristocracy.  Its  persecutions  of  the  hated  Moriscoes  and 
Jews  made  this  dreadful  tribunal  popular  among  the  Spaniards.  The 
Auto-da-fe's  (or  acts  of  faith)  were  celebrated  amidst  revolting  displays 
of  pomp  and  state.  According  to  the  statement  of  Llorente  (Hist.  erit. 
do  l'lnquis.  d'Espagne.  Par.  1815),  no  fewer  than  32,000  individuals 
were  burnt,  18,000  were  similarly  punished  in  effigy,  while  300,000 
received  other  sentences  at  the  hands  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition,  from 
its  origin  to  the  time  when  Napoleon  swept  it  away  in  1808.  Comp. 
C.  J.  Hefele  (d.  Cardinal  Ximenez.  2d  Ed.  Tub.  1851),  who  has  corrected 
some  of  the  statements  of  Llorente. 

2.  Procedure  against  Witches.  (Comp.  Hauber,  Biblioth.,  acta  et 
scripta  magica.  Lemgo  1739-45.  W.  G.  Soldan,  Gesch.  d.  Ilexenproe. — 
Hist,  of  the  Proced.  ag.  Witch.  —  Stuttg.  1843.  C.  G.  v.  Wachter, 
Beitr.  zur  Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Strafr.  Tub.  1845.) — In  1484  Innocent 
VIII.  issued  the  bull  "  Summis  desiderantes  afieotibus,"  wherein  he 
informed  the  Germans  that  their  country  was  overrun  by  witches,  for 
whose  destruction  he  had  appointed  two  inquisitors,  Henri/  Kramer 
and  Jacob  Sprenger.  The  paternal  care  of  the  Pope  found  too  ready  a 
response  among  a  superstitious  people.  From  confessions  extorted  on 
the  rack,  a  perfect  dogmatic  and  historical  system  was  framed,  in 
which  the  various  compacts  made  with  the  devil,  or  the  improper 
alliances  contracted  with  him,  obtained  their  due  place,  while  the  use 
of  broomsticks  and  pitchforks,  the  revelries  of  Walpurgis  Night  and 
the  scenes  on  the  Blocksberg,  found  appropriate  explanation.  On  the 
basis  of  this  new  lore  Sprenger  elaborated  a  code  of  criminal  procedure 
against  witches,  which  bore  the  title  of  "  Malleus  Maleficarum."  The 
delusion  spread  like  an  epidemic,  and  thousands  of  innocent  females 
expired  amid  tortures,  not  only  in  Germany,  but  in  England,  and  even 
in  Scotland.  Unfortunately,  the  Reformation  made  little  difference  in 
this  respect,  and  the  sorrow  with  which  we  witness  the  persecutions 
of  supposed  witches  in  Scotland,  even  during  the  most  flourishing 
periods  of  religious  life,  is  only  equalled  by  our  indignation  on  finding 
that  an  eminent  Protestant  lawyer  on  the  Continent,  Benedict  Carpzov, 
should,  so  late  as  the  seventeenth  century,  have  entered  the  lists  in 
defence  of  the  practice.  King  James  VI.  showed  his  zeal  by  writing 
a  treatise  on  "  D^emonologie."  Christian  Thomasius  was  the  first  in 
1707,  successfully  to  combat  this  superstition.     (Cf.  \  157,  3). 


490     SECTION    II. THIRD    PERIOD    (CENT.  14  &  15  A.  D  ). 

III.  THEOLOGICAL  SCIENCE. 
\  116.  SCHOLASTICISM  AND  ITS  OPPONENT  S. 

A  large  number  of  schools  of  learning  were  founded  daring 
till s  period.  They  increasingly  assumed  the  character  of  uni- 
versities, in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term,  although  chief  atten- 
tion was  still  paid  to  theology.  These  seminaries  were  generally 
pledged  to  the  defence  of  matters  as  then  existing,  with  all  the 
abuses  and  defects  of  the  system  —  hierarchical  strongholds  not 
unfrequently  planted  in  the  heart  of  the  enemy's  camp.  Paris 
and  Cologne  were  still  the  chief  centres  of  scholasticism,  which 
was  there  professed  by  the  mendicant  friars.  For  a  considerable 
time  realism  had  held  undisputed  sway,  when  William  Occam 
again  entered  the  lists  in  Germany  in  favour  of  nominalism. 
The  controversy  which  now  ensued  was  carried  on  with  much 
bitterness;  ultimately  realism,  which  a  number  of  the  Reformers 
(among  others,  Wyeliffe  and  Huss)  professed,  was  decried  as  the 
source  of  all  heresy.  Aristotle  continued  the  great  authority  on 
all  philosophical  questions  ;  he  was  extolled  as  the  precursor  of 
Christ,  and  his  system  formed  the  basis  of  theology.  But  what 
of  power  and  energy  there  was  in  scholasticism,  had  long  passed 
away;  bitter  polemics,  empty  formalism,  and  mere  casuistry  now 
constituted  its  sum  and  substance.  The  distinction  made  between 
philosophical  and  theological  truth,  by  which  one  and  the  same 
proposition  might  be  true  in  philosophy  and  false  in  theology, 
was  almost  universally  adopted.  In  ethics,  the  schoolmen  ad- 
dressed themselves  chiefly  to  intricate  questions,  while  on  some 
points  their  views  were  far  from  trustworthy  (for  example,  in 
their  defence  of  the  murder  of  a  tyrant,  or  their  doctrine  of  pro- 
bability). But  already  the  reign  of  scholasticism  was  drawing 
to  a  close.  Many  complained  of  the  abuse  to  which  it  had  been 
turned  ;  others  endeavoured  to  improve  and  reform  it,  or,  by  the 
Study  of  the  Bible  and  of  the  Fathers,  to  infuse  into  it  a  new 
life.  Generally,  however,  the  opposition  was  one  of  principle, 
and  that  chiefly  on  the  part  of  the  Mystics  (§  117),  the  English 
and  Bohemian  Reformers  (§  119),  and  the  Humanists  (§  120). 

1.  Among  the  Schoolmen,  pro  perl;/  so  called,  of  that  period,  the  most 
celebrated  were  Fr\ncis  Mayron,  a  Seotist  at  Paris  —  Doctor  illumi- 
natus  or  acutus — oi    1325,  and  IIerveus  Natalis,  a  Thomist  and  geue« 


SCHOLASTICISM     AND     ITS     OPPONENTS.  491 

ral  of  the  Dominicans  (ob.  1323).  But  more  extensive  and  important 
than  theirs  was  the  influence  of  two  other  schoolmen,  who  not  only 
renounced  strict  adherence  to  scholastic  tenets,  but  ventured  to  pro- 
pound evangelical  views.  William  Durandus  de  St.  Porciano  (near 
Clermont),  also  a  Dominican  —  Doctor  resolutissimus  —  and  from  1326 
Bishop  of  Meaux,  had  at  first  been  a  zealous  advocate  of  Thomist 
views.  Afterwards,  however,  he  saw  cause  to  change  his  opinions.  In 
philosophy  he  became  a  nominalist,  while,  in  opposition  to  the  school- 
men, he  taught  that  there  were  doctrines  which  could  not  be  demon- 
strated, and  which  had  to  be  received  in  simple  faith  as  revealed  truth. 
On  the  subject  of  the  Eucharist  he  held  that  the  (Lutheran)  doctrine 
of  consubstantiality  was  at  least  probable;  he  also  maintained  that 
marriage  was  not  a  sacrament  in  the  same  sense  as  the  other  six.  He 
wrote  a  commentary  on  Lombardus,  and  a  "  Tractatus  de  statu  anima- 
rum  sanctarum  postquam  resolute  sunt  a  corpore."  This  work  was 
directed  against  the  view  of  Pope  John  XXII.,  that  the  souls  of  the 
blessed  attained  vision  of  God,  only  after  the  resurrection  and  the  last 
judgment.  In  general,  this  erroneous  tenet  was  so  strenuously  opposed 
throughout  the  Church,  that  the  Pontiff  himself  was  obliged  to  retract 
it.  Of  kindred  spirit  was  the  Franciscan  William  Occam,  an  English- 
man— Doctor  invincibilis — teacher  at  Paris,  and  provincial  of  his  order. 
He  was  expelled  by  the  Franciscans  on  account  of  his  taking  the  part 
of  the  more  rigorous  in  the  order,  and  espoused  the  cause  of  Louis  of 
Bavaria,  whom  he  boldly  defended  against  the  interference  of  the 
hierai-chy  (ob.  1347).  On  many  subjects  he  dissented  from  the  views 
of  Scotus,  which  were  a  kind  of  test  of  orthodoxy.  In  philosophy  he 
was  a  Nominalist;  he  rejected  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  aiad 
adopted  that  of  impanatiou.  Against  John  XXII.  he  wrote  a  "  Com- 
pendium errorum  Joannis  XXII.,"  in  which  he  charged  the  Pontiff 
with  a  number  of  heresies  ;  among  others,  with  that  above  referred  to. 
In  his  numerous  writings  he  frequently  defended  the  opinion,  that  the 
Emperor  was  superior  to,  and  the  judge  of,  the  Pope,  and  that  the 
decision  of  all  questions  connected  with  marriage  belonged  to  the 
State.  (Comp.  Rettberg,  Occam  u.  Luther,  in  the  "  theol.  Stud.  u. 
Kritt."  for  1839.  I. ;  also  Turner,  Hist,  of  England,  Middle  Ages.  Vol. 
III.)  Of  course  the  papal  ban  was  hurled  against  him  ;  the  University 
of  Paris  also  condemned  his  views.  Still  a  large  number  of  students 
gathered  around  him  (Occamists).  —  The  last  great  representative  of 
the  schoolmen  was  Gabriel  Biel  of  Spires,  a  teacher  at  Tubingen  (ob. 
1495),  and  an  admirer  of  Occam.  He  delivered  sermons  on  the  Ethics 
of  Aristotle  ;  but  in  other  respects  avoided  many  of  the  errors  of  scho- 
lasticism, and  at  a  later  period  joined  the  Brethren  of  the  Common 
Life. 

2.  Besides  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life  ($  112,  6)  and  those 
who  advocated  the  views  propounded  at  the  Councils  of  Constance  and 
Basle  (g  118),  the  following  were  the  principal  Opponents,  or  rather 
reformers  of  scholasticism : 


492     SECTION    II. —  THIRD    PERIOD    (CENT.   14  &  15  A.  D.). 

i 

(1.)  Nicholas  de  Lyra,  a  Franciscan,  a  Jewish  convert  from  Nor« 
mandy  and  teacher  of  theology  at  Paris  (ob.  1340).  His  great  merit 
consisted  in  applying  his  stores  of  rabbinical  and  philological  learning 
to  the  interpretation  of  Scripture.  Since  Christian  Druthmar  (§  90, 
4),  he  was  the  first  again  to  prosecute  grammatical  and  historical  exe- 
gesis (Postilla  in  universa  Biblia).  A  century  later  another  Jewish 
proselyte,  Paul  Burgensis  (ob.  1435,  whilst  Bishop  of  Burgos),  wrote  on 
the  margin  of  his  copy  of  the  Postilla,  a  number  of  excellent  Addi- 
Hones,  which  were  partly  emendatory,  partly  supplementary,  to  the 
original.  For  these  additions  he  was  assailed,  about  20  or  30  years 
afterwards,  by  Matthew  Boring,  provincial  of  the  Saxon  Franciscans, 
in  his  "  Beplicae  defensive  postillae."  In  translating  the  Bible,  Luther 
largely  availed  himself  of  the  commentaries  of  Lyra.  Accordingly 
the  enemies  of  the  Reformer  were  wont  to  say :  Si  Lyra  non  Lyrasset, 
Lutherus  non  saltasset. 

(2.)  Thomas  of  Bradwaudixe,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (ob.  1349), 
a  man  of  deep  piety,  and  who  charged  his  cotemporaries  with  Pelagi- 
anism,  but  himself  strayed  into  the  most  rugged  prcdestinarianism. 

(3.)  The  learned  and  acute  Raymond  of  Sabunde  at  Toulouse,  the 
founder  of  the  science  of  natural  theology,  designed  to  exhibit  the 
agreement  between  the  book  of  nature  and  that  of  revelation. — (Comp. 
F.  Holberg,  de  theol.  naturali  Raim.  de  Sabunde.  Hal.  1843.  —  D. 
Matzke,  d.  nat.  Theol.  d.  Raim.  v.  Sab.  Brcsl.  181(3.— M.  Huttler,  d.  Rel. 
Phil.  d.  R.  v.  S.  Augsb.  1851. — Fr.  Nitzch,  cpiasstiones  Raimundianse. 
In  the  hist,  theol.  Ztschr.  1859,  III.) 

|  117.  GERMAN  MYSTICISM. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  during  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries  mysticism  had  formed  an  alliance  with  scholasticism. 
But  as  the  latter  gradually  degenerated  into  unmeaning  disputes 
and  empty  formalism,  mysticism  escaped  from  its  thraldom  and 
unfolded  all  the  richness  and  depth  of  which,  especially  in  that 
age,  it  showed  itself  capable.  German]/  was  now  its  chief  centre, 
and  the  national  cast  of  this  mysticism  appeared  even  in  the  cir- 
cumstance that  its  leading  representatives  wrote  in  the  vernacu- 
lar, and  thereby  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  development  of 
the  German  language  and  literature.  The  mysticism  to  which 
we  refer  had  a  character  of  its  own  ;  in  it,  lofty  speculation, 
winch  occasionally  verged  on  and  passed  beyond  the  boundaries 
of  pantheism,  was  conjoined  with  deep  contemplativeness.  Dur- 
ing the  fifteenth  century  it  lost  much  of  its  metaphysical  char- 
acter, but  gained  all  the  more  in  biblical  truth  and  practical 
tendency  'approximating  in  that  respect  the  older  French  mys- 


GERMAN     MYSTICISM.  493 

tioisra).  Two  sentiments  meet  us  in  all  the  Mystics  oi  that  age 
—  genuine  sorrow  for  the  decay  of  the  Church,  and  equally 
ardent  longing  for  a  reformation.  But  mysticism,  however 
practical  and  popular  in  its  form,  however  right  and  evangelical 
in  its  aspirations,  has  never  been  able  to  bring  about  a  thorough 
and  lading  renovation  of  religious  life.  It  finds  an  echo  only  in 
those  isolated,  quiet  spirits  which  cherish  deep  longing  for  the 
cultivation  of  the  inner  life.  Hence  at  best  it  cannot  lead  to 
results  greater  than  the  formation  of  separatist  churches,  whot>e 
exclusive  cultivation  of  a  subjective  piety  contains  within  itself 
the  germs  of  error  and  of  destruction.  It  is  characteristic  of 
such  mysticism  that,  in  its  contemplation  of  what  the  Saviour 
does  in  us,  it  undervalues  what  He  has  done  for  us,  and  that  it 
devotes  more  attention  to  communion  with  God  and  sanctified- 
Hon  than  to  justification  by  faith,  which  is  the  condition  and 
basis  of  all  fellowship  with  God.  In  short,  no  genuine  reforma- 
tion can  take  place  without  mysticism,  but  it  alone  is  insufficient 
to  accomplish  that  object. 

1.  The  series  of  German  philosophical  Mystics  opens  with  Master 
Eccart  (ob.  about  1329),  a  provincial  of  the  Dominicans.  In  boldness 
and  vigour  of  speculation  he  was  superior  to  all  his  successors,  but  at 
the  same  time  he  strayed  into  open  pantheism.  It  is  more  than  pro- 
bable that  he  stood  in  some  relation  to  the  Brothers  and  Sisters  of  the 
Free  Spirit,  though  he  certainly  did  not  share  their  antinomian  views 
and  practices.  Archbishop  Heart/  of  Cologne  summoned  him  before 
his  tribunal,  and  laid  the  case  before  Pope  John  XXII.  The  commis- 
sion appointed  to  try  Eccart  extracted  from  his  wri tings  twenty-eight 
propositions,  of  which  seventeen  were  declared  directly  heretical,  the 
others  at  least  suspicious  and  capable  of  heretical  interpretation.  The 
Pope  issued  a  bull  of  condemnation,  in  which  however  he  stated  that 
Eccart  had  recanted  shortly  before  his  death,  —  which  we  suppose 
amounted  to  this,  that  he  denied  holding  the  same  views  as  the  Bre- 
thren of  the  Free  Spirit.  His  numerous  tractates,  written  in  German, ' 
were  suppressed,  and  only  fragments  of  them  have  been  preserved.— 
(Comp.  H.  Martensen,  Meister  Eccart.  Hamb.  1842.—  C.  Schmidt,  in 
the  "  Stud.  u.  Kritt."  for  1839.  III. ;  Thomson,  in  the  same  Review  for 
1845.  III.) 

2.  The  Avritings  and  teaching  of  Eccart  had  produced  a  deep  im- 
pression. He  was  followed  during  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centu- 
ries by  other  and  bke-minded  Mystics.  If  the  speculations  of  Eccart 
had  been  pantheistic  in  their  tendency,  they  now  endeavoured  to  give 
them  a  more  scriptural  character,  and  to  turn  them  to  practical 
account.     Their  writings  and  sermons  in  the  vernacular  contribute'' 

42 


494       SECTION    II. THIRD    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T  .  14  &  15  A.  D.). 

not  a  little  to  the  revival  of  genuine  piety  among  the  people.  Fore« 
most  amon^  these  Mystics  we  mention  : — 1.  The  Dominican  Johannes 
Tauler  at  Strasburg  (ob.  1361),  one  of  the  most  powerful  preachers  of 
any  age,  whose  labours  seem  to  have  been  richly  blessed.  His  own 
conversion  and  spiritual  growth  were  in  great  measure  due  to  inter- 
course with  Nicholas  of  Basle,  the  "friend  of  God"  (§  114,  2).  He 
was  distinguished  by  deep  humility,  ardent  love,  and  fervent  piety.  It 
was  (lie  main  object  of  all  his  labours  that  Christians  should  daily  die 
to  the  world  and  self,  that  so  Christ  might  be  found  in  them,  and  that 
they  should  find  themselves  poor  in  spirit,  that  so  they  might  become 
rich  in  God.  Withal  he  clearly  understood  and  preached  the  great 
truth  of  justification  by  faith.  Especially  did  he  abound  in  labours 
during  the  terrible  year  of  1348,  when  the  black  death  ravaged  Strass- 
burg  and  the  papal  interdict  rested  on  the  doomed  city.  But  no  inter- 
dict could  bind  Tauler.  The  best  known  of  his  writings  is  that  on  the 
"  Imitation  of  the  Poor  Life  of  Christ."  His  style  and  diction  entitle 
him  to  a  place  among  the  best  German  prose  writers  before  Luther. 
(Comp.  C.  Schmidt,  Job.  Taul.  v.  Strassb.  Hamb.  1841.  B.  Bahring, 
J.  Taul.  u.  d.  Gottesfreunde.  Hamb.  1853.  Rudelbach,  christl.  Biogra- 
phie,  I.  3.) — 2.  Henry  Suso,  a  Dominican  at  Dim,  also  called  Amandus, 
the  son  of  a  Count  of  Berg  (ob.  1365).  His  writings,  full  of  sorrow  for 
sin  and  love  to  the  Lord,  which  seem  the  very  outpourings  of  his  soul, 
go  straight  to  the  heart.  (Comp.  Mclch.  Diepenbrock,  Suso's  Leben  u. 
Schriften,  with  an  Introd.  by  Gorres,  2d  Ed.  Regensb.  1837.  C. 
Schmidt,  der  Myst.  II.  Suso,  in  the  "Stud.  u.  Kritt."  for  1843.  IV. 
3.  John  Ruysbroek,  an  Augustine  monk  at  Brussels  (ob.  1381).  He 
was  called  Doctor  ecstaticus,  from  the  circumstance  that  he  laid  such 
stress  on  the  ecstatic  state,  in  which  man  cast  off  the  heavy  and  im- 
peding bonds  of  outward  sense,  and  opened  his  heart  immediately  and 
directly  to  the  influences  of  the  love  of  God  and  the  communications 
of  His  Spirit.  He  wrote  in  Latin  (Comp.  Engelhardt,  Rich.  v.  St. 
Victor  u.  Job.  Ruysbr.  Erlang,  1838).  —  4.  Hermanh  of  Fritzlar,  a 
pious  layman,  who  has  left  us  a  work  on  the  Life  of  the  Saints,  which 
has  lately  been  again  edited  (by  Fr.  Pfeiffer,  in  his  "  teutsche  Myst. 
d.  14.  Jahrh.  Vol.  I.  Leips.  18-15).  In  attractive  language  and  with 
most  affectionate  simplicity,  he  endeavoured  to  show  how  the  outward 
life  of  the  saints  reflected  their  inward  purity.  The  book  is  entirely 
free  from  dead  externalism,  and  is  interspersed  with  explanations  and 
remarks  which  breathe  a  dee])  mysticism  and  sublime  speculation. 
).  Rulman  Merswin  (Meerschwein)  a  wealthy  merchant  and  brokerin 
Strassburg,  who  subsequently  joined  the  "Friends  of  God,"  and  gavo 
his  riches  io  benevolent  objects,  lie  bought  an  old  forsaken  cloister 
near  the  city,  refitted  it  and  gave  it  to  the  order  of  St.  John.  There 
he  spent  the  rest  of  his  days  in  pious  contemplation  and  good  works 
(ob.  L382).  Me  is  the  author,  as  K.  Schmidt  (hist,  theol.  ztschr.  1839) 
has  shown,  of  the  "  Buch  von  den  neucn  Felsen"  found  anion";  Suso's 


REFORMATION    IN     HEAD    AND    MEMBERS.  495 

works.  It  is  a  complaint  of  a  devout  laymen  over  the  decay  of  the 
Church,  and  the  distractions  of  social  life.  Other  -writings  by  him  are 
still  unpublished. — G.  Otto  von  Pussau  a  Franciscan  of  the  14th 
(some  say  15th)  century.  lie  wrote  a  devotional  book  entitled,  Die 
24  Alten,  oder  der  goldene  Thron,"  which  secured  him  a  place  among 
the  German  mystics,  perhaps  on  a  level  with  Suso.  —  7.  The  unknown 
author  of  the  tractate  entitled  Theologia  Germanica,  "a noble  treatise, 
which  setteth  forth  what  Adam  and  what  Christ  is,  and  how  Adam  is 
to  die  and  Christ  to  rise  in  us."  The  work  treats  principally  of  the 
incarnation  of  God  in  Christ,  and  the  elevation  of  man  by  the  Saviour. 
It  was  held  in  very  high  esteem  by  Luther,  who  published  a  new 
edition  of  it.  (Transl.  into  Engl,  by  Miss  Wirikworth,  with  a  Pref.  by 
Kingsley.)  —  8.  Joun  Staupitz,  Vicar-General  of  the  Augustine  Order 
in  Germany,  and  the  spiritual  father  of  Luther.  Himself  a  warm 
admirer  of  the  German  Mystics,  he  succeeded  in  awakening  similar 
sentiments  among  the  members  of  his  order.  But  he  felt  unequal  to 
the  contest  on  which  Luther  entered,  and  accordingly  retired  into  a 
Benedictine  monastery  at  Salzburg,  where  he  died  in  1524. 

3.  Even  in  the  case  of  Suso,  speculative  mj-sticism  had  assumed  a 
more  practical  cast.  This  change  was  finally  completed  by  the 
"Brethren  of  the  Common  Life"  (§  112,  G).  Most  distinguished 
among  their  writers  was  Thomas  a  Kempis  (ob.  1471).  According  to 
their  views,  the  whole  life,  all  thinking,  knowledge,  and  action,  were 
to  spring  from  love  to  God,  and  to  manifest  themselves  in  the  way  of 
growing  sanctification.  Thomas  a  Kempis  was  the  author  of  many 
tractates  ;  the  well-known  book  on  the  Imitation  of  Christ  is  generally 
ascribed  to  him.  With  the  exception  of  the  Bible,  perhaps  no  other 
work  has  so  frequently  been  reprinted,  or  translated  into  so  many 
languages,  nor  has  any  other  been  perused  by  so  many  persons  of  all 
ranks  and  creeds.  (Comp.  /.  P.  Silbcrt,  Gersen,  Gerson  u.  Kempis, 
welcher  ist  d.  Verf.  etc.  —  who  is  the  author,  etc.  —  Vienna,  1828. 
TJllman,  in  the  "Stud.  u.  Kritt."  for  1843.  I.  G.  Vert,  Etudes  his.  sur 
l'Imit.  de  J.  C.  Toul.  1957.     B.  Bcihring,  Th.  v.  Kempen.  Berl.  1849.) 


IV.  REFORMATORY  MOVEMENTS. 
I  118.  THE   REFORMATION   IN   HEAD   AND   MEMBERS. 

The  desire  for  a  reformation  in  head  and  members  continued 
to  exist  throughout  the  whole  of  this  period,  clown  to  the  Re- 
formation, and  even  beyond  it.  It  had  found  utterance  in  the 
reformatory  Councils  of  Pisa,   Constance,  and  Basle;  but  the 


496      SECTION    II. — THIRD   PERIOD    (CENT.  14  &  15  A.  D.). 

utter  failure  of  all  such  attempts,  however  sincere  and  energetic, 
and  however- wide  the  sympathies  they  commanded,  proves  that 
they  started  from  a  wrong  principle.     "While  recognizing  that 
these  councils  kept   themselves  entirely  free  from  all  sectarian 
tendencies,  and  honestly  endeavoured  not  to  destroy  but  to  reform 
the  Church  from  within,  we  cannot  shut  our  eyes  to  the  manifest 
defects  of  those  movements.     Foremost  among  them  we  place 
the  circumstance,  that  they  aimed  after  a  reformation  only  in 
head  and  members,  not  in  spirit ;  an  attempt  which  may  be  com- 
pared to  the  pruning  of  wild  branches,  while  that  which  in  times 
past  caused,  and  would  still  promote  their  growth,  is  left  un- 
touched.     In  truth,  it  was  never  intended  to  abolish  more  than 
the    most    grievous    oppressions,    and    certain    gross    outward 
scandals  —  such  as  the  assumptions  of  the  hierarchy,  the  exac- 
tions of  the  Papacy,  and  the  dissoluteness  of  the  clergy.     But 
these  councils  entered  not  on  questions  of  doctrine;  despite  their 
corruption,  the  Romish  interpretation  of  dogmas  was  universally 
acknowledged.     Nor  was  it  understood  that  any  genuine  renova- 
tion could  only  proceed  from  the  preaching  of  repentance  and 
from  a  devout  acknowledgment  of  the  doctrine  of  justification  by 
faith  in  him  who  justifieth  the  ungodly.     Hence  it  was  that  the 
reformers  of  Constance  condemned  to  the  stake  a  Huts,  who  had 
pointed  out  and  endeavoured  to  apply  this  the  only  true  lever 
of  a  genuine  reformation ;   hence,  also,  the  fathers  of  Basle  hesi- 
tated not   to    proclaim    "the    Immaculate    Conception"    as  an 
article  of  catholic  faith.     The  miscarriage  of  all  these  attempts 
must,  therefore,  not  be  ascribed  to  outward  obstacles,  either  at 
Pisa  or  Constance,  such  as,  that  before  addressing   themselves 
to  the  work  of  reformation  the  fathers  proceeded  to  the  choice 
of  a  new  Pope,  who  afterwards  prevented  any  genuine  reforma- 
tion.     On  the  contrary,  the  circumstance  that  the  members  of 
these  councils  refused  to  address  themselves  to  a  reformation  of 
the  Church  fill  they  had  given  it  a  head,  is  rather  an  honourable 
testimony  to  their  conscientiousness;  but  even  had  it  been  other- 
wise, their  defective  principles  would  have  led  to  the  same  result. 
On  this  ground   also  we  can  understand  why  the  ablest  men  in 
the  Council  of  Basle  gradually  retired  from  it  in  despair,  and, 
like  Nicholas  of  Cusa,  again  embraced  the  phantom   of  papa] 
supremacy,  which,  under  a  Gregory  and  an  Innocent,  had  proved 
so  powerful  an  instrument  of  reform.     However  clearly  they  dis- 
cerned that  all  such  attempts  as  were  made  by  councils  had 


REFORMATION    IN     HEAD    AND     MEMBERS.  407 

proved  abortive,  they  failed  to  perceive  the  real  cause  of  this, 
and  hence  once  more  clung  to  the  Papacy  as  the  sole  anchor  of 
hope. 

1.  French  Reformers.  —  The  desire  for  a  reformation  of  the  Church 
in  head  and  members  was  chiefly  fostered  by  the  great  representatives 
of  the  University  of  Paris.     Among  these  divines  we  mention  : 

(1.)  Peter  d'Aillv,  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris,  from 
1396  Bishop  of  Cambray,  and  from  1411  also  a  cardinal  (ob.  1425).  In 
many  respects  he  still  adhered  to  the  scholastic  method,  and  even  wrote 
a  commentary  on  Lombardus,  while  at  the  same  time  he  endeavoured 
to  give  a  biblical  basis  to  his  favourite  science. 

(2.)  John  Charlier  of  Gerson  (a  little  village  near  Rheims), 
Doctor  Christianissimus,  the  pupil  and  successor  of  d'Ailly  at  Paris 
(ob.  1429).  He  strenuously  insisted  that  a  General  Council  was 
superior  to  the  Pope,  —  a  principle  which,  in  his  opinion,  was  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  any  genuine  reformation.  Nor  was  he  merely 
alive  to  outward  defects  in  the  Church  ;  on  the  contrary,  he  was  wont 
to  appeal  to  the  Bible  as  the  only  source  and  rule  of  Christian  know- 
ledge, and  contended  against  the  abuse  of  the  doctrine  of  indulgences, 
and  the  multiplication  of  saints  and  festivals.  Still  he  would  have 
withheld  the  Scriptures  in  the  vernacular  from  the  laity,  and  branded 
every  one  as  an  heretic  who  did  not  implicitly  receive  the  interpreta- 
tion which  the  Church  gave  of  a  passage.  Gerson  was  deeply  impressed 
with  the  desirableness  of  combining  mysticism  with  scholasticism.  His 
own  mysticism,  however,  was  rather  practical  than  speculative. — (Comp. 
C.  Schmidt,  Essai  sur  J.  Gerson.  Par.  1839.  —  I).  Mettenlciter,  J.  Ger- 
son u.  s.  Zeit.  Augsb.  1857  ;  and  the  Essays  on  G.'s  Mystic,  by  Liebner 
in  the  "  Stud.  u.  Kritt.  for  1835.  II.,  by  Hundeshagen  in  HI//en's 
Journal  IV.,  and  by  Engelhardt;  Thomassy,  Jean  Gerson.  Par.  1843  ; 
Dr.  J.  II.  Schwab  (Rom.  Cath.),  Joh.  Gerson,  e.  Monogr.  Wurzb.  1859). 

(3.)  Nicholas  of  Clemangis,  Rector  of  the  University  of  Paris,  from 
which  he  retired  into  solitude  (ob.  about  1440).  Of  all  divines  in  the 
Church  he  perceived  most  clearly  existing  abuses,  and  most  fully  re- 
cognized the  authority  of  the  Scriptures  as  the  rule  of  belief  and  of 
judgment.  —  Comp.  A.  Muntz,  Nic.  de  Clemanges,  sa  vie  et  ses  ecrits. 
Strasb.  1846. 

(4.)  Louis  d'Allemand,  Cardinal  and  Archbishop  of  Aries,  the 
ablest  and  most  eloquent  member  of  the  anti-papal  party  at  Basle.  He 
was  excommunicated  and  deposed  by  Eugenius  IV.  But  when  the 
Council  of  Basle  made  subjection,  Pope  Nicholas  V.  restored  him,  and 
in  1527  Clement  VII.  even  allowed  the  faithful  to  venerate  him  as  a 
saint. 

2.   The  Friends  of  Reform  in  German)/.  —  A  considerable  time  before 
the  appearance  of  the  French  reformers,  a  German,  Henry  of  Lanr/en- 
gtein,  near  Marburg  (Harrietts  de  Hassia),  had  insisted  that  princes 
42* 


498     SECTION    II  .  —  THIRD    PERIOD    (C  E  NT.   14  &  15  A.  D.). 

nnd  prelates  should  summon  a  General  Council  in  order  to  put  an  end 
to  the  papal  schism,  and  to  initiate  a  reformation  in  the  Church.     Hip 
work,  "  Consilium  paois  de  unione  ac  reformatione  ecclesias  in  concilio 
universali,"  appeared  in  1381.     It  contained  a  humbling,  but  unfor- 
tunately too  correct  account  of  the  desolate  state  of  the  Church.     The 
monasteries  he  designated   "  prostibula  meretrieum,"  and  the  cathe- 
dral  churches   "  speluncse  raptorum  et  latronum."     He  taught  first 
at  Paris,  and  from  1381  in  Vienna,  where  lie  died  (1397).  as  rector  of 
the  University.    (Cf.  O.  Martwig,  Henr.  de  Langenst.  dictus  de  Hassia 
Zwei  Unterss.  Marb.  1858.) — 2.  Theodore  of  Nicm  (Nebeim)  was  secre- 
tary to  Gregory  IX.,  with  whom  he  went  from  France  to  Rome.    After- 
wards he  became  Bishop  of  Verdun,  and  died  in  1417,  as  Bishop  of 
Cambray,  during  the  sittings  of  the  Council  of  Constance,  of  which 
he  was  a  member.    His  writings,  which  have  not  yet  received  sufficient 
attention,  are  of  the  greatest  importance  for  the  history  of  the  schism 
and  of  the  Council.  Throughout,  his  language  is  bold  and  unsparing. — 
3.   Gregory  of  Heimburg.     He  attended  the  Council  of  Basle,  as  secre- 
tary to  JEneas  Sylvius,  who  at  the  time  was  still  attached  to  the  reform- 
ing party.     But  his  violent  opposition   to   papal  assumptions  caused 
such  excitement,  that  .ZEncas  deemed  it  prudent  to  dismiss  his  secre- 
tary.    He  afterwards  became  Syndic  of  Nurnberg,  and  in  1459  attended 
the  Council  of  Mantua,   as    ambassador   of  the   Emperor  Sigismund. 
Pope  Pius  II.  (iEneas  Sylvius)  excommunicated  him,  from  which  time 
he  wandered  about  from  place  to  place,  the  victim  of  papal  persecu- 
tions.    He  died  at  Dresden,  in  1472.     His  writings  were  collected  and 
published  at  Frankfort,  in  1G08,  under  the  title,  "  Scripta  nervosa  justi- 
tiaeque  plena."     On  the  relation  between  JEneas  and  Gregory  compare 
also  G.  Pfizer,  d.  Deutsche  u.  d.  Welsche  (the  German  and  the  ItaL). 
Stuttg.  1844.  —  4.  Nicholas  of  Cusa,   near  Treves  (his  real  name  was 
Chryfftz  =  crab).     He  attended  the  Council  of  Basle,  as  Archdeacon 
of  Lieges,  spoke  and  wrote  in  defence  of  the  principles  of  that  Council 
(de  concordantia  catholica  LI.  III.) ;  but.  afterwards  joined,  the  papal 
party,  was  rewarded  with  the  episcopal  see  of  Brixen,  where  he  died 
a  cardinal  in   1464.     Against  the  abuses  of  the  scholastic  method  he 
wrote  three  books,  "  de  docta  ignorantia."    (Comp.  F.  A.  Scharpff,  d. 
kirchl.  u.  lit.  "Wirken  d.  Nic.  v.  Cusa  (the  Eccl.  and  Lit.  Labours  of 
N.  of  C).     Vol.  I.     May.  1*13.— J.  .V.  Viix,  d.  deutsche  Card.  Nic.  v. 
Cusa  u.  .1.  Kirche  s.  Zeit.     Begensb.  1847.     2  Vols.)21 

3.  Italy  also  contributed  to  the  Council  of  Basle  one  who  at  least  for 
a  time  appeared  to  be  a  reformer.  &neas  Sylvius  Piccolomini  was 
among  the  most  determined  opponents  of  Eugenius  IV.  He  wrote  a 
history  of  the  Council  of  Basle,  couched  in  a  violent,  anti-papal  spirit, 
and  became  secretary  of  Felix,  the  Pontiff  whom  that  Council  elected. 
But  in  Wll  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Emperor  Frederic  [II., 
became  poet  laureate  and  imperial  counsellor.  In  this  capacity  he 
displayed  considerable  diplomatic  skill  in  bringing  about  the  Concordat 


EVANGELICAL    REFORMATION.  499 

of  Frankfort  in  1446,  by  which  a  reconciliation  was  effected  between 
Pope  Eugenius  and  the  German  princes.  Ten  years  afterwards  Calix- 
tus  IV.  nominated  him  cardinal,  and  in  1458  he  was  elevated  to  the 
papal  see,  as  Pius  II.  His  poetic  effusions  are  full  of  most  indecent 
passages,  and  his  former  lasciviousness  continued  even  after  his  acces- 
sion to  the  see  of  Peter.  (Cf.  E.  R.  Hagenbach,  Erinner.  an  JEn.  Sylv. 
Pice.     Bas.  1840.) 

§"119.   ATTEMPTS  AT  EVANGELICAL   REFORMATION. 

While  the  divines  of  Paris  attacked  the  glaring'  abuses  of  the 
Papacy,  a  more  hopeful  movement  had  commenced  in  England 
(especially  by  Wycliffe)  and  Bohemia  (especially  by  Hus). 
Not  merely  the  outward  corruptions  of  the  Church,  but  their 
hidden  causes,  were  to  be  exposed  and  removed.  Another  dis- 
tinctive feature  of  this  Reformation  was,  that  it  addressed  itself 
(o  the  people  rather  than  to  the  learned,  and  aimed  at  enlisting 
their  sympathies  and  convictions.  For  the  first  time  also  was  it 
understood  and  proclaimed,  more  or  less  distinctly,  that  a  genuine 
reformation  must  lie  based  on  that  great  doctrine  of  justification 
by  faith,  which  had  at  first  been  the  corner  stone  of  the  Church.  It 
is  on  this  ground  that  Wycliffe  and  Hus  have  frequently  been 
represented  as  the  precursors  of  the  Reformation  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  However  correct  in  some  respects  the  statement,  there 
was  a  vast  difference  between  these  men  and  the  reformers  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  Not  to  speak  of  the  comparatively  small  suc- 
cess of  their  labours,  which  in  part  may  have  been  due  to  the 
circumstance  that  the  fulness  of  time  for  such  comprehensive 
reforms  had  not  yet  come,  they  failed  by  adopting  some  heretical 
(spiritualistic)  elements,  which  conflicted  with  the  idea  and  truj 
character  of  the  Church,  whilst  the  German  Reformation  either 
shunned  such  errors,  or  gradually  excluded  them.  Virtually 
acknowledging  no  other  than  the  invisible  Church,  they  failed  in 
establishing  a  visible  community  ;  while  in  their  aims  after  exces- 
sive purity  and  simplicity,  they  disconnected  themselves  not  only 
from  the  past,  but  even  from  the  present.  Of  the  two  reformers 
whom  we  have  mentioned,  Hus  was  more  a  man  of  the  people 
than  Wycliffe.  If  his  views  were  less  philosophical,  and  his 
system  less  developed,  his  aims  were  more  practical  and  popular 
(by  preaching  justification  by  faith \  and  more  fully  directed 
towards  inward  and  spiritual  renovation  than  those  of  his  great 
English  teacher. — These  tendencies  were  not  confined  to  England 


500       SECTION    II. TniRD    PERIOD    (CENT,   li  &  15  A   D.). 

ir  Bohemia.  A  similar  movement  sprung  up  in  other  lands 
especially  in  the  Low  Countries.  In  this  case  also  submission 
to  the  Scriptures,  and  faith  in  the  crucified  Saviour,  as  the  ground 
of  salvation,  were  regarded  as  the  only  principles  capable  of 
achieving  a  genuine  reformation.  Like  Hus  and  Wycliffe,  those 
divines  adopted  the  theological  system  of  St.  Augustine,  but  their 
activity  was  more  epiiet,  confined  to  narrower  circles,  and  rather 
theological  than  popular.  Even  in  Italy  a  reformer  appeared. 
Thoroughly  imbued  with  evangelical  sentiments,  Savonarola  ex- 
ercised during  his  brief  public  career  a  most  precious  influence 
upon  his  countrymen. 

1.    Wyclife  and  the  lY/elitfifes.  —  iCour.  J.  Lewis,  Hist,  of  the  Life 
and  Sufferings  of  J.  Wycliffe.  Oxf.  1820.  —  7?.  Yauyhan,  J.  de  Wycliffe, 
a  Monograph.  Lond.  1853.—  O.Jdyer,  J.  Wye.  u.  s.  Bedentung  fur  d. 
Reform"  Halle  1854.  —  G.  Weber,  Gesch.  d.  akathol.  Kirchen  u.  Secten 
v.  Grossbrit.  Leips.  1845.  Vol.  I.  —  F.A.  I^u-ald,  d.  theol.  Doctrin.  J. 
Wye.  iu  the  "  Zeitsch.  fur  hist.  Theol."  for  184G.  II.-IV. ;  and  in  the 
same  Journal  for  1853.  III.  1854.  II.  —  G.  Y.  Leckler,  Wye.  u.  d.  Lol- 
larden,  and  "  Hist,  of  Engl,  and  France  under  the  House  of  Lancaster." 
Lond  1852.—  (A  number  of  W.'s  treatises  have  of  late  been  reprinted.) 
—  The  kings  and  parliament  of  England  had  been  long  resisting  the 
oppressive  yoke  of  the  papal  hierarchy  :  and  such  men  as  John  of  Satis- 
bury,  Robert  Greathead,  Roger  Bacon,  and  Thomas  of  Bradwardine,  had 
lifted  their  voices  against  the  inner  corruptions  of  the  Church.     John 
Wycliffe,  a  pupil  of  Bradwardine,  was  born  1324.     As  a  fellow  of 
the  university  of  Oxford,  which  was  then   involved   in  a  controversy 
with  the  mendicant  monks,  Wycliffe  appeared  in  13G0  against  these 
monks,  and  in  136G  in  defence  of  the  English  crown  against  the  de- 
mands of  the  papal  court  (then  at  Avignon),  for  feudal  imposts.     This 
secured  for  him  the  favour  of  the  English  court,  which  conferred  the 
doctorate  upon  him,  appointed  him  professor  of  theology  in  Oxford,  and, 
1374,  placed  him  on  an  embassy  to  the  pope  to  effect  an  adjustment  of 
existing  difficulties.     Then  he  learned,  by  immediate  observation,  how 
corrupt1  the  papacy  was.     After  his  return,  lie  spoke  and  wrote  openly 
against  the  papal  "Antichrist"  and  its   system.     Greyory  XI.  con- 
demned (1377),  nineteen  points  in  his  writings,  but  the  English  court 
protected   him    against    punishment.     Wycliffe   became    more    bold, 
formed  societies  of  pious  men  to  preach  the  Gospel  among  the  people, 
(their  enemies  called  them  Lollards),  and  translated  the  Bible  (from 
the  Vulgate),  into  English.     By  this  time  the  anger  of  his  enemies  had 
reached  its  height.     He  now  assailed  transubstantiation,  and  revived 
Berengar's  view  of  the  Lord's  Supper;  the  university  expelled  him.  and 
a  synod   at   London   condemned   his  works   and  doctrines  as  heretical 
(1382).     The  court  and  Parliament  could  only  protect  his  person.     He 


EVANGELICAL    REFORMATION.  501 

retired  to  the  parish  of  Lutterworth,  and  there  died  (1384).     His  ad- 
herents, including  many  eminent   and  educated  persons  (among  the 
masses  he  found  but  little  sympathy),  were  violently  persecuted.     The 
Council  of  Constance  condemned  anew  forty-five  points  in  his  writings, 
and  commanded  his  corpse  to  be    disinterred,   burnt,   and  scattered. 
But  much  of  the  seed  he  sowed  was  preserved  until,  in  the  Reformation, 
it  sprang  up  and  bloomed  with  greater  purity  and  power. — In  the  last 
years  of  his  compulsory  leisure,  "Wycliffe  wrote  his  chief  work,   the 
Trialogus,  in  which  he  fully  sets  forth  his  theological  views.     As  the 
fundamental  principle  of  all  theology  and  of  a  reformation,  he  main- 
tained that  the  Holy  Scriptures  are  the  only  source  and  rule  of  all 
religious  knowledge.     But  in  rejecting  all  ecclesiastical  tradition  as  a 
mere  human  invention,  he  went  beyond  the  limits  of  evangelical  con- 
sideration, and  failed  to   distinguish  between  normal  and  abnormal 
developments.     Agreeably  to  his  principle  he  renounced  the  worship 
of  relics  and  images,  the  use  of  the  Latin  language,  the  chanting  of  the 
priests,  the  numerous  festivals,  private  masses,  extreme  unction,  and 
in  general  all  ceremonies.     He  pronounced  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  in- 
dulgences, as  well  as  bans  and  interdicts,  blasphemous ;  auricular  con- 
fession, violence  done  to  the  conscience  ;  and  the  power  of  the  keys  con- 
ditional, and  its  application  impotent  unless  in  harmony  with  the  law 
of  Christ.     He  denied  the  real  presence  of  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ  in  the  Supper,  and  affirmed,  with  Berengar,  a  communication 
of  its  power,  which  was  not  only    dependent  on  the  faith  of  the  re- 
cipient, but  also  on  the  worthiness  of  the  administering  priest.     The 
doctrine  of  purgatory  he  wholly  rejected.     He  held  predestination  in 
the  rigid  form  of  his  teacher,  Bradwardine.     He  maintained  that  the 
papacy  was  Antichrist,  and  that  the  pope  obtained  his  power  only 
from  the  emperor,  not  from  God.     For  the  hierarchical  organization 
should  be  substituted  the  presbyterial  form  of  government.    Ordination 
imparts  no  ineradicable  character  ;  a  priest  guilty  of  a  mortal  sin  can- 
not  validly    administer    a    sacrament.     Every   believer    possesses   a 
priestly  character.     To  the  state  belongs  the  prerogative  of  represent- 
ing Christ  as  the   theanthropic  ruler   of  the  world  ;   the  clergy  are 
merely  to  represent  the  poor  suffering  life  of  his  humanity.     Monasti- 
cism  is  a  monster,  &c. 

2.  The  Bohemian  Reformers  before  Hus. —  (Comp.  /.  P.  Jordan,  d. 
Vorlaufer  d.  Hussitenth.  in  Biihmen  (the  Precursors  of  II.  in  Bohemia. 
Leips.  1846. — A.Zitte,  Lebensbeschr.  d.  drei  Vorl.  d.  Job..  Hus.  Prague 
1786.— -F.  Palacky,  Geseh.  v.  Bohmen.  Vol.  III.,  pp.  157,  etc.)  — It 
will  be  remembered  that  the  Bohemian  Church  had  been  founded  by 
missionaries  from  the  East,  and  not  from  the  West.  The  peculiar 
direction  which  it  got  at  first  was  never  wholly  lost ;  and  though,  at  a 
later  period,  the  Romish  order  and  liturgy  had  been  introduced,  they 
were  not  received  without  opposition  or  grudgj.  In  Bohemia  the 
founder  of  the  Waldenses  had  spent  the  last  y.-ars  of  his  life ;  and 


502       SECTION    II. — THIRD    PERIOD    (CENT.  14  u.  15  A.H.). 

there,  at  a  later  period,  a  number  of  his  adherents  had  found  an  asylum 
when  driven  from  the  valleys  of  Piedmont.  The  great  stronghold  of 
the  Papacy  in  Bohemia  was  the  University  of  Prague  (founded  in  1348). 
Most  of  its  chairs  were  occupied  by  the  mendicants,  who  were  of  course 
zealous  defenders  of  hierarchical  principles ;  while  the  arrangement 
of  the  members  of  the  University  into  four  nations,  of  whom  each  had 
one  vote  (Bohemia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  Poland),  prevented  anything 
like  a  national  and  independent  movement  on  the  part  of  the  Bohe- 
mians. Nor  was  it  unimportant,  in  reference  to  the  religious  history 
of  the  country,  that  the  controversy  between  Realism  and  Nominalism 
raged  more  violently  at  Prague  than  elsewhere,  and  that  there  also 
Realism  was  regarded  as  suspicious,  while  Nominalism  was  considered 
the  great  bulwark  of  ecclesiastical  orthodoxy  (Wycliffe  also  was  a 
Realist,  but  the  Paris  Reformers  were  zealous  Nominalists.)  Even 
before  the  time  of  Hus,  three  earnest  preachers  had  prepared  the  way 
by  their  evangelical  sermons  and  by  their  pastoral  labours  among  the 
people.  These  were  Conrad  of  Waldhausen  (ob.  13G9),  John  Milicz 
ob.  1374),  and  Matthias  of  Janov  (ob.  1394).  Milicz  seems  to  have  had 
the  clearest  insight  into  evangelical  truth,  while  Janov  was  loudest  in 
his  denunciations  of  ecclesiastical  abuses.  All  three  gathered  vast  audi- 
ences around  them.  In  13G7  Milicz  went  to  Rome  to  bear  testimony 
against  ecclesiastical  corruptions  in  the  capital  of  Christendom.  lie 
was  soon  silenced  in  a  prison  ;  but  either  Pope  Urban  V.,  who  had  just 
returned  from  Avignon,  or  the  good  offices  of  some  other  friends,  pro- 
cured his  liberation.  Fresh  persecutions  awaited  him  on  his  return  to 
Bohemia.  His  opponents  accused  him  of  heresy  before  Pope  Gregory  XL 
Milicz  successfully  defended  his  orthodoxy  at  Avignon,  whither  he  had 
gone  to  plead  his  cause  in  person.  Janov  has  left  two  tractates,  "  De 
sacerdotum  et  monachorum  abhorrenda  abominatione  desolationis  in 
ecclesia  Christi,"  and  "  De  Antichristo,"  which  contain  a  withering 
exposure  of  the  degenerate  hierarchy,  clergy,  and  monks  of  his  time. 
His  hearers  he  warned  against  trusting  in  their  own  works,  or  attach- 
ing value  to  mere  ceremonies.  Janov  cherished  the  conviction  that, 
according  to  Christ's  appointment,  the  laity  should  receive  the  cup  as 
well  as  the  bread  in  the  Eucharist;  but,  in  obedience  to  his  ecclesias- 
tical superiors,  he  had  yielded  the  point.  The  statement,  however, 
wants  historical  confirmation. 

3.  Huh  and  Jerome.  —  (Comp.  A.  Zitte,  Lebcnsbeschr.  d.  Joh.  Hus. 
Prague,  1799.  2  Vols.  —  A.  Ziirn,  J.  Hus  auf  d.  Concil  zu  Kotnitz. 
Leips.  1836. — L.  Kbhler,  J.  Hus  u.  seine  Zeit.  Leips.  184G.  3  Vols. — 
J.  A.  Helfert,  Hus  u.  Hieron.  Prague,  1853.  —  L.  Seller,  Ilieron.  v. 
Prag.  Tub.  1835.  —  F.  Palaclcy,  Gesch.  v.  Bohmen.  Vol.  III. — 
John  Bus,  of  Husinecz,  was  born  in  13G9.  From  1398  he  occupied  the 
chair  of  Philosophy  in  the  University  of  Prague.  Even  before  his 
public  appearance,  he  had  passed  through  deep  personal  experiences, 
realizing  his  own  sinfulness,  and  ultimately  finding  peace  aud  comfort 


EVANGELICAL     REFORMATION.  603 

in  the  Word  of  God  and  in  a  cordial  reception  of  the  crucified  Saviour 
These  truths  became  a  source  of  new  life  to  him,  and  them  he  pro- 
claimed when  called  in  1402  to  officiate  as  preacher  in  the  Bethlehem 
Chapel  at  Prague,  which  was  founded  for  the  special  purpose  of  giving 
the  people  an  opportunity  of  hearing  the  Gospel  in  the  vernacular 
Hitherto  IIus  had  only  been  superficially  acquainted  with  the  writings 
of  Wycliffe,  whose  views  on  the  Eucharist  he  rejected.  But  when 
Jerome  of  P  ague,  a  Bohemian  knight,  returned  from  Oxford  an  enthu- 
siastic adherent  of  Wycliffe,  he  persuaded  his  friend  to  examine  more 
fully  the  writings  and  opinions  of  the  British  Reformer.  Jerome  was 
a  man  of  brilliant  talents,  ardently  attached  to  what  he  believed  the 
truth,  and  burning  with  a  zeal  which  bordered  on  enthusiasm,  but 
deficient  in  that  moderation  and  prudence  for  which  Hus  was  so  dis- 
tinguished. The  charge  of  sharing  Wyeliffe's  views  was  first  brought 
against  Hus  in  1404,  when  two  young  English  divines,  pupils  of  Wyc- 
liffe, being  persecuted  in  Prague  for  their  advocacy  of  their  teacher's 
tenets,  exhibited  a  number  of  pictures,  by  way  of  showing  the  striking 
contrast  between  the  poverty  of  Christ  and  His  apostles,  and  the  pomp 
and  luxury  of  the  Pope  and  his  cardinals.  Hus  disapproved  of  the 
conduct  of  the  young  men,  although  he  admitted  the  truth  of  the  con- 
trast presented.  The  Bohemian  members  of  the  University  took  the 
same  view  of  the  question  ;  the  Germans  and  Poles  the  opposite.  As 
the  foreigners  commanded  three  votes  in  the  University  against  the 
one  of  the  Bohemians,  a  resolution  was  published  in  1408,  by  which 
forty-five  propositions  of  Wycliffe  were  formally  condemned.  But  this 
state  of  matters  was  nut  to  continue.  In  1409  the  national  party  pre- 
vailed on  Wenceslaus,  the  King,  to  issue  an  order  to  the  effect  that  in 
future  the  Bohemian  nation  should  have  three  votes,  and  the  other 
nations,  combined,  only  one.  The  foreigners  (teo.chers  and  students 
numbering,  according  to  the  lowest  estimate,  5000)  immediately  left 
Prague,  and  founded  the  University  of  Leipsig.  The  party  of  Hus 
became  dominant  in  Bohemia,  but  all  the  more  unpopular  in  foreign 
countries,  and  the  charge  of  Wycliffism  was  generally  preferred  against 
its  leader.  About  the  same  time  Hus  became  also  more  earnest  and 
energetic  in  his  denunciations  of  ecclesiastical  and  clerical  abuses. 
Sbynko,  Archbishop  of  Prague,  now  laid  an  accusation  against  him  in 
Rome,  and  prohibited  his  preaching  in  the  Bethlehem  Chapel.  But 
the  populace  openly  insulted  the  Archbishop  in  the  streets,  while  Hus 
appealed  from  the  Pope  ill-informed  to  the  Pope  better-informed.  The 
Bohemian  Reformer  was  wont  to  declare  that  he  received  not  implicitly 
all  the  statements  of  Wycliffe,  but  distinguished  in  them  between  truth 
and  error,  and  that  he  Avas  prepared  to  retract  the  moment  he  should 
be  convinced  from  Scripture  of  his  error.  The  Pope  cited  him  to  Rome ; 
but,  on  the  intercession  of  the  King  and  the  University,  a  temporary 
trace  was  concluded  between  IIus  and  the  Archbishop  of  Prague 
Other  occasions  of  dissension  soon  arose.     In  1 112  John  XXIII.  pro- 


504    SECTION    II. —  THIRD    PERIOD    (C  EN  T.  U  &  15  A.  B.). 

claimed  a  crusade  against  Naples,  which  was  also  preached  in  Bohemia 
Against  this  daring  presumption  Hus  protested  by  pen  and  voice, 
while  Jerome,  in  his  indignation,  even  ventured  to  burn  the  Pope's  bull 
at  the  public  pillory.  The  Pope  now  excommunicated  Hus,  and  laid 
Prague  under  the  interdict,  so  long  as  it  sheltered  the  Reformer  (1413). 
Hus  appealed  to  the  tribunal  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  retired  from  Prague 
to  his  birthplace.  Meantime  the  Council  of  Constance  had  been  sum- 
moned. There  the  cause  of  Hus  was  to  be  finally  settled.  At  the 
request  of  the  Emperor  Sigismund,  and  furnished  by  him  with  a  safe- 
conduct,  the  Reformer  went  (1414)  to  Constance,  fully  persuaded  of  the 
justice  of  his  cause,  and  prepared,  if  necessary,  to  suffer  martyrdom. 
On  his  first  examination  Hus  was  immediately  committed  to  prison. 
The  Bohemian  nobles  who  had  accompanied  him  to  Constance  appealed 
to  the  Emperor,  who  was  on  his  way  to  that  city.  The  Emperor  sent 
an  order  to  restore  Hus  to  liberty,  which  was  not  obeyed  ;  and  a  depu- 
tation from  the  Council  persuaded  the  weak  monarch,  that  since  Hus 
was  at  the  bar  of  the  Council  on  the  charge  of  heresy,  he  was  beyond 
imperial  protection.  For  seven  months  the  Reformer  was  tortured  by 
private  examinations.  At  length  a  public  audience  was  granted  him 
(in  June,  1415).  But  he  was  not  allowed  to  proceed  to  the  discussion 
of  controverted  points:  the  Council  insisted  on  simple  and  unqualified 
retractation.  The  humility,  meekness,  and  gentleness  of  the  Reformer, 
his  enthusiasm  and  confidence,  gained  him  friends  even  in  the  Council. 
From  ail  sides,  and  by  every  kind  of  motive,  he  was  pressed  to  yield. 
These  well-meant  persuasions  proved  as  ineffectual  as  the  threats  of  his 
enemies.  On  the  Gih  July,  his  forty-sixth  birthday,  a  solemn  oration 
was  delivered  in  the  cathedral  on  Romans  vi.  G,  after  which  Hus  was 
stripped  of  his  priestly  robes,  handed  over  to  the  secular  power,  and 
led  to  the  stake.  Amid  prayer  and  praise  he  expired,  joyously  and 
confidently,  one  of  the  numerous  company  of  martyrs  who  with  their 
blood  have  sealed  a  good  confession.  —  Jerome  of  Prague,  the  friend  of 
Hus,  had  also  appeared  at  Constance,  though  unsummoned.  Perceiving 
that  a  longer  stay  could  be  of  no  use  to  his  friend  and  only  exposed 
himself  to  a  similar  fate,  he  left  the  town,  but  was  captured  by  the 
way,  and  brought  back  in  chains  (April,  1415).  Half  a  year  spent  in 
a  loathsome  prison,  and  the  continuous  solicitations  of  his  judges, 
induced  him  in  an  hour  of  weakness  to  recant,  and  to  acknowledge  the 
sentence  pronounced  against  Hus.  But  notwithstanding  his  recanta- 
tion, he  was  still  distrusted  and  kept  in  durance.  Jerome  soon  re- 
covered himself.  He  requested  a  public  audience  before  the  whole 
Council,  which  was  granted  him  in  May,  1416.  lie  now  publicly  and 
formally  retracted  his  former  recantation,  and  confounded  the  Council 
by  Ids  eloquence  and  moral  earnestness.  On  the  30th  May,  1410,  he 
died  at  the  stake,  full  of  courage  and  joy. 

The  Doctrinal  Views  of  Hus,  mosl  clearly  expressed  in  his  tractate 
"  de  ccclesia,"  had  but  one  error.     Adopting  the  predestinarian  views 


EVANGELICAL     REFORMATION.  505 

cf  St.  Augustine,  he  regarded  the  Church  as  the  totality  of  the  pre- 
destinate, and  argued  that  only  the  predestinate  could  savingly  dispense 
the  sacraments.  This  view  annuls  the  objective  power  of  the  Church: 
its  nature,  significance  and  office  are  evaporated ;  it  is  deprived  of  every 
thing  like  a  firm  basis.  An  error  so  fundamental,  which  Hus  shared 
with  Wyclifi'e,  rendered  him  incompetent  to  be  a  reformer,  notwith- 
standing his  moral  purity  and  power  and  the  fulness  of  his  evangelical 
knowledge.  A  reformation  based  on  such  fundamental  principles  would 
be  apt  to  degenerate  into  sectarianism  or  fanaticism.  In  all  other 
respects  his  teaching  was  excellent,  and  thoroughly  evangelical.  In 
regard  to  the  Lord's  Supper  he  differed  decidedly  from  Wycliffe,  and 
adhered  to  the  doctrine  of  the  real  presence,  yea  even  to  transubstan- 
tiation.  —  We  are  scarcely  surprised  that  the  Council  of  Constance, 
though  led  by  a  Gerson,  should  have  pronounced  sentence  of  death  on 
such  a  man.  Other  reasons  also  led  to  this  result.  The  Fathers  of 
Constance  were  chiefly  Nominalists,  and  to  them  the  Realism  of  Hus 
appeared  the  source  of  all  his  heresy ;  besides,  the  controversy  in  the 
University  of  Prague,  and  the  decision  of  the  king,  which  were  chiefly 
attributed  to  him,  had  raised  a  prejudice  in  the  minds  of  the  Germans. 
Perhaps,  also,  his  mistakes  on  the  subject  of  the  Church  might  appear 
to  the  Council  more  dangerous  than  they  really  were ;  while  all  the 
other  points,  on  which  he  advocated  evangelical  views,  could  not  be 
appreciated  by  such  an  assembly  as  that  of  Constance.  Lastly,  Hus 
drew  upon  himself  the  enmity  of  both  parties  in  the  Council:  the 
hierarchical  party  wished  to  deter  its  opponents  by  showing  that  the 
Church  still  possessed  the  power  of  burning  heretics,  while  the  liberal 
party  withdrew  its  protection,  from  apprehension  that  any  suspicion 
of  sharing  the  heretical  views  of  Hus  might  endanger  the  success  of 
their  reformatory  attempts. — The  story,  frequently  related,  that  in  his 
last  moments  Hus  uttered  the  prediction,  "  To-day  you  roast  a  goose 
(in  Slavonian  =  Hus),  but  from  mine  ashes  will  arise  a  swan  (the 
armorial  device  of  Luther),  whom  you  will  not  be  able  to  destroy,"  is 
entirely  apocryphal.  -  It  probably  originated  during  the  time  of  the 
Reformation,  from  the  circumstance  that  the  two  martyrs  had  appealed 
to  the  judgment  of  God  of  history.  Hus  predicted  that,  instead  of 
the  weak  goose,  strong  eagles  and  falcons  would  soon  come  ;  while 
Jerome  summoned  his  unjust  judges  to  answer  within  a  hundred  years 
before  the  highest  tribunal. 

4.  The  Hussites.  —  Comp.  Z.  Theobald,  Hussitenkrieg.  3d  Ed.  Bresl. 
1750.  4.  —  Lenfant,  Hist,  de  la  guerre  des  Huss.  2  T.  4.  Supplem.  par 
Beausobre.  Laus.  1745.  —  F.  Palacky,  u.  s.).  —  During  the  imprison- 
ment of  Hus,  Jacobus  of  Misa  (Jacobellus)  had  acted  as  leader  of  the 
Hussites.  By  advice  of  a  Waldensian  [Peter  of  Dresden),  and  with  the 
approbation  of  Hus,  he  dispensed  to  the  laity  the  cup  in  the  Eucharist. 
In  consequence  of  this,  a  violent  controversy  broke  out  between  the 
divines  of  Prague  and  those  of  Constance,  about  the  lawfulness  of  with- 
43 


506    SECTION    II.  —  THIRD    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.  14  &  15  A.  D.). 

holding  the  cup.     On  the  proposal  of  Gerson,  the  Council  resolved, 
that  any  one  who    refused  to    submit  in  this    matter  to  the  Church, 
should  be  treated  as  a  heretic.     This  and  the  execution  of  Hus  raised 
popular  feeling  in  Bohemia  to  the  highest  pitch.     In  the  midst  of  the 
excitement  which   ensued,  King  Wenceslaus   died   in    1-119,  and  the 
estates  refused  to  acknowledge  his  brother,  the  "perjured"  Emperor 
Sigismund.     For  sixteen  years  a  civil  war  raged,  which,  in  bitterness 
and  cruelty  on  both  sides,  has  rarely  been  equalled.     The  Hussites, 
who  had  built  the  fortified  town  of  Tabor  on  the  top  of  a  steep  moun- 
tain, were  commanded  by  the  one-eyed  Ziska.    The  armies  of  crusaders 
successively   summoned   against   the   Bohemians   were   defeated    and 
annihilated.     But  the  mild  evangelical  spirit  of  Hus  had  forsaken  the 
great  majority  of  his  adherents,  who  were  divided  among  themselves. 
Two  parties  became  more  and  more  decidedly  arrayed  against  each 
other.     The  (aristocratic)  Calixtines  (from  calix  =  cup)  or  Utraguists 
(sub  utraque,  i.  e.,  under  both  forms),  which  were  headed  by  JRohjcana, 
the  Bishop-elect  of  Prague,  would  have  been  satisfied  if  the  Catholic 
Church  had  conceded  their  four  articles  (1.  The  Eucharist  under  both 
forms  ;  2.  The  free  preaching  of  the  Gospel  in  the  vernacular  ;  3.  Strict 
discipline  among  the  clergy  ;   4.  That  the  clergy  should  not  possess 
secular  property).     But  the  (democratic)  Taborites  refused  to  come 
to  any  terms  with  the  Catholic  Church.    They  laid  down  the  principle, 
that  'whatever  in    government,   doctrine,   and  worship    could    not  be 
proved  from  Scripture,  should  be  implicitly  rejected,  and  thus,  by  ignor- 
ing all  historical  development,  strayed  into  fanaticism,  iconoclasm,  and 
other  extravagances.     After  the  death  of  Ziska  (of  pestilence  in  1424), 
the  majority  of  the  Taborites  chose  Procopius  the  Great  his  successor. 
A  minority,  which  deemed  no  man  worthy  to  succeed  their  departed 
leader,  separated  from  Procopius,  and  took  the  name  of  "Orphans." 
Meantime  the  Council  of  Basle  had  assembled ;  and.  after  much  fruit- 
less negotiation,  succeeded  in  1433  in  inducing  the  Hussites  to  send 
300  deputies  to  Basle.     The  discussion  on  the  four  Calixtine  articles 
lasted  for  fifty  days,  after  which  the  Council  conceded  them,  although 
with  restriction.     On  the  ground  of  these  Basle   Compactates,  as  they 
were  called,  the  Calixtines  returned,  at  least  nominally,  to  the  allegi- 
ance of  the  Church.     The  Taborites  regarded  this  as  a  betrayal  of  the 
truth.     Part  of  them  once  more  tried  the  fate  of  arms,  but  were  de- 
:,.,|  and    scattered  at   Bolimischbrod,  near  Prague,  in    1434.     The 
Empi  ror  Sigismund  confirmed  the  Compactates,  and  was  acknowledged 
i  ing.      A-   mighl  have  been  expected,  small  as  were  these  concessions, 
they  wore  continually  ignored,  and  violated  both  by  Church  and  State. 
Sigismund   died   in   1437,   and  was  succeeded   by  his  infant  grandson 
Ladislaus,  the  government  being  administered  by  George  Podiebrad,  a 
zealous  and   able  Calixtine.     After  the    death    of  Ladislaus  in    14.">7, 
George  Podiebrad  became  king.     He  adhered  closely  to  the  compac- 
tates.    He  was  acknowledged  by  Pius  II,  in  the  hope  of  his  joining 


EVANGELICAL    REFORMATION.  507 

the  projected  war  against  the  Turks.  When  this  hope  failed,  the  Pon- 
tiff in  14G2  went  so  far  as  even  to  disown  the  Compactates.  Paul  II, 
excommunicated  the  king,  and  had  a  crusade  preached  against  him. 
But  the  crusade  did  not  succeed,  and  George  maintained  himself  till 
his  death  in  1471.  His  successor,  TJladislaus,  a  Polish  prince,  though 
a  Roman  Catholic,  favoured  the  Calixtines.  But  their  day  was  past. 
A  wretched  remnant  of  tnem  furtively  obtained  at  times  the  use  of  the 
cup,  but,  in  the  sixteenth  century  they  wholly  disappeared. 

5.  The  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Brethren.  —  (Comp.  Jaoch.  Came- 
rarii,  hist,  narratio  de  fratr.  orthod.  ecclesiis  in  Bohem.,  Moravia  et 
Polonia.  Heidelb.  1605. — /.  Amos  Comcnius,  hist,  fratrum  Bohemorum, 
c.  praef.  Fr.  Buddei.  Hall.  1702.  4.—  G.  C.  Rieger,  d.  alt,  u.  neuen 
bohm.  Brlider.  24.  St,  Ziillich.  1734,  etc.  —  G.  W.  K.  Lochner,  Entsteh. 
u.  erste  Schicks.  d.  Brlidergem.  in  Bohm.  u.  M'ahr. —  Orig.  and  Early 
Hist,  of  the  "Brethren."  —  Nlirnb.  1832.  —  A.  Kbppen,  Kirchenordn. 
u.  Disciplin.  d.  hussit.  Bruderk.  in  Bohm.  u.  M'ahr.  Leips.  1845.  — 
A.  Gindely,  Bohmen  u.  Mahren  im  Zeitalter  d.  Reformation.  2  Vols. 
Prague  1857-58.  —  A.  Edersheim,  Bohemian  Reformers  and  German 
Politicians,  in  the  "Free  Ch.  Essays."  Edinb.  1858).— In  1453,  George 
Podiebrad  took  Tabor,  and  scattered  the  last  remnants  of  the  Taborites. 
Purified  by  their  misfortunes,  they  gradually  returned  to  evangelical 
views.  Peter  of  Chelcic,  (Cheltschiz),  a  Taborite  friend  of  God,  was 
the  central  point  of  their  communion,  and  George  Podiebrad,  at  Roky- 
cana's  recommendation,  directed  them  to  occupy  the  village  of  Kun- 
wald,  on  his  hereditary  estates.  There,  under  the  guidance  of  Michael 
v.  Bradacz,  the  minister  of  Senfftenberg,  they  organized  themselves 
(1457),  as  the  Unitas  fratrum,  and  assumed  the  name  of  Bohemian  and 
Moravian  Brethren.  But  in  1461  Podiebrad  withdrew  his  favour,  and 
drove  them  from  his  estates.  They  fled  to  the  forests,  and  held  their 
worship  in  caves,  (also  called  Picards).  In  1467,  the  most  influential 
of  them  in  Bohemia'  and  Moravia  met  at  the  Bohemian  village,  Lhota, 
and  in  order  to  provide  for  the  want  of  pastors,  chose,  by  lot,  three 
brethren  as  priests.  Michael  Bradacz  then  went  to  the  Bohemian 
bishop  of  the  Waldenses,  and  was  ordained  by  him  ;  on  his  return,  he 
ordained  the  three  brethren  chosen  at  Lhota,  Mathias  of  Kunwald  as 
bishop,  the  other  two  as  priests.  Thus  the  apostolic  succession  of  the 
episcopate  was  secured.  Rokycana,  embittered  by  this  act,  excited 
more  violent  persecutions  against  them.  Still  the  communion  was  so 
much  increased  by  the  accession  of  Waldenses  in  Bohemia  and  others, 
that  at  the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth  century  it  embraced  nearly 
200  churches  and  houses  for  prayer  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Poland. 
Under  TJladislaus,  to  whom  they  submitted  an  apology  in  1508,  per- 
secutions against  them  abated.  They  sent  the  same  apology  to  Eras 
mus,  in  1511,  with  the  request  that  he  would  furnish  them  with  his 
opinion  upon  it.  Erasmus  declined  doing  this.  They  hailed  Lirflicr's 
movement  with  hearty  rejoicing.     Repeated  messengers  were  sent  bj 


508       SECTION    II. THIRD    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.   14  &  15  A.  D.)- 

thera  to  Luther,  but  -were  offended  that  he  did  not  give  as  much  pro 
minence  as  they  desired  to  apostolic  discipline. 

6.  Reformers  in  the  Low  Countries.  —  (Comp.  C.  Ultmann,  Re- 
formers' before  the  Reform.  Edinb.  Clarks'  For.  Theol.  Libr.).  — Most 
of  these  reformers  had  learned  in  the  school  of  the  "Brethren  of  the 
Common  Life."     The  following  were  the  most  celebrated  among  them  : 

(1.)  John  Pupper  of  Goch,  prior  of  a  cloister  of  canonesses  at  Ma- 
lines  which  himself  had  founded  [ob.  1475).  From  his  writings  (de 
libertate  Christiana,  de  quatuor  erroribus  circa  legem)  we  gather  that 
be  was  a  man  of  deep  piety.  His  theology  is  entirely  that  of  Augus- 
tine; he  insists  at  great  length  that  love,  which  constitutes  the  liberty 
of  the  children  of  God,  forms  the  great  subject-matter  of  theology,  while 
the  exclusive  authority  of  Scripture  affords  the  sole  testing  point  of 
Christian  truth.  He  also  inveighed  against  legalism,  work-righteous- 
ness, and  all  externalism  in  religion. 

(2.)  John  Ruchrath  of  Wesel,  professor  at  Erfurt,  then  preacher 
at  Mayence  and  Worms  [ob.  1481).  His  theology  was  also  cast  in  the 
mould  of  St.  Augustine.  He  denied  the  power  of  the  Pope  to  issue 
anathemas  or  to  grant  indulgences,  and  preached  the  doctrine  of  salva- 
tion by  faith  alone.  In  opposition  to  transubstantiation  he  maintained 
the  doctrine  of  impanation  ;  his  views  of  the  Church  bordered  on 
spiritualism.  He  wrote  a  tractate,  "  de  jejunio,"  against  ecclesiastical 
fasts;  another,  "do  indulgentiis,"  against  indulgences;  and  a  third, 
"  de  potestate  ecclesiastica,"  against  the  hierarchy.  The  Dominicans 
in  Mayence  accused  and  condemned  him  as  a  heretic.  Bent  by  age 
and  disease,  he  was  prevailed  upon  to  recant  and  to  commit  his 
writings  to  the  flames,  while  he  himself  was  condemned  to  imprison- 
ment for  life.  His  writings  and  those  of  Pupper  are  partially  reprinted 
in  Fr.  Walch's  Monumenta  medii  a3vi.  Gottg.  1757. 

(3.)  John  Wessel,  from  Grb'ningen,  educated  by  the  Brethren  of  the 
Common  Life  at  Zwoll,  where  Thomas  a  Kempis  exercised  considerable 
influence  upon  him.  After  having  taught  at  Heidelberg  for  some 
years,  he  retired  to  the  monastery  on  Mount  St.  Agnes  near  Zwoll, 
where  he  died  in  1480.  His  friends  called  him  "Lux  Mundi."  In 
rare  measure  he  combined  accomplishments  so  diverse  as  scholastic 
dialectics,  mystic  speculation,  and  thorough  classical  training.  Luther 
said  of  him:  "If  I  had  read  Wessel  before  I  began,  my  opponents 
would  have  imagined  that  Luther  had  derived  everything  from  Wessel 
—  so  entirely  do  Ave  two  agree  in  spirit."  In  one  point,  however,  the 
doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  he  lost  himself  in  a  volatilizing  spiritual- 
ism. The  patronage  of  influential  friends  proved  his  safeguard  from 
the  Inquisition.     Unfortunately,  some  of  his  numerous  writings  have 

1 u  entirely  suppressed  through  the  exertions  of  the  mendicants.    An 

edition  of  those  still  extant  has  been  published  by  Petrus  Pappus 
(Groning.  Kill).  The  most  important  of  them,  which  bears  the  title 
"  Farrago,"  consists  of  a  collection  of  small  but  very  interesting  essays. 


KVANGELICAL    REFORMATION.  509 

Along  with  these  Netherland  Reformers,  before  ihe  reformation. 
Nicholas  Buss,  a  priest  of  Rostock,  (near  the  end  of  the  fifteenth,  or 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century),  merits  honourable  notice.  From 
the  catalogus  testium  veritatis  of  Flacius  it  was  known  that,  in  a  work 
"  De  triplici  funiculo,"  he  zealously  assailed  the  hierarchy,  monasticism, 
indulgences,  work-righteousness,  the  worship  of  relics  and  saints  ;  also, 
that  he  kept  uj)  intimate  intercourse  with  the  Waldenses  in  Bohemia, 
had  to  endure  much  defamation  and  persecution  on  account  of  his  re- 
formatory efforts,  and,  finally,  died  as  an  exile  in  Livonia.  His  work 
above  named,  written  in  Low  Dutch,  of  which  many  copies  were 
printed,  was  also  destroyed.  But  one  of  his  friends  rescued  some 
copies  by  concealing  them  in  a  chest.  Flacius  intended  to  have  it 
translated  and  printed  in  German,  but  did  not  accomplish  it.  From 
that  time  nothing  was  known  of  the  book  until,  in  1850,  Julius  Wir/r/ers 
discovered  a  copy  in  the  library  at  Rostock,  and  published  an  abstract 
of  it  in  the  Hist,  Theol.  Ztschr.  of  Niedner  1850,  II.  It  is  entitled: 
"  Von  dem  Strick,  oder  den  drei  Str'yngen  ;"  for  in  order  to  draw  men 
from  the  pit  of  destruction  a  cord  is  necessary,  and  this,  to  be  suffi- 
ciently strong,  must  be  composed  of  three  strands :  faith,  hope,  and 
love.  These  are  then  minutely  described.  Thus  the  book  furnishes  a 
complete  guide  to  the  Christian's  faith  and  life,  with  severe  assaults 
upon  the  degenerate  doctrines  and  morals  of  the  Church  of  his  age. 

7.  An  Italian  Reformer. — (Comp.  A.  G.  Rudelbach,  Ilier.  Savonarola 
u.  seine  Zeit.  Hamb.  1835.  —  F.  C.Meier,  Girolamo  Savon.  Berl.  183G. 
—  A'.  Hase,  neue  Propheten.  Leips.  1851.  —  F.  T.  Perrens,  Jerome  Saw 
Par. — -a  book  to  which  the  French  Acad,  awarded  the  1st  prize — 2d 
Ed.  1857;  transl.  into  Germ,  by  Dr.  Schroder).  —  The  reformation 
which  Savonarola  inaugurated  in  Italy  towards  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  was  directed  not  only  against  ecclesiastical,  but  also  against 
political  abuses.  It  was  this  combination  of  different  objects  which 
proved  fatal  to  himself  and  his  work.  Jerome  Savonarola,  a  Domini- 
can, had  learned  the  truths  of  the  Gospel  from  Scripture  and  from  the 
writings  of  St.  Augustine.  These  truths  he  now  proclaimed  at  Florence 
(since  1489).  His  brilliant  oratory,  his  bold  and  almost  fanatical  de- 
nunciations of  the  corruptions  prevalent  among  clergy  and  laity, 
princes  and  people,  attracted  crowds  around  him.  With  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  way  of  salvation,  he  combined  a  strange  apocalyptic 
and  prophetic  turn.  Many  an  obstinate  sinner  was  aroused  by  having 
discovered  his  most  secret  sins,  while  some  of  his  political  predictions 
were  fulfilled  in  the  most  remarkable  manner.  Savonarola  soon 
became  the  idol  of  the  people  ;  and  measures  were  taken  to  carry  into 
practice  not  only  the  moral  and  religious,  but  also  the  political  reforma- 
tion which  he  had  proposed.  Florence  was  to  become  the  capital  of  a 
new  democratic  theocracy.  What  his  enemies,  especially  Pope  Alex- 
ander, could  not  effect  by  the  offer  of  a  cardinal's  hat,  was  accomplished 
by  the  folly  of  a  fickle  populace.  For  a  time  political  complications  in 
43** 


510      SECTION    II. — THIRD   PERIOD    (CENT.  14  &  15  A.  D.). 

Italy  became  more  unfavourable,  and  seemed  to  run  counter  to  some 
of  his  predictions,  while  a  famine  desolated  the  land.  The  nobilitj 
and  the  loose  young  men  of  Florence  had  always  been  his  bitter 
enemies;  popular  opinion  also  now  began  to  turn  against  him.  The 
Pope  had  chosen  the  right  moment  to  hurl  his  anathema  against  the 
reformer,  and  to  lay  the  city  which  sheltered  him  under  the  interdict 
(1407).  An  excited  mob  made  him  prisoner;  his  must  bitter  enemies 
were  his  judges.  lie  was  condemned  to  the  stake  as  a  heretic  and  a 
seducer  of  the  people.  Savonarola  submitted  to  his  doom  in  child- 
like confidence  on  Him  who  had  died  for  him  (1498).  Among  the 
heresies  laid  to  his  charge,  was  that  of  having  taught  the  doctrine  of 
justification  by  faith.  —  (Comp.  G.  Rapp,  die  erweckl.  Schriften  (the 
Popul.  Relig.  Treat.)  d.  Martyr.  II.  Savon.  Stuttg.  1839. 

?i  120.  THE  SO-CALLED  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING. 

Com  p.  Heeren,  Gesch.  d.  class.  Literat.  im  M.  A.  Meiners,  Lebens- 
beschr.  beruhmt.  Manner  aus  d.  Zeit  d.  Wiederherst.  d.  Wiss.  (Bio^r. 
of  Celebr.  Men  at  the  Time  of  the  Reviv.  of  Learn.)  Zur.  1775.  2  Vols. 
—H.  A.  Erhard,  Gesch.  d.  Wiederaufbl.  d.  wiss.  Bild.  (Hist,  of  the 
Reviv.  of  Learn.)  Magd.  1827-32.  3  Vols. 

The  classical  literature  of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome  was  not 
so  entirely  neglected  during  the  Middle  Ages  as  is  supposed. 
On  the  contrary,  frequent  and  successful  attempts  had  been  made 
throughout  that  period  to  introduce  such  studies.  Such  mon- 
archs  as  Charlemagne,  Charles  the  Bald,  Alfred  the  Great, 
and  the  Otho^s  of  Germany,  encouraged  learned  pursuits,  and 
men  like  Erigena,  Gerbert,  Roger  Bacon,  and  others,  possessed 
a  comparatively  extensive  knowledge  of  the  classics.  Nor  must 
it  be  forgotten  that  the  circle  of  classical  literature  was  enlarged 
during  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  by  the  labours  of  the 
Moors  in  Spain,  and  by  frequent  intercourse  with  Byzantine 
students.  The  founders  of  the  national  literature  of  Italy  in  the 
fourteenth  century  —  Dante,  Petrarch,  and  Boccaccio  —  were 
also  the  most  zealous  promoters  of  classical  studies.  Such  pur- 
suits received  during  the  fifteenth  cent,  a  very  great  impulse.  If, 
during  the  meeting  of  the  Greeks  and  Italians  at  the  Council  of 
Florence  in  1439  I  §  67,  6),  a  fresh  interest  had  been  awakened 
in  the  study  of  the  classics,  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  by 
the  Turks  in  1453  afforded  the  opportunity  of  greatly  increasing, 
and  at  the  same  time  of  fully  gratifying  it.  A  large  number  of 
learned  men  from  Byzantium  sought  refuge  in  Italy;  they  found 
an  enthusiastic  reception  in  Rome,  and  also  especially  by  the 


THE     SO-CALLED     REVIVAL     OF     LEARNING.         511 

generous  princes  of  the  House  of  Medici.  The  art  of  printing, 
discovered  iu  1440,  had  already  rendered  the  treasures  of  classical 
antiquity  generally  accessible.  But  this  immigration  gave  a 
new  direction  as  well  as  a  fresh  impulse  to  classical  studies.  If 
during  the  Middle  Ages  they  had  almost  exclusively  been  em- 
ployed for  ecclesiastical  and  theological  purposes,  they  were  now 
prosecuted  for  their  own  sakes,  and  as  the  basis  of  that  general 
culture  expected  in  educated  men  (hence  the  name  Humanismus, 
and  the  terra  "  Humanity,"  still  used  in  English  colleges). 
Humanism  renounced  the  service  of  the  Church;  gradually  it 
assumed  a  posture  of  indifference  and  of  proud  disdain  towards 
Christianity.  Many  of  its  votaries  even  strayed  into  the  worship 
of  heathen  antiquity.  With  superstition,  faith  was  also  derided ; 
sacred  history  and  Greek  mythology  were  placed  on  the  same 
level.  From  all  parts  the  youth  of  Europe  crowded  to  Italy,  to 
draw  in  its  academies  from  the  newly  opened  springs.  On  their 
return  they  brought  with  thena  and  spread  around  an  ardent 
zeal  for  classical  lore.  Happily  the  infidelity  with  which  it  was 
too  frequently  conjoined  in  Italy,  did  not  make  such  rapid  pro- 
gress in  other  countries.  In  Germany  these  studies  were  chiefly 
cultivated  by  the  "Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,"  who  suc- 
ceeded in  adapting  the  new  weapons  to  the  service  of  theology 
and  of  the  Church.  This  school  gave  birth  to  many  of  the  co- 
adjutors of  the  Lutheran  reformation. — It  will  be  understood, 
that  to  a  certain  extent  the  sympathies  of  the  Humanists  must 
have  gone  with  those  who  sought  to  reform  the  Church.  They 
joined  them  in  their  opposition  to  the  absurdities  of  scholasti- 
cism, to  superstition,  monasticism,  and  other  abuses.  But  while 
agreed  in  their  aversion  to  the  prevailing  state  of  things,  both 
the  grounds  on  which,  and  the  manner  in  which,  they  carried  on 
the  contest,  were  widely  different.  The  Reformers  opposed 
abuses  because  they  were  contrary  to  Scripture,  and  led  away 
from  the  great  object  of  faith  ;  the  Humanists,  because  such 
views  agreed  not  with  those  of  heathen  antiquity.  The  Re- 
formers contended  with  weapons  drawn  from  the  Word  of  God, 
and  for  the  highest  of  all  objects  —  the  salvation  of  souls;  the 
Humanists,  with  shafts  of  wit  and  satire,  content  if  they  secured 
earthly  well-being.  In  truth,  the  despised  schoolmen  and  the 
derided  monks  were  not  always  in  the  wrong  in  their  opposition 
to  the  Humanists.  A  reformation  of  the  Church,  accomplished 
by  them  alone,  would  speedily  have  landed  in  heathenism.     But 


512       SECTION   II. — TIIIRD   PEilIOD    (CENT.  14  A  15  A.  D.). 

under  the  direction  of  men  of  genuine  piet}r,  the  revival  of 
classical  learning  opened  a  rich  and  till  then  unknown  source  of 
philological,  philosophical,  and  general  knowledge,  without 
which  the  faithful  translation  and  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures, 
and  consequently  that  revision  of  dogmatics  which  marked  the 
Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century,  could  not  have  been  ac- 
complished so  rapidly,  so  comprehensively,  or  so  safely. 

1.  The  Italian  Humanists.  Comp.  [Dittmar)  Die  Humanisten  u.  das 
Evangelium,  in  the  Erland.  "  Zeitschr.  fur  Protestsm.  u.  K."  July  and 
Oct.  1855. — Italy  was  the  great  nursery  of  Humanism,  and  the  Greeks 
who  emigrated  thither  were  its  parents.  The  first  Greek  who  taught 
in  that  country  was  Emanuel  Chrysoloras  (139G).  After  the  Council 
of  Florence  Bessarion  and  Gemistius  Pletho  settled  in  Italy,  and 
being  warm  admirers  of  the  Platonic  philosophy,  brought  it  into  vogue 
in  the  land  of  their  adoption.  After  1453  a  large  number  of  literary 
men  from  the  East  sought  an  asylum  in  Rome  and  Florence.  From 
their  seminaries  classical  learning  and  heathen  ideas  spread  over  Italy. 
They  found  access  even  among  the  highest  members  of  the  hierarchy. 
Even  though  the  well-known  saying  ascribed  to  Leo  X.,  "  Of  what  ad- 
vantage this  fable  about  Christ  has  been  to  us  and  ours  is  sufficiently 
known  to  all  centuries,"  be  not  authentic,  it  affords  an  insight  into 
the  character  and  spirit  animating  the  papal  court.  Cardinal  Bembus, 
the  private  secretary  of  Leo,  translated  the  realities  of  the  Gospel  into 
mythological  equivalents,  couched  in  classical  Latin.  Christ  he  called 
"Minervam  e  Jovis  capite  ortam,"  the  Holy  Ghost,  "  auram  Zephyri 
caelestis,"  while  he  paraphrased  forgiveness  of  sin  as  "  Deos  superos- 
que  manesque  placare."  So  early  as  the  meeting  of  the  Council  of 
Florence,  Pletho  had  ventured  to  express  an  opinion,  that  Christianity 
would  soon  give  place  to  a  universal  religion  which  would  not  greatly 
differ  from  heathenism.  "When  Pletho  died,  Bessarion  addressed  a 
letter  of  consolation  to  his  sons,  telling  them  that  their  father  had  risen 
to  purer  and  heavenly  spheres,  where  he  had  joined  the  Olympic  gods 
in  their  mystic,  Bacchantic  dances.  The  new  Platonic  school,  which 
assembled  in  the  gardens  of  the  Medici,  assigned  to  the  philosophy  of 
Plato  a  place  much  higher  than  to  Christianity.  A  new  Peripatetic 
school  was  also  founded.  Its  great  representative,  Petro  Pomponazzo 
{ob.  1520),  openly  declared,  that  from  a  philosophic  point  of  view  the 
immortality  of  the  soul  was  more  than  doubtful.  Another  member  of 
that  school,  the  celebrated  historian  Machiavelli,  introduced  a  system 
of  politics  entirely  alien  to  the  spirit  of  Christianity.  Moral  frivolity 
went  hand  in  hand  with  religious  laxity.  The  most  obscene  poetry 
and  the  most  lascivious  pictures  circulated  among  the  Humanists,  and 
their  practice  was  certainly  no  better  than  their  theory.  —  In  fcheil 
puhlir  declarations  the  Italian  Humanists  were  careful  at  least  to  ig- 
nore the  Church  and  its  doctrines,  from  fear  of  bringing  down  ven- 


THE    SO-CALLED  RE VI V A L    OF    LEARNING, 


513 


gcance.  Laurentius  Valla,  however,  ventured,  in  his  "  Annotitiones 
in  Novum  Testam."  (afterwards  edited  by  Erasmus),  to  point  out  a 
number  of  errors  in  the  Vulgate.  lie  even  went  further.  Having 
proved  on  irrefragable  historical  evidence  that  the  pretended  donation 
of  Constant,  to  the  see  of  Rome  was  spurious  (§  82,  1),  he  inveighed 
against  the  ambition  of  the  Papacy.  Valla  was  summoned  before  the 
Inquisition,  but  escaped  with  a  retraction.  Nicholas  V.  suppressed 
the  investigation,  and  by  kindness  attached  him  to  the  papal  see. 
Valla  was  not,  however,  one  of  those  Humanists  who  had  lost  all  reve- 
rence for  Christianity.  He  died  in  145G  as  papal  secretary.  —  But  the 
phoenix  of  that  age  was  Johannes  Picus  Prince  o/Mirandola,  who 
combined  in  himself  all  the  nobler  aspirations  of  the  period.  He  was 
a  courtier  and  a  poet,  a  scholastic,  a  mystic,  a  cabbalist  and  a  human- 
ist, a  historian,  a  mathematician,  and  an  astronomer  — and  equally 
versed  in  classical  and  Oriental  lore.  During  the  last  ten  years  of  his 
brief  career  (he  died  at  thirty  years  of  age)  he  renounced  the  world 
and  its  pomp,  and  wholly  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. He  had  intended  to  travel  through  Europe  to  preach  Christ 
crucified,  when  death  called  him  from  the  field  of  labour.  Characte- 
ristic is  his  saying:  Philosophia  veritatem  quserit,  theologia  invenit, 
reJigio  possidet. 

2.   The   German  Humanists.     (Comp.  C.  A.  Cornelius,  d.  munster. 
Human,  u.  ihr  Verb,  zur  Reform.  — The  Munster  Hum.  and  their  rel. 
to  the  Reform.— Munst.  1851.     K.  Eagen,  Deutschlands  liter,  u.  relig. 
Zusfande  im  Zeitalter  d.  Reform.    Erl.  1841.  3  Vols.  E.  Th.  Mayerhoff, 
Job.  Reuchlin  u.  s.  Zeit.  Berl.  1830.   F.  W.  Kampfschulte,  die  Univ. 
Erfurt  in  ihr.  Verh.  zum  Humanism,  u.  zur  Reform.  2  Bde,  Trier. 
1858.     The  universities  of  Heidelberg  and  Erfurt  were  the  chief  seats 
of  German  Humanism.  —  Rudolph  Acricola  of  Heidelberg,  a  pupil 
and  associate  of  Wessel  and  Kempis  (ob.  1482),  may  be  designated  the 
father  of  German  Humanism.    Most  of  his  numerous  pupils  [Alexander 
Hegius  at  Deventer,  Rudolph  Lange  at  Munster,  Hermann  Busch  at 
Wesel,    and    others)   joined    Luther's    Reformation.       The    example 
set   by  Maximilian  I.  induced   the  princes  and   knights  of    the  em- 
pire to   take   an   interest  in  scientific  and    literary  pursuits.       After 
the  death  of  Agricola,  John  Reuchlin  (Capnio),  a  celebrated  jurist, 
became  the  leader  of  the  German  Humanists  (ob.  1522).     He   gave 
himself  more  especially  to  the  study  of  the  language  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, which  he  prosecuted  with  the  greatest  zeal  and  with  unsurpassed 
success.     Well  might  he  in  1506    conclude  his  "  Rudimenta  linguaa 
Hebraicse"    with   the  words  of  Horace,  "  Exegi   monumentum,    etc." 
The  work  has  become  the  basis  of  all  later  studies  in  Hebrew  philology. 
He  also  wrote  a  tractate  on  the  difficult  subject  of  the  Hebrew  accents 
(De  ace.  et  orthogr.  hebr.  LI.  III.).     His  work,  "  de  arte  cabbalistica," 
treats  of  the  secret  philosophy  of  the  Jews.     Such  was  his  interest  in 
the  Jews,  with  whom  he  had  continual  and  intimate  intercourse,  that 


514     SECTION    II. — THIRD   PERIOD    (CENT.  14  &  15  A.  D.). 

in  1505  he  published  "an  Open  Letter  to  a  Nolleman,  -why  the  Jewa 
have  so  long  been  suffering"  ("  T'utsch  Missiv  an  einen  Junkherrn, 
warumb  die  Jiiden  so  lang  im  Ellend  sind").  In  this  tractate  he 
offered  to  instruct  any  Jew  in  the  Christian  religion,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  provide  for  his  temporal  support.  His  predilection  for  Rab- 
binical studies  involved  him  in  a  controversy,  by  which,  however,  his 
fame  only  spread  over  Germany  and  Europe.  In  1509  one  Pfeffer- 
korn,  a  baptized  Jew  at  Cologne,  called  upon  the  Emperor  Maximilian 
to  order  all  Rabbinical  writings  to  be  burnt,  on  account  of  the  blasphe- 
mies against  Christ  which  they  contained.  When  Reuchlin  protested 
against  this  summary  measure,  Pfefferkorn  and  the  Dominicans  of 
Cologne  fell  upon  the  Humanist,  who  defended  himself  with  stinging 
satire.  Jacob  of  Hogstraten,  the  Inquisitor  of  Cologne,  cited  him  before 
'ais  tribunal,  lleuchlin  appealed  to  Leo  X.  The  commission  of  in- 
quiry appointed  by  the  Pope  condemned  the  Dominicans  to  pay  the 
expenses  of  the  process  (1514)  ;  the  forcible  collection  of  these  111  gold 
ilnrins  was  a  real  labour  of  love  and  pleasure  on  the  part  of  Knight 
Francis  of  Sickingen  (1519).  Meantime  a  number  of  able  pens  had 
been  set  in  motion  on  behalf  of  lleuchlin.  In  1516  the  Eplstolcc  obscu- 
rorum  Virorum  appeared,  professedly  a  correspondence  between 
Ortuinus  Gratius  of  Deventer,  a  teacher  at  Cologne,  and  some  friends. 
That  this  man,  a  pupil  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,  and  from 
all  we  know  of  him,  an  honourable,  pious,  and  not  a  bigoted  man, 
should  have  been  selected  as  the  butt  for  such  sarcasm,  can  only  be 
explained  on  the  ground  of  personal  motives  (comp.  Mohnihe  in  the 
"Zeitschr.  fur  hist.  Theol."  1843.  III.  IV.).  In  the  most  exquisite 
monkish  Latin,  the  stupid,  and  in  part  obscene  love  affairs  of  the 
mendicants,  are  related  with  such  apparent  sincerity  and  frankness, 
with  a  continual  running  reference  to  their  controversy  with  Reuch- 
lin,  that  at  first  some  of  the  Dominicans  themselves  regarded  these 
letters  as  genuine,  and  excused  their  somewhat  curious  expressions  as 
due  to  the  "vis  scntentiarum."  All  the  greater  was  the  merriment 
and  scorn  which  was  heaped  upon  them  by  the  learned  of  Europe.  At 
the  request  of  the  mendicants,  Leo  X.  indeed  issued  a  severe  bull  against 
all  readers  of  the  blasphemous  tractate,  but  this  measure  only  increased 
their  number.  These  letters  were  in  all  probability  composed  by  such 
men  as  Crotus  Eubianus,  Hermann  Busch,  Wilibald  Firlclieimer,  and 
by  the  publisher  of  the  work,  Wolfgang  Angst,  at  Hagenau.  This 
termination  of  the  controversy  with  Reuchlin  had  given  the  re- 
formatory movement  in  Germany  a  false  and  even  dangerous  turn. 
A  contest  carried  on  with  such  unholy  and  carnal  weapons  could 
only  have  ended  in  complete  subversion  of  both  Church  and  State. 
To  the  circle  of  writers  from  which  the  "Epist.  ODBC,  vir."  came  be- 
longed  also  Ultic  von  Hutten,  a,  knight  of  noble  Franconian  family.  It 
was.  however,  in  the  cause  of  liberty,  rather  than  in  that  of  the  Gospel, 
that  he  fought  all  his  life  long  against  pedantry  of  every  kind,  against 


THE    SO-CALLED    REVIVAL    OF    LEARNING.        515 

the  monastic  orders,  and  indeed  against  all  constraint  in  matters  of 
conscience.  In  1504  he  escaped  from  the  monastery  of  Fulda,  where 
he  was  to  be  trained  for  the  clerical  profession.  He  nest  studied  in 
Erfurt,  and  fought  in  the  army  of  Maximilian,  as  he  afterwards  con- 
tended with  his  pen  on  behalf  of  Reuchlin.  When  deprived  of  the  aid 
of  Sickingen,  he  wandered  about  homeless,  and  at  last  died  in  wretched- 
ness in  1523.  His  works  were  published  by  E.  J.  H.  Munch,  Berlin 
1821,  etc.,  5  Bde—  (Comp.  L.  Schubart,  Ulr.  v.  H.  Leips.  1791.— 
Herder's  Denkmal  (Memorial). —  G.  C.F.  Mohnike,  IT.  v.  H.'s  Jugendl. 
Greifsw.  1816.  —  G.  J.  W.  Wagenseil,  U.  v.  H.  Niirnb.  1803.  —  G.  W. 
Panzer,  U.  v.  H.  in  lit.  Bezieh.  Niirnb.  1798.  —  E.  v.  Brunnow,  U.  v. 
H.  Leips.  1842.  —  D.  Strauss,  U.  v.  H.  Leips.  1871.  2  Vols.). 

3.  Desiderius  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam. — (Comp.  Burigtiy,  Vie  d'Er., 
translated  into  German  by  Reich,  with  add.  by  Henke.  Halle  1782. 
2  Vols.  —  Sal  Hess,  Er.  v.  R.  Ziir.  1790.  2  Vols.  —  Ad.  Midler,  Leben 
d.  Er.  v.  R.  Hamburg  1828.)  —  The  most  distinguished  among  all 
the  Humanists,  either  before  or  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  was 
Erasmus  (Gerhard  Gerhardson).  The  child  of  conjugal  affections 
which  were  shamefully  defrauded  of  the  happiness  of  valid  marriage, 
he  was  educated  at  Deventer  and  at  the  Hague  by  "the  Brethren  of 
the  Common  Life."  Forced  by  relatives  to  enter  a  monastery  in  1486, 
he  was  ultimately  set  free  through  the  interposition  of  an  ecclesiastical 
dignitary  from  his  conventual  prison,  and  thus  enabled  wholly  to  devote 
himself  to  the  pursuit  of  science  (1496).  He  next  attended  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris.  Having  finished  his  studies,  he  travelled  through 
Europe,  when  he  made  personal  acquaintanceship  with  almost  all  the 
eminent  men  of  his  time.  For  several  years  he  occupied  the  Chair  of 
Greek  in  Oxford,  and  ultimately  settled  in  Basle  with  his  learned  pub- 
lisher Frobenius  (1521).  In  this  retreat  he  refused  every  office,  and 
even  the  dignity  of  cardinal,  although  not  liberal  pensions ;  and  amidst 
learned  labours  of  varied  kinds,  and  a  most  extensive  epistolary  inter- 
course, lived  as  a  kind  of  scientific  monarch.  His  chief  merit  con- 
sisted in  his  promotion  of  classical  learning,  and  in  its  application  to 
theological  purposes.  In  many  other  ways  also  he  promoted  the  Refor- 
mation. Thus  he  pointed  out  the  defects  in  the  theological  study  of 
the  time,  especially  the  absurdities  of  the  prevailing  scholastic  method. 
He  also  exposed  the  abuses  in  the  Church,  castigated  the  moral  cor- 
ruption of  all  ranks,  and  unsparingly  denounced  the  ignorance,  idle- 
ness, and  dissoluteness  of  the  monastic  orders.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
also  disapproved  of  the  paganizing  spirit  of  many  of  the  Humanists, 
and  of  the  revolutionary  ideas  of  such  men  as  Ulric  von  Hutten.  His 
own  views  were  essentially  Pelagian ;  he  was,  accordingly,  quite  unable 
to  understand  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  the  Gospel.  While  anxious 
for  a  reformation  of  the  Church,  he  neither  was  nor  felt  himself  called 
to  be  a  Reformer.  With  him  the  whole  was  merely  a  question  of 
rationality ;  religious  depth,  strength  of  faith,  self-denying  love,  con- 


516       SECTION    II. THIRD    PERIOD    (C  £  N  T  .  14  &  15  A.  D.) 

viction,  and  courage,  such  as  martyrs  require,  were  utterly  wanting  in 
him.  He  loved  his  quiet  and  comfortable  life  too  well  to  jeopard  it ; 
and  his  knowledge  of  the  real  causes  of  prevailing  abuses,  and  of  the 
kind  of  reformation  requisite,  was  entirely  insufficient.  Erasmus 
would  have  accomplished  the  work  by  human  science,  and  not  by  the 
agency  of  a  pure  Gospel.  When,  in  1529,  the  Reformation  prevailed 
at  Basle,  Erasmus  left  it,  and  settled  at  Freiburg  in  Breisgau,  but 
died  at  Basle  (whither  he  had  gone  to  have  a  personal  interview  with 
Frobenius),  "sine  lux,  sine  crux,  sine  Deus"  (153G).  The  best  edition 
of  his  writings  is  that  by  J.  Clericus  (Lugd.  1702.  10  Voll.  fol.). 
Among  his  writings,  the  most  important  for  theology,  are  his  critical 
a  id  exegetical  notes  on  the  N.  T.  (note  5).  lie  also  edited  a  number 
of  the  Fathers  (Jer.,  Hilar.,  Ambros.,  Iren.,  Athan.,  Chrys.,  etc.).  His 
controversy  with  Luther  belongs  properly  to  a  later  period.  The 
"  Ecclesiastes  s.  concionator  evangelicus"  was  intended  as  a  kind  of 
homiletics.  The  iyxu>[xiov  /x^pias  s.  laus  stultitiae,  dedicated  to  his  friend 
Thomas  More,  contains  a  most  cutting  satire  on  the  monks  and  the 
clergy  generally.  Even  in  his  "  Colloquiis,"  by  which  he  hoped  to 
make  hoys  "  latiniores  et  meliores,"  he  allowed  not  an  opportunity  to 
pass  of  deriding  the  monks,  the  eltvgy,  and  those  rites  which  he  re- 
garded as  superstitions  (such  as  monastic  vows,  fasts,  pilgrimages, 
indulgences,  auricular  confession,  the  worship  of  saints,  etc.). 

4.  Humanism  in  England,  France,  and  Spam.  —  In  England,  also, 
the  new  study  excited  considerable  interest.  Its  chief  friend  and  ad- 
vocate  there  was  Thomas  More,,  Lord  High  Chancellor  of  Henry  VIII. 
More  was  on  intimate  terms  with  Erasmus,  and  shared  his  objections 
to  prevalent  abuses  in  the  Church.  But  it  appears  from  his  well-known 
treatise,  "  De  optimo  reipublicse  statu  deque  nova  insula  Utopia,"  that 
he  rather  inclined  towards  Deism  than  desired  an  evangelical  reforma- 
tion. In  the  treatise  to  which  we  have  referred,  he  expressed  at  some 
length  the  expectation,  that  a  more  rational  and  natural  arrangement 
of  social  relations  would  lead  to  universal  happiness.  The  contem- 
plated religion  ol  Utopia  is  undisguised  Deism  :  providence,  virtue,  im- 
mortality, and  retribution;  everything  distinctively  Christian  is  care- 
fully ignored.  !;i  his  capacity  of  Chancellor,  More  suppressed  the 
Reformation  in  England,  and  took  the  side  of  the  King  in  his  contro- 
versy with  Luther.  But  when  Henry  VIII.  quarreled  with  the  Eon- 
tiff,  and  laid  claim  to  reform  the  Church  in  his  own  fashion,  More 
resigned  his  offices,  refused  to  acknowledge  the  King  as  head  of  the 
English  Church,  and  was  beheaded  in  1535,  after  a  long  and  close 
i  nprisonment.     (Comp.  G.  Th.  /'mil/art,  Lcben  d.  Th.  Mor.     N'urnb. 

$29.) 

In  Spain  Humanism  found  a  patron  in  no  less  a  personage  than 
Francis  Ximenes,  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  Grand  [nquisitor,  and  .Minister 

i'  Ferdinand   and    Isabella    {>>(>.  1517).      (Comp.   0.  J.  Mefsle,   d.  Card. 
Xim    2d  Ed.  Tub.  1851. —  W.  Havemann,  Darstellungen  aus  d.  innern 


THE     SO-CALLED     REVIVAL     OF    LEARNING.  517 

Gesch.  Span,  im  15..  1G.  u.  17.  Jahrh.  Gott.  1850.)  Among  those  who 
prosecuted  the  new  study  in  Spain  the  ablest  was  Anthony  of  Lerija, 
Professor  at  Salamanca.  In  1508  Ximenes  assigned  him  a  chair  in  the 
new  University  of  Alcala  (Complutum).  The  Cardinal  availed  himself 
of  his  assistance  in  the  Complutensian  Polyglott,  and  protected  him 
from  the  Inquisition,  before  which  he  was  summoned  to  answer  for 
his  criticisms  on  the  Vulgate.       He  died  in  1522. 

Humanism  scarcely  made  any  progress  in  France.  For  this  we  can 
only  account  by  the  great  influence  which  theUniversity  of  Paris  brought 
to  bear  against  it.  However,  one  man  at  least  presented  the  new  learn- 
ing,  and  was  led  to  devote  himself  to  the  critical  investigation  of  the 
Bible.  John  Faber  Stapulensis,  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne  (ob.  1537), 
who  reached  the  patriarchal  age  of  100,  gave  himself  to  the  study  of 
the  Scriptures  in  the  original,  and  pointed  out  and  corrected  the  cor- 
ruptions in  the  text  of  the  Vulgate.  He  also  insisted  that  the  Bible 
should  be  read  in  the  vernacular,  and  translated  the  Scriptures  into 
the  French.  For  these  offences  he  was  expelled  the  Sorbonne,  and  de- 
prived of  his  doctorate.  The  French  Parliament  likewise  took  measures 
against  his  heresy;  happily,  he  enjoyed  the  protection  of  Francis  I., 
who  entrusted  him  with  the  education  of  the  royal  princesses.  The 
Council  of  Trent  placed  his  works  in  the  "  Index  Prohibitorum,"  though 
with  the  remark,  "  donee  corrigantur.-"  (Comp.  K.  H.  Graf,  J.  Fab. 
Stap. :  Ein  Beitr.  zur  Gesch.  d.  lleform.  in  Frankr.,  in  the  "  hist,  theol. 
Zcitschr."  for  1852.  I.) 

5.  The  Study  of  the  Scriptures.  —  The  greatest  advantage  which  the 
Church  and  theology  derived  from  the  so-called  restoration  of  the 
sciences  was  this,  that  the  Scriptures  were  taken  from  under  the  bushel 
which  had  concealed  them,  and  again  placed  on  the  candlestick.  The 
Vulgate  (of  which  ninety-eight  printed  editions  appeared  before  the 
year  1500)  was  now  compared  with  the  text  of  the  original,  and  the 
allegorical  mode  of  interpretation  gave  place  to  grammatical  and  his- 
torical exegesis.  This  was  mainly  accomplished  by  providing  the 
necessary  means  for  carrying  on  philological  studies,  while  the  print- 
ing-press spread  the  original  text  throughout  Europe.  Since  the  inven- 
tion of  printing,  the  Jews  diffused  the  Old  Testament  in  the  original. 
In  1502  Ximenes  employed  a  number  of  learned  men  to  edit  that  splen- 
did work  known  as  the  Complutensian  Polyglott  (the  Old  Testament 
was  edited  by  learned  Jewish  proselytes)  —  the  whole  was  completed 
in  1517.  The  work  contained  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  text  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  the  Targumim,  the  Septuagint,  the  Vulgate,  and 
a  Latin  translation  of  the  Septuagint  and  of  the  Targumim,  together 
with  a  somewhat  meagre  grammatical  and  philological  apparatus — the 
whole  in  six  volumes  (four  for  the  Old  Testament).  About  the  same 
time,  Daniel  Bomberg,  a  learned  bookseller  in  Antwerp,  was  engaged 
at  Venice  in  bringing  out  various  editions  of  the  Old  Testament,  partly 
with  and  partly  without  Rabbinical  commentaries.  Bomberg  had 
44 


518       SECTION    II. THIRD    PERIOD    (CENT.  14  &  15  A.  D.). 

made  himself  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  Hebrew;  he  was  also  aided 
by  Felix  Pratensis,  a  converted  Jew,  and  by  Jacob  Ben  Chajim,  aRabbi 
from  Tunis.  The  first  two  editions  appeared  in  1518,  and  were  soon 
followed  by  other  three.— But  the  great  expense  of  the  Complutensian 
Polyglott  placed  it  within  the  reach  of  very  few.  To  Erasmus  belongs 
the  great  merit  of  publishing  a  pocket  edition  of  the  Greek  New  Testa- 
ment (with  a  Latin  translation  of  his  own).  The  first  edition  of  this 
work  appeared  in  151(3.  The  first  who  distinguished  himself  in  this 
branch  of  study  was  Laurentius  Valla,  whose  "Annotationes  in  N.  T." 
were  published  by  Erasmus.  Erasmus  himself  composed  paraphrases 
on  the  whole  New  Testament  (excepting  the  Book  of  Revelations)  ; 
Falter  Sta/pulensis  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Gospels  and  the  Epistles 
of  Paul,  while  Lerija  published  critical  remarks  on  the  Vulgate. 

The  want  of  translations  of  the  Bible  into  the  vernacular  was  also 
increasingly  felt.  Faber  composed  an  excellent  translation  of  the 
Scriptures  in  French,  which  has  formed  the  basis  of  all  later  versions 
(it  was  completed  in  1530).  Wycliffe  had  translated  the  Bible  into 
English ;  and  before  the  time  of  Luther  there  were  no  fewer  than  four- 
teen translations  of  the  Scriptures  into  German  and  six  in  Low  Dutch. 
And  yet  they  are  essentially  but  one  and  the  same  version,  translated 
of  course  from  the  Vulgate.  The  translator,  or  translators  are  wholly 
unknown.  Throughout  the  language  is  wretched,  and  the  sense  is 
often  unintelligible.  Some  portions,  however,  are  better,  and  Luther 
seems  to  have  consulted  them.  (Comp.  J.  Kehrein,  zur  Gesch.  d.  deut- 
schen  Bibelubers.  vor  Luther  (Contrib.  to  the  History  of  the  German 
Bible  before  L.).     Stuttg.  1851.) 


INDEX. 


( The  numerals  refer  to  the  Paragraphs  and  notes.) 


Ahbacomites,  85 
Abbots     "in     commen- 

dam,"  115 
Ahbuna,  52,  7 
Abdas  of  Susa,  64,  2 
Abderrhaman,  81;  95 
Abelard,  105,  1 
Abgar,  25 

Uchomo,  14,  2 

Abodrites,  63,  2 
Abraxas,  28,  2 
Abrenunciatio  diab.,  32 ; 

58,  1 
Absolution,  Formula  of, 

88,  5 
Acacius  of  Araida,  64,  2 
of    Constantinople, 

52,  5 
Academy,  New,  8,  4 
Aohamoth,  28,  3 
Acoiinetes,  44,  4 ;  52,  6 
Acolythi,  30,  1 
Acroteleutia,  59,  3 
Acta  facientes,  23,  5 
Adalbert  of  Bremen,  96, 

3 ;  97,  1 

of  Prague,  93,  3 

of  Tuscany,  96,  1 

the  Heretic,  78,  4 

Adam  of  Bremen,  4,  1  ; 

102,  1 

of  Fulda,  113,  5 

of  St.  Victor,  105,  4 

Adamites,  114,  3 
Adesius,  64,  1 
Adoptionists,  91,  1 
Adrian  as,  48,  1 
Advent,  56,  5 
Advocati  eccl.,  86 
JEdesius,  94,  1 
Mneas  Sylv.,  110,  3,  4; 

118.  3 
;Eons,  26 


Aerius,  62 

Aetius,  50,  3 

Africa,  25  ;  76,  3 

Agapes,  18,  5;  33 

Agapetse,  36,  3 

Agapetus,  52,  6 

Agathangelos,  64,  3 

Agatho,  52.  8 

Age,  Canonical,  70,  1 

Agilulf,  76.  8 

Agnes,  Empress,  96,  2 

Agobard,   88,  4;  90,  4; 

91,  1;  92,  2 
Agricola,  Rudolf,  120,  2 
Aidan,  77,  5 
d'Ailly,  110,  3;  118,  1 
Aistulf,  82,  1 
Aix  la  Chapelle,  Council 

at,  91,  1,  2 
Aizanas,  61,  1 

'AK£<pa\oi,  52,  5 
aK/jdaaii,  36,  2 
dicfjoioixEvoi,    32,   1 

Alamanni,  78,  1 
Alanus  ab  Insulis,  103,  2 
Alaric,  76,  2 
Alaviv,  70,  1 
Albati,  114,  1 
Alberic,  96,  1 
Alberic  v.Driibeck,  104,5 
Albert  of  Apeldern,  93,  4 

the  Bear,  93,  3 

-  ofBuxhowden,93,3 
of  Suerbeer,  93 


Alexander  of  Alex  ,  50,  1 

of  Ant.,  63,  1 

Halesius,  104,  1 

Severus,  23,  3 


Albertus  Magnus,  104,  1 
Albigenses,  109,  1 
Alboin,  76,  8 
Alcuin,  90,  3;   91,  1,  2; 

92,  1 
Aldgild,  78,  3 
Alexander  II.,  Pope, 96, 2 

III..  96,  4 

V.,  VI.,  110,  3,  4 


Alexandria,  Council   of, 
50,  4 ;  52,  1 

School    of,    39,   4; 


47,  4;  52,  2 
Alexius    Comuenus,  71, 

1,  3 
Alfonso  the  Chaste,  81 

the  Catholic,  81 

the  III.  of  Castile, 

95,  2 
Alfred  the  Great,88,l;  90 
Alfric,  101,  1 
d'Allemand,       100,      3 ; 

118,  1 
Alogi,  40,  2 
All-Saints,  57,  1 ;  89,  5 
All-Souls,  105,  2 
Altar,  35  ;  60,  2 ;  89,  5 
Al varus  81,  1 
Alzog,  4,  4 

Amalarius,  84,  4 ;  90,  4 
Amalric  of  Bena,  108,  2 
Amandus,  St.,  78,  3 
Amatus  of  Salerno,  102,1 
Ambon,  60,  3 
Ambrosiaster,  48,  1 
Ambrosius,    47,    5 ;    50, 

4;  57,  2,  3;  59,  3 
Ammonius,  44 
■Saccas,  24,  2 


Ananus,  17 
Anastasius  Bibl.,  4,  1 

of  Rome,  51,  2. 

Sinaita,  48,  1 

Anathema,  52,  3 
Anchorites,  36,  3;  44 
Ancyra,  Council  of,  50 
Andrew  II.  of  Hungary 
91,  4 

(519) 


520 


INDEX. 


Andronicus  Palrcol.,67,5 
Angelico      of      Ficsole, 

113,  6 
Angelici,   57,  3 
Angelq,  Mich.,  113,  3 
Angels,  Worship  of,  87,  3 
Angilram,  87,  1 
Anglo-Saxons,  77,  4 
Angst,  Wolfg.,  120,  2 
Anicetus,  33,  1 
Ann,  St.,  72,  4 
Annatas,  1 10 
Anno  of  Cologne,  96,  3 ; 

97,  1 
Anoinoites,  50,  3 
Ansbert  of  Maild.,  83,  1 
Ansegis,  87,  1 
Ansel m   of  Canterbury, 

67,  4 ;  96,  5 

of  Havelb.,  67,  4 

of  Laon,  102,  1 

of  Lucca,  90,  3  ;  99 

Ansgar,  80.  1 
Anthimus  of  Const,  52,  6 
Antidicomariauites  57,  2 

62 

dvriioypa,  58,  4 

Antilegomena,  34,  2 
Antinomianism,  19 
Antioch,  Council  of.  50,  2 
School    of,    47,    1 ; 

52,  2 
Antiphones,  34,  4 
Antiphonous       Singing, 

59,  3 
Antiphonarium,  59,  3 
Antitactes,  28,  6 
Antony,  St.,  44,  1 

of  Padua,  98,  4 

Antoninus  Pius,  23,  2 
Apiarius,  46,  2 
Apinus,  64,  1 
Apocrisariaus,  46 
Apocrypha,  39,  7  ;  41,  5 
Apollinaris,  52,  1 

Claudius,  41,1 

Apollonius     of     Tyana, 

32,  1 
Apollos,  19 
Apologetics,  24  ;  41,  1  ; 

48,  3 
Apostles,     Meeting     of, 

19,  1 
Apostolic  Brethren, 108,3 
Constitutions      and 

Canons,  41,  6 


Apostolic  Fathers,  39 
Apostolici,  62 
Apostolicity,  13 

Apsis,  60,  1 

Aquarii,  28,  8 

Arausio,  Council  of,  53,5 

Arcadius,   Emperor,  42, 
3;  51,  3 

Arcesilaus,  8,  4 

Archbishops,  see  Metro- 
politans. 

Archchaplain,  84,  1 

Deacon,  45,  5  ;  84, 

2 ;  87,  9 

Presbyter,  45,  5 


Architecture,   Ecclesias- 
tical, 105,  6;  113,  6 
Arevurdi's,  71,  2 
Ariald,  97,  2 
Arians  50  ;  76 
Ariold,  97,  2 
Aristides,  41,  1 
Aristobulus,  11,  1 
Ariston  of  Pella,  41,  1 
Aristotle,  8,  4;  100,  2 
Arius,  50,  1,  2 
Armenia,  64,  3 ;  73,  2 
Arno  of  Salzb.,  79 
Arnobius,  41,  1 

the  Younger,  83,  5 

Arnold,  Gottfr.,  4,  3 

of  Brescia,  96,   6 ; 

108,  3 

of  Citeaux,  109,  1 

of  Lubeck,  104,  5 

Arnulf  of  Carinthia,  82,5 

of  Kheims,  96,  1 

Arsacius,  51 
Arsenius,  70,  1  ;  82,  4 
Artabasdus,  66,  2 
Artemon,  32,  2 
Ascension,  56,  4 
Asceticism,   36,  3 
Ash  Wednesday,  56,  4 
Associations      for      the 

Bead,  89,  3 
Asterius,  50,  6 

of  Amasa,  57,  4 

Astronomus,  90,  9 
Asylum.  Bight  of,  43 
Athanaric,  76 
Athanasian  Creed,  50,  6 
Athanasius,  44;  47,  4; 

50;  52,  2 
Athenagoras,  41,  1 
Athenogenes,  41,  4 


Athos,  Monks  of,  69,  *  : 

70,  3 
Atrium,  00,  1 
Atto  of  Vercelli,  101,  1 
Audians,  62 
Audientes,  32,  1 
Augustine,    45,    1  ;    47, 

5;   53,  2,  4,  5;   54,  1. 

58,  3  ;  63,  2 
the  Missionary,  77, 


Augustines,  98,  4;  112.  2 
Aurelian,   Emp.,  23,   5; 

40,  7 

of  Carth.,  63,  2 

Auto  da  fig,  115,  1 
Auxentius,  70,  1 
Avari,  79 
Averrhoes,  100,  2 
Avicenna,  100,  2 
Avitus,    48,    9;    53,    6; 

76,  5 
Azymites,  67,  3 

Baanks,  71,  1 

Bacon,  Roger,  104,  3 

Baffomet,  112,  2 

Baldwin  of  Jerusalem, 
94,  1  ;  98,  6 

of  Flanders,  94,  4 

Bangor,  85,  4 

Baptism,  doctrine  of, 
32,  3 

of  Blood,  32,  3 

of  Heretics,  32,  2 

of  Infants,  see  In- 
fant Baptism. 

Godfathers,        32  ; 

56,  4 

Mode  of,  32;  58,  1 

Baptismal  Font,  00,  1 ; 
89,  5 

Baptismus  Clinic,  32 

Baptisterium,  00,  2 

Baradai,  52,  7 

Bar-Cochba,  21 

Bardesanes,  32,  9 

Barhebroeus,  73,  2 

Barlaam,  07,  5:  69,  1 

Barletta,  113,  2 

Barnabas,  15 ;  41,  1 

Baronius,  4,  2 

Barsumas,  52,  3 

Bartholomew  of  Lucca, 
4,  1 

Bartholomew  of  Pisa,  98,4 


INDEX, 


52i 


Bartolomeo,  Fra,   113,  4 
Basilica,  60,  1 
Basilides,     the     Gnost., 

28,  2 

the  Martyr,  23,  4 

Basiliscus,  52,  5 
Basilius    the    Great,  44, 

3;  47,  4 
,  Leader  of  the  Bo- 

gomiles,  71,  3 

of  Ancyra,  50,  3 

the  Macedonian. 57, 

1 
3 
8 


1  ;  08,  1  ;  71,  1;  72, 
Basle.  Council  of.  110, 
-Reform,  in,  120,  3, 


Bas-reiief,  GO,  3 
Baumgarten,  76,  2 
Bavaria,  78,  2 
Beatus,  Presb.,  91,  2 
Beccus,  67,  4 
Bede,     the     Venerable, 

90,  2 
Beghards   and   Beguins, 

99,  5 
Behram  V.,  64,  2 
Bellini.  113,  4 
Bells,  60,  3 

Baptism  of,  89,  5 

3on",  60,  1 
Bembus,  120,  1 
Benedict  VIII.,  96,  2 

IX.  96,  2 

X.  96,  3 

* XII.  67,  5;  110,  2; 

112,  1 

of  Aniane,  85,  2 

Levita,  87,  1 

. of  Nursia,  85,  1 

Benedictina,  112,  1 
Benedictines,  85  ;  98,  1  ; 

112,  1 
Benefices,  86,  1 
Benno  of  Meissen,  93,  3 
Berengar,  102,  1,  2 

II.  96,  1 

Bernard  of  Clairv.,  94,2  ; 

96,   6;   98,  2;   105,  2, 

4:  108,  1,  3;  109 
Bernardines,  98,  2 
Berno,  Abbot,  98,  1 
Bertha,  77,  4 
Berthold     of     Calabria, 


Bertrand  de  Got,  110,  2 
Beryllus,  40.  5 
Bessarion,  67,  6  ;  68,  2  ; 

120,  1 
Bianchi,  114,  1 
Bible,  Transl.  of,  32,  3 
Biel,  Gabr.,  116 
Bishops,  18,  2;  30,  1 
,  Transl.  of,  45 


Bjorn,  bO,  1 
Blandina,  23,  3 
Boabdil,  95 
Bobbio,  78,  1  ;  85 
Boccaccio,  114,  4 
Boethius,  47,  6 
Bogomiles,  71,  1 
Bogoris,  72,  3 
Bohemia,  79,  2  ;  93 
Bohemian 

119,  5 
Boleslav,  I.,  Ill 

land,  93,  2 
I,  II.   of   Bohemia, 

93,  2 
-Chrobry,93,2;96,  1 


98, 


of  Loccum,  93,  4 
of  Regensb.,  105 


Brethren, 
of  Po- 


1 


Bertrada,  96,  3 
44* 


Bomberg,  120,  5 
Bonaventura,      104, 

105,  4 
Boniface,  St.,  78,  4 

VIII.,  99;  110,  1 

Boni  homines,  108,  1 

Bonosus.  62 

Borgia,  Caesar,  114,  4 

Boruth,  79 

Borzivoi,  79,  2 

Bossuet,  7 

Bradacz,  Mich,  v.,  119,  5 

Bradwardine,     Th.,     of, 

116,  2 
Braga,  Synod  of,  76,  4 
Brandt,  Seb.  114,  4 
Brest,  Synod  of,  72,  4 
Brethren,      "  the      four 

long,"  51,  3 

Bohemian,  119,  5 

of  the  Common  Life, 


112,  6 
of  the  Free  Spirit, 

114,  3 
Bretwalda,  77,  4 
Bridget,  St.,  112,  2,  4 
Britons,  77 
Bruinalia,  56,  5 
Brunehilda,  78,  1 
Bruno    the    Missionary, 

93,  3 


Bruno  of  Cologne,  101 

of  llheinis,  98,  3 

of  Toul,  96,  2 


Bulgaria,  67,  1 ;  72,  3 

Bulgari,  108,  1 

Bull,   In  Cceua    Domini, 

115 
Burchard  of  Worms,  99 
Burgundians,  76,  5 
Busch,  Hcrm.  of,  120,  2 
Bythos,  28,  3 

Cabasilas,  see  Nicholas 
Cadalus  of  Parma,  96,  3 
Csecilianus,  63,  2 
Credmon,  88,  2 
Ccesarius  of  Are!.,  47,  4  ; 

53,  5 
Cainites,  28,  4 
Cajus,  37,  2;  60,  8 
Caland,  106,  1 
Calatrava,      Order      of, 

98,  6 
Calixt,  George.  4,  3 
Calixtus  I.,  60,  1 ;  40,  4 

II.,  96,  5 

III.,  110,  4 


Callinice,  71,  1 
Camaldulensians,  98,  1 
Canon  of  the  Mass,  59,  4 
in  music,  1 13,  5 


Canons  of  Synods,  43,  2 
Canonesses,  So,  3 
Canonical  Life,  84,  4 ;  97 
Canonici,  84,  4 ;  97 
Cantores,  30,  1 
Cantus  Ambros.,  59,  3 
-  Firmus,  59,  3 
Figuratus,  105,  5 


Canute  the  Gr.,  123,  1 
Capitula  Episcop.,  87,  1 
Capitula,   three,   contro- 
versy about,  52.  6 
Capitularies,  87,  1 
Carantani,  79 
Carbeas,  71,1 
Cardianls,  96 
Carmelites,  98,  3 
Carnival,  56,  4;  106,  1 
Carpocrates,  34,  5 
Carthusians,  98,  3;  112 
Casimir  of  Pol.  93,  2 
Cassianus,  44:  53,  5 
Cassiodorus,  4;  47,  6 
Catacombs,  61,  3 
Catechists,  30,  1 


522 


INDEX. 


Catechetical  Sch  ©1,  39,4 

Catechumens,  32,  1 

Catenas,  48,  1 

Cathari,  88,  2;  108,  1 

Catharine,  St.,  122,  2 

Cathedral  Chapters,  84, 
4:  97;  111 

Catholicity,  13;  30,  3 

Catholicos,  52,  7 

Ceitumar,  79 

Celibacy,  3G,  3;  45,  4: 
84,  3;  96,  2;  111 

Celsus,  24,  4 

Cencius.  96.  2 

Centuria,  Magdb.,  4,  2 

Cerdo,  28,  10 

Cerinthus,  18;  28,  1 

Cesarini,  110,  3 

Chalcedon,  CEc.  Counc. 
of,  46 ;  52,  4  [2 

Chaldean  Christians,  52, 

Chapels,  84,  3 

Chapter,  Chapter-house, 
84,  4 

Charismata,  18,  1 

Charlemagne,  81,  1;  92, 
1  ;  97 

Charles  Martel,  81  ;  82,  1 

of  Anjou,  96,  8 

the  Bald,   82,  2,  4, 

5;   90 

Chazars,  72,  2 

Chelbes,  28,  4 

Chiersy,  Synod  of,  91,  4 

Children  of  the  Sun,  71,  2 

Chilperic  II.,  76,  5 

China,  93,  5 

Chinghis-Khan,  73,  1 

Chorepiscopoi,  30;  45 

Chosroes  II.,  64,  2 

Chrisma,  32 

Christians,  persecutions 
of,  21  ;  23 

Clhristianitates,  84,  2 

Christmas,  53  ;  86,  5 

Christ,  controversies 
concerning  the  Per- 
son of,  52 

Chrodegang,  84,  4 

Chrysam,  45,  3 

Chrysoloras,  120,  1 

Chrysostom,  47,  1;  51, 
:'■';  53,  1 

Church.  See  also  Eccle- 
siastical. [5 

■ Consecration  of, 59, 


Church,  Nave  of,  60,  1 

Peace  of,  88,  4 

States  of,  82,  1 

Churches,  35 
Ciboriuin,  60,  3 
Cid,  95 

Cimabue,  105,  7 
Circumcelliones,  63,  2 
Cistercians,  98,  2 
Clara,  of  Assissi,  98,  4 
Order  of,  128,  4 


Clarendon,  Assembly  at, 

96.  4 
Claudius,  Einp.,  23,  1 
of  Turin,  92,  2 


Clemanges,  110,  3;  118,1 
Clement  II.,  96,  2,  3 

III.,  96,  4 

V.,    99;    110,    2; 

112,  2 
VI.,    110,    2;    114, 

1;  115 

VII.,  110,  3 

the  Heretic,  78,  4 

— —  of  Alexandria,  39,  4 
of  Rome,  39,  1 


Clementines,  27,  4 

(jus  can.),  99 

Clergy,  30 

Choice  of,  45 


Clerical  Dress.  45,  3 
Clerici  vagi,  84,  2 
Clericis  laicos,  110,  I 
Clermont,  Synod  of,  94 
Clinici,  30,  1  ;  45,  2 
Cloveshoo,  Synod  of,88,5 
Clugny,  Monks  of,  98,  1 
Coemeteria,  35 
Ccelestine  of  Rome,   52, 


III.,  96,  6 
IV.,  96,  8 


Coelestines,  112,  4 
Ccelestius,  53,  4 
Coelicolne,  37,  2 
Ccena  Domini,  bull,  115 
Coifi,  77,  4 

Cola  di  Rienzi,  110,  2 
Colidei,  77,  1 
Collatio  cum  Donat,  63,  2 
Colleges  of  Canons,  84,  4 
Collyridians,  57,  2 
Colman,  77,  6 
Colombino,  1 1 2,  4 
Colonna,  110,  1,  3 
Colet,  120,  4 


Columba,  77,  3 
Columbanus,  78,  1 
Comes  Hieron.,  59 
Commendas,  110 
Commodian,  41,  1 
Commodus,  23,  3 
Communic.  idiom.,  87,  7 
Communion  of  Children, 

33  ;  58,  4 
Competentes,  32,  1 
Compiegue,     Synod    of 

82,  2 
Compurgators,  88,  4 
Concha,  60 
Conclave,  96,  6 
Concubitus  (Edipod.,  23 
Confession,    33;    61,    1; 

88,  5 
Confessors,  23,  5;  36,2,4 
Confirmation,  32 
Conrad    of   Hochsteden, 

105,  6 

of  Marbursr,  109,  2 

I.,  II.,  96,^1,  2 

III.,  94,  2 


Conradin,  96,  6 
Consolamentum,  108,  1 
Constance,  96,  5 

Council  of,  110,  3 

Constantia,  50,  2 
Constantine    the   Great, 

23,  7 ;  42,  1 ;  50,   1 ; 

63,  2 
Constantinus  Chrysoma- 

lus,  70,  4 

Copronvmus,  66,  2 

of  Manaualis,  71,2 

Monomachus.  t',7,  '1 

Pogonatus,  52,  8 

Porphyrogenneta, 


68,  1 
the       Philosopher, 

72,  2 
Constantinople,     (Ecum 
Council  of,  II.,  46* 


50,  4,  5  ;  52,  1 
—  V.,  52,  6 


VI.,  52,  8 
VII.,  66,  2,  3 
VIII.,  67.  1 


Constantius.  42.  1  ;  50,  2 
Chlorus,  23,  6 


Constitute  linmana,82,3 
Continentes,  36,  •'! 
Convenensa,  108,  1 
Conveuticlers,  108,  5 


INDEX. 


523 


Conventuales,  112,  1 
Conversi,  98 
Copts,  52,  7  ;  73,  2 
Corbinian,  78,  2 
Cornelius  of  Rome,  80,  2 
Corporale,  GO,  2 
Corpus  Cliristi  day,105,2 
Corpus  jur.  can.,  99 
Correggio,  113,  4 
Costnas      Indicoplastes, 

48,  2 

Patriarch,  70,  4 

the  Usurper,  66,  1 

Cossa,  110,  3 
Councils,  80,  2 

General,  43,  2 

Courland,  93,  4 
Court  chapels,  84,  1 
Cranz,  II.,  113,  3 
Creatianism,  53,  1 
Crescentius,  96,  1 
Ci'imthan,  77,  3 
Cross,  discovery  of,  57,  5 

elevation  of,  57,  5 

experiment  of,  88,  4 

particles  of,  57,  5 

sign  of,  36,  1 

Crotus  Rubianus,  120,  2 
Crucifix,  60,  3 
Crusades,  94 
Crypts,  60,  1 
Culdees,  77,  1 
Cupola,  60,  1 
Curates,  84,  2 
Cursores,  60,  3 
Cusa.  Nich.  of,   110,  3; 

118,  2 
Cyprian  of  Carthage,  23, 

5:   30,  3;  32,  2;  36: 

38,  2;  39,  5 
Cyril  of  Alexandria,  45, 

9  ;  52,  2,  3 

of  Jerusalem,  48,  5 

and  Methodius,  72, 

2,  3 
Cyrus  of  Alexandria,  52, 8 
Dagobert  I.,  78,  1 
Damasus,  63,  1 
Dambrovka,  93,  2 
Damiani,  see  Petrus. 
Dandalo,  94,  4 
Dante,  144,  4 
David  of  Dinanto,  108,  2 
Deacons,  18,  3;  30,  1 

■ Subdeacons,  51,  1 

Decani,  Deans,  84,  2 


Decaiogue,  113,  3 
Decius,  Emp.,  23,  5 
Decretals,  43.  3  :  46,  2 
Decretists,  99 
Decretum  Gratiani,  99 
Gregorii,  99 


Defensores,  45,  5 

Definitiones,  43,  2 

Demetrius      of       Alex- 
andria, 31,  4 

Demiurgos,  26,  1 

Dendrites,  70,  3 

Denmark,  80  ;  93,  1 

Desidcrius,  82,  1 

Desk,  35 ;  60,  2 

Dhu-Nowas,  64,  4 

Didenhofen,    Synod    of, 
82,2 

Didymus  of  Alexandria, 
45,  6 

Dies  stationum,  32 

Dinanto,  see  David. 

Diodorus.  monk,  34,  5 
of   Tarsus,    47,   1 ; 


48,  1 
Diognetus,  39,  1 
Donysius  of  Alexandria, 

39,  4  ;  40.  6,  8 
the  Areopag.,  47,  6  ; 

48,  5 ;  90,  1 
Exiguus,  43,  3  ;  48, 


2 ;  56,  3 

of  Paris,  25 

of  Rome,  40,  6 

Dioscurus.  52,  4 
Diptychs,  59,  4 
Disciplina  arcani,  83,  2 
Discipline,    Eccles.,   36, 

2;  61,  1  ;  88,  5 
stages  of,  36,  2 


Discussion     at     Aix     la 

Chapelle,  91,  1 
Docetism,  19 ;  26,  1 
Doctor  audientium,  30,  1 
—  angelicus,  104,  1 
ecstaticus,  117,  2 


Domitian,     the     Abbot, 
52,  6 

Emp.,  24 


Donation  of  Coustantine, 

82,  1 
Donatists,  63,  2 
Dorotheus,  39,  6 
Dositheus,  22,  1 
Double  Monasteries, 85, 3 
Drahomira,  93,  2 
Druids,  77,  2 
Druthmar,  Christian,  90 

4,  6:  91,  3 
Drys,  Synod  of,  51,  3 
Dualism,  26,  1 
Dubrawka,  93,  2 
Dufay,  113,  3 
Dungal,  92,  2 
Dunstan,  97;  101 
Durandus,  116,  1 
Diirer,  A.,  113,  4 

Eadbald,  77,  4 
Eanfled,  77,  6 
Easter,  Festival  of,  32 

calculation  of,  56,  3 

observance,        dis- 


putes about,  36,  1 
—  plays,  106,2;  114,  4 

—  risus         paschalis, 


106,  1 
East  Indies,  64,  4 
Ebbo  of  Mayence,  80 
Ebed-Jesu,  73,  1 
Ebionites,  33,  2 
Ecbertof  Shonau,  108,  4 
Eccart,  Master,  117,  1 
Ecclesiastical    architec- 
ture, see  Architec. 
Discipline,  36 ;  91 


Functionaries,  45,5 

Law,  41,  3;  43,  3; 


99 


Revenues,  45 
Year,  56,  7 


Doctor  invincibilis,  116,1 

irrefragabilis,  104,1 

mirabilis,   104,  3 

resolutissimus,  1 1 6,1 

seraphicus,  104,  1 

subtilis,   104,  1 


Dolcino,  108,  3 
Dollinger,  4,  4 
Dominicans,  98,  4  ;  109, 
2;  112,  1 


Ecetes,  70,  3 
[Ecthesis,  52,  8 
I  Edgemiadzin,  73,  2 
i  Edwin,  77,  4 

Einhard,  89,  6 

Ei>i7"'j,  36,  2 

Electors,  princes,  97,  1 

Eleesban,  64,  4 

Eligius,  78,  3 

Elijah  of  Cortona,  98,  4 

Elipandus,  91,  1 


524 


INDEX. 


Elizabeth,    St.,    109,  2; 

112,  3 

Order  of,  112,3 

of  Shonau,  108,  4 

Elkesaites,  33,  3 
Elvira,  Synod  of,  GO,  3 
Elxai,  27,  3 
Emanation,  26,  1 
Emma,  93,  1 
Emmelia,  47,  4 
Empire,  Frankish,  82,  2 

Latin,  G7,  4  ;   94,  4 

Encratites,  28,  8 
Encyclical  Letter  of  Pho- 

tius,  67,  1 
Encyclion,  52,  5 
Endemic  Synods,  43,  2 
Endura,  108,  1 
Enfans  sans  souci,  114,  2 
Engelhardt,  4,  4 
Ennodius,  46,  2 
Enthusiasts,  71,  3 
Eon,  108,  4 

Epaon,  Council  of,  76,  5 
Ephesus,  Council  of,  52, 

Ephraem,  47,  2 ;  59,  2 
Epicurus,  8,  4 
Epiphanes,  28,  5 
Epiphanias,  32  ;  56,  5 
Epiphanius,  47,  4;  51,  2, 

3 ;  57,  4 
Episcopi  in  partibus,  97 

regionarii,  84 

EpistoliB  canonicre,  38,  3 

decretals,  46,  2 

formatoe,  30 

obscur.  vir.,  120,  2 

Epulse  Thyest,,  23 
Erasmus,   119,    5,    120, 

3,  5 
Eric  II.,  80,  1 

St.,  93,  1,  3 

the  red,  93,  1 

Eri^ena,    J.  Sc,    90,    5, 

7;  91,  4;  108,  2 
Ertenki  Mami,  29,  1     [6 
Erwin  of  Steinbach,  105, 
Esnig,  64,  3 
Essenes,  9,  2 
Estates   of  the   Empire, 

114,  1 
Esthonia,  93,  4 
Ethclberga.  77,  4 
Ethelbert,  77,  4 
Ethelwold,  101,  1 


Etherius  of  Osma,  91,  1 
Ethiopia,  64,  1 
Eucharist.    18,   5;   33,  1 

doctrine  of,  33,  3  ; 

58,  2;  91,  3 
■  elements     of,    33 ; 


58,  4 
Eucherius,  48,  1 
Euchetes,  Christian,  44, 

5;  71,  3 

Heathen,  42,  2 


Eudo  da  Stella,  108,  4 
Eudocia,  48,  8;  52,  4,  5 
Eudoxia,   51,  3 
Eugenicus    of  Ephesus, 

67,  6 
Eugenius  II.,  82,  3 

HI.,  96,  4 

IV.,  67,  6;  110,  3 

Eulogia,  58,  4  [4 

Eulogius  of  Caesarsa,  53, 

of  Cordova,  81,  1 

Eunapius,  42,  4 
Eunomius,  50,  3 
EuphemitCs,  42,  5 
Euphrates,  28,  4 
Euric,  76,  2 
Eusebians,  50,  2 
Eusebius  of  Csesarea,  6  : 

47,  3  ;  48,  2 

of  Emisa,  48,  1 

of  Nicomed.,  50,  1 

of  Vercelli,  50,  2 

Eustasius     of     Luxeuil, 

78,2 
Eustathians,  44,  5 
Eustathius  of  Ant.,  48,  1 

of  Sebaste,  44,  5 

of  Thessalonica,  68, 

5 :  70,  4 
Eustochium,  44,  2 
Euthalius,  59,  1 
Eutliymius      Zigabenus, 

68 
Eutyches,  52,  4 
Evagrius,  4,  1 
Evangelists,  18,  3 
Evangelium       iEternum, 

108,  4 
Ewald,    the    White    and 

the  Black,  78,  5 
Exarchate,  76,  7 
Exarchs,  41,  1 
Excommunication    32,  2 
'E£uiio\t'>yr)ai{,  36,  a 
Exorcism,  32 


Exorcists,  30,  I 
Expectantise,  110 
Extranese,  36,  3 
Extravagantes,  99 
PLxperiment,  see  Ordeal 
Exucontians,  50,  3 
Eyck,  113,  4 

Faber  Stapulensis,  120 

4,  5 
Facundus  of  Ilermiane, 

52,  6 
Faustus  of  Mileve,  54,  1 

of  Rhegium,  53,  5 

Feast  of  the  Ass,  106,  1 

of  Fools,  106,  1 

of  Feter  and  Paul, 

57,  1 
Felicissimus,  38,  2 
Felicitas,   20 
Felix  II.,  52,  5 
V.,  110,  3 


ofAphthunga,  63,  2 

Pratensis,  120,  5 

of  Urgellis,  91,  1 

Ferdinand  of  Castile,  I., 

III.,  95,  2 
Ferrara,  Council  of,  67, 

6;  110,  3 
Ferula,  60,  1 
Festa   Cathedrae    Petri, 

57,  1 
Feudalism,  86,  1 
Feyin,  Synod  of,  64,  3 
Filioque,  50,   6;  67,   1; 

91,  2 
Finland,  93,  4 
Firmicus  Maternus,  42 ; 

48,  3 
Firmilian,  32,  2 
Flacius,  4,  2 
Flagellants,  114,  1 
Flavian,  monk,  34, 

Patr.  of  Const. 

of  Ant.,  44,  5 

Floury,  4,  2 

Flodoard  of  Rheims.  101 

Florence,  Council  of,  67, 

6;  72,  4;  110,  3 
Florus  Magister,    90,  5; 

91,  4 
Fontevraux,     Order    of, 

98,  3 
Formosus,  82,  5 
Fortunatus,  42,  5;  48,8 
Franciscans,  98,4;  112,2 


4 
52,4 


INDEX. 


525 


Francis,  St.,  93,  5;  98, 

4;  105,  4 

de  Paula,  112,  3 

Frankfort,  Synod  of,  91, 

1  ;  92,  1  [5 

Franco  of  Cologne,  105, 
Franks,  76,  9  [4 

Fratres  de  Commun.,  98, 

intelligeutiae,  114,3 

minores,  98,  4 

prsedicat.,  98,  4 

Fratricelli,  98,4;  108,  4 
Fredegis,  90,  4 
Frederic  I.  Barb.,  94,  3: 

96,  4 
II.,    Emp.,    94,    5; 

96,  5,  6;  97,  1;  108,1 
Frisia,  78,  3 
Fiithigern.  76,  1 
Fritzlar,  78,  4 
Frobenius,  120,  3 
Frumentius,  64,  1 
Fugue,  113,  3  [1 
FulbertofChartres,  101, 
Fulco,  93,  3 
Fulda,  78.  4 
Fulgentius  Ferr.,  77,  3 
of  Ruspe,  47,  6 

GAiLERof  Kaisersb.,  113 
Galerius,  23.  3 
Gallienus,  23,  5 
Gallus,  St.,  78,  1 

Emp.,  23,  5 

Gangra  Synod  of,  44,  5  ; 

45,  4 
Gaunilo,  102,  3 
Gazari,  108,  1 
Gehhard    of    Eichstedt, 

96,  2 

of  Salzburg,  97,  1 

Gegnesius,  71,  1 
Geiler,  113,  2;  114,  4 
Geismar,  78,  4 
Gelasius  I.,  59,  4 
Gelimer,  76,  3 
Tevk$\ia,  36,  4 
Generatianism,  53,  1 
Gennadius,  48,  2 

Patr.,  68,  5 

Gentile  Christians,  19 
Gentilly,    Synod   of,    91. 

2 ;  92,  1 
Genuflectentes,  32,  1 
George  Acindynos,  69,  1 

—  of  Trebizond,  68,  2 


Gerbert,  96.  1  ;  101,  1 
Gerhard  Segarelli,  108, 

of  Zutphen,  112.  5 

Germanus,  Patr.,  66,  1 
Geroclt  of  Reichersb.,  97 
Gerson,  110,  3;  118,  1 
Gewilibof  Mayence,78,  4 
Geysa,  93,  2 
Gfrorer,  4,  4 
Ghazali,  100,  2 
Ghiberti,  113,  6  [4 

Giacomo  da  Verona, 105, 
Giacoponi  da  Todi,  105,  4 
Gieseler,  4,  4 
Gilbert,  Porret,  103,  1 
Gildas,  90,  9 
Giotto,  113.  4 
Giunta  of  Pisa,  105,  7 
Gnosticism,    19;    26,    1; 

28 
Goar,  78,  3 
Goch,  119,  1 
God,  truce  of,  106.  1 

Friends  of,  114,  2 

judgment  of,  88,  4 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  94,1 

the  Bearded.  96,  2 

—  of  Lucina,  93,  3 
ofStrasburg,  106,3 


yop»K\ivoi'T£$,   32,    1 

Gonzalo  of  Berceo,  106,  3 
Gordianus,  23,  4 
Gorm,  the  Old,  93,  1 
Goths,  76 
Gottschalk,  91,  4. 
Prince  of  theWends, 


93,  3 
Grobow,  112,  5 

ypniijuaTa  r£j-imu>/u£ca,   30 

Grammont, Order  of, 98, 3 
Gratian,  canonist,  99 
Emp.,  42,  3 


Greenland,  93,  1 
Gregentius,  48,  3 
Gregory  I.,  42,  1 ;  47,  1  : 

57,  4;  58,  3;  59,   3; 

76,  8;  77,  4 

II.,  66,  1 

III.,  66,  1;   78.  4; 


52,  1 
-  IV.,  82,  2 
-V.,  86,  1 
-VII.,  84;  86,  2 
-IX.,  86,  6;  89 
-X.,  67,  4 
-XL,  110,  2 


Giegory  XIL,  110,  3 

Abulfaragus,  73,  2 

Illuminator,  64,  3 

Palamas,  69,  1 

Scholaris,  6S,  5 

Thaumaturgus,  39, 

4;  41,  2 

of  Nazianzus,  47,  4 

of  Nyssa,  47,  5 

—  of  Tours,  4,  1;90,  2 
of  Utrecht,  78,  3 


Grimoald,  76,  8 
Groot,  Gerhard,  112,  5 
Grossteste,  104,  3 
Grundtvig,  75,  9 
Gaulbertus,  J.,  98,  1 
Guardian,  98,  4 
Guericke,  4,  4 
Guido  of  Arezzo,  105,  5 

of  Sienna,  105,  7 

Gundioch,  76,  5 
Gundobald,  76,  5 
Gunthamund,  76,  3 
Gunther  of  Cologne,  82,4 
Gyrovagi,  44,  5 

Haco  the  Good,  83,  1 
Hadrian,  Emp.,  21;  23,2 
I.,    66,    3;    82,    1; 


92    1 

—  II.,  67,   1;    82,  4; 
83,  1 
-IV.,  90,  4 


Hadrumetum,  53,  5 
Hagenbach,  4,  4 
Hakim,  Caliph,  94 
Hamburg,  See  of,  70,  1 
Harmonius,  30,  9 
Harold,  80 
Blaatand,  93,  1 


Hase,  4,  4 

Haymo  of  Halberst,  90, 

5,  9 
Heathenism,  8 
Heddo  of  Strasb.,  S4,  2 
Hedwig,  93,  2 
Hegesippus,  4,  1 
Hegira,  65 
Hegius,  Al.,  120,  2 
Heimburg,  Gr.,  of,  118,  2 
Helena,  the  Tyrian,  22,  2 

the  Empress,  57,  5,6 

Heliand,  88.  2 
Heliogabalus,  23,  4 
Hellenists,  11 
Heloise,  103,  1 


526 


INDEX. 


Helvidius,  G2 
Hemerobaptists,  22 
Hemming  of  Upsala,93,4 
Henoticon,  52,  2 
Henry  II.,  Emp.,  97,  1 

III.,  96,  1 

IV.,  96,  2 

V.,  96,  3 

VI.,  96,  4 

II.,  of  England,  96,4 

Beauclerc,  96,  3 

de  Hassia,  118,  2 

of  Laufenberg,  113,2 

of  Lausanne,  108,  3 

Heraclion,  28,  3 
Heraclius,  52,  8;  57,  5; 

64,  2 
Herigar,  80,  1 
Hermann     of     Fritzlar, 

117,  1 

the  Lame,  102,  1 

Hernias,  39,  1 
Hermeneuta?,  30,  1 
Hermias,  41,  1 
Hermogenes,  37,  11 
Herveus,  103.  3 

Natalis,  116,  1 

Hesychasts,  69,  1 
Hetajrirc,  23,  2 
Hierocles,  24,  4 
Hilarion,  44 
Hilarius  of  Arelate,  46,  2 

of  Poictiers,  47,  5 

Hildebrand,90,  2;  102,2 
Hildegard,   97;   108,   4; 

109 
Hilderic,  76,  3 
Hinierius,  42 
Hincmar  of  Laon,  83,  1 
of  Rheims,   82,  4 ; 

83,  1  ;  91,  4 
Hippolytus,    38,   1  ;    39, 

3  ;  40,  4 
Hogstraten,  120,  2 
Hohenstaufen,  96,  4,  5,  6 
Holbein,  113,  4 
Holland,      see      Nether- 
lauds. 
Homilies,  34 
Ilomoiites,  50,  3 
Iloiuologoumena.  34,  2 
Homoiuosians,  50,  2 
Homoousians,  40,1 ;  50,1 
Honoratus,  44 
Honorius,    Emp.,  42,  3  ; 

53,  4 


Honorius  of  Rome,  52,  8 
Horre,  56,  2 
Horic,  80,  1 

Hormisdas  of  Rome,  52,6 
Hormuz,  King,  29 
Hornbaeh,  78,  1 
"Opoi,  43,  2 
Hosius,  50,  1,  2,  3 
Hospitallers,  98,  6 
Hottiuger,  4,  2 
Hucbald,  105,  5 
Hugo  Capet,  96,  1 

a  St.  Caro,  104,  3 

a  St.Victore,  103,  2 

Hugo  de  Payens,  98,  6 
Humanists,  120 
Humbert,   67,  3 ;   102,  2 
Humiliati,  98,  3 
Huneric,  76,  3 
Hungary,  93,  2 
Hus,  113,2;  119;  3 
Husig,   64,  3 
Hutten,  Ulric  of,  120,  2 
Hy,  see  Iona. 
Hyle,  Hylic,  26,  1 
Hymnology,   18,   5;    34, 

4;  59,  2,  3;  89,  2;  105, 

3;  113,  2,  3 
Hypatia,  42,  3 
Hypophouous      singing, 

59,  3 

vndnTOioif,   36,   2 

Hypostasiauism,  40,  1 
Hypsistarians,  42,  5 

Ibas,  52,  3 
Iberians,  64,  4 
Idacius,  54,  2 
Ignatius  of  Ant.,  23,  2; 
30;  39,  1 

Patr.  of  Const., 67,1 


Images,   worship  of,  57, 
4 ;  89,  4  ;  92 

controversy    about 


(iconoclastic), 66 ;  92,1 
Immacul.Conceptio,  105, 

2-112    4 
Immunity,  84,  1 
Incense,  burning  of,  59,5 
Indulgences,  92,  1  ;  107  ; 

115 
Infant  Baptism,   18,   5; 

32 ;  58,  1 
Innocent  I.,   46,  2;    53, 

4;  61.  2,  3 
II.,  96,  4 


Innocent  III.,  96,  5;  108 

5;  109,  1 

IV.,  90,  6  [2 

VIII.,  110,  4;  115, 

Iunocentuin  festum,  57, 

1  ;  106,  1  [1 

Inquisition,  109,2;  llo, 
Inspiration,  34,  1 
Insula  Sanctorum,  77,  2 
Intercession,  episc,  43 
Interdict,  107 
Investiture,  40,  3;    84: 

96,  2,  3 
Iona.  77,  3 
Ireland,  77,  2 
Irenseus,  39,  3 
Irene,  66,  3 
Irmin-columu,  78,  5 
Isaac    the    Gr.,    52,    2 

(64,  3) 
Isidorus,  Gnostic,  28,  2 

Presbyter,  51,  2,  3 

Metrop.  of  Russia, 

72,4 

of  Seville,  90,  2 

Islam,  65  ;  81  ;  95 
Itala,  34,  3 
Ithacius,  54,  2 
Ittig,  78,  4 

Jablonsky,  4,  3 
Jacobellus,  119,  4 
Jacobites,  52,  7 
Jacoponus,  105,  4 
Jagello,  93,  2 
Jacobus    a    Benedictis, 

105,  4 

a  Voragine,  105,  3 

el  Baradai,  52,  7 

of  Brescia,  112,  1 

of  Harkh,  71,  2 

of  March ia.  112,  1 

of  Misa,  119.  4 

—  of  Nisibis,  46,  2 
nf  Sarug,  59,  2 


Jaldabaoth,  28,  4 
Jamblichus,  24,  2 
Janitores,  36,  1 
Jaroslav,  72,  4 
Jazelic,  52.  3 
Jeremias  II.,  72,  4 
Jerome,  St..    18,   1  ;  51, 
2:  53,   I  :  62 

f  Prague,  119,  3 


Jeromites,  112,  3 
Jesuates,  110,  3 


INDEX. 


52? 


Jews,  90,  7 ;  96,  1 
Jewish  Christians,  19,  1 
Jetzer,  112,  2 
Joachim,      Abbot,     97 ; 

108,  4 
Johanna,    female    pope, 

82,  3 
JohannesV.,Pala2ologus, 

67,  5 

VII.,  67,  6 

of  Parma,  108,  4 

— ■ — -  Philoponus,  47 

of  Ravenna,  83,  1 

of  Salisbury,  102,  3 

Scholasticus,  43,  3 

Scotus  Erigena,  90, 

5,  7;  91,  4 
of  Talaja,  52,  5 

—  of  Trani,  67,  3 
Tzimisces,  71,  1 


Jubilee,  115 
Jubili,  89,  2 
Judicatum,  52,  6 
Julia  Mammaea,  23,  4 
Juliana,  105,  2 
Julianists,  52,  7 
Julian  us,  Emp.,  42,  2,  4 
63,  2 

of  Eelanum,  53.  4 


John,  Apostle,  17 

disciples  of,  22 

festival  of,  57,  1 

St.,  Knights  of, 98, 6 

VIII.,  67.  1;  82,  5 

IX..  82,  5 

X.,  XI.,  XII.,  XV.. 

96,  1 

XIX.,  67,  2;  96,  2 

XX.,  82,  3 

XXII.,  110,  2:  112, 

1  ;  116.  1  [3 

XXIII.,  98,  5;  110, 

of  Ant.,  52,  3 

Beccos,  67,  3 

Cassianus,  44 ;  53,5 

Damascenus,  66,  1  ; 

68,  4,  5 

Duns  Scotus,  104,  1 

Jejunator,,    46,   2; 

61,  1  [4 

of  Jerus,  51,  2  ;  53, 

of  England,  96,  5 

de  Monte  Corvino, 

93,  5 

Ozniensis,  73,  2 

Johnites,   51,  3 
Jolanthe,  94,  5 
Jmias  of  Orleans,  90,  4; 
^  92,2 

Jornandes,  90,  9 
Joseph,  Patr., 67,  4;  70,1 
Josephus,  11;  14,  2 
Joaquin  de  Pr6z,  113,  3 
Jovi,  80,  1 
Jovinian,  62 


Julius  I.,  46,  2;  50,  2 

II.,  110,  4 

Africanus,  41,  5 

Junilius,  48,  1 
Jus  circa  sacra,  43,  1 
Justina,  50,  4 
Justinian  I.,  42,  3  ;  82,  6 

II.,  63,  3 

Justinus  I.,  Emp.,  52,  5 

Gnostic,  28,  4 

Martyr,  39,  2;  41,1 

Juvenal  of  Jerus.,  52,  3 
Juveucus,  48,  8 

Kblbes,  28,  4 

Keldeer,  77,  1 

Kempis,  Thomas  a,  112,5 

Kerai'ts,  73,  1 

Keys,  power  of,  61,  1 

Kilian,  78,  2 

Kiss,    fraternal,    18,    5; 

33,  1 ;  36,  1 
Kissing  the   Pope's  toe, 

96 
Knightly  orders,  98,  6 
Kramer,  115,  2 

Labarum,  23,  7 
Lactantius,  39,  5:  41,  1 
Lambert    of    Aschaffeu- 
burg,  102,  1 
le  Begue,  98,  5 


Lairentius,  Valla,  120. 1 
Lay-Abbots,  75 

Brethren,  98,  1 


Lectio,  30 

Lectionaria,  59 

Lectores,  34 ;  59 

Legates,  96 

Legenda  aurea,  105,  3 

Legio  fulmin.,  23,  3 

Legists,  99 

Leidrad  of  Lvons,  90,  3  ; 

91,  1 
Lentulus,  14,  2 
Leo  I.  the    Gr.,  45,  4; 

46,   2;   47,   5;   52,  4; 

54,  1,2;  61,  1 

II.,  82,  2:  91,  2 

IX.,  67,  3;  90,  2 

X.,110,  4;  120,1,2 

of  Achrida,  67,  3 

the  Armenian,   66, 

4;  71,  1 

Chazarus,  66,  3 

the  Isauriau,  66,  1 ; 


Landulf  Cotta,  97,  2 
Lanfranc,  101,  1,  2 
Lange,  Rudolph,  120,  2 
Langenstein,  H.  of,118,2 
Langobards,  70,  8 
Laugthon,  96,  5 
Laos,  30 
Lapland,  93,  4 
Lapsi,  23,  5 

Lateran  Synod  I.,  52.  8; 
96,  3 

II.,  96,  4 

IV.,  96,  5 


Laurentius,  Archb.,  7  ,4 

...  ,.   Martyr,  23,  5 


71,  1 

the  Philos.,  67,1,2; 

68,  1  [4 

Leonardo  da  Vinci,  103, 
Leonistoe,  108,  5 
Leontius  of  Byz.,  48,  2 
Leovigild,  76,  2 
Leporius,  52,  2 
Lerija,  A.  of,  120,  4,  5 
Le.-tines,  Synod  of,  78,  4 
Libanius,  42,  4 
Libellatici,  23,  5 
Libelli  pacis,  36,  2 
Liber  conformit.,  98,  4 
Liber  paschalis,  56,  3 
Liberatus  of  Garth.,  52,6 
Liberius  of  Rome,  50,  2, 

3;  63,  1 
Libri  Carolini,  92,  1 
Liciuius,  23,  7 
Limina  apost.,  57,  7 
Lindner,  Br.,  4,  4 
Liptina?.  Synod  of,  78,  4 
Litany,  59 
Lithuania,  93,  2 
Liturgy,   33,   1;    59,  4  j 

89,  1  ;  105 
Liudger,  78,  3 
Liutprand,  82,  1 
Livonia,  93,  4 
Lollards,  114,  1 ;  119,  1 
Lombardus,  P.,  103,  2 


528 


INDEX. 


9 


Lord'sDay,18,5;32;56,l 
Loretto,  113 
Lothair,  Emp.,  82,  2 
II.,  of  Lothar.,  82, 

8,  4  [2 

Louis,  the  Germanic,  82, 

the  Child,  82,  5 

the  Indol.,  82 

the  Pious,  82. 

II.,  82,  2 

VII.,  91,  2 

IX.,  St.,  93,5;  94, 

6;  96,  6 

XII.,  110,  4 

of  Bavaria,  110,  2 

Lucas,Bohem.Sen.,113,2 
Lucian  of  Ant.,  39,  6 

of  Sainos.,  24,  3 

Lucidus.  53,  5 

Lucifer  of  Calaris,  50,  2, 

3  ;  l>3,  1 
Luciferites,  Schismatics, 

03,  1 

Heretics,  114,  3 

Lucilla,  63,  2 
Lucius,  Brit.  King,  77 
Lucrezia,  1 10,  4 
Ludmilla,  79,  2 
Lullas,   Archb.,  78,  4 

Raim.,  93,  5 ;  104,  2 

Lund,  93,  4 

Luxeuil,  78,  1 

Lyons,    Council    of,    07, 

4;  96,  i; 
Lyra,  Nicholas  of,  116,  2 

Macarius  the  Gr.,  48,  7 
Maccabees,    festival    of, 

57,  1 
Madedonius,  50,  5 
Macrianus,  23,  5 
Macrina,  47,  4 
Magdeburg,  93,  3 
Magister  sent.,  103,  2 
Magnoald,  78,  1 
Mainots,  42,  3;  72,  1 
MajoriDus,  63,  2 
Malta,  Knights  of,  98,  6 
Mamertus,  5'.) 
Mandeans,  22;  27,  3 
Maui    and   Manieh.,    28, 

54,  1 
Mansur,  68,  5 
Mantua,  Counc.  of,  110,4 
Manuel  Coinn.,  69 
Maphrian,  52,  7 


Mara,  14.  2 

Marcellus  of  Anc,  50,  2 
Mareia,  23,  3 
Marcian,  Emp.,  52,  4 
Marcion,  Gnos.,  30,  10 
Marco  Polo,  93,  5 
Marcus  Aurelius,  23,  3 

Evangelist,  17 

Marianus  Scotus,  102,  1 
Marius  ?>Iercator,  53,  4 
Maris,  52,  3 

Maronites,  52,  3  ;  73,  3  ; 
Marozia,  96,  1 
Marriage,  36,  1;   61,  2; 

88,  1  ;  105,  1 
Mass,  canon  of,  59,  4 
sacrifice  of,   58,  3; 

89,  3 

Masses  for  the  Dead,  58, 

3 ;  89,  3 
Martin  I.,  52,  8 

V.,  110,  3 

of  Duma,  70,  4 

-  Polonus,  104,  3 
of  Tours,  49;  54,  2 


Mess&.ians  Heathen, 42, 5 
Methc  iius,  72,  3  ;  79 
cf  Olympus  32,  8; 


Martyrs,   33,  5;    36,  4; 

57,  5 
Massilians,  53,  5 
Mastersinners,  114,  4 
Matthew  Paris,  104,  3 
Matilda  of  Can.,  90,  2 
Manrus,  St.,  85 
Maxentius,  23,  7 
Maximianus,  23,  6 
Maximilian  I..  110,  4 
Maximilla,  37,  1 
Maximinus,  Emp.,  23,  6 
the  Thracian,  23,  4 


Maximus,  Emp.,  54.  2 

Confess.,  47,6  ;  52,8 

Mayence,  Synod  of,  91,4 
Mayron,  116.  1  [4 

Meinhard  of  Bremen,  93, 
Melchiades,  63,  2 
Melohisedechites,  40,  2 
Melchites,  52,  7 
Melitus  el'  Ant.,  63,  1 

of  Lvcopol.,  38,  3 

Melito,  39,  3;  41,  1,  4 
Memnon  of  Eph.,  52,  3 
Memorise,  57 
Mendicant  orders,  98,  4 
Mennas,  52,  6 
Menot,  1 13 
Mensurius,  63,  2 
Messaliaus,  Chr.    44,  5 


33,  2 

Metrophanes,   67,  0 
Metropolitans,  30;  83 
Michael  Balbus,  66,  4 
Bohem.,        senior, 

119,  5 

Oterularius,  67,  3 

de  Cesena,  112,  1 

the  Drunkard,  67,  1 

Paloeologus,  67,  4 

festival  of,  57,  3 

Angelo,  113,  3 


Middle  Ages,  74 
Miecislav,  93,  2 
Miesrob,  64,  3 
Milicz,  119.  2 
Militia  Christi,  36 
Millennarianism,  40,  8 
Miltiades,  41,  1 
Minimi.  112.  3 
Minnesingers,  106,  3 
Minorites,  98,  4 
Minucius,  Felix,  41,  1 
os    o 


■  Fund.,  '16,  'Z 


Missa  catecli.et  fidelium, 

33,  1 
Missale  Rom.,  59,  4 
Mistvoi,  93,  3 
Modalists,  40 
Mogtasilah,  27,  3 
Mohamet,  65 
Mohler,  4,  4 
Molay,  J.,  112,  2 
Monarchians,  40 
Monasterium  Cler.,  45,  I 
Mongols,  93,  5 
Monica,  47,  5 
Monophysites,  52,  5,  7  ; 

73,2 
Monotheletes.  52,  8 
Montanists,  37 
Monte-Cassino,  85 
Montfort,  S.  of,  109,  1 
Moors,  81  ;  95 
Morality,     higher     and 

lower,  36 
Moravia,    79,  1 
More,  Thomas,  110,  1 
Mprisooes,  95  [i 

Morsel,  consecrated,  8S, 

Mosaic    60,    3 

Moses  of  Cliorene,  64,  3 
Moslems,  65 


INDEX. 


529 


Mozarabs,  81 

Music,   59,    3;   105,   5: 

113,  2 
Muspili,  88,  2 
Mysticism,  Greek,  68,  3 

Latin,  100,  etc. 

German,  117 

Naassknes,  28, 

N.ipSrjf,    60,   1 

Natales  episcop.,  45,  3 
Natalis,  4,  2 
Natalitia  mart.,  36,  4 
Nazarenes,  27,  1 
Neander,  4,  4 
Nectarius,  61,  1 
Nennius,  90,  9 
Neophytes,  30,  1 
Neoplatonists,  24,  2  ;  42 
Nepos  of  Arsinoe,  40,  8 
Nero,  23,  1 
Nerses,  04,  3 

Clajensis,  73,  2 

of  Lampron,  73,  2 

Nerva,  23,  1 
Nestorians,    52,    3 ;    64, 

2 ;  73,  1 
Nestorius,  52,  3 
Neumae,  59,  3 
New-year,  56,  5 
Niebelungen,  106,  3 
Nice,  Council  of,  46,  2 ; 

50,  1  (66,  3). 
Nicephorus      Gregoras, 

69,  1 

Callisti,  68,  4      [5 

Nicetas  Acominatus,  68, 

of  Nicomed.,  67,  4 

Pectoratus,  67,  3 

Nicolaitanes,  19  ;  28,  6 
Nicholas  I.,  67,  1;   72, 

3;  82,  4;  83,  1;  91,  4 

II.,  96,  2 

of  Basle,  114,  2 

Nicholas  von   der  Flue, 

112,  5 
Cabasilas,     68,    5 ; 

70,  4 

of  Methone,  68,  5 

Mysticus,  67,  2 

Nicola  Pisano,  105,  7 
Niedner,  4,  4 
Nimbus,  60,  3 
Ninian,  77,  3 
Niphon,  monk,  70,  4 
Patr.,  70,  1 

45 


Nitrian  Desert,  51,  1 
Nithard,  90,  9 
Noetus,  40,  4 
Nogaret,  W.  of,  110,  1 
Nominalists,  100,  2 
Nomocanon,  43,  3 
Nona?,  86,  1 
Nonua,  47,  4 
Nonnus  of  Panop.,  48,  8 
Norbert,  98,  3 
Norway,  91,  1 
Noting  of  Verona,  91,  4 
Notker  Labeo,  101,  1 
Novatians,  38,  3 
Novatus,  38,  2 
Noviciate,  44,  3 ;  86,  1 
Nunia,  64,  4 
Nuns,  44;  85,  3 
Nynias,  77,  3 

Oblati,  85,  1 
Oblations,  33 
Obotrites,  93,  3 
Observantes,  112,  1      [1 
Occam,  W.,  112,1;  116, 
Ockenheim,  113,  3 
Octavte,  56,  4 
Odericus  Vitalis,  103,  3 
Odilo  of  Clusny,  98,  1 
Odo    of   Clugny,   98,   1; 

101,  1 
Odoacer,  76,  6 
fficumenius,  68,  4 
Officials,  97 
Officium  Sanctse  Manse, 

105,  3 
OiKovo^ia,  40,  1 

oiKoi/o/ioi,  45,  5 
Oktai-Khan.  93,  5 
Olaf,  80,  1 ;  93,  1 
Olga,  72,  4 
Oliva,  J.  P.,  108,  4 
Olivetans,  112,  1 
Ommiades,  81,  1;  95,  2 
Omphalopsychoi,  69,  1 
Onochoetes  Deus,  23 
Ophites,  28,  4 
Optatus  of  Mileve,  63,  2 
Oranges,  Synod  of,  53,  5 
Oratories,  84,  2 
Ordeals,  88,  4 
Ordination,  30,  1 ;  45,  3 
Ordines  majores    et  mi- 

nores,  30,  1 
Ordo  Rom.,  59,  4 
Ordruff,  78,  4 


Organ,  89,  2 

Origen,    39,    4;    40,    5; 

41,  3 
Origenists,  51 
Orosius,  P.,  53,  4;  £4,  2 
Orphans,  115,  4 
Orthodoxy,    festival    of, 

64,  4 
Ortuinus  Gratus,  120,  2 
Osculum  pacis,  32 
Ostiarii,  30,  1 
Ostrogoths,   76,  7 
Oswald,  77,  5 
Oswy,  77,  5,  6 
Ota,  78,  2 

Otgar  of  Mayence,  87,  2 
Otho  I.,  93,  2,  3:  96,  1 

II.,  III.,  96,  1 

IV.,  96,  5 

of  Bamberg,  93,  3 

of  Freisingen, 103,4 

Pabulatores,  44,  5 
Pachomius,  44 
Pacifico,  105,  4 
Pagani,  42,  3 
Painting,  60,  3;  105,  7; 

113,  4 
Palladius,  48,  2  ;  77,  2 
Pallium,  46 
Palm  Sunday,  56,  4 
Pamphilus,  41,  2;  47,  3 
Pantoenus,  39,  4 
Paphnutius,  45,  4 
Papias,  39.  1 
Parabolani,  45,  5 
Paris,  Synod  of,  92,  1 
Parochia,  84,  2 
Parochus,  30 ;  84,  2 
Pasagii,  108,  1 
Paschal  II.,  96,  3 
Paschasius  Radb.,  91,  3 
Passover,  32 
Ilaoxa,  &c,  31 
Patareni,  108,  1 
Pataria,  97,  2 
Pater  orthod.,  47,  4 
Patriarchs,  46 
Patricius,  77,  2 
Patripassians,  40,  3 
Patronage,  84 
Patronus,  57 
Paul  II.,  110,  4;   119,  4 

—  Diaconus,  90,  3 
of  Samos.,   36,  3; 


40,  7 


530 


INDEX. 


Paul  Silentiarius,  48,  4 

of  Thebes,  36,  3 

Wamefrid,  90,  3 

Paula,  St.,  44,  2 
Paulicians,  71,  1 
Paulinus  of  Ant.,  63,  1 

of  Aquileja,  90,  3 

Nolanus,  48,  8     [4 

the  Missionary,  77, 

Pauperes    de    Lugduuo, 

108,  5 
Pajens,  Hugh  de,  98,  6 
Pelagius,  48,  1  ;  53,  3 

of  Rome,  52,  6 

Pelayo,  81 

Penance,  priest  of,  61 ,  1 

redemption  of,  98,  5 

Penda,  77,  4 
Penitential  books,  78,  5 
Pentecost,  56,  4 
Pepin,  82,  1 
Pepuziani,  37,  1 
Peratics,  28,  4 
Peregrinus,  24,  3 
Perfectus,  81 
Periodeutes,  45,  5 
Peristerium,  60,  2 
Perpetua,  23,  5 
Person    of    Christ,    con- 
troversies about,  52 
Persia,  64,  2 
Peschito,  36,  3 
Peter's  pence,  82 
Petilian,  63,  2 
Petrarch,  114,  4 
Petrobrusians,  108,  3 
Peter,  Ap.,  17 

of  Alex.,  38,  4 

of  Amiens,  94 

of  Bruys,  108,  3 

Cantor,  103,  3 

of  Castelnau,  109, 1 

Chrysolanus,  67,  4 

Damiani,  97;  102,1 

Dresdensis,  113,  2 

. Fullo,  52,  5 

Lonibardus,       103, 

2;  105,  1 

Mongus,  52,  5 

of  Murrone,  112,  3 

of  Pisa,  90 

Siculus,  71,  1 

Venerabilis,  98,  1  ; 

109 

Waldus,  108,  5 

Pfefferkoru,  120,  1 


Pharensis  Syn.,  77,  6 
Pharisees,  9,  2 
Pherozas,  6 1,  2 
Philip  I.  of  France,  96,  3 

III.,  of  Spain,  95 

Aug.  of  France,  94, 

3;  96,  5 

the  Fair,  110,  1 


Philippopolis,  Synod  of, 

50,  2 
Philippus,    the    Evang., 

15;  17 

Arabs,  23,  4 


Philo,  11,  1 
Philopatris,  43 
Philoponus,  47,  6 
Philosophy,  Greek,  8,  4 
Philostorgius,  4,  1 
Philoxenus,  59,  1 
Phocas,  46,  2 
Photinus,  50,  2 
Photius,  67,  1 ;  68,  5 

ftQaproXiirpai,  52,   7 
<t>a>n^6/j£i<oi,   32,  1 

Piacenza,  Council  of,  94 

Picts,  77,  3 

Pictures,  37 

Pilgrim  of  Passau,  93,  2 

Pilgrimages,  57,  6  ;  89,  4 

Pirkheiiuer,  120,  2 

Pirminius,  78,  1 

Pisa,  Council  of,  110,  3,4 

Pistis  Sophia,  28,  4 

Pius  II.,  110,4;  108,3; 

119,  4 
Planck,  4,  3 
Plastic  Art,  66,  3;  105, 

7;  113,  4 
Plato,  8,  4;  47,  5;  68,3; 

100,  2 
Plebani,  84,  2 
Plebes,  84,  2 
Plebs,  30 
Pleroma,  26 
Pletho,  68,  2;  120,  1 
Pliny,  23,  2 
Plotinus,  24,  2 
Plutarch,  24,  2 
Pneumatics,  26, 1  ;  37, 1 
Piieumatomachoi,  50,  5 
Podiebrad,  119,  4 
Poets,    Christian    Latin, 

48,  8 
Polycarp,  23,  3 ;  32,  1 ; 

39,  1 
Polycrates,  32,  1 


Polyglotts,  120,  6 
Pomerania,  93,  3 
Pom  pa  diab.,  36 
Pomponazzo,  120, 
Pontianus,  38,  1 
Ponticus,  23,  3 
Pontion,  Synod  of,  82,  5 
Pontius,  98,  1 
Poor,  case  of,  88,  3 
Popes,     coronation     of, 

96;  115 
election   of,  96,  2, 

4,6 
Porphyrius,  24,  2,  3 
Poitiuncula,  98,  4 
Possessed,  the,  30 
Possessor  of  Carth.,  53,  5 
Potamioena,  23,  4 
Pothinus,  23,  3 
Prsemonstrants,  98,  3 
Propositi,  84,  2 
Pragmatic  sanction,  97, 

6;  110,  4 
Praxeas,  37,  2 ;  47,  3 
Prayer,  36 
Prebends,  84,  4 
Predestination,  53  ;  91,  4 
Preaching,  34;  59;  105: 

113  [4 

Preachers,  Order  of,  98, 
Precarite,  86 
Precists,  96 

Presbyter,  18,  2;  30;  45 
Primacy  of  the  Pope,  30, 

3;  46,  1,  2 
Piimasius,  48,  1 
Priinian,  63,  2 
Priscilla,  37,  1 
Priscillianists,  54,  2 
Private  Confession,  61,  1 
Masses,  56,  3 


Procession  of   the   Holy 
Spirit,   50,   6;   67,   1; 
91,  2 
Processions,  59 
Proclus,  42 ;  48,  3 
ProcopiustheGr.,  119,  4 

of  Gaza,  48,  1 

Proculus,  23,  4 

the  Montanist,  40,  8 


Prodicians,  28,  6 
Proselytes,  Jewish,  11,  2 
tlpiiK^avoi;,  36,  2 

[Ipoypvpai,   u'o 

Prosper   Aquit      48,   Bj 
53,  5 


INDEX. 


531 


Proterius,  52,  2 
Provosts,  84,  2 
Prudenthis,  48,  8 

of  Troyes,  91,  4 

Prussia,  93,  4 
Psalter,  30,  1 
Psellus,  G8,  5;  71,  3 
Pseudepigraphs,  39,  7 ; 

G3,  1 
Pseudo-Basilidians,  28,2 
Dionysius,    47,    1 ; 

48,  5;  90,  1 
Isidore,  87,  2 


Psychicoi,  26,  1  ;  37,  1 
Publicani,  108,  1 
Pulcheria,  52,  4 
Purgatory,  58,  3  ;  67,  6  ; 
101,  1 

Quadragesima,  32;  56,4 
Quadratus,  43,  1 
Quartodecimani,    30,   1 ; 

56,  3 
Quercum,  Syn.  ad,  51,  3 
Quicunque,  symbol. ,50,7 
Quinisextura,  63,  3      [4 
Quinquagesima,  32 ;  56, 

Rabands    Maukus,    90, 

5;  91,  3,  4 
Rabulas  of  Edessa,  52,  3 
Radbertus    Pasch.,    90, 

5;  91,  3;  105,  2 
Radbod,  78,  3 
Radewin,  112,  5 
Raiinundus    Lullus,    93, 

5;  104,  2 

de  Pennaforti,  99 

du  Puy,  98,  6 

of  Sabunde,  116,  2 

of  Toulouse,  109,  1 

Ralph  Flambard,  96,  3 
Raphael,  113,  4 
Rustislav,  79 
Ratherius,  97;  101,  1 
Ratisbon,  Synod  of,  91,  1 
Ratramnus,   67,    1 ;    90, 

5;  91,  3.  4 
Realists,  100,  2 
Realm,  estates  of,  84,  1 
Recafrid,  81,  1 
Reccared,  76,  2 
Rechiar,  76,  4 
Reclusi,  85,  5 
Recognit.  Clem.,  43,  4 
Reconciliatio,  36,  2 


Redemptions,   88.  5 
Reformation      in     Heal 

and  Members,  118 
Regino  of  Priim,  88,  5 
Reginus,  105,  5 
Regionary  Bishops,  84 
Reichenau,  78,  1 
Reinerius  Sachoni,  108,1 
Relics,    worship    of,   36, 

4;  57,  5;  89,  4;  105,3 
Religiosi,  43,  3 
Remigius  of  Lyons,  91,  4 
of  Rheims,  76,  9 


Remismund,  76,  4 
Remoboth,  44,  5  [6 

Reparatus  of  Carth.,  52, 
Reservationes,  110 
Reuchlin,  120,  2 
Revenues  of  the  Church, 

45 
Rhense,       meeting      of 

Elect.,  110,  2 
Rhodoald  of   Porto,   67, 

1  ;  82,  4 
Richard  Coeur  de  Lion, 

95,  3 

a  St.Victore,  103,  3 


Richer,  101,  1 
Rienzi.  Cola  di,  110,  2 
Rimbert,   80,  1 
Rimini,  Council  of,  50,  3 
Risus  paschalis,  106,  1 
Ritter,  J.,  4,  4 
Robber  Svnod,  52,  4 
Robert  of  Arbrisscl,  98,3 

of  Citeaux,  98,  2 

Grossteste,  104,  3 

Guiscard,  96,  2 

-of  Sorbonne,  104,3 
King     of     France, 


105,  4 
Roger  Bacon,  104,  3 
Rokycana,  119,  4 
Romanesque  style,  105,6 
Romanus,  96,  1 
Romuald,  98,  1 
R.osary,   105,  3 
Fraternity       of, 

113,  1 
Roscellinus,  102,  3 
Rosenpliit,  Hans,  114,  4 
Rota  Rom  ,  96 
Rothad  of  Soissons,  83,  1 
Rubianus,  Crotus,  120,  2 
Rudolph      of      Swabia, 

96,  2 


Rufinus,  4,  1 ;  47,  5 ;  48» 

2;  51,  2 
Riigen,  93,  3 
Rugians,  76,  6 
Rupert,  78,  2 

of  Deutz,  103,  3 

Russia,  72,  4  [1 
Ruysbroek,  John  of,  117; 
William,  93,  5 


Sabatati,  108,  5 
Sabbath,  56,  1 
Sabellius,  40,  4,  6 
Sabians,  22 
Sabinianus,  60,  2 
Sacraments,  105,  1 
Sacramentarium,  59,  4 
Sacrificati,  23,  5 
Sacrificial  Theory,  33,  3 
Sacrum  rescr.,  53,  3 
Sadducees,  9,  2 
Saints,   worship  of,   57; 

105,  3 
Saladin,  94,  3 
Salvianus,  48,  3 
Salzburg.  78,  2 ;  79 
Samaritans,  10;  22 
Sampseans,  27,  3 
Sanction,  Pragm.,  96,  6 
Sapores  II.,  64,  2 
Sarabaites,  39,  5 
Sardica,  Synod  of,  46,  2 ; 

50,  5 
Sarmatio,  62 
Sarolta,  93,  2 
Saturnalia,  56,  5 
Saturninus,  28,  7 
Savonarola,  119,  2 
Savanieres,     Synod     of, 

91,  4 
Sbynko,  119,  3 
Scepticism,  8,  4 
Scetian  Desert,  51,  1 
Schism,  Papal,  110,  3 

Eastern,  67 

Schisms,  38 
Schmidt,  Christ.,  4,  4 
Schola  Palat.,  90 

Saxonica,  72 

Scholastica,  85,  3 
Scholasticism,  Greek, 47, 

6 ;  68,  3 

Latin,  100,  etc.  ,110 


Schools,  Monastic,  90,  1 

Popular,    118,    1, 

106,  2 


5^ 


INDEX. 


Schools,   Ancient   Theo- 
logical,   39,   3,   4,    5; 
47;  52,  2 
Scotists,  104,  1 
Scotus,  Erig.,  90,  5,  7 ; 
91,  4 

J.  Duns,  104,  1 

Seckingen,  78,  1 
Secundus,  50,  1 
Secies  apostolicse,  30 
Sedulius,  48,  8 
Segarelli,  108,  3 
Sembat,  71,  2 
Semiarians,  50,  3 
Semipelagians,  53,  5 
Seinler,  4,  3 
Sends,  88,  5 ;  97 
Sens,  Synod  of,  103,  1 
Septimius  Sev.,  23,  4 
Septuagint,  9,  2 ;  34,  2; 

56,  4 
Sequences,  89,  2 
Serapeion,  36  [2 

Serenius  Granianus,  23, 
Serenus  of  Massil.,  57,  4 
Sergius  of  Const.,  52,  8 

of  Ravenna,  83,  1 

of  Home,  63,  3 

Tychicus,  71,  1 

Servatus  Lupus,  91,  4 
Servites,  98,  4 
Sethians,  34,  4 
Severa,  23,  4 ;  26 
Severians,  52,  7 
Severinus,  76,  6 
Shiites,  65,  1 
Sibylline  Books,  41,  1 
Sicilian  Vespers,  96,  6 
Sickingen,  120,  2 

£i<5/;po{i(Ui>oi,   70,   3 

Siena,  Council  of,  110,  3 
Sigillaria,  56,  5 
Sigismond,  of  Burgundy, 

76,  5  [3 

Emp.,  110,  3;   119, 

Sigurd,  93,  1 

Simeon  Metaphr.,  68,  4 

ofTliessalonica,68,5 

Simon  Magus,  22,  2 

of  Tournay,  108,  2 

Simony,  96,  2 
Singing  Schools,  89,  2 
Sirmium,  Council  of,  50, 

2,  3 
Sixtus  II.,  23,  5 


SixtusIV.,  112,  1;  115 
Socrates,  8,  4 

the  Church  Hist. ,4,1 


Soissons,  Synod  of,   78, 

4;  103,  1 
Sophronius,  52,  8 
Sorbonne,  104,  3 
Sorores,  36,  3 
Sotties,  114,  4 
Sozomenus,  4,  1 
Spanheim,  4,  2 
Spirit,  Sect  of  the  Holy, 

108,  2 
Spirituales,   98,  4 
Spittler,  4,  3 
Spolia,  140 
Sponsors,  32 
Sprenger,  115,  2 
Ssufis,  65,  1 
Staupitz,  117,  1 
Stedingers,  109,  2 
Stephen  of  Rome,  32.  2 

II.,  66,  2;  82,  1 

III.,  66,  2 

VI.,  82,  5 

St.,  93,  2;  96,  1 

de  Borbone,  108,  5 

Langthon,  96,  5 

—  of  Siinic,  73,  2 
festival  of,  57,  1 


Stock,  Simon,  98,  3 
Stoicism,  8,  4 
Stolberg,  L.  of,  4,  4 
Streaneshalch,  Synod  of, 

77,  6 
Studites,  44,  4 
Sturm  of  Fulda,  78,  4 
Stylites,  39,  4 ;  85,  5 
Subdeacons,  30,  1 
Subintroductre,  36,  3 
Succat,  77,  2 
Suevi,  76,  4 
Suffragans,  84 
Sulpitius  Sever.,  4,  1 
Summis  desiderantibus, 

115,  2 

"£."VtWTtXKTOl,     36,    3 

S0ora<5ij,  36,  2 

Sunnites,  65.  1 
Suso,  H.,  117,  1 
Sntri,  Synod  of,  96,  1 
Svatopluk,  79,  2 
Svatoslav,  72,  4 
Sven,  93,  1 
Sweden,  80 ;  93,  1 


Sword,  Brethren  of,  93, 

4 ;  98,  6 
Sylvanus,  71,  1 
Sylvester  I„  59,  3 

II.,  94;  96,  1 

Symbols,  35,  1 
Symeon,  72,  3 

-called  Titus,  71,  1 
of  Jerus.,  23,  2 


Symmachus,  42 
Synagogues,  9,  2;   18,  5 
Syncelli,  46 
Synergists,  53,  1 
Synesius,  47,  4 
Synods,  see  Councils. 
Synodus  Palmaris,  46,  2 
Syzygia,  27,  4 ;  28,  3 

TABERNACUr.UM,   60,  2 

Taborites,  119,  4 
Talmud,  22 
Tamerlane,  73,  1 
Tanchelm,  108,  4 
Tartares,  73,  1 
Tatian,  28,  8;  41,  1 
Tauler,  117,  1 
Templars,  98,  6;  112,  2 
Tempus  clausum,  56,  4 
Terebinth,  29,  1 
Tertiaries,  98,  4 
Tertullian,  37,  2  ;  39,  5  ; 

40,  3 ;  53,  1 
Tertullianiuts,  37,  2 
Theatricals,       religious, 

106,  2 
Theganus,  90,  9 
Themistius,  42,  4 
Theodelinda,  76,  8 
Theodemir,  abbot,  98,  2 
1.,  76,  4 


Theoderic,  76,  7 
Tlieodo  I.,  78,  2 
Theodora,  52,  6  (66,  4) ; 

71,  1  (96,  1) 
Theodoret,    44,    5;     52, 

3,4 
Theodoras  Ascidas,  52,  S 

Balsamon,  48,  3 

of    Mops.,    47,    1; 

48,  1  ;  52,  3 ;  53,  4 

of  Niem,  118,  2 

Studita,  66,  4 


Theodulf  of  Orh,  88,  1  ; 

90,  3 
Theognis  of  Nicaea,  50, 1 


INDEX, 


533 


Theologia      Germanica, 

117 
Theonas,  50,  1 
Theopasohites,  52,  6 
Theophano,  96,  6 
Theophilus,  Emp.,  66,  4 
of  Alex.,  42,  3;  51, 

2,  3 

of  Ant.,  41,  1 

of  Diu,  64,  4 


Theophylact,  68,  5 

0£</rdjci{,  52,   2,  3 

Therapeutae,  11 
Thesaur.  superog.,  107 
Thietberga,  82,  4 
Thietgaut  of  Treves,  82,4 
Thomas  Aquinas,  104,  1; 

105,  1 

a  Becket,  96,  4 

of  Celana,  105,  4 

a  Kempis,  112,  5 

Thomns-Cliristians,  52,  3 
Thomasius.Christ.,  115,2 
Thomists,  104,  1 
Thontracians,  71,  2 
Thrasamond,  76,  3 
Thuribulum,  60,  3 
Thurificati,  23,  5 
Tiberius,  23,  1 
Tillemont,  4,  2 
Timotheus  .Murus,  52,  5 
Tiridates  III.,  64,  3 
Tithes,  86 
Titian,  113,  4 
Tituli,  84,  2 
Torquemada,  115,  1 
Toulouse,     Synods      of, 

106,  2;  108,  1;  109,2 
Tours,   Syn.   of,   102,  2; 

110,  4 
Towers,  60,  1 
Tradition,  30,  3 
Traditores,  23,  6 
Traducianism,  53,  1 
Trajan,  23,  2 
Transfiguration,  festival 

of,  56,  6 
Translations,  57 
Transubstantiation,    58, 

2;  105,  1 
Treuga  Dei,  106,  1 
Tribur,  diet  at,  96,  2 
Trinity,  festival  of,  105,2 
Trinitarians,    Order    of, 

98,  3 

45* 


Trinitarian  controversy, 

40;  50 
Troubadours,  106,  3 
Trullanum  I.,  52,  8 

II.,  63.  3 

Turlupines,  114,  3 
Turribius,  54,  2 
Tutilo,   89,  6 
Tychonius,  48,  1 
Typos,  52,  8 
Tyre,  Synod  of,  50,  2 

Uladislaus,  119,  5,  6 

Dlfilas,  76,  1 

Ulric       of      Augsburg, 

84,3 
Unam  sanctam,  110,  1 
Unction,     Extreme,    61, 

2 ;  70,  2 
Union    of     Greek    'with 

Rom.  Ch.,  72,  4 
Unitas  fratrum,  119,  6 
United  Greeks,  72,  4 
Universities,  100,  1 
Unni  of  Hamb.,  93,  1 
Urban  II.,  96,  3 

IV.,  96,  6 

V.,  110,  2 

VI.,  110,  3 


Ursinus  of  Rome,  63,  1 
Ursula,  108,  4 
Usuardus,  90,  9 
Utraquists,  119,  5 

Valence,      Synod      of, 

91,  4 
Valens,  Bishop,  50,  3 
Emp.,  50,  4;  6 


Valentinian  I.,  42,  3 
II.,  42,  3 


III.,  46,  2 

Valentinus,  28,  3 
Valerianus,  23,  5 
Valla,  Laur.,  120,  1 
Vallambrosians,  98,  5 
Vandals,  76,  3 
Varanes,  29,  1 
V.,  64,  2 


Velasquez,  98,  6 
Vengeance,  private,  88,  4 
Vercelli,        Synod       of, 

102,  2 
Verdun,  treaty  of,  82,  2 
Veronica,  14,  2 
Vespers,  Sicil.,  96,  8 


Vestibulum,  60 
Vicelinus,  93,  2 
Victor     I.      of     Rome, 
32,  1 

II.,  96,  2 


Vienna,  Council  of,  110, 

2;  112,  2,  3 
Vigilantius,  62 
Vigils.  32;  56,  4 
Vigilius  of  Rome,  52,  6 
Vincentius  Ferreri,  1 1 4, 1 
of  Lirinum,  48,  5; 


53,  5 
Virgilius       of       Salzb., 

78,  4 
Virgin,       festivals       in 

honour  of,  57,  2  ;  105, 

2;  113,  1 
Visigoths,  76, 
Vladimir,  72.  4 
Vulgate,  59,  1 

Wadstena,  112,  3 
Walafrid  Strabo,   90,  4, 

6;  91,  3 
Waldenses,  108,  5 
Waldhausen,    conr.     of 

119,  3 
Walter    the     Penniless, 

94,  1 

-ofSt.Victore,  103,3 
von  derVogelweide, 


106,  3 
Warnefrid,  Paul,  90,  3 
Wazo  of  Lieges,  109 
Wearmouth,  85,  4 
Wechabites,  65,  1 
Week,  the  great,  32 
Welsh,  4 

Wenceslaus,  119,  4 
Wenceslav,  93,  2 
Wends,  93,  3 
Wesel,  J.  of,  119,  1 
Wessel,  J.,  119,  1 
Wido  of  Milan,  97,  2 
Widukind,  101,  1 
Wilfrid,  77,  6  ;  78,  3 
Willibrord,  78,  3 
Willehad,  78,  3 
William  of    St.  Amour, 

98,  4 

of  Aquitaine,  98,  1 

of         Champeaux, 

102,  1 
the  Conqueror,  96,3 


534 


INDEX. 


William  of  Nogaret.l  10,1 

Rufus,  96,  3 

• Kuysbroek,  93,  5 

of  Tyre,  94,  3 

Willigis     of     Mayence, 

97,  1 
Wilzen,  93,  3 
Winfrid,  78,  4 
Witches,  malleus   male- 

ficarum,  115,  2 
procedure  against, 

115.  2 
Wittr-kind,  78,  5 


Wolfram    of    Eschenb., 

106,  3 
Worms,  Syn.  of,  96,  2 

concordat        of, 

96.  3 

Wulflaich,  78,  3 
Wulfram,  78,  3 
Wycliffe,  119 

—  theology  of,  119,  1 
successors  of,  119,2 


Xerophagiai,  37,  3 
Ximenes,  120,  4,  6 


Zach arias,  82,  1 

of  Anngni,  67,  1 

Zanzalus,  J.,  52,  7 
Zelatores,  98,  4 
Zeno,  8 

Erap.,  52,  5 


Zenobia,  40,  7 

Ziska,  119,  4 

Zosimus,    42,     4;     53, 

3,  4 
Ziitphen,  Gerh.  of,  112, 

5 


TEXT-BOOK 


OF 


Chuech  Histoky. 


BY 

DR.  JOHN  HENRY  KURTZ, 

PROFESSOR    OF   THEOLOGY    IN    THE   UNIVERSITY   OF   DORPAT:    AUTHOR   OF   "A    MANUAL 
OF  SACRED    HISTORY,"   'THE    BIBLE   AND   ASTRONOMY,"    ETC.,    ETC. 


^W  °f  $k$m  m  <fh& 


Revised,  with  Corrections  and  Additions  from  the  Seventh 
German  Edition. 


VOL.  II. 

FROM  THE  REFORMATION. 


PHILADELPHIA : 

SMITH,  ENGLISH   &   CO., 

No.  710  Arch   Street. 

18  76. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1875,  by 

SMITH,  ENGLISH  &  CO., 

in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


C'AXTON   PRESS   OF   SHERMAN   i   CO. 


TRANSLATORS'    PREFACE, 


The  present  volume  completes  "  Kurtz's  Text-book  of  Church 
History."  In  preparing  the  translation,  I  was  largely  aided  by 
the  Rev.  John  Beck,  A.M.,  of  Easton,  who  consented  to  carry 
on  the  work  during  my  protracted  summer's  illness,  and  to  whom 
the  last  twenty  paragraphs  must  be  accredited. 

This  volume  differs  from  the  first  in  being  a  direct  American 
translation  from  the  original,  instead  of  a  republication  of  a 
foreign  work.  Its  preparation,  consequently,  demanded  a  greater 
amount  of  labor  than  that  expended  on  the  first  volume,  but  it 
was  labor  of  a  vastly  more  pleasant  kind.  And  I  cannot  but 
hope,  that  the  course  thus  adopted  will  receive  general  approval. 

As  the  prosecution  of  the  undertaking  has  necessarily  brought 
me  into  closer  intimacy  with  this  Text-book,  my  earlier  convic- 
tions of  its  great  excellence  have  been  fully  confirmed.  It  would 
be  hard  to  find  a  text-book  in  any  department  of  literature,  to 
equal  it  in  lucid  conciseness,  and  its  admirable  arrangement  of 
the  material  on  hand.  In  this  respect  it  is  a  book  which  cannot 
fail  to  be  welcomed  by  teachers  and  students,  in  all  our  institu- 
tions of  learning,  in  which  due  attention  is  given  to  this  im- 
portant branch  of  knowledge. 

The  book  possesses,  however,  another  virtue,  worthy  of  com- 
mendation. I  refer  to  the  courageous  distinctness  with  which  it 
assumes  and  maintains  its  theological  and  ecclesiastical  character. 
Dr.  Kurtz,  of  Dorpat,  is  a  true  Lutheran,  and  is  not  ashamed  tc 
let  his  book  bear  testimony  to  the  fact.     To  many  moving  in 

(iii) 


IV  TRANSLATORS'    preface. 

a  different  Church  sphere  this  may  seem  an  objection,  and  thej 
may  especially  complain  of  occasional  partialities  of  statement 
into  which  his  denominational  preferences  may  have  betrayed 
him.  But  such  faults  are  fully  atoned  for  by  excellencies 
springing  from  the  same  root  with  themselves,  and  should  be  the 
less  offensive  because  they  may  be  so  easily  corrected  by  every 
intelligent  student. 

With  but  three  exceptions,  the  author  has  been  allowed  to 
pursue  his  course  uninterruptedly,  and  even  then  the  brief  cor 
rections  of  what  are  thought  misstatements  have  been  thrown 
into  brackets,  easily  distinguished  from  the  author's  text,  or  into 
a  foot-note. 

Those  parts  of  Dr.  Kurtz's  history  referring  to  the  British 
and  American  Churches  will  be  found  somewhat  meagre  and 
defective.  But  its  wants,  in  this  respect,  may  be  readily  sup- 
plied by  those  into  whose  hands  the  book  may  fall. 

It  has  been  the  single  aim  of  the  translators  to  furnish  the 
English  student  and  reader  with  a  true  and  faithful  rendering 
of  the  original,  holding  themselves  responsible,  not  for  the  senti- 
ments of  the  author,  but  only  for  the  style  and  fidelity  of  the 

translation. 

J.  H.  A.  BOMBERGER. 

Philadelphia,  December  13,  1861. 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


THIRD    SECTION. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH  IN  ITS  MODERN  GERMANIC 
FORM  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 

I  1.   Its  Character  and  Limitations Page  27-29 

FIRST  PERIOD  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  IN  ITS  MODERN  GERMANIC 
FORM  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 

(Sixteenth  Century.) 

I.  THE  REFORMATION. 

a.   Establishment  of  the  Reformation. 

I  2.   Commencement  of  the  Wittenberg  Reformation  (1517-1519) 32 

1.  Luther's  Early  Years.      2.   The  Theses.      3.  Cajetan   and 
Miltiz.     4.   The  Leipsic  Disputation.     5.   Melanchthon. 

I  3.  The  Period  of  Luther's  Conflicts  and  Trials 36 

1.  The  Bull  of  Excommunication.     2.  Erasmus.     3.  Charles  V. 
4.   Luther  at  Worms.     5.   The  Wartburg  Exile, 
g  4.   Degeneracy  and  Purification  of  the  Reformation  in  Wittenberg. ...     42 
1.   The  Wittenberg  Fanaticism.     2.   Francis  of  Sickingen.     3. 
Carlstadt.     4.   Thomas  Miinzer.     5.   The  Peasants'  War. 

§  5.   Luther's  Feuds  with  Henry  VIII.  and  Erasmus 46 

1.   Luther  and  Erasmus.     2.   Thomas  Murner.     3.  Berthold  of 
Chiem-see. 

\  6.   Development  of  the  Reformation  in  the  Empire 48 

1.   The  Diet  of  Nuremberg.     2.   Spread  of  Evangelical  Doc- 
trines.    3.  The  Diet  of  Nuremberg,  in  1524.     4.  Conven- 
tion of  Regensburg.     5.  The  Evangelical  States.     6.  The 
Torgau  Alliance.     7.  The  Diet  of  Spires  (1526). 
45*  (v) 


VI 


CONTENTS. 


2  7.  Establishment  of  the  National  Evangelical  Churches 54 

1.   Electoral  Saxony.      2.   Hesse.      3.   Other  German    States 
4.   Lower  Germany. 

\  8.   Martyrs  of  the  Evangelical  Faith  (15121-9) 57 

\  9.  Luther's  Private  and  Public  Life 58 

I  10.   The  Reformation  in  German  Switzerland  (1519-21) 60 

1.  Ulric  Zwingli.  2.  The  Reformation  in  Zurich.  3.  In 
Basel.  4.  In  other  Cantons.  5.  Anabaptists.  6.  Dis- 
putation in  Baden.  7.  Disputation  in  Berne.  8.  Triumph 
of  the  Reformation  in  Basel,  St.  Gall,  and  Sehaffhausen. 
9.  First  Peace  of  Cappel.  10.  Second  Peace  of  Cappel. 
\  11.  The  Sacramentarian  Controversy  (1525-1529) 68 

\  12.   The  Protest  and  Confession  of  the  Evangelical  States 70 

1.  The  Pack  Affair.  2.  The  Emperor's  Position.  3.  The 
Diet  of  Spires  (1529).  4.  The  Marburg  Colloquy.  5. 
The  Schwabach  Convention.  6.  The  Diet  of  Augsburg. 
7.  The  Augsburg  Confession.  8.  Recess  of  the  Augs- 
burg Diet  (1530). 

\  13.   Events  and  Negotiations  during  1531-36 76 

1.  The  Smalcaldic  League.  2.  The  Religious  Peace  of  Nu- 
remberg. 3.  The  Evangelization  of  Wiirtemberg.  4.  The 
Reformation  in  Anhalt  and  Ponierania.  5.  In  West- 
phalia. 6.  The  Miinster  Faction.  7.  Extension  of  the 
Smalcaldic  League.     8.   The  Wittenberg  Concord. 

|  14.  Events  and  Negotiations  during  1537-39 83 

1.  The  Smalcald  Articles.  2.  The  Nuremberg  League.  3. 
The  Frankfort  Suspension.  4.  The  Reformation  in  Al- 
bertinian  Saxony.     5.   In  Mark  Brandenburg. 

\  15.  The  Period  of  Union  EfTorts  (1 540-40) 87 

1.  The  Landgrave's  Bigamy.  2.  Religious  Colloquy  at  Worms. 
3.  At  Regensburg.  4.  Regensburg  Declaration.  5.  The 
See  of  Naumburg  and  the  Wiirzen  Quarrel.  6.  The  Re- 
formation in  Brunswick  and  the  Palatinate.  7.  In  the 
Principality  of  Cologne.  8.  The  Emperor's  Embarrass- 
ments. 9.  Diet  of  Spires.  10.  Quarrels  of  the  Emperor 
with  the  Evangelical  States.      11.   Luther's  Last  Days. 

\  16.   The  Smalcald  War  and  the  Interim  (1546-51) 96 

1.  Preparations  for  the  War.  2.  The  Campaign  along  the 
Danube.  3  On  the  Elbe.  4.  The  Council  of  Trent.  5. 
The  Augsburg  Interim.  6.  Its  Introduction.  7.  The 
Leipsic  Interim.     8.   Resumption  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 

I  17.  The  Elector  Maurice  and  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  (1550-55) 104 

1.  The  State  of  Affairs.  2.  The  Elector  Maurice.  3.  The 
Treaty  of  Passau.  4.  The  Death  of  Maurice.  5.  The 
Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg.  6.  The  Second  Attempt 
to  reform  Cologne. 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

j  18.   The  Reformation  in  French  Switzerland 109 

1.  Calvin's  Forerunners.  2.  Calvin  prior  to  his  Labors  in 
Geneva.  3.  Calvin's  First  Period  in  Geneva.  4.  His 
Second  Residence  there.  5.  Calvin's  Writings.  6  Doc- 
trinal System.  7.  The  Triumph  of  Calvinism  over  Zwin- 
glianism. 

I  19.   The  Reformation  in  other  Countries 114 

1.  Sweden.  2.  Denmark.  3.  Courland,  Livonia,  and  Es- 
thonia.  4.  England.  5.  Scotland.  6.  The  Netherlands. 
7.  France.  8.  Poland.  9.  Bohemia  and  Moravia.  10. 
Hungary.  11.  Transylvania.  12.  Spain.  13.  Italy. 
14.   Turkey. 


b.   Inner  History  of  the  Churches  of  the  Reformation. 

I  20.   The  Distinctive  Character  of  the  Lutheran  Church 129 

\  21.   Doctrinal  Controversies  in  the  Lutheran  Church ??£ 

1.  The  Philippists.  2.  The  Antinomian  Controversy.  3.  1'ha 
Osiandrian.  4.  The  Adiaphoristic.  5.  The  Majoristic. 
6.  The  Synergistic.  7.  The  Crypto-Calvinistic.  8.  The 
Karg  and  JEpine.  9.  The  Form  of  Concord.  10.  Elec- 
toral Saxony  Articles  of  Visitation.  11.  The  Huber  Con- 
troversy. 

\  22.   Constitution,  Cultus,  Life  and  Literature  of  the  Lutheran  Church..   1411 
1.  Constitution.     2.  Public  Worship  and  Art.     3.  Hymnology. 
4.    Psalmody.     5.  Theology.     6.  National  Literature.      7. 
Missions. 

§  23.   Internal  Character  of  the  Reformed  Church 148 

1.  Psalmody.     2.   Theology.     3.   Missions. 

\  24.   Culvinizing  of  German  Lutheran  National  Churches  150 


IT.  THE  DEFORMATION. 

§25.   Character  of  the  Deformation 153 

\  26.  Mysticism 154 

1.  Schwenkfeld.  2.  Agrippa,  Paracelsus,  Weigel.  3.  Seb. 
Franck,  Giord.  Bruno.     4.   The  Familists. 

\  27.   Anabaptism 157 

1.   David  Joris.     2.   Menno  Simons. 

\  28.   Antitrinitarians  and  Unitarians 158 

1.  German  Antitrinitarians.  2.  Servetus.  3.  Italian  Anti- 
trinitarians before  Socinus.  4.  Socinus  and  the  Soci- 
nians. 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

III.  THE  COUNTER-REFOKMATION. 

§  20.   Efforts  to  Strengthen  and  Renovate  the  Catholic  Church 161 

1.  The  Council  and  the  Popes.  2.  The  Society  of  Jesus.  3. 
New  Orders  for  Inner  Missions.  4  Reformation  of  the 
old  Orders.  5.  Augustinianisra.  6.  Theology.  7.  Music, 
Art,  Poetry.     8.   Piety. 

30.   Transmarine  Missions 169 

1.  East  India  and  Japan.  2.  China.  3.  America.  4.  Abys- 
sinia and  Egypt. 

I  31.   Catholic  Restoration  Efforts 171 

1.  Views  of  the  German  Emperors.  2.  Attempts  at  Resto- 
ration in  German}'.  3.  In  other  European  Countries. 
4.   Russia  and  the  United  Greeks. 


SECOND  PERIOD  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  IN  ITS  MODERN  GER- 
MANIC FORM  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 

.Seventeenth  Century.) 
I.  RECIPROCAL  RELATIONS  OF  THE  CHURCHES. 

|  32.   The  Oriental  Churches  and  the  West 175 

1.  Expectations  of  the  Catholics.  2.  Of  the  Cnlvinists.  3. 
Orthodoxy  Confirmed. 

\  33.   Catholicism  and  Protestantism 176 

1.  The  Restoration  in  Germany  and  adjacent  Territories.  2. 
Protestants  in  France,  and  Waldenses  in  Piedmont.  3. 
The  Catholics  in  England.  4.  Converted  Princes.  5. 
Union  Efforts. 

\  34.   Lutheranism,   Calvinism,  Anglicanism 181 

1.   Calvinising  of  Hesse-Cassel.     2.   Of  the  Earldom  of  Lippe. 

3.  Transition  of  the  House  of  Brandenburg.      4.   Union 
Efforts.     5.   English  Non-conformists. 

II.  THE  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

g  35.   The  Papacy,  Monasticism,  and  Missions 184 

1.   The  Papacy.     2.   New  Orders.     3.   Missions. 
§  30.   Mysticism,  Quietism,  Jansenism 188 

1.  Mysticism  and  Quietism.     2.  Jansenism  in  its  First  Stages, 
g  37.  Science  and  Art 192 

1.  Theology.     2.  Church  Music.     3.  Poetry. 

III.  THE  LUTHERAN  CHURCn. 

\  38.   Lutheran  Orthodoxy  and  its  Struggles 19P 

1.  Orthodoxy  in  Conflict  with  itself.  2.  The  Syncretistic  Con- 
troversy.    3.  First  Stages  of  the  Pietistic  Controversy. 

4.  Theology. 


CONTENTS.  IX 

§  39.   Religious  Life  in  the  Lutheran  Church 202 

1.  Mysticism  and  Asceticism.  2.  Mysticism  and  Theosophy. 
3.  Church  Hymns.  4.  Psalmody.  5.  Christian  Life. 
6.   Missions. 

IV.  THE  REFORMED  CHURCH. 

g  40.  Reformed  Theology  and  its  Conflicts 207 

1.   The  Arminian  Controversy.     2.  Its  Effects.     3.   The  Carte- 
sian and  Cocceian  Controversies.     4.   Theology. 

I  41.   Piety  in  the  Reformed  Church   , 216 

1.   Music  and  Esthetics.     2.   Missions. 

V.  ANTI  AND  EXTRA-ECCLESIASTICAL  MATTERS. 

§42.   Sects  and  Fanatics , 218 

1.   The    Netherland    Anabaptists.     2.    The    English    Baptists. 
3.  The   Quakers.      4.    Schismatics    and   Sects.      5.    Russian 
Sects. 

§43.   Philosophers  and  Free-thinkers 222 

1.   Philosophers.     2.   Free-thinkers. 


THIRD  PERIOD  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY  IN  ITS  MODERN  GERMANIC 
FORM  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 

(Eighteenth  Century.) 

I.  THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

I  44.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church 226 

1.  The  Popes  of  the  first  half  of  this  Century.  2.  New  Orders. 
3.  Missions.  4.  The  Counter-reformation.  5.  Conver- 
sions. 6.  Jansenism  in  its  second  stage.  7.  The  Order 
of  Jesuits  abolished.  8.  Anti-hierarchical  movements  in 
Germany.  9.  The  French  Revolution.  10.  Illumination. 
11.  Theology. 
§45.  Oriental  Orthodox  Church  238 

II.  THE  PROTESTANT  CHURCH. 

§  46.   The  Lutheran  Church  before  the  Illumination 240 

1.  Second  stage  of  the  Pietistic  Controversies.  2.  Theology. 
3.  Theories  of  Canon-law.  4.  Hymnology.  5.  Psal- 
mody. 6.  Piety  and  Devotional  Literature.  7.  Mis- 
sions. 

§  47.   The  Moravians  (Unitas  Fratrum) 252 

1.  Zinzendorf.  2.  Establishment  of  the  Church.  3.  Progress 
of  the  Church.  4.  Zinzendorf 's  Plans  and  Labors.  5. 
Spangenberg.     G.  Missions. 

\  48.  The  Reformed  Church  and  Methodism 266 

1.  Methodism.     2.  Union  Efforts.     3.   Theology. 


X  CONTENTS. 

§40.  New  Sects  and  Fanatics  260 

1.  Fanatics  and  Schismatics  in  Germany.  2.  The  Inspiration 
Congregations  in  Wetterau.  3.  Dippel.  4.  Hypocriti- 
cal and  Immoral  Sects.  5.  Swedenborgianism.  6.  New 
Baptist  Sects.  7.  New  Quaker  Sects.  8.  The  Hebrews 
and  Hattemists. 

§  50.   The  Theology  and  Literature  of  the  period  of  Illumination 276 

1.  English  Deists.  2.  The  Forerunners  of  German  Illumina- 
tion. 3.  Illumination  in  Germany  from  1750.  4.  Tran- 
sition Theology.  5.  Rationalistic  Theology.  G.  Supra- 
naturalistic  Theology.  7.  German  Philosophy.  8.  Na- 
tional Literature. 

\  51.  Ecclesiastical  Life  during  the  period  of  Illumination 288 

1.  Dilution  of  Hymn-books,  and  Sacred  Poetry.  2.  Psalmody. 
3.   Church  parties.     4.  Christian  Societies  and  Missions. 

FOURTH  PERIOD   OF   CHURCH   HISTORY   IN   ITS   MODERN   GER- 
MANIC FORM  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 

(Nineteenth  Century.) 

I.  GENERAL  INTRODUCTION. 

\  52.   Review  of  Religious  Movements  during  the  Nineteenth  Century...   293 
\  53.   General  basis  of  culture  in  the  nineteenth  century,  in  its  relations 

to  Theology  and  the  Church 295 

1.  German  Philosophy.  2.  The  Sciences.  3.  National  Lite- 
rature     4.  National  Culture.     5.   Art. 

n.  PROTESTANTISM. 

g  54.   The  Protestant  Church  in  general,  especially  in  Germany 306 

1.   Rationalism.      2.   Pietism.      3.   The    Union.      4.    Lutheran 
opposition  to  the  Union.     5.  The  Confederation.     6.  Lu- 
theranism.      7.    Melanchthonianism   and   Calvinism.     8. 
Complications    regarding  Worship.     9.   Home  ;    and,  10 
Foreign  Missions. 

§  55.  Protestant  Established  Church 327 

1.  Prussia.  2.  Saxony.  3.  Hanover,  Oldenburg,  Mecklen- 
burg, Hessen,  Lippe.  4.  Wurteniberg  and  Baden.  5. 
Switzerland.  6.  Austria.  7.  Bavaria.  8.  England, 
Scotland.  Ireland.  9.  Holland,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Nor- 
way. 10.  France  and  Belgium.  11.  Italy,  Spain,  Rus- 
sia, Turkey.     12.   North  America. 

J  56.  Protestant  Theology  in  Germany  351 

1.  The  Founders  of  the  Theology  of  the  Nineteenth  Century. 
2.  Rationalistic  Theology.  3.  The  Supranaturalistic 
Schools.  4.  Speculative  Theology  and  the  School  of 
Baur.  5.  The  Modern  or  German  School.  6.  Lutheran 
Confessional  Theology. 


CONTENTS.  Xi 

III.  ROMAN  CATHOLICISM. 

\  57.  Roman  Catholicism  in  general 376 

1.  The  Papacy.  2.  The  Jesuits,  Trappists,  School-sisters. 
3.  Proselytism.  4.  Ultramontism.  5.  National  Reli- 
gious Liberalism.      6.   The  Unions.     7.   Theology. 

\  58.  Roman  Catholic  National  Churches 392 

1.  Italy.  2.  Spain,  Portugal,  South  America.  3.  France, 
Belgium,  Holland.  4.  England,  Ireland,  N.  America. 
5.  Austria,  Bavaria,  and  Hanover.  6.  The  Church  Pro- 
vince of  the  Upper  Rhine.  7.  Prussia  and  Mecklen- 
burg. 8.  Switzerland, 
g  59.  The  Orthodox  Greek  Church 403 

IV.  ANTI-CHRISTIANITY. 
\  60.  Sects  and  Fanatics 405 

1.  The  Propagation  of  the  older  Sects.  2.  Fanatical  Pheno- 
mena. 3.  The  Harmonites.  4.  The  New  Templars. 
5.  The  Hypocrites  of  Konigsberg.  6.  The  Irwingians. 
7.  The  Darbyites.  8.  The  Amen  Society.  9.  The  Mor- 
mons. 

\  61.  Practical  Anti-Christianity „    414 

1.  The  St.  Sirnonites.     2.  Socialists  and  Communists. 
Chronological  Tables. 
Index. 


THIRD     SECTION. 


HISTORY   OF  THE   CHURCH 


IN   ITS 


MODERN    GERMANIC    FORM    OF    DEVELOPMENT. 


46  (25) 


I  1.  CHARACTER  AND  LIMITATIONS  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY 
IN  THE  MODERN  GERMANIC  FORM  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 

In  the  Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  Germanic 
spirit,  which,  until  then,  had  been  under  the  tutelage  and  disci- 
pline of  the  Romish  Church,  attained  to  maturity  and  inde- 
pendence. It  fully  emancipated  itself  from  the  bondage  of  its 
master,  who  had  become  an  ambitious  oppressor,  and  had  made 
every  effort  to  suppress  all  independent  attempts  to  secure  eccle- 
siastical, theological,  and  scientific  freedom  —  all  movements  in 
favor  of  evangelical  reforms.  In  the  primitive  history  of  the 
Church,  the  person  of  Christ  was  made  the  centre  of  salvation, 
and  the  Holy  Scriptures  were  set  forth  as  the  source  of  all  an- 
nouncements and  knowledge  of  salvation.  The  development  of 
Christianity  was  impelled  in  the  ancient  Church  by  tradition, 
in  the  mediceval  by  the  hierarchy,  in  the  modern  by  science. 
Tradition  represents  the  continued  agency  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
in  the  Church — the  hierarchy  represents  Christ's  supremacy  over 
the  Church.  By  the  former  the  catholicity  of  the  Church  was 
developed  ;  the  latter  protected  the  Church  against  the  storms 
which  arose  amid  the  conflicts  of  the  ancient  and  modern  world, 
and  secured  its  perpetuation.  But  both  tradition  and  the  hier- 
archy transcended  their  proper  limits ;  hence  upon  modern 
science  devolved  the  duty  of  leading  men  back  to  the  fountain 
of  salvation  in  Christ,  and  of  the  knowledge  of  that  salvation 
in  the  Scriptures,  that  thus  the  truth  might  be  sifted  of  false- 
hood, and  that  which  was  normal  be  separated  from  abnormal 
developments  in  the  history  of  the  Church.  This  happened  iu 
the  Reformation.  Not  that  science  produced  the  Reformation, 
for  it  was  rather  called  forth  by  deep  anxieties  for  the  salvation 
of  the  soul,  against  which  Romish  tradition  had  sealed  the  Sacred 
Scriptures,  and  Romish  indulgences  and  justification  by  works 

(27) 


28         CHARACTER     OF     MODERN     CHURCH     HISTORY. 

had  barred  faith  in  Christ.  But  the  Reformation  became  the  most 
zealous  patron  of  science,  because  science  furnished  the  means 
of  discovering,  establishing,  and  perfecting  the  principles  of  true 
reform.  These  principles  were  :  the  sole  normal  authority  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  justification  by  faith  alone,  without  any 
merit  of  works. 

1.  As  the  Romish  Church,  in  opposition  to  the  Reformation,  clung 
to  its  peculiarities,  both  in  form  and  substance,  and  even  reaffirmed 
them,  the  occidental  Church  was  sundered  into  an  Evangelical  Pro- 
testant and  a  Roman  Catholic  Church.  And,  as  the  principles  of  the 
Reformation  were  differently  apprehended,  Protestantism  divided  into 
two  branches,  the  Lutheran  and  the  Reformed  Churches.  In  addition 
to  these  three  western  Churches,  and  the  ancient  oriental  Church,  all 
which  were  based  upon  the  common  foundation  of  primitive  Catholi- 
cism, various  sects  arose  which  repudiated  that  Catholicism,  and  set  up 
for  themselves.  In  conserpience  of  these  divisions  and  schisms,  modern 
Church  History  exhibits  varieties,  activities,  and  rivalries,  with  good 
and  bad  fruits,  such  as  no  previous  period  presents.  Another  still 
more  distinctive  peculiarity  of  this  age  of  the  Church  is  found  in  the 
fact  that  infidelity,  fanaticism,  worldliness,  and  anti-Christianity  have 
developed  tnemselves  in  its  course  more  vigorously,  widely,  and  con- 
sistently, than  ever  before,  so  that  an  anti-Christian  secular  Church  is 
seen  in  violent  antagonism  to  the  true  Church  of  Christ.  This  progress 
of  anti-Christianity  has  its  ground  in  this :  that,  according  to  prophecy 
and  historical  necessity,  the  kingdom  of  darkness  will  develop  itself 
parallel  with  the  kingdom  of  God  more  decidedly  and  vigorously  as  it 
approaches  its  end,  and  thus  become  ripe  for  judgment.  In  regard  to 
the  duty  of  the  Church  to  extend  its  limits,  we  find  that,  whilst  the 
early  Church  prosecuted  the  work  of  missions  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  and  the  mediaeval  Church  spread  Christianity  among  the 
Germanic-Slavonian  nations,  the  modern  Church  has  engaged  in  the 
work  of  bearing  the  Gospel  to  countries  beyond  the  ocean,  so  that,  be- 
fore the  end  of  all  things,  Christianity  may  make  the  circuit  of  the 
earth. 

2.  Modern  Church  History  clearly  and  distinctly  presents  four  sepa- 
rate forms  of  development,  by  which  its  division  into  as  many  periods 
is  justified.  The  main  characteristic  points  of  their  distinction  consists 
partly  in  the  opposition  between  particular  Churches,  partly  in  the 
antagonism  between  faith  and  infidelity.  The  transitions  from  one 
period  to  another  nearly  correspond  with  those  of  the  several  centuries. 
The  first  period  is  the  age  of  the  Reformation  (the  sixteenth  century), 
in  which  the  reformatory  German  church-life  was  separated  from  the 
Romano-German,  and  their  reciprocal  relation  became  fixed.  The 
second  period,  extending  beyond  the  seventeenth  century,  was  that 
of  the  general  conflict  between  the  leading  particular  Churches,  and 


CHARACTER     OF     MODERN     CHUBCII     HISTORY.         29 

exhibits  their  free,  independent  development.  It  is  characterized  as  the 
age  of orthodoxy ,  and  of  the  supremacy  of  confessions  of  faith.  In  the 
third  period,  reaching  to  the  commencement  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
infidelity,  in  the  form  of  deism,  rationalism,  and  naturalism,  began  to 
assert  its  authority.  The  fourth  period,  beginning  with  the  present 
century,  includes  our  own  times.  Revived  faith,  invigorated  by  its 
triumphant  conflict  with  rationalism,  branches  out  on  the  side  of  Pro- 
testantism, into  latitudinarian  unionism,  and  strict  confess ionalism, 
whilst  the  Romish  Church  mounts  to  the  pinnacle  of  the  most  zealous 
ultra-montanism.  Infidelity,  also,  assumes  new  and  decidedly  anti- 
Christian  forms,  in  the  shape  of  pantheism,  materialism,  and  commu- 
nism, and  seems  to  wage  a  war  of  extermination  against  everything 
Christian  in  Church  and  State,  in  science  and  faith,  in  social  and  poli- 
tical life. 


48: 


FIRST   PERIOD 


OF 


CHURCH    H  I  S  T  0  R Y 

IN  ITS  MODERN   GERMANIC  FORM  OF  DEVELOPMENT 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 


I.   THE   REFORMATION, 


Sources:  1.  Luther's  Works,  published  by  J.  G.  Walch,  Halle,  1740- 
52,  24  vols.  4to.  Erlangen  ed.  1826-55,  65*  vols.  8vo.  Mdanchthon's 
Works  in  the  Corpus  Reformatorum,  ed.  C.  G.  Bretschneider.  Hal., 
1834,  sqq.  (thus  far  25  vols.  4to.)—  G.  ^palatini  Annales  reform,  to 
1543,  publ.  by  Cyprian,  Leips.  1718 ;  ib.  hist.  Nachl.  u.  Briefe,  publ. 
by  Neudecker  u.  Preller,  Jen.  1851.— Fr.  Myconii  Ref.  Hisu,  publ.  by 
Cyprian,  Gotha,  lllb.—Ratzeberger  (kursachs.  Leibarzt)  handschr. 
Geseh.  uber  Luther  u.  s.  Zeit,  publ.  by  Neudecker,  Jena,  1850.—/. 
Cochlaei  (Catholic)  Commentt.  de  actis  et  scriptis  Lutheri,  Mog.  1549. 
In  opposition  to  it,  J.  Sleidani  commentt.  de  statu  relig.  et  reipubl. 
Carolo  V.  Csesare.  Arg.  1555.  —  Abr.  Scvlteti  Annales  evang.  Sec. 
XVI.  (to  1536)  ed.  H.  van  der  Hardt,  Frcf.  1717. 

2.  V.  E.  Lonelier,  vollst.  Ref.  Acta  (to  1519).  Lpz.  1720,  etc.  3  Bde. 
4to.—  C.  G.  Neudecker,  Urkd.  aus  d.  Ref.  Zeit,  Cass.  1836;  id.,  Acten- 
stucke,  Nurnb.  1838  ;  id.,  Neue  Beitr.  Lpz.  1841.—  C.  G.  Forstemann, 
Archiv  fur  die  Gesch.  d.  Ref.  Halle,  1831,  etc. ;  id.  Neues  Urkunden- 
buch,  Hamb.  1842,  4to. 

3.  L.  Maimbourg  (a  Jesuit)  Hist,  du  Lutheranisme,  Par.  1680.  In 
opposition  to  this :  L.  de  Seckendorf,  Commentarius  Hist,  et  Apol.  de 
Lutheraniamo,  Frcf.  1688,  4to.—  W.  C.  Tented,  hist,  Bericht  von  d. 
Anf.  u.  Fortg.  d.  Ref.  Lutheri,  publ.  by  Cyprian,  Lpz.  1718,  3  Bde.— 
C.  A.  Salirj,  Gesch.  d.  augsb.  Conf.  (to  1555).  Halle,  1730,  etc.  3  Bde. 
4to.— Dan.  Gerdesii  introd.  in  hist.  ref.     Groning.  1744,  4  vols.   It... 

4.  G.  J.  Planck,  Gesch.  d.  Entst.  Verandr.  u.  Bild.  d.  prot.  Lehrbegr. 
bis  zur  Concordienf.  2.  A.  Lpz.  1791,  etc.,  7  Bde. —  PA.  MarJieineke, 
Gesch.  d  deutsch.  Ref.  (to  1555).  2.  A.  Berl.  1831,  etc.—  C.  G.  Neu- 

(30) 


THE     WITTENBERG     REFORMATION.  31 

decker,  Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Ref.  (to  1532).  Lpz.  1843.  —  C.  H.  Bressler, 
Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Ref.  Danz.  1846,  2  Bde. — A".  N.  Hagenbach,  Vorless. 
ub.  Wes.  u.  Gesch.  d.  Ref.  Bel.  1.  2.  Gesch.  d.  Ref.  in  Deutschl.  u.  d. 
Sclnveiz.  2.  A.  Lpz.  1851.  —  /.  II.  Merle-d' Aubigne,  Hist,  of  the  Ref. 
of  the  Sixteenth  Cent.  (5  vols,  publ.)  —  B.  ter  Haar,  d.  Ref.  Gesch.  in 
Schilderungen,  from  the  Dutch  by  C.  Gross.     Hamb.  1850.  2  Bde. 

5.  J.  G.  Miiller,  Denkvrardigkk.  aus  d.  Gesch.  d.  Ref.  Lpz.  1806. — 
A'.  Hagen,  Deutschl.  literat.  u.  rel.  Zust'ande  im  Zeitalt.  d.  Ref.  Erlg. 
1841,  etc.  3  Bde.— F.  A.  Holzhausen,  d.  Protest,  nach  sr.  gesch.  Entst., 
Begrlind.  u.  Fortbild.  Lpz.  1844-49.  2  Bde.  —  V.  Schenkel  das  Wesen 
d.  Protest.  Schaffh.  1845,  etc.,  3  Bde.  —  H.  Heppe,  Gesch.  d.  deutsch. 
Protest.  Marb.  1852.  Bd.  I.  (the  Melanchth.  tendency  in  Ch.  hist.) 

6.  K.  Riffel,  K.  G.  d.  neust,  Zeit.  2.  A.  Mainz,  1847,  etc.  3  Bde.  — 
Ign.  Bollinger,  de  Ref.  im  Umfange  d.  Luth.  Bekenntn.  2.  A.  Regensb. 
1852,  etc.  3  Bde.  (both  odiously  ultra-montane). 

7.  Luther's  Leben,  by  Melanchthon,  Wittb.  1546  ;  by  J.  Mathesius 
(in  sermons),  publ.  by  Rust.  Berl.  1841,  and  often:  by  Nic.  Selnecker, 
ed.  Mayer.  Wittb.  1687,  4to. ;  by  B.  Herrnschmidt.  Halle,  1742;  by 
J.  G.  Walch,  in  the  24th  vol.  of  Luther's  works ;  by  F.  S.  Keil,  Lpz. 
1764;  by  G.  H.  A.  Vkert,  Goth.  1817.  2  Bde ;  by  G.  Pfzer,  Stuttg. 
1836  ;  by  C.  F.  G.  Slang,  Stuttg.  1838  ;  by  31.  Meurer,  2.  A.  Dresd. 
1852;  by  K.  Jurgens  (to  1517),  Lpz.  1846.  3  Bde;  by  L.  Weydmann, 
Hamb.  1850 ;  by  H.  Gelzer,  mit  bildl.  Darstell.  v.  G.  Konig,  Hamb. 
1851. 

8.  C.  A.  Menzel,  Neuere  Gesch.  d.  Deutsch.  Berl.  1826,  etc.  Bd.  1.-8. 
—  Leop.  Ranke,  deutsch.  Gersch.  in  Zeitalter  d.  Ref.  3.  A.  Berl.  1852. 
6  Bde. —  C.  de  Villers,  Essai  sur  l'esprit  et  l'influence  de  la  ref.  du  XVI 
Biecle.  5  ed.    Par.  1851.     [Transl.  by  Sam.  Miller,  Princeton.  1833.] 

9.  H.  Bullinger,  Ref.  Gesch.  (to  1532),  publ.  by  Hottinger  u.  Vogeli. 
Frauenf.  1838.  3  Bde.—/.  C.  Fiisslin,  Beitr.  zur  Erlautr.  d.  K.  Ref. 
Hist.  d.  Schweizerlande.  Zurich,  1751,  etc.,  5  Bde.  —  /.  /.  Simler, 
Samml.  alt.  u.  neuer  Urkd.  Zurich.  1757.  5  Bde. — L.  Maimbourg,  Hist, 
du  Calvanisme.  Par.  1682.  In  opposition  :  P.  Bayle,  Critique  generale, 
etc.  Rottd.  1684.  2  voll.  —  /.  Basnage,  Hist,  de  la  relig.  des  6glise8 
ref.  2  ed.  Haye,  1725.  2  voll.  4to.  —  /.  ./.  Hottinger,  helvet.  K.  G. 
Zurich,  1805,  etc.  5  Bde.  —  A.  RueJiat,  Hist,  de  la  ref.  de  la  Suisse. 
Gen.  1727,  etc.  6  voll.  —  /.  B.  Beavsobre,  Hist,  de  la  ref.  (to  1530) 
Berl.  1785.  3  voll.  —  L.  Wirz  u.  M.  Kirchhofer,  neuere  helv.  K.  G 
Zurich.   1813.     2  Bde. 


32  SECTION'    III. — FIRST   PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  P.). 


A.  ESTABLISHMENT    OF  THE    REFORMATION. 

|  2.  COMMENCEMENT   OF    THE    WITTENBERG 
REFORMATION.     (1517-19.) 

No  historical  event  so  clearly  and  plainly  displays  a  ruling 
divine  Providence  as  the  German  Reformation.  In  its  case, 
place,  time,  persons,  circumstances,  and  relations,  religious  and 
political,  all  combined  most  wonderfully  to  secure,  for  the  great 
work,  a  firm  basis,  a  safe  position,  a  healthy  tendency,  strict 
purity,  powerful  protection,  general  recognition,  successful  pro- 
gress, and  permanent  results.  There  was  a  lively  sense  of  the 
errors  of  the  Church,  and  a  deep  and  general  longing  after  a 
reformation  ;  and  science  offered  it  ample  means  to  effect  a 
reformation.  The  papal  chair  was  occupied  by  a  man  as  indif- 
ferent and  indolent  as  Leo  X. ;  and  another,  as  foolhardy  and 
shameless  as  Tetzel,  vended  indulgences  For  the  tender  plant, 
there  was  provided  a  protector  as  pious,  faithful,  and  consci- 
entious, as  honored  and  esteemed,  as  Frederick  the  Wise.  On 
the  imperial  throne  sat  Charles  V.,  sufficiently  powerful  and 
inimical  to  kindle  the  purifying  fires  of  affliction,  but  too  much 
involved  in  political  troubles  to  render  a  reckless  aud  violent 
suppression  of  the  movement  either  prudent  or  possible.  Be- 
sides these,  there  were  a  great  many  other  persons,  circumstances, 
and  complications,  all  which  seemed  to  conspire,  as  by  design, 
to  strengthen  and  advance  the  cause.  Then,  finally,  at  the  pro- 
per time,  at  the  most  desirable  place,  and  amid  the  most  favor- 
able circumstances,  arose  a  genius  like  Luther,  in  whom  was 
found  the  rarest  combination  of  all  the  gifts  and  qualities  of 
spirit,  mind,  character,  and  will,  requisite  to  the  great  work. 
He  was,  moreover,  providentially  trained  for  his  high  mission  by 
the  events  of  his  life,  and  by  being  made  to  experience  in  his 
own  soul  the  essential  principles  of  the  Reformation,  and  tc 
make  such  proof  of  its  divine  power,  that  he  felt  irresistibly 
impelled  to  communicate  to  the  world  this  most  sacred  and  pre- 
cious experience  of  his  life.  The  great  work  began  with  the 
nailing  of  ninety-five  simple  theses  to  the  door  of  the  Witten- 
berg Castle  church,  and  the  Leipsic  disputation  constituted  the 
first  prominent  point  in  his  history. 


THE     WITTKNBEKG     REFORMATION.  33 

1.  Luther's  Early  Years. — Martin  Luther  was  born  at  Eisleben,  No- 
vember 10,  1483.  After  growing  up  under  strict  parental  discipline, 
and  amidst  the  wants  and  privations  of  poverty,  he  went,  in  1501,  to 
study  law  at  the  University  of  Erfurt.  Deeply  affected  by  the  sudden 
death  of  his  friend  Alexius,  he  entered  the  Augustine  monastery  at 
Erfurt  in  1505.  In  great  distress  for  the  salvation  of  his  soul,  he 
sought  to  quiet  his  conscience  by  fastings,  prayers,  and  penances.  But 
his  temptations  ever  returned  with  new  power.  An  old  brother  in  the 
monastery,  one  day,  repeated  to  the  distressed  and  almost  exhausted 
penitent  the  article  of  the  creed:  "  I  believe  in  the  forgiveness  of  sins." 
It  was  a  word  of  comfort  to  his  soul.  He  was  still  more  cheered  by 
the  counsel  of  his  noble  superior,  John  Staupitz,  the  provincial  of  the 
Augustines  for  Germany.  He  pointed  out  to  him  the  way  of  true 
repentance  and  faith  in  the  Saviour,  who  was  crucified  not  for  imaginary 
sins.  Following  his  advice,  Luther  zealously  studied  the  Bible,  along 
with  the  writings  of  Augustine,  and  of  the  mystics  of  the  middle  ages. 
In  1508,  Staupitz  aided  him  in  obtaining  an  appointment  to  the  chair 
of  philosophy  in  the  University  of  Wittenberg,  founded  in  1502.  This 
compelled  him  thoroughly  to  study  scholastic  authors.  A  journey  to 
Rome,  undertaken  in  1510.  at  the  request  of  his  order,  had  a  mighty 
influence  upon  his  future  course.  Indignant  at  the  blasphemous  levity 
and  immorality  exhibited  there  by  the  clergy,  and  unappeased  by  the 
outward  penances  to  which  he  submitted,  he  returned  home.  All  the 
way  back,  these  words  resounded  in  his  ears:  "  The  just  shall  live  by 
faith."  It  was  a  voice  from  God  to  his  soul,  and  filled  his  troubled 
spirit  with  divine  peace.  After  his  return,  Staupitz  gave  him  no  rest 
until  he  was  promoted  to  the  theological  doctorate  (1512),  when  he 
commenced  lecturing  upon  theology,  and  also  preaching  in  Wittenberg. 
Guided  by  the  study  of  Augustine,  he  penetrated  ever  more  deeply 
into  the  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures,  and  of  their  fundamental  doc- 
trine of  justification  by  faith  ;  he  attained  daily  to  greater  freedom 
from  the  trammels  of  scholastic  formalism,  and  from  those  of  mediaeval 
pantheistic  mysticism,  by  which  he  had,  at  first,  allowed  himself  to 
be  unduly  influenced. 

2.  Luther's  Theses.  (Cf.  F.  G.  Hoffmann,  Lebensbeschr.  Tetzel's. 
Lpz.  1844.  —  Vol.  Gronc  (Cath.)  Tetzel  u.  Luther.  Soest.  1853.  In 
reply:  H.  O.  Kohler,  riim.  Geschichtsverdrehung,  etc.,  in  the  Lath. 
Ztschr.,  1855,  III.— J.  H.  Henries,  Albr.  v.  Brandb.  Mainz,  1858).— 
Pope  Leo  X.  had  authorized  a  general  indulgence,  avowedly  to  com- 
plete St.  Peter's,  but  really  to  relieve  his  pecuniary  embarrassments, 
and  gratify  his  love  of  splendor.  Germany  was  divided  among  three 
commissioners.  The  Elector  Albrecht  of  Mayence,  who  was  also  Arch- 
bishop of  Magdeburg  (a  brother  of  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg),  him- 
self assumed  the  chief  management  of  the  commission  for  his  pro- 
vinces, reserving  the  half  of  the  receipts  for  the  liquidation  of  his  own 
debts.     Among  the  vendors  of  indulgences  whom  he  appointed,  John 


34         SECTION    III. — FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.   1C    A.  D.) 

.Teizel,  the  Dominican  prior,  was  the  most  scandalous.  Attended  by  a 
'numerous  retinue,  he  travelled  from  place  to  place,  and  offered  his 
wares  with  the  most  unexampled  impudence  and  obtrusive  publicity. 
Thus  he  set  up  in  Juierbock,  near  Wittenberg,  and  attracted  crowds 
of  purchasers  from  all  directions.  Luther  discovered,  in  the  confes- 
sional, the  pernicious  consequences  of  this  disorder,  and  on  the  eve  of 
All  Saints'  Day,  Oct.  31,  1517,  he  nailed  ninety-five  theses  (in  Latin), 
"  in  explanation  of  the  power  of  indulgences,"  on  the  door  of  the  castle 
church  in  Wittenberg.  Although  these  theses  did  not  assail  the  doc- 
trine of  indulgence  itself,  but  merely  its  abuse,  their  decided  reference 
to  faith  in  Christ  as  the  only  ground  of  salvation,  involved  the  life- 
principle  of  the  Reformation.  With  incredible  rapidity  the  theses 
were  spread  over  Germany,  and  indeed  over  all  Europe.  Luther  con- 
nected with  them  a  sermon  for  the  people  upon  "  indulgences  and 
grace."  The  movement  met  with  so  much  favour,  that  the  friends  of 
the  old  order  of  things  were  compelled  to  resist  it.  Tetzel  publicly 
burned  the  theses  at  Jilterbock,  and,  with  the  aid  of  Conrad  Wimpina 
of  Frankfort,  prepared  counter-theses,  which  he  wished  to  discuss  with 
Luther.  A  number  of  copies  of  these  were  bought  by  the  Wittenberg 
students,  and,  in  retaliation,  burned  by  them  ;  an  act  of  which  Luther 
highly  disapproved.  John  Eck,  pro-chancellor  in  Ingolstadt,  one  of 
the  most  learned  theologians  of  his  day,  and  a  professed  friend  of 
Luther,  wrote  Obeliseos,  in  which,  without  naming  Luther,  he  severely 
denounced  the  Bohemian  poison.  Luther  rejoined  in  his  Asteriscos 
At  first  Leo  X.,  in  his  self-security,  regarded  the  matter  as  nothing 
more  than  an  unimportant  quarrel  among  the  monks,  and  even  praised 
Brother  Martin  as  a  remarkable  genius.  Hogstratcn's  cry  of  heresy  he 
did  not  heed,  but  had  no  objections  that  the  Dominican,  Sylvester  J'ri- 
erias,  master  sacri palatii,  should  controvert  Luther.  His  book  was  a 
miserable  affair.  Luther  briefly  and  effectually  refuted  it.  Prierias 
wrote  a  second  more  wretched  reply.  Luther,  instead  of  replying  to 
this,  published  it  himself.  Leo  then  enjoined  silence  upon  his  unskilful 
advocate.  —  In  May,  1518,  Luther  addressed  a  humble  letter  to  the 
pope,  and,  in  self-justification,  added  detailed  Resolutiones  upon  his 
theses.     Both  were  to  be  sent  to  Leo  by  Staupitz. 

3.  Cajetan  and  Miltiz  (1518). — At  length  it  was  resolved,  at  Borne,  to 
lay  vigorous  hold  of  the  Wittenberg  movement.  The  papal  fiscal  entered 
complaints  against  Luther,  who  was  thereupon  summoned  to  answer  to 
the  charge,  in  Rome,  within  sixty  days.  But,  at  the  solicitation  of 
the  University  of  Wittenberg,  and  especially  of  Frederick  the  Wise,  the 
pope  committed  the  settlement  of  the  matter  to  his  legale,  Cardinal 
Cajetan,  at  t lie  Diet  of  Augsburg.  Luther  appeared  and  appealed  to 
die  Bible.  But  the  legate  wished  to  refute  him  by  the  testimony  of 
the  scholastics,  and,  after  vainly  demanding  an  unqualified  retraction, 
arrogantly  turned  away.  Luther  made  a  formal  appeal  to  the  pope, 
and  happily  escaped  from  Augsburg.     Cajetan  now  sought  to  incite 


THE     WITTENBERG     REFORMATION.  35 

Frederick  the  Wise  (1486-1525)  against  the  refractory  monk,  but 
Luther's  meek  and  cheerful  confidence  won  the  heart  of  the  noble 
elector.— No  good  was  to  be  looked  for  from  Rome ;  hence  Luther  pre- 
pared, in  advance,  an  appeal  to  a  general  council,  which,  however,  the 
covetousness  of  the  printer  prematurely  circulated,  against  the  will 
of  Luther.  —  In  Rome,  the  unhappy  issue  of  the  diet  was  charged  to 
Cajetan's  unwise  obstinacy.  By  a  papal  bull,  the  doctrine  of  indul- 
gences was  carefully  defined,  their  abuse  disapproved,  and  the  papal 
chamberlain,  Charles  of  Miltiz,  a  Saxon,  a  man  of  worldly  adroitness, 
was  sent,  in  1519,  as  papal  nuncio  to  Saxony,  to  confer  upon  the  elector 
the  sacred  golden  rose,  and  adjust  the  controversy.  He  began  bis  work 
by  severely  condemning  Tetzel,  and  approached  Luther  with  the  most 
flattering  kindness.  Luther  apologized  for  his  violence,  wrote  a 
humble,  submissive  letter  to  the  pope,  and,  in  order  to  do  all  in  his 
power,  publicly  issued  an  explanation  of  the  views  ascribed  to  him  by 
his  opponent.  But,  notwithstanding  these  concessions,  he  firmly  ad- 
hered to  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone,  without  any  merit 
of  good  works.  He  promised  the  nuncio  to  abstain  from  further  con- 
troversy, provided  his  opponents  also  remained  silent ;  these,  however, 
did  not  comply. 

4.  The  Leipsic  Disputation  (1519).  (Cf.  /.  K.  Seidemann,  d.  Lpz. 
Disp.  Dresd.  1843.—  C.  G.  Hering,  de  disp.  Lps.  hab.  Lpz.  1839).— 
John  Eck,  of  Ingolstadt,  who  had  previously  exchanged  controversial 
treatises  with  Luther,  had  engaged  in  a  dispute  with  Andrew  Boden- 
stein,  of  Carlstadt,  a  zealous  adherent  and  colleague  of  Luther,  a  pro- 
fessor and  preacher  in  Wittenberg,  and  Luther  himself  had  proposed 
a  disputation  between  them.  This  was  to  take  place  in  Leipsic,  in 
1519.  But  the  vain  Eck  not  only  sought  to  attract  as  much  attention 
as  possible  to  the  pi-oposed  disputation,  but  to  involve  Luther  in  the 
controversy.  For  eight  days  Eck  debated  with  Carlstadt  upon  grace 
and  free  will,  and  with  overpowering  skill,  boldness,  and  learning, 
defended  Romish  semi-pelagianism.  Then  for  fourteen  days  he  dis- 
cussed, with  Luther,  the  pope's  primacy,  repentance,  indulgences,  and 
purgatory,  and  sorely  pressed  him  with  accusations  of  the  Hussite  heresy. 
But  Luther  vigorously  defended  himself  with  Bible  proofs,  and  became 
convinced  that  even  general  councils  (like  that  of  Constance)  might 
err,  and  that  not  all  Hussite  doctrines  are  heretical.  Both  parties 
claimed  the  victory.  Luther  followed  up  the  debate  with  several  con- 
troversial tracts  ;  neither  did  Eck  keep  silent.  Other  combatants  also 
entered  the  field.  The  party  of  Liberal  German  Humanists  had,  at 
first,  taken  but  little  notice  of  Luther's  movements.  But  the  Leipsic 
disputation  changed  their  views  of  the  case.  Luther  seemed  to  them 
a  second  Reuchlin,  Eck  as  another  Ortuinus  Gratius.  A  pungent 
anonymous  satire,  "  Der  abgehobelte  Eck,"  which  surpassed  the  Aris- 
tophanian  wit  of  the  epistolas  obscurorum  virorum,  was  published 
early  in  1520.      It  was   succeeded    by  several   satires   by   Vlrie   von 


o6         SECTION    III. — FIRST    PKRIOD    (CENT.   16    A.D.). 

Hutten  ("Die  Anschauenden,"  "  Vadiscus,  oder  die  riimische  Dreifal 
tigkeit,"  etc.),  whom  Luther's  appearance  at  Leipsic  had  anew  elec- 
triiied.  Hutten  and  Sickingen  offered  themselves  and  their  entire 
party,  scul  and  body,  pen  and  sword,  to  the  service  of  Luther.  Though 
this  league  with  the  Humanists  was  temporarily  needful  to  the  Re- 
formation, it  would  have  given  a  wholly  false  direction  to  the  cause, 
had  it  not  been,  indue  time,  providentially  dissolved.  —  The  Leipsic 
disputation  likewise  led  to  amicable  relations  between  the  Bohemian 
Hussites  and  the  German  reformer ;  letters,  gifts,  and  messages,  were 
exchanged  between  them.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  Duke  George  of 
Saxony,  in  whose  castle  and  presence  the  disputation  was  held,  became 
from  that  time  an  irreconcilable  foe  of  Luther  and  his  Reformation. 
(Cf.  A.  M.  Schulze,  Herz.  Georg.  u.  M.  Luther.  Lpz.  1834.) 

5.  Philip  Melanchthon.    (Cf.  Melanchthon's  Leben  by  F.  Galle,  Halle, 
1840,  and  by  K.  F.  Matthes,  Altenb.  1841.) —  There  was  a  man  present 
at  the  Leipsic  disputation  who  occupied  a  prominent  place  in  the  pro- 
gress of  the  Reformation.     Born  at  Bretten,   in   the   Palatinate,   in 
1497,    Philip    Melanchthon    (Schwartzerd)    entered    the   university   at 
Heidelberg  in  his  thirteenth  year.     Three  years  later  he  published  a 
Greek  grammar ;    in  his  seventeenth  year  he  obtained  the  master's 
degree,   and   in   his   twenty-first    (1518),   at  the  recommendation   of 
Eeuchlin,  a  relative,  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  at  Wittenberg. 
His  fame  soon  spread  over  all  Europe,  and  attracted  to  him  thousands 
of  hearers  from  all  countries.     Luther  and  Erasmus  both  lauded  his 
talents,  his  fine  culture,  and  his  learning,  and  his  age  pronounced  him 
the  Prceceptor  Germanice.     He  was  an  Erasmus  of  loftier  power  and 
nobler  mien,    a  complementary  counterpart   of  Luther.     His   entire 
nature  breathed  forth  modesty,  mildness,  and  goodness.     With  child- 
like simplicity  he  yielded  to  the  power  of  evangelical  truth,  and  humbly 
bowed  to  the  more  forcible  practical  spirit  of  Luther,  who,  on  his  part, 
however,  gratefully  acknowledged  the  goodness  of  God  in  raising  up 
such  a  coadjutor  for  him  and  his  cause.  —  Melanchthon  wrote  a  report 
of  the  Leipsic  disputation  to  his  friend  CEcolampadius,  which  incident- 
ally fell   into   Eck's  hands.     This  occasioned   a  controversy  between 
them,  in  which  Eck's  vain  self-exaltation,  and  Melanchthon's  noble 
modesty,  were  equally  manifest.     His  first  participation  in  the  new 
movement  was  in  the  form  of  an  apology  for  Luther,  issued  under  an 
assumed  name. 

§3.   THE    PERIOD   OF    LUTHER'S   EARLIEST   CONFLICTS 
AND    STRAITS.     (1520,  1521.) 

The  Leipsic  disputation  led  Luther  to  assume  an  essentially 
freer  point  of  view.  lie  was  made  to  see  that  he  could  not 
stop  half-way ;  that  his  great  principle  of  justification  by  faith 
was   wholly   incompatible   with   the   hierarchical   system   of   the 


LUTHER'S     CONFLICTS     AND     STRUTS.  37 

papacy  and  its  fundamental  doctrines.  But  along  with  his 
violence  and  subjective  one-sidedness,  which  he  displayed  in  this 
period  of  his  earliest  conflicts  and  straits  (1520,  1521),  he  still 
possessed  sufficient  considerateness  to  hold  fast  to  the  spiritual 
character  of  his  reformatory  labors,  and  to  reject  the  carnal  aid 
offered  by  Ulric  von  Hutten  and  his  warlike  associates,  how- 
ever thankfully  he  acknowledged  their  ardent  sympathy.  The 
position  he  then  occupied,  as  well  as  the  full  height  of  his  sub- 
jectivism at  that  time,  are  set  forth  in  two  papers  written  during 
the  first  half  of  the  year  1520  :  "An  kaiserliche  Majestat  und 
den  christl.  Adel  deutscher  Nation  von  des  christlichen  Standes 
Besserung,"  in  which  he  razed  the  three  breastworks  behind 
which  the  papacy  had  intrenched  itself  (the  supremacy  of  the 
pope  over  all  temporal  powers,  his  exclusive  authority  to  inter- 
pret the  Bible,  and  his  sole  right  to  convoke  councils),  and  pro- 
posed measures  for  the  radical  improvement  and  reconstruction 
of  the  German  Church,  —  and  "  De  captivitate  babylonica  eccle- 
szce,"  the  main  subject  of  which  was  the  doctrine  of  the  sacra- 
ments. He  admits  only  three  (baptism,  repentance,  and  the 
Supper),  and  rejects  the  communio  sub  una,  transubstantiation, 
and  the  idea  of  a  sacrifice  in  the  Mass.  Some  of  his  works  of 
a  more  edifying  character,  also  belong  to  this  period,  as  the 
exposition  of  Galatians,  the  manual  on  confession,  the  sermon 
on  good  works,  etc.  The  papal  bull  of  excommunication  incited 
him  to  more  violent  words  and  acts,  and  with  heroic  boldness  he 
hastened  to  Worms,  to  render  an  account  of  his  doings  before 
the  emperor  and  diet.  The  papal  ban  was  followed  by  the 
imperial  proscription.  But  as  an  exile  in  Wartburg  he  escaped 
from  the  hands  of  his  foes  and  —  his  friends. 

1.  The  Bomisli  bull  of  excommunication  (1520),  —  To  reap  the  fruits 
of  his  imaginary  victory,  Eck  had  gone  back  to  Rome,  and  returned 
triumphantly  as  a  papal  nuncio  with  a  bull  dated  June  15,  1520,  in 
which  Luther  was  pronounced  a  heretic,  his  writings  ordered  to  be 
burned,  and  he  threatened  with  the  ban,  unless  he  appeared  in  Rome 
within  sixty  days.  Miltiz  made  new  attempts  to  compromise  matters, 
which,  of  course,  were  unsuccessful,  although  Luther,  to  show  his 
good  intentions,  gave  them  consideration,  and  proposed  a  basis  of  com- 
promise in  his  tract — "Von  der  Freiheit  eines  Christenmenschen/'  iu 
which  he  shunned  controversy  as  much  as  possible.  He  accompanied 
this  paper  with  a  letter  to  the  pope,  in  which,  with  all  its  sincere 
expressions  of  humility,  and  reverence  for  the  person  of  the  pope, 
whom  he  represented  as  dwelling  in  the  midst  of  a  most  abominable 
47 


38         SECTION    III. — FIRST   PERIOD   (c  E  N  T.   16   A.  D.)  . 

Romish  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  like  a  sheep  among  wolves,  or  like 
Daniel  in  the  lions'  den,  there  was  no  trace  of  repentance  or  retraction. 
It  was  easy  to  foresee,  however,  that  neither  paper  would  suit  the  taste 
of  the  Romish  court.  Meanwhile,  Eck  came  with  the  bull  itself.  After 
its  publication,  Luther  opened  his  assault  upon  it  with  three  writings 
("  Yon  den  neuen  Eckischen  Bullen  und  Lligen,"  "Contra  exsecra- 
bilem  Antichristi  bullam,"  "Assertio  omnium  articulorum  per  bullam 
Leonis  X.  novissimam  damnatorum  "),  and  renewed  his  appeal  to  a 
general  council,  which  he  had  carefully  prepared  two  years  before. — ■ 
In  Saxony,  Eck's  bull  only  excited  derision,  but  in  Lyons,  Mayence, 
Cologne,  etc.,  Luther's  writings  were  really  burned.  Then  Luther 
took  the  boldest  step  of  his  life.  Attended  by  a  large  concourse  of 
doctors  and  students,  invited  by  a  placard  posted  on  the  black  board, 
he  burned  the  bull  with  the  papal  decretals  on  Dec.  10,  1520,  at  9  a.  m. 
This  was  an  absolute  divorce  from  the  pope  and  Romish  Church.  He 
had  thus  rendered  all  retreat  impossible.  Hutten  shouted  approbation, 
and  proclaimed  in  German  rhymes  a  full  catalogue  of  the  sins  of  the 
Romish  curia. 

2.  Erasmus  (1520).  (Cf.  W.  Chlebus,  Erasm.  u.  Luth.,  in  the  hist. 
theol.  Ztschr.  1845,  II.—  W.  E.  Eberhardi,  Warum  blief  Erasm.  Katlu. 
ibid.  1839,  III.)  —  Thus  far  Erasmus  kept  on  good  terms  with  Luther; 
they  cherished  mutual  respect  and  esteem.  However  diverse  their 
positive  tendencies,  they  agreed  in  opposing  scholasticism  aud  monas- 
ticism.  Erasmus  rejoiced  in  the  defeat  of  an  obnoxious  monasticism, 
and  persistently  rejected  all  solicitations  to  write  against  Luther; 
neither  did  he  care,  as  he  confessed,  to  feel  the  rasp  of  Luther's  wrath. 
When  the  papal  bull  appeared,  he  decidedly  disapproved  of  it,  and 
even  expressed  doubts  as  to  its  genuineness.  As  the  oracle  of  his  day, 
his  opinion  of  the  whole  matter  was  often  asked.  He  said,  the  papal 
decision  itself  was  not  to  be  condemned,  but  its  manner  and  form. 
He  desired  an  arbitration  of  learned  and  pious  men,  with  three  princes 
(the  German  emperor,  and  the  kings  of  England  and  Hungary),  to 
whose  decision  Luther  should  submit.  Frederic];  the  Wise  also  (before 
Luther  had  taken  his  boldest  step)  had  consulted  Erasmus,  who  then 
said,  that  Luther  had  made  two  mistakes,  he  had  touched  the  pontiff's 
crown  and  the  monks'  bellies ;  he  also  regretted  Luther's  want  of 
moderation  and  considcrateness.  The  elector  heard  those  declarations 
of  Erasmus,  not  without  approbation.  The  proposal  to  submit  the 
case  to  an  arbitration,  also  had  its  influence  upon  mbsequent  public 
measures  against  Luther. 


•.-■' 


3.  The  Emperor  Charles  V.  (1519-20).— The  Emperor  Maximilian 
dieil  Jan.  12,  1519.  The  Elector  of  Saxony,  the  regent  of  the  empire, 
declined  his  election  in  favour  of  Charles  1..  the  young  King  of  Spain, 
Maximilian's  grandson,  who  was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  on 
Oct.  23.     All  hopes  centered  in  the  young  emperor.     It  was  expected 


LUTHER'S    CONFLICTS    AND     STRAITS.  39 

that  he  would  place  himself  at  the  head  of  the  religious  and  i  ational 
movement  in  Germany.  But  Charles?,  who  was  a  stranger  to  the 
impulses  of  the  German  spirit,  and  did  not  even  understand  the 
language,  had  interests  which  he  was  not  disposed  to  subordinate  to 
German  politics.  The  German  crown  was  but  an  integral  part  of  his 
power  ;  its  interests  had  to  subserve  the  general  interests  of  the  empire, 
on  whose  domain  the  sun  never  set.  He  considered  the  religious 
agitation  in  Germany  important,  but  not  so  much  in  its  religious  as  in 
its  political  aspect.  It  furnished  him  with  the  desired  means  of  keep- 
ing the  pope  in  check,  and  of  compelling  him  to  favour  his  interests. 
Charles  demanded  two  things  of  the  pope  for  the  suppression  of  the 
religious  movement  in  Germany :  first,  that  he  should  renounce  French 
alliances,  and  league  with  the  emperor  against  France  ;  secondly,  the 
withdrawal  of  the  previously  issued  papal  breve,  which  ordered  a  recon- 
struction of  the  Spanish  Inquisition — a  main  prop  of  absolute  monarchy 
in  Spain.  Leo  X.  yielded  to  both  demands,  and  thus  the  hopes  of  the 
Germans,  that  Charles  would  at  length  rid  the  nation  of  the  igno- 
minious Roman  yoke,  were  frustrated.  The  compact  between  the 
emperor  and  pope  was  concluded  on  May  8,  1521. — Charles  opened  his 
first  diet  at  Worms  on  Jan.  28,  1521.  In  February  a  papal  brief 
arrived,  urgently  admonishing  the  emperor  legally  to  enforce  the  bull 
against  Luther.  During  a  tournament  Charles  summoned  the  princes 
to  his  quarters,  communicated  the  breve  to  them,  and  submitted  an 
edict  couched  in  strong  terms,  enjoining  the  execution  of  the  bull.  He 
desired  them  at  once  to  give  their  assent.  But  he  met  with  unex- 
pected opposition.  The  States  demanded  that  Luther  should  be  sum- 
moned to  Worms,  under  an  imperial  safe-conduct,  to  answer  the  charges 
made  against  him.  They  could  not  consider  his  assaults  upon  Romish 
abuses  a  crime,  since  they  themselves  had  drawn  up  an  indictment 
of  101  gravaminam  against  Rome,  which  they  intended  laying  before 
the  diet.  Still  they  declared  themselves  ready  to  subscribe  the  edict, 
if  Luther  would  not  retract  in  regard  to  points  of  doctrinal  dispute. 
Earnestly  as  the  papal  legate  Alexander  protested  against  a  temporal 
diet  affording  a  heretic  the  opportunity  of  a  trial,  the  opinion  of  the 
Estates  prevailed.  An  imperial  herald  was  dispatched  to  Wittenberg 
to  summon  Luther  to  Worms  under  an  imperial  safe-conduct.  Before 
his  arrival,  the  confessor  of  the  emperor,  Glapio,  a  Franciscan,  who 
was  by  no  means  a  blind  devotee  of  the  Romish  chair,  sought  to  effect 
an  amicable  settlement  of  the  affair.  He  thought  if  Luther  would 
but  retract  the  most  offensive  of  his  books,  as  that  of  the  Babylonian 
captivity  of  the  Church,  and  acknowledge  the  decrees  of  Constance, 
the  whole  case  might  be  dismissed.  He  first  laid  this  proposition 
before  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  and  after  failing  with  him,  sought  Francis 
of  Sickingen  in  the  castle  of  Ebern  He  embraced  the  plan,  and 
invited  Luther  to  a  conference  in  his  castle.  But  Luther  did  not  trust 
Glapio,  and  declined  the  invitation. 


40  SECTION    III.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (CEVT.   1  6  A.  D.)  . 

4.  Luther  at  the  Did  of  Worms  (1521).  (Cf.  W.  Boye,  Luth.  zu  W. 
Halle.  2  A.  1824.—  Zimmer,  Luth.  zu  W.  Heidelb.  1821.)  — In  the 
meantime  Luther  had  not  been  idle  at  Wittenberg.  He  preached 
twice  daily,  delivered  lectures,  wrote  books  and  letters,  had  confer 
cures,  and  contended  with  opponents,  especially  with  Jerome  Emser 
in  Leipsic,  with  whom  he  became  involved  in  a  long  and  odious  corre- 
spondence in  regard  to  his  memorial  addressed  to  the  German  nobility. 
The  imperial  herald  found  him  in  the  midst  of  these  various  labors. 
He  dropped  everything,  and  obeyed  the  citation  with  courage  and 
confidence.  The  fears  of  his  friends  in  Wittenberg,  the  admonitions 
to  return  which  were  addressed  to  him  on  his  way,  he  discarded  with 
Christian  heroism,  in  his  usual  vigorous  manner.  His  journey  re- 
sembled a  triumphal  march.  He  reached  Worms  on  April  14,  amidst 
a  dense  mass  of  people,  attended  by  his  theological  friends,  Justus 
Jonas  and  Nicholas  Amsdorf,  and  the  legal  counsellor,  Jerome  Schurf. 
Soon  after  his  arrival,  on  April  17,  he  was  cited  before  the  diet.  He 
acknowledged  the  books  laid  before  him  as  his  own ;  in  regard  to  the 
required  retraction,  he  obtained  time  for  consideration  until  the  follow- 
ing day.  In  his  subsequent  declaration,  he  divided  his  books  into 
three  classes  (those  setting  forth  positive  doctrines,  controversial  writ- 
ings against  the  papacy  and  papal  doctrines,  and  those  directed  against 
private  persons),  and  gave  his  reasons,  at  length,  for  refusing  to  recall 
any  of  them.  A  direct  answer  was  demanded.  He  gave  this  by  saying 
that  he  would  not  and  could  not  retract,  unless  it  could  be  shown,  from 
Scripture,  or  by  other  clear  proofs,  that  he  was  in  error,  and  concluded 
with  the  words:  "  Hier  stehe  ich,  ich  kann  nicht  anders,  Gott  helfe 
mir !  Amen."  He  had  won  the  hearts  of  many  German  knights  and 
princes,  but  had  not  favorably  impressed  the  emperor.  Still,  Charles 
spurned  the  suggestion  to  withdraw  the  promised  safe-conduct  from  the 
heretic.  Well-meant  attempts,  urging  him  still  to  retract,  Luther 
met  with  the  words  of  Gamaliel  (Acts  5  :  38,  39),  and  on  April  26, 
left  Worms  without  hindrance.  On  May  26,  after  some  of  the  princes 
(including  the  Elector  of  Saxony)  had  gone  away,  the  papal  legate  suc- 
ceeded, by  various  secret  machinations,  in  having  the  imperial  decree, 
couched  in  the  severest  terms,  pronounced  against  Luther  and  all  his 
adherents,  and  falsely  antedated  May  8  {the  edict  of  Worms).  But 
Luther  had  been  safely  concealed. 

5.  The  Wartburg  Exile  (1521-22).  (Cf.  C.  Kdhlcr,  Luth.  auf  d. 
Wartb.  Eisenach,  1798,  4to.)  —  By  the  provident  arrangement  of  the 
elector,  two  masked  knights,  with  some  servants,  had  surrounded  Lu- 
ther's carriage,  in  a  forest  near  Eisenach,  seized  Luther,  and,  with 
Beeiniri"-  violence,  borne  him  oft"  to  the  Wartburg,  where,  dressed  in 
the  garb  of  a  knight,  and  known  as  Knight  George,  he  was  directed 
quietly  to  await  i'iirth"r  developments.  It  was  generally  supposed  that 
he  was  dead.  But  when  Cardinal  Albert,  of  Mayence  (as  Archb.  of 
Magdeburg),  reopened  the  sale  of  indulgences  in  Halle,  he  soon  dis- 


'S     CONFLICTS     AND     STRAITS.  41 

covered,  to  his  terror,  that  the  bold  monk  was  still  lhing.  At  the 
elector's  request,  he  indeed  kept  back  his  tract,  "  Wider  den  Al  gott  von 
Halle,"  for  the  time,  but  in  a  letter  addressed  to  the  cardinal,  peremp- 
torily required  him  to  cease  the  traffic  within  fourteen  days.  The  arch- 
bishop succumbed,  and  wrote  a  mild  apologetic  answer.  Luther  also 
gave  more  public  proof  that  he  still  lived,  and  was  not  inclined  to 
keep  silent,  or  change  his  course,  by  writings  of  an  instructive  or 
destructive  character.  lie  completed  his  exposition  of  the  Magnificat, 
sent  forth  the  first  part  of  his  Church-postils,  wrote  "  Wider  den  Miss- 
brauch  der  Messen,"  "Von  den  geistlichen  und  Klostergelubden,"  etc. 
Nevertheless,  he  was  greatly  dissatisfied  with  the  elector's  precaution, 
by  which,  at  such  a  time,  he  was  withdrawn  from  active  life.  lie 
would  rather  "  burn  on  glowing  coals  than  rot  in  such  inaction."  But 
this  very  involuntary  exile  rescued  him  and  the  Reformation  from  a 
ruinous  downfall.  Apart  from  the  dangers  to  which  the  imperial  sen- 
tence exposed  him,  and  which  might  have  compelled  him  to  seek  refuge 
with  an  Ulric  von  Hutten  and  his  associates,  which  would  have  made 
the  Reformation  degenerate  into  a  revolution  —  apart  from  this,  the 
compulsory  detention  in  the  Wartburg  was  advantageous  and  im- 
portant to  Luther  and  his  cause,  in  many  respects.  One  advantage  of 
it  was,  that  men  thus  learned  to  distinguish  Luther's  work  from  his 
person  ;  but  a  still  greater  advantage  was  that  which  accrued  to  Luther 
himself  from  this  exile.  His  past  life  had  exposed  him  to  the  danger 
of  attempting  to  carry  on  the  work  by  violent,  stormy  measures,  rather 
than  by  considerate  and  positive  means.  The  leisure  of  the  Wart- 
burg compelled  him  quietly  and  earnestly  to  examine  himself  and  his 
labors,  which  he  could  not  do  amid  the  conflicts  and  perplexities  of  his 
public  life,  and  the  fanaticism  of  the  Wittenberg  iconoclasts,  and  pro- 
phets of  Zwickau,  which  he  could  now  observe  and  judge  of  calmly 
and  without  prejudice,  showed  him,  as  in  a  warning  mirror,  whither 
he  too,  and  his  wrork,  might  have  been  hurried.  His  theological  know- 
ledge, also,  had  not  acquired  that  ripeness,  circumspection,  and  clear- 
ness, which  he  needed  to  carry  on  his  work,  for  he  was  still  largely 
involved  in  subjectivism.  At  the  Wartburg,  however,  he  could  turn 
from  his  work  of  demolition  to  that  of  building  up,  and  by  the  undis- 
turbed study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  extend,  purify,  and  strengthen  his 
religious  views.  It  was  of  special  importance,  also,  that  at  the  Wart- 
burg he  formed  and  partly  (in  regard  to  the  New  Testament)  executed 
the  plan  of  translating  the  whole  Bible  into  German.  His  exile,  like- 
wise, by  restraining  his  violent  temper,  and,  by  the  inward  temptations 
and  conflicts  he  then  experienced,  served  to  humble  him,  to  strengthen 
his  religious  character,  and  to  purge  and  sanctify  his  entire  nature. 

47* 


42  SECTION    III. —  FIRST   PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.J. 

§  4.  DEGENERACY  AND  PURIFICATION  OF  THE  REFORMA- 
TION IN  WITTENBERG.     (1522-25.) 

During;  Luther's  absence,  the  Reformation  had  progressed,  iu 
Wittenberg,  only  too  rapidly,  and  soon  became  entangled  in  the 
wildest  fanaticisms.  But  Luther  hastened  to  the  scene,  obtained 
control  of  the  movement,  and  soon  brought  it  back  to  moderate 
evangelical  measures.  The  fanatics  fled  from  Wittenberg,  but 
only  to  carry  on  their  revolutionary  disorders  elsewhere.  At  the 
same  time,  however,  danger  threatened  from  other  directions. 
The  religious  movement  started  by  Luther  happened  to  be  simul 
taneous  with  a  twofold  political  agitation,  the  conflict  of  the 
German  knights  with  the  princes,  and  the  insurrection  of  the 
German  peasants  against  the  nobility.  The  Reformation  was  in 
danger  of  being  mixed  up  with  these  political  movements,  and 
of  sharing  their  fate.  But  Luther  stood  firm  as  a  rock  against 
all  temptations,  and  the  dangers  passed  by. 

1.  The  Wittenberg  Fanaticism  (1522).    (Cf.  H.  W.  Erbkam,  Gesch.  d. 
protest.  Secten  im  Zeitaltcr  d.  Ref.  Hamb.  1848.  —  /.  Hast,  Gesch.  d. 
Wicdert'aufer  von  ihrer  Entst,  zu  Zwickau  bis  zu  ihr.  Sturz  in  Miinst. 
1835.)— An  Augustine  monk,  Gabriel  Didymus,  preached  in  the  Church 
of  St.  Augustine  in  glowing  terms  against  vows  and  private  masses. 
Thirteen  of  his  Order  left  it  together  in  consequence  of  his  preaching. 
Two  neighboring  priests  married.      Caristadt  wrote  against  celibacy, 
and  followed  their  example.     At  a  monastery  of  the  Order  in  Witten- 
berg it  was  resolved  to  abolish  mendicancy  and  the  mass.     But  this 
was  not  all.    Didymus,  and  still  more  Caristadt,  so  inflamed  the  people 
and  students,  that  under  their  guidance  they  perpetrated  the  grossest 
violence.     Public  worship  was  wantonly  disturbed,  under  the  pretence 
of  exterminating  the  "idolatry"  of  the  mass;  images  were  cast  out 
of  the  churches,  altars  were  broken  down,  and  some  desired  wholly  to 
abolish  the  clergy  and  theological  learning.     A  fanatical  spirit  began 
to  show  itself  simultaneously  in  Zwickau.     At  the  head  of  the  move- 
ment were   two  weavers,   Nicholas  Storch   and    Thomas  Marx,  and  a 
literary  character,  Marcus  Stubner,  who  pretended   to  divine  revela- 
tions, whilst  Thomas  Miinzer  proclaimed  the  new  gospel  from  the  pul- 
pit with  glowing  eloquence.   Restrained  in  their  operations  by  energetic 
civil  interference,  the  Zwickau  prophets  went  abroad.     Miinzer  went 
to  Prague;    Storch,   Marx,   and   Stubner  to  Wittenberg.     There  they 
proclaimed  their  revelations,  and  zealously  denounced  infant  baptism 
as  an  institution  of  Satan.    The  disorder  in  Wittenberg  daily  increased. 
The  enemies  of  the   Reformation   rejoiced;   Melanchthon  was  at  his 
wits'  end  :   the  elector  was  thunderstruck.     Luther  could  endure  it  no 
lunger.     Against  the  elector's  express  command  he  left  the  Wartburg 


DEGENERACY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    REFORMATION.  43 

May  3,  1522,  wrote  a  heroic  letter  to  the  electors,  availed  himself  of 
his  knightly  incognito  at  a  hotel  in  Jena,  and  calmly  indulged  in 
cheerful  fellowship  {John  Kessler),  and  soon  after  appeared  publicly  in 
Wittenberg.  For  a  whole  week  he  preached  night  and  day  against  the 
fanatics,  and  soon  became  master  of  the  storm.  The  Zwickau  agita- 
tors  left  Wittenberg  ;  Carlstadt  remained,  but  kept  quiet  for  a  few 
years.  Luther  and  Melanchthon  labored  steadfastly  to  lay  a  positive 
basis  for  the  Reformation  :  Melanchthon  had  already  made  a  beginning 
in  Dec.  1521,  by  publishing  his  Loci  communes  rerum  theologicarum. 
In  1522,  Luther  also  published,  against  the  wish  of  his  modest  friend, 
Melanchthon's  Annotationes  in  Epist.  Pauli  ad  Bom.  et  Cor.  The  same 
year  Luther's  translation  of  the  N.  T.  appeared,  besides  many  defensive 
and  offensive  reformatory  writings. 

2.  Francis  of  Sickingen  (1522-23).  (Cf.  E.  J.  H.  Munch,  Fr.  v.  Sick. 
Stuttg.  1827,  2  Bde.)  —  It  was  primarily  a  private  feud,  like  those  of 
the  middle  ages,  which  led  Francis  of  Sickingen,  with  a  considerable 
force,  to  invade  the  domain  of  the  elector  and  Archbishop  of  Treves. 
But  prospective  interests  of  quite  a  different  character  were  connected 
with  it,  and  incited  the  whole  body  of  knights  to  take  part  with  Sick- 
ingen. Sickingen's  opponent  was  a  prelate  and  an  avowed  foe  of  the 
Reformation ;  he  was  also  a  prince  of  the  empire.  Sickingen  assailed  him 
in  both  capacities,  and  invoked  co-operation  in  the  name  of  religion 
and  political  liberty.  The  knights  who  thoroughly  disliked  the  state 
of  public  affairs,  and  were  dissatisfied  with  the  imperial  government 
and  the  court,  with  princes  and  prelates,  joined  him  in  great  numbers. 
Sickingen  eagerly  desired  to  have  Luther  in  the  league,  but  Luther 
could  not  be  moved. — Sickingen's  enterprise  proved  unfortunate.  The 
Elector  of  the  Palatinate,  and  the  young  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  hastened 
to  the  assistance  of  their  princely  neighbor.  The  knights  were  singly 
put  down,  and  Sickingen  died  of  a  mortal  wound  immediately  after 
the  storming  of  Ebernburg  (May,  1523).  The  power  of  the  knights 
was  completely  broken.  The  Reformation  thus  lost  a  brave  and  vigor- 
ous protector,  but  escaped  destruction. 

3.  Andrew  Bodenstein  of  Carlstadt  (1524-25).  (Cf.  Max  Gobel, 
Andr.  Bodst.  v.  Karlst. ;  in  the  Stud.  u.  Krit.  1841.—  C.  F.  Jager, 
Andr.  Bodst.  v.  Karlst.  Stuttg.  1856.— H.  W.  Erblcam,  1.  c,  p.  174,  etc.) 
—  Even  after  the  suppression  of  the  Wittenberg  fanaticism,  Carlstadt 
adhered  to  his  revolutionary  tendencies,  and  with  difficulty  remained 
quiet  for  two  years.  In  1524,  he  left  Wittenberg  and  went  to  Orla- 
m'unde.  There  he  violently  denounced  Luther's  popery,  again  assailed 
the  images,  and  began  to  advocate  his  view  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  in 
which  he  wholly  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the  real  presence.  (§11,  1). 
To  check  the  disorder,  Luther  went  to  Jena,  by  direction  of  the  elector, 
and  there  preached  in  Carlstadt's  presence  against  the  iconoclasts  and 
eacramentarians.     Carlstadt  was  greatly  enraged.     During  a  visit  to 


44         SECTION    III. FIRST    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.  1*5    A.  D.). 

Orlamiinde,  Luther  was  greeted  with  curses  and  stones  The  elector 
now  commanded  Carlstadt  to  quit  the  country.  He  first  went  to  Strass- 
burg,  and  tried  to  gain  Martin  Bucer  and  Wolfgang  Capito  to  his  side. 
Luther  addressed  a  warning  to  the  Christians  of  Strassburg,  who  en- 
deavored to  reconcile  the  two.  Carlstadt  next  went  to  Basel,  and  issued 
still  more  violent  tracts  against  Luther's  "stupid  and  shallow  literal 
theology."  Luther  rejoined  earnestly,  thoroughly,  and  severely  in  his 
"  Wider  den  himmlischen  Propheten  von  den  Bildern  und  Sacrament" 
(1525).  Carlstadt,  meanwhile,  had  drawn  the  Swiss  Reformers  into 
his  disputes,  and  they  kept  up  the  controversy  with  Luther.  He  him- 
self became  implicated  in  the  peasants'  war;  then,  through  Luther's 
mediation,  obtained  permission  to  return. to  Saxony,  retracted  his 
errors,  but  soon  again  revived  his  old  agitations;  and,  after  wandering 
from  place  to  place,  became  professor  and  preacher  at  Basel,  where  he 
died  of  the  plague  (1541). 

4.  Thomas  Munzer  (1523-24).  (Cf.  Ph.  Melanchthon,  Hist.  Th. 
Miintzer's;  in  Luther's  Works  by  Walch,  XVI—  G.  Th.  Strobel,  Leb., 
Schriften,  u.  Lehren  Th.  M'untzer's.  Niiremb.  1795. — /.  K.  Seide- 
mann,  Th.  M.  Dresd.  1842.— L.  Kphler,  Th.  M.  u.  s.  Genossen.  Lpz. 
184G,  3  Bde.)  —  In  Wittenberg,  fanaticism  had,  happily,  been  subdued. 
But  a  great  portion  of  Germany  began  to  ferment  with  a  kindred,  but 
more  general  and  dangerous  agitation.  The  prophets  driven  from  Wit- 
tenberg  had  not  been  idle,  and  persons  of  a  still  more  fanatical  and 
factious  spirit  strove  to  uproot  all  order  in  Church  and  State.  Their 
leader  was  Thomas  Munzer.  After  his  expulsion  from  Zwickau  he  had 
gone  to  Bohemia,  and  became  an  apostle  of  the  Taborite  doctrines.  In 
1523  he  returned  to  Saxony,  and  took  up  his  abode  in  Allsiadt.  There 
he  gained  many  adherents.  The  Wittenberg  Reformation  was  as  vehe- 
mently reviled  as  the  papacy.  Not  the  letter  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
but  the  Spirit  should  be  made  the  principle  of  this  reformation  ;  not 
only  all  ecclesiastical  but  all  civil  institutions  should  be  abolished,  and 
spiritualized.  The  doctrine  of  the  evangelical  liberty  of  Christians 
was  grossly  abused,  the  sacraments  despised,  infant  baptism  reviled, 
and  all  importance  attached  to  the  so-called  baptism  of  the  Spirit. 
Princes  should  be  driven  away,  the  foes  of  the  Gospel  be  extirpated 
with  the  sword,  and  all  possessions  be  held  in  common.  When  Luther 
wrote  a  letter  to  the  church  at  Mlihlhausen,  warning  it  against  these 
fanatical  measures,  Miinzer  became  furious,  and  issued  a  libellous 
reply,  entitled:  " Hochverursachte  Schutzrede  und  Antwort  gegen  das 
geistlose  sanftlebende  Fleisch  zu  Wittenberg,"  in  which  he  heaped 
upon  Luther  the  most  vulgar  revilings,  and  sneered  at  his  "honigsiis- 
sen  Christum,"  and  "  gedichtetes  Evangelium."  Soon  afterwards  he 
was  ordered  by  the  elector  to  leave  Saxony  (1524).  He  went  to  the 
Upper  Rhine  districts,  where  he  found  a  luxuriant  soil  for  his  factious 
schemes. 


DEGENERACY,  ETC.,  OF  THE  REFORMATION.   45 

5.   The  Peasants'    War  (1525).      (Cf.    G.   Sartorius,  Ber!    1795.— 
F.  Fr.  Oechsle,  Heilbr.  1830.— BurJchardt,  Lpz.  1832.  2  Bde.-  S.Bauer, 
Ulm,  1836.— H.  W.  Bensen,  Erlg.  184Q.  —  W.  Zimmermann,  2.  Aufl. 
Stuttg.  1856.— Jr.  Wachsmuih,  Lpz.  1834.—/.  G.  Jbrg  (Cath.),  Deutschl. 
in  d.  Bevolutionsepoche  1522-25,  Freib.  1851  ;  and  also  K.  Hegel,  in 
the  kieler  allg.  Monattsschr.  fur  Wsch.  u.  Kunst  1852,  July  and  Au- 
gust.)— For  thirty  years- the  peasantry  of  the  empire  had  been  restive 
under  oppressive  political  exactions.     Twice,  already  (1502  and  1514), 
had  conspiracies  (called  "  Bundschuh,"  from  their  signal,)  been  formed 
and  quelled.     They  now  seized  upon  Luther's  ideas  of  Christian  liberty, 
and  drew  their  own  inferences  from  them  ;  and  when  M'dnzer  began  to 
operate  among  them  with  his  agitating  and  fanatical  sermons,  their 
perverted  views  tended  more  and  more  to  decided  communism.     As 
early  as  August,  1524,  an  insurrection  of  peasants  broke  out  in  the 
Black  Forest ;  but  it  was  speedily  put  down.     But,  in  the  beginning 
of  1525,  fresh  disturbances  arose,  and  assumed  a  much  more  dangerous 
character.    The  peasants  reduced  their  demands  to  twelve  articles,  and 
compelled  princes,  nobles,  and  prelates,  to  concede  them.     All  Fran- 
conia  and  Swabia  soon  joined  the  movement,   and  even  many  cities 
made  common  cause  with  the  insurgents.     Still  M'dnzer  was  not  satis- 
fied with  the  result.     The  twelve  articles  were  too  temperate  for  him, 
and  the  compacts  concluded  with  the  nobility  and  clergy  were  not  at 
all  to  his  mind.     Returning  to  Thuringia,  he  took  up  his  abode  in 
Muklhausen,  endeavored  to  stir  up  fanaticism  in  the  entire  country, 
and  organized  a  general  insurrection.     Thousands  were  murdered  with 
unmerciful    cruelty ;    all    the    monasteries,   castles,   and    courts,  were 
attacked  and  destroyed.  —  Boldly  as  Luther  had  assailed  the  existing 
ecclesiastical  powers,  he  just  as  firmly  maintained  civil  authority,  and 
preached  that  the  Gospel  secured  spiritual  liberty,  but  did  not  subvert 
civil  government  and  social  institutions.      He  did  indeed  sympathize 
with  the  peasants  in  their  extreme  oppressions,  and,  whilst  their  de- 
mands were  limited  to  the  twelve  articles,  he  hoped  the  movement 
might  be  controlled  by  the  power  of  the  Gospel.     The  insurgents  had 
declared  that,  if  any  of  their  twelve  articles  could  be  proved  incon- 
sistent with  the  Word  of  God,  they  would  yield.    When  Munzer  began 
his  disturbances  in  Thuringia,  Luther  himself  visited  the  towns  most 
in  danger,  and  admonished  them  to  quietness  and  subordination.     lie 
was  recalled  to  Wittenberg  by  the  death  of  the  Elector  Frederick  (who 
departed    in    peace,   May  5,  1525).      From  Wittenberg  Luther    then 
addressed  his  "  Ermahnung  zum  Frieden  auf  die  12  Artikel  der  Bauer- 
schaft  in  Schwaben,"  in  which  he  appealed  earnestly  to  the  consciences 
of  the  princes  as  well  as  the  peasants.    But  as  the  factious  malcontents 
still  gained  greater  ascendancy,  and  cruelties  were  multiplied,  he  gave 
vent  to  his  ire  in   the  book  entitled,  "  Wider  die  r'auberischen  und 
mbrderischen  Bauern."     In  it  he  warmly  called  upon  the  princes  tc 
put  down  the   Satanic  rebellion  by  violent  and  effectual  measures. 


46  SECTION    III. FIRST   PERIOD    ^CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

Philip  of Hessen  was  the  first  to  respond.  He  was  joined  by  the  new 
Elector  of  Saxony,  John  the  Constant  (1525-32),  the  brother  of  Frederick, 
and  soon  after  by  George  of  Saxony  and  Henri/  of  Brunswick.  On 
May  15,  1525,  the  rebels  were  annihilated  at  Frankenhausen,  after  a 
stubborn  resistance.  Munzerwas  captured  and  beheaded.  In  Southerr 
Germany,  also,  the  princes  everywhere  almost  simultaneously  obtained 
the  mastery  over  the  insurrection.  A  hundred  thousand  people  perished 
in  this  war,  and  the  most  flourishing  districts  were  laid  utterly  waste. 

§5.   LUTHER'S    FEUDS    WITH    HENRY    VIII.   AND    WITH 
ERASMUS.     (1523-2G.) 

Cf.   Cklebus,  1.  c.  I  3,  2.  — Jul.  Mtiller,  Luther,  de.  predest.  et  lib. 
arbitr.  doctr.  Gottg.  1832.  4to. 

Henry  VIII.,  of  England,  originally  destined  for  the  priest- 
hood, always  retained  a  partiality  for  theological  studies,  and 
was  ambitious   to  be   thought  a  learned  theologian.     This  led 
him  to  enter  the  arena  of  controversy  in  defence  of  the  Romish 
doctrine  of  the  seven  sacraments,  against  Luther's  "Babylonian 
Captivity  of  the  Church."      In  his  book  he  treated  the  peasant's 
son  with   the  greatest  contempt.     Luther  paid  him  back  in  his 
own  coin,  and  dealt  witli  his  crowned  antagonist  as  though  he 
were  an  Emser  or  an  Eck  (1523).     Henry,  indeed,  obtained  what 
he  sought ;  the  pope  conferred  upon  him  the  honorary  title  of 
defensor  fidei.     But  Luther's  plain  dealing  extinguished  all  desire 
to  prosecute  the  controversy.     He  complained  to  the  elector, 
who  consolingly  referred   him  to   a  general  council.     But  this 
affair  bore  heavily  upon    the    relation    between   Erasmus   and 
Luther,   who  had  thus    far  continued   upon    tolerably  pleasant 
terms  with  each  other.      Erasmus,  who  was  under  obligations  to 
Henry  for  many  favors,  became  bitterly  enraged   against  Luther 
for  his  unsparing  severity.      Hitherto  he  had  declined  all  solici- 
tations to  write  against  Luther,  so  that  many  papists  charged 
him  with  collusion  with  the  heretic,  and  others  said  he  was  afraid 
of  Luther's  pen.     All  this  incited  him,  at  length,  to  come  out 
against  the  reformer.     He  diligently  studied  Luther's  writings, 
after  obtaining  papal   permission  to   do  so,  and  seized  upon   a 
doctrine,  in  discussing  which  he  would  not  be  required  to  defend 
Romish  errors,  but  which  he  was  least  qualified  to  comprehend. 

1.  Luther's  personal  experience,  associated  with  his  study  of  Paul's 
Epistles  and  the  writings  of  St.  Augustine,  had  served  to  convince  him 
that  man  was  incapable  of  doing  good,  and  therefore  not  free,  and  that 


LUTHER    S     FEUDS     WITH     HENRY     VIII.     ETC.         47 

he  could  obtain  salvation  only  through  the  free  grace  of  God,  without 
any  personal  merit.  This  persuasion,  in  his  case,  as  in  Augustine's,  had 
led  him  to  embrace  the  doctrine  of  absolute  predestination.  Melanch- 
thon,  also,  had  avowed  the  same  view  in  the  first  edition  of  his  Loci 
communes.  It  was  upon  this  doctrine  Erasmus  seized  in  his  Aia^ptpjJ 
de  libero  arbitrio,  denouncing  it  as  dangerous  and  unscriptural,  and 
setting  forth  in  opposition  to  it  his  own  semi-pelagianism  (1524). 
After  the  lapse  of  a  year,  Luther  replied  in  the  work :  De  servo  arbitrio 
(in  German  by  Justus  Jonas:  "  Daz  der  freie  Wille  nichts  sei"),  exhi- 
biting the  power  and  confidence  of  personal  conviction.  Erasmus 
rejoined  in  his  Hyperaspistes  diatribes  adv.  Lutheri  servum  arbitrium 
(1526),  in  which  he  gave  full  vent  to  his  passion,  but  without  adding 
aught  to  the  argument,  wherefore  Luther  paid  no  further  attention  to 
his  attack. 

2.  Among  the  most  violent  opponents  and  abusive  villifiers  of  Luther 
and  his  cause,  was  the  satirist,  Thomas  Murner,  a  Franciscan  monk 
of  Strassburg,  subsequently  of  Luzerne  (died  about  1536).  First  of 
all.  he  issued  a  perverted  translation  of  Luther's  Babylonian  Captivity 
(1520).  To  this  he  added  slanderous  productions:  "Am  new  Lied  von 
dem  Undergang  des  christl.  Glaubens;"  "Von  dem  Babstenthume 
wyder  Dr.  M.  L. ;"  "An  den  Adal  tlitscher  Nation,  das  sye  den  christl. 
Glauben  beschirmen  wyder  den  Zerstorer  des  Glaubens  Christi.  M. 
Luther,  einen  Verfiehrer  der  einfeltigen  Christen,"  and  many  others 
of  the  sort.  He  also  translated  the  book  of  Henry  VIII.,  concerning 
the  seven  sacraments,  and  defended  Henry  in  a  tract  entitled:  "Ob 
der  Kb'nig  uss  Engellant  ein  Liipner  sei  oder  der  Luther."  His  prin- 
cipal satire  against  Luther  is  "Yon  dem  grossen  Lutherischen  Narren, 
wie  ihn  Dr.  Murner  beschworen  hat  1522."  It  is  the  most  important, 
satirical  production  ever  written  against  the  Reformation.  The 
author,  it  is  true,  does  not  take  up  the  real  nature  of  the  Reformation ; 
indeed  he  could  not  appreciate  it ;  but  its  revolutionary,  fanatical,  and 
rhetorical  element  which  then,  already,  followed  at  its  heels,  is  chas- 
tised with  uncouth  but  vigorous  severity,  and  with  the  keenest  wit 
(New  ed.  by  E.  Kurtz,  Zurich,  1848).  —  Luther  allowed  the  rude 
satirical  reviler  to  pass  unrebuked ;  but  the  humanist  poured  down 
upon  him  a  very  flood  of  scornful  satires  and  lacerating  lampoons. 

3.  The  "Onusecclesiae,"of  Bishop  Berthold  of  Chiem-see,  published 
anonymously,  at  Landshut,  1524,  bore  remarkable  Ccdliolic  testimony 
in  favor  of  the  Reformation.  Appealing  to  the  Apocalypse,  he  unspar- 
ingly depicts  the  corruptions  of  the  Church,  and  argues  for  the  neces- 
sity of  a  thorough  reformation,  if  the  Church  should  be  saved  from  utter 
ruin.  He  does  not  wish  the  reformation  to  be  effected  in  the  manner 
of  Luther,  whom  he  reproaches  as  the  leader  of  a  sect,  a  perverter  of 
the  Scriptures,  and  a  seditious  person,  although  he  approves  of  Luther's 
views  concerning  indulgences ;    but  he  desires  the  work  to  proceed 


48  SECTION    III. FIRST    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.   16    A.  D.). 

from  within  the  Church,  and  by  its  own  proper  organs.  His  book  is 
the  more  remarkable,  since  the  same  author  published  a"Tcutsche 
Theologey,"  four  years  later  (Munich,  1528.  Republished  by  W. 
Reithmeier,  Munich,  1852),  in  which  he  attempts  to  ignore  and  conceal 
the  corruptions  of  the  Catholic  Church  ($  19,  6),  although  it  still  con- 
tains traces  of  his  previous  views,  especially  concerning  indulgences. 
(Cf.  Dr.  Schwarz,  of  Jena,  in  Galzer's  protest.  Monatsbl'att.  I.  210,  etc.) 

I  0.  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  WORK  OF  THE  REFORMATION 
IN  THE  EMPIRE.     (1522-26). 

At  the  diet  of  Worms,  Charles  V.,  to  secure  his  election,  had 
been  compelled  to  assent  to  the  establishment  of  an  imperial 
regency  of  the  estates,  at  Nuremberg,  which  exercised  supreme 
authority  daring  his  absence  in  Spain.  Although  the  Archduke 
Ferdinand,  the  emperor's  brother,  and  vicegerent,  presided  over 
this  board  of  regents,  a  decided  majority  of  its  members  soon 
became  favorable  to  the  new  religious  movement,  and  furthered 
it.  Protected  by  the  highest  authority  of  the  empire,  and  even 
in  league  with  it,  the  Reformation  found,  for  a  time,  no  obstacles 
to  its  spread,  and  really  made  rapid  progress.  The  Nuremberg 
regency,  indeed,  soon  succumbed  to  the  united  efforts  of  its 
political  opponents,  among  whom  were  many  friends  of  the  evan- 
gelical cause  ;  but  these  only  the  more  energetically  sustained, 
by  their  personal  zeal,  the  interests  of  the  Reformation,  which 
had  lost  an  important  support  in  the  downfall  of  the  regency. 
And  their  exertions  were  so  effectual,  that  measures  were  vigor- 
ously urged  for  disposing  finally  of  the  whole  matter,  favorably 
to  the  Reformation,  by  a  general  national  assembly  of  the 
German  States,  independent  of  the  pope  and  council.  But, 
in  opposition  to  this,  the  papal  legate,  Gampegius,  induced  the 
Catholic  estates  to  form  a  league  at  Regensberg  (1524),  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  edict  of  Worms;  against  this  movement, 
the  evangelical  party  did  not  form  their  defensive  league  of  Tor- 
gau  until  1526.  The  general  national  assembly  was  prevented 
by  the  strict  prohibition  of  the  emperor,  and  thus  the  hoped-for 
union  was  not  effected.  But  the  decision  of  the  diet  of  Spires 
(1526)  gave  all  the  estates  the  right  of  managing  the  religious 
affairs  of  their  respective  districts,  according  to  their  own 
judgment. 

1.  The  Diet  of  Nuremberg  f  1  ."22—23).  —  The  regency  of  the  empire 
opened  its  first  diet  towards  the  close  of  1522.     Pope  Hadrian  VI.  was 


THE    REFORMATION     IN     THE     EMPIRE.  49 

represented  in  it  by  his  legate,  Chieregati.  Leo  X.  had  died  in  December, 
1521.  Hadrian  (1522-23),  the  son  of  an  Utrecht  mechanic,  after  having 
been  a  professor  at  Louvain,  tutor  of  Charles,  Bishop  of  Tortosa,  and 
grand  inquisitor  of  Aragon,  succeeded  Leo  X.  He  was  a  pious  and 
learned  Dominican,  firm  in  his  principles,  zealous  for  the  Thomist 
orthodoxy,  anti-hierarchical  in  his  opinions,  and  deeply  lamented  the 
secularization  and  corruptions  of  the  Church.  He  ascended  the  papal 
chair  with  the  determined  purpose  of  restoring  the  purity  of  the  Bride 
of  Christ,  yet  of  simultaneously  suppressing  the  Lutheran  heresy. 
At  Nuremberg,  his  legate  handed  in  a  papal  brief,  which  admitted  and 
deplored  the  fallen  condition  of  the  Church,  and  promised  a  thorough 
reformation,  but  likewise  earnestly  insisted  upon  the  execution  of  the 
papal  ban,  and  the  edict  of  Worms.  A  committee  of  the  regency, 
selected  for  the  purpose,  submitted  to  the  diet  an  opinion  upon  the 
overtures  of  the  pope,  in  which  they  urged  the  immediate  convocation 
of  a  general  council,  in  some  German  city,  at  which  the  temporal 
estates  should  likewise  be  represented,  and  liberty  guaranteed  to  utter 
evangelical  sentiments  ;  but  they  declared  the  execution  of  the  edict 
of  Worms  to  be  impracticable,  mainly  on  account  of  the  admitted  cor- 
ruptions of  the  Church.  Until  the  opening  of  the  council,  all  contro- 
versy should  be  shunned,  and  the  Word  of  God  preached  according  to 
its  true  Christian,  evangelical  sense.  The  estates,  who,  on  their  part, 
had  submitted  a  new  paper,  containing  100  complaints  against  the 
Roman  court,  adopted  the  report  of  the  committee,  with  some  slight 
modifications,  as  the  decree  of  the  empire. 

2.  Spread  of  Evangelical  Doctrines  (1522-24). — The  monastic  orders 
furnished  the  most  energetic  heralds  of  the  Reformation.  Their  moral 
condition  had  become  so  corrupt,  that  purer  spirits  among  them  could 
no  longer  endure  the  foul  odors  of  dissolution.  All  such,  glad  to  catch 
a  breath  of  the  new  life,  sprang  forth,  everywhere,  as  the  zealous 
evangelists  of  the  purified  doctrine.  Foremost  among  them  were  the 
Augustine  monks,  almost  to  a  man.  This  order  likewise  enjoys  the 
honor  of  having  furnished  the  first  martyr  to  the  evangelical  cause 
(#  8,  1).  The  Order  regarded  Luther's  honor  and  reproach  as  its  own. 
The  Franciscans  came  next,  by  no  means  so  generally,  but  with  all 
the  greater  power  and  energy  on  the  part  of  those  who  tore  loose  from 
their  traditions.  A  spirit  of  opposition  to  secularization  and  moral 
corruptions  had  constantly,  from  the  earliest  times,  exhibited  itself. 
In  numerous  cases,  this  opposition  had  degenerated  into  fanaticism 
(Vol.  I.  \  98,  4).  Now  it  assumed  a  true  form.  The  two  distinguished 
preachers,  Ebcrlin  of  Gunzbnrg  and  Henry  of  Ketteribach  ;  the  Ham- 
burg reformer,  Stephen  Kempen ;  the  fiery  Lambert,  the  reformer  of 
Hessen  ;  Luther's  friend,  Myconius,  and  many  others,  had  been  Fran- 
ciscans. But  all  the  other  orders  yielded  their  contingents  to  the  mar- 
tial hosts  of  the  Gospel,  not  excepting  the  Dominicans,  to  whom  the 
Strassburg  reformer,  Martin  Bucer,  belonged.  Ambrose  Bluurer,  the 
48    ' 


50         SECTION    III. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.   16    A.  D.j. 

Wiirfcemberg  reformer,  was  a  Benedictine  ;  Urbanus  Khegius,  once  a 
pupii  of  Eck,  was  a  Carmelite;  Bugenhagen,  in  Pomerania,  was  a 
Pnemonstrant;  Otto  Brunsfels,  a  Carthusian,  etc.  The  secular  clergy 
also,  in  many  instances,  took  part.  At  least  one  of  the  German 
bishops,  Polenz  of  Samland,  at  once  openly  joined  the  movement, 
preached  the  Gospel  even  from  the  pulpits  of  Kiinigsberg,  and  ap- 
pointed men  of  like  views  to  the  parishes  of  his  diocese.  Other  bishops, 
as  those  of  Augsburg,  Basel,  Bamberg,  and  Merseburg,  participated  in 
the  movement,  or  at  least  laid  no  hindrances  in  its  way.  The  inferior 
secular  clergy,  however,  furnished  multitudes  of  advocates.  In  the 
pulpits  of  all  the  larger,  and  even  in  many  of  the  smaller  towns  of 
Germany,  Luther's  sentiments  were  preached  with  the  approbation  of 
the  magistrates;  and  where  this  was  prohibited,  the  doctrines  were 
proclaimed  in  the  market-place  and  in  the  field.  When  clergymen 
were  wanting  to  do  this,  mechanics  and  knights,  even  women  and  vir- 
gins, became  missionaries.  A  distinguished  lady,  Agnes  (Argula)  of 
Stuufen,  married  to  Grnmbaeh,  having  compelled  a  young  magister 
to  recant,  challenged  the  whole  University  of  Ingolstadt  to  discuss  the 
doctrines  with  her,  upon  the  basis  of  the  Scriptures. — Wittenberg  was, 
and  remained,  the  heart  and  centre  of  the  entire  movement  —  the 
gathering-place  of  all  who  were  persecuted  and  banished  for  con^ 
science'  sake — the  nursery  and  fountain  of  new  advocates  of  the  cause. 

3.  The  Diet  of  Nuremberg  (1524).  — On  Jan.  14,  1524,  a  new  diet 
was  opened  at  Nuremberg.  Its  first  business  was  the  continuance  of 
the  regency  of  the  empire.  As  that  had  become  decidedly  favorable  to 
the  Reformation,  the  question  of  its  existence  seemed  to  involve  that 
of  the  continued  existence  of  the  Reformation.  Among  its  chief  sup- 
porters were  the  arch-Catholic  Ferdinand,  who  hoped,  through  it,  to 
obtain  the  Roman  crown ;  the  Elector  of  Mayence,  the  author  of  the 
traffic  in  indulgences  (who  favored  the  regency  because  he  hated  its 
foes)  ;  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  who  was  really  its  originator,  and  the 
house  of  the  Brandenburg  princes.  But  the  opposite  party  was 
stronger.  It  included  the  Swabian  league,  the  princes  of  Treves,  the 
Palatinate,  and  Hessen,  who  had  triumphed  over  Sickingen,  and  the 
states  of  the  empire,  who,  though  agreeing  Avith  the  reformatory  views 
of  the  regency,  were  inimical  to  it  on  account  of  its  fiscal  measures 
and  projects.  The  opposition  acquired  a  new  confederate  in  the  papal 
legate  Campeggio.  Hadrian  VI.  died  in  1523,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Clement  VII.  (1523-34),  an  illegitimate  son  of  Julian  de  Medici. 
Clement  was,  in  all  respects,  the  reverse  of  his  predecessor.  A  skilful 
politician,  yet  regardless  of  religious  interests,  he  was  exceedingly 
zealous  to  raise  to  its  highest  pitch  the  temporal  power  of  his  chair. 
Campeggio  was  the  man  for  his  purpose. — The  opposition  triumphed, 
(lie  regency  fell,  and  even  Ferdinand,  after  long  resistance,  consented 
to  its  dissolution.  A  new  regency  was  organized,  which  was  but  a 
ehadow  of  the  old  one,  for  it  had  neither  power,  influence,  nor  hide- 


THE     REFORMATION     IN     THE     EMPIRE.  51 

pendence.  Thus  the  Reformation  lost  a  second  important  prop,  and 
the  legate,  confident  of  success,  insisted  upon  the  execution  of  the 
edict  of  Worms.  Then  the  evangelical  party  combined  all  their 
powers,  especially  the  cities,  and  once  more  secured  a  majority.  The 
states  had,  indeed,  to  acknowledge  the  legal  authority  of  the  edict ; 
they  also  promised  to  maintain  it,  with  the  clause  "  as  far  as  possible." 
But,  at  the  same  time,  they  insisted  upon  the  calling  of  a  council,  in 
the  sense  of  the  diet  of  the  preceding  year,  and  resolved  to  hold  a 
national  assembly  at  Spires,  in  November  of  the  current  year,  which 
should  be  exclusively  devoted  to  the  careful  consideration  and  disposal 
of  religious  and  ecclesiastical  affairs.  Meanwhile,  as  the  preceding 
diet  had  enjoined,  the  Gospel  and  the  Word  of  God  should  be  preached 
in  all  simplicity. 

4.  The  Convention  of  Regensbvrg  (1524).  — Whilst  the  theologians 
and  diplomatists  of  the  evangelically-inclined  states  of  the  empire 
were  zealously  engaged  in  preparing  for  the  diet  of  Spires,  a  meeting 
of  the  adherents  of  the  old  order  of  things  was  held  at  Regensburg 
(June  and  July,  1524).  In  direct  violation  of  the  unity  of  the  empire, 
partizan  resolutions,  with  reference  to  religious  and  ecclesiastical  ques- 
tions, were  there  adopted,  which,  according  to  the  decision  of  the  Nu- 
remberg diet,  were  to  be  discussed  and  acted  upon  by  all  the  states 
at  Spires.  This  was  the  work  of  the  legate  Campeggio.  In  the  main- 
tenance of  the  edict  of  Worms,  he  was  joined,  in  Regensburg,  by  the 
Archduke  Ferdinand,  the  Bavarian  dukes,  the  Archbishop  of  Salzburg, 
and  most  of  the  bishops  of  Southern  Germany.  Luther's  books  were 
once  more  prohibited,  and  all  subjects  were  strictly  forbidden  to  visit 
the  University  of  Wittenberg.  Some  external  abuses  were  corrected, 
ecclesiastical  imposts  weie  alleviated,  the  number  of  festivals  dimin- 
ished ;  the  four  Latin  Church  fathers,  Ambrose,  Jerome,  Augustine, 
and  Gregory,  were  declared  standard  authorities  in  matters  of  faith  and 
doctrine,  and  public  worship  was  to  be  conducted  in  the  ancient  form. 
The  unity  of  the  empire,  thus  rent  asunder,  could  never  again  be 
restored. — Simultaneously,  the  emperor  was  wrought  upon  by  appeals 
from  Rome.  The  imperial  and  papal  policy  were  still  identical  in 
interest ;  both  the  diets  of  Nuremberg,  with  their  national  tendencies, 
were  offensive  to  the  emperor;  so  that,  as  early  as  the  end  of  July,  an 
imperial  proclamation  was  issued,  calling  the  states  to  an  account  for 
their  course,  and  prohibiting  the  contemplated  national  assembly,  as  a 
crimen  kesas  majestatis,  on  pain  of  the  ban  and  double  ban.  The 
states  obeyed,  the  assembly  was  abandoned,  and  with  it  all  hopes  of 
a  peaceable  and  organic  development  of  Germany,  as  a  united  political 
power,  vanished. 

5.  The  Evangelical  States  (1524).  —  The  evangelical  states  still 
persisted  in  maintaining  their  position  as  constituents  of  unity  of  the 
empire.     Several  princes,  also,  who  had  hitherto  been  indifferent  or 


52         SECTION   III. — FIRST   PERIOD    (CENT.  16   A.D.). 

neutral,  now  became  more  decided  in  favor  of  the  evangelical  cause. 
This  was  the  case,  first  of  all,  with  the  young  landgrave  J'/iilijt  of 
Hesse,  who  was  led,  by  a  conversation  with  Melanchthon,  to  devote 
the  whole  strength  of  his  youthful  energy  to  the  service  of  the  Refor- 
mation. The  Margrave  Casimir  of  Brandenburg,  Duke  Ernest  of 
I/uneburg,  the  Elector  of  the  Palatinate,  and  Frederick  I.  of  Denmark 
(as  Duke  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein),  in  their  several  countries,  also 
promoted  the  cause  with  more  or  less  energy  and  decision.  The  ejected 
Duke  TJlrie  of  Wiirtemberg  was  also  gained  over,  and  his  subjects, 
groaning  under  the  Austrian  oppressions,  were  already  desiring  his 
return.  Albert  of  Prussia,  the  grand-master  of  the  Teutonic  Order, 
returned  from  the  diet  of  Nuremberg,  where  he  had  frequented  Osiari- 
der's  preaching,  with  doubts  as  to  the  consistency  of  his  office  with 
the  Word  of  God  ;  and,  during  a  visit  to  Wittenberg,  did  not  take  it 
amiss  when  Luther  advised  him  to  dissolve  the  Order,  to  marry,  and  to 
raise  Prussia  to  a  hereditary  duchy.  —  But  the  cities  took  the  most  de- 
cided measures.  At  two  large  municipal  diets,  in  Spires  and  Ulm 
(1524),  it  was  resolved  that  the  clergy  should  be  sustained  in  preach- 
ing the  pure  Gospel,  and  that  they  should  mutually  aid  each  other  in 
self-defence  against  any  attempt  to  execute  the  edict  of  Worms. 

G.  The  Torgau  Alliance  (1524).  —  The  friends  and  foes  of  the  Refor- 
mation had  unitedly  opposed  the  insurrection  of  the  peasants,  and 
with  equal  zeal  (§4,5).  Their  religious  diversities  had,  thereupon, 
displayed  themselves  all  the  more  decidedly.  In  July,  1525,  Duke 
George  had  a  conference  at  Dessau  with  several  Catholic  princes,  and, 
noon  afterwards,  he  ordered  two  citizens  of  Leipsic,  with  whom  Lu- 
theran books  had  been  found,  to  be  executed.  The  Elector  of  Saxony, 
also,  made  Casimir  of  Brandenberg  promise,  at  Saalfeld,  that  he  would 
adhere  to  the  Word  of  God  under  all  circumstances,  and  in  the  castle 
of  Grimmenstein  (subsequently  called  Friedenstein),  Hesse  and  the 
electorate  of  Saxony  pledged  themselves  to  stand  by  each  other  as  one 
man,  in  matters  affecting  the  Gospel.  A  diet  convened  at  Augsburg 
in  Dec.  1525  could  conclude  nothing  definitely  for  want  of  a  quorum. 
A  new  diet  was  called  at  Spires,  and  all  the  princes  required  to  be 
personally  present.  It  seemed  that  it  would  bring  matters  to  a  point. 
Both  parties  zealously  prepared  for  it.  Duke  George  and  several  Ca- 
tholic princes  met  at  Leipsic.  They  agreed  to  send  one  of  their  number 
(Henri/  of  Brunswick)  to  the  emperor  in  Spain.  He  arrived  most  op- 
portunely. Not  long  before,  the  emperor  had  concluded  the  peace  of 
Madrid  (Jan.  152G)  with  the  King  of  France,  whom  he  had  captured 
in  the  battle  of  Pavia  (1525).  Francis  I.  had  agreed  to  everything, 
because  he  did  not  intend  to  fulfil  any  of  the  conditions  proposed; 
among  the  rest,  also,  promised  to  make  common  cause  against  the 
heretics.  Charles  believed  that  his  hands  were  now  free,  and  was  re- 
solved, before  doing  anything  else,  to  exterminate  the  German  heresy. 
Henry  of  Brunswick  brought  back  a  document  from  Charles  in  which 


TIIE     REFORMATION     IN     THE     EMPIRE.  53 

he  strenuously  avowed  his  purpose.  But  before  its  arrival  the  land- 
grave and  elector  had  met  at  Torgau  (Feb.  1526)  and  entered  into  an 
alliance  to  sustain  each  other  in  defence  of  the  Gospel  in  Saxony. 
Philip  undertook  to  induce  the  estates  of  Upper  Germany  to  join  the 
league  ;  but  he  effected  little,  most  of  them  having  feared  the  emperor. 
The  elector  succeeded  better  in  his  mission  to  the  states  of  Lower 
Germany.  On  the  9th  of  June  the  princes  of  electoral  Saxony,  Lune- 
burg,  Grubenhagen,  Anhalt,  and  Mansfeld,  met  in  Magdeburg,  and  all 
signed  the  Torgau  league.  The  city  of  Magdeburg,  also,  which  had 
in  1524  cast  off  the  jurisdiction  of  its  archbishop,  Albert  of  Mayence, 
and  made  the  Lutheran  Confession  predominant,  was  admitted  into 
the  alliance. 

7.  The  Diet  of  Spires  (1526).— The  diet  convened  on  June  26,  1526. 
The  evangelical  princes  were  of  good  cheer.  On  their  escutcheons  was 
inscribed:  Verbum  Dei  manet  in  asternum.  In  spite  of  the  opposition 
of  the  prelates,  three  committees  (one  of  the  electors,  one  of  the  princes, 
and  one  of  the  states)  were  appointed  to  deliberate  upon  the  best 
means  of  correcting  abuses.  Of  their  three  reports,  that  of  the  princes 
insisted  upon  a  rule  which  should  be  equally  binding  on  both  parties, 
and  thus,  with  all  the  existing  diversity  of  evangelical  views  (Scriptura 
scripture  interpres)  possessed  a  conciliatory  character  (the  Communio  ' 
sub  una,  ex.  gr.  was  left  free,  and  the  seven  sacraments  were  retained). 
This  report  was  received  for  further  consideration.  But  just  as  the 
debates,  the  issue  of  which  could  be  foreseen,  were  about  to  begin,  the 
imperial  commissaries  submitted  an  imperial  order,  commanding  that 
no  resolution  should  by  any  means  be  passed,  which  proposed  a  change 
of  any  of  the  old  customs  in  doctrine  or  worship,  and  that  provision 
should  be  made  for  ultimate  execution  of  the  edict  of  Worms.  At  first 
this  produced  general  consternation  among  the  evangelical  members 
of  the  diet,  and  many  wished  at  once  to  leave,  as  nothing  could  be 
effected.  On  calmer  reflection,  however,  it  was  noted  how  far  back 
the  order  dated,  for  it  was  known  at  Spires  that  since  its  date  the  poli- 
tical circumstances  of  the  emperor  had  greatly  changed.  For  some 
time  there  had  been  serious  misunderstandings  between  Charles  and 
the  pope.  Francis  I.  had  been  released  of  his  oath  by  the  pope,  and 
informed  the  emperor  that  he  would  observe  none  of  the  conditions  of 
the  peace  of  Madrid.  Francis  I.,  the  pope,  and  all  the  Italian  princes, 
had  formed  a  league  at  Cognac,  to  which  Henry  VIII.  of  England  also 
gave  his  assent.  All  Western  Europe  was  leagued  together  to  break 
the  preponderance  of  power  which  the  Spanish-Burgundy  house  had 
gained  at  Pavia,  and  the  duped  "emperor  found  himself  in  a  most  diffi- 
cult position.  Could  he  still  hold  the  views  expressed  in  his  instruc- 
tions? It  was  probable  that  at  Ferdinand's  request  the  commissaries 
had  kept  back  the  paper,  until  the  cause  of  Catholicism  seemed  lost  in 
the  diet,  and  the  prelates  urged  them  to  present  it.  Thus  at  least  their 
strange  conduct  was  interpreted  by  the  evangelical  party.  Their  first 
43* 


54         SECTION    III.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.   1C    A.  D.). 

panic  over,  the  states  resolved  to  send  an  embassy  to  the  emperor. 
But  before  they  bad  started  Charles  anticipated  their  desires.  In  a 
letter  to  his  brother  he  communicated  a  plan  prepared  by  his  privy- 
council,  for  the  abrogation  of  the  penalties  of  the  edict  of  Worms  and 
the  adjustment  of  religious  differences  by  a  council.  (But  he  advised 
his  brother  to  delay  the  formal  abrogation  of  the  edict,  lest  the  Catholic 
princes  should  be  too  much  provoked).  At  the  same  time  he  asked  for 
aid  against  his  foes  in  Italy. — But  as  neither  the  repeal  nor  execution 
of  the  edict  seemed  advisable,  nothing  remained  but  to  allow  each 
ttate  to  do  as  seemed  best  in  the  respective  territories.  The  diet 
therefore  decreed  that  "  each  state  should  act,  in  matters  relating  to 
the  edict  of  Worms,  so  as  to  be  able  to  render  a  good  account  to  God 
and  the  emperor."  This  was  the  birthday  and  legitimation  of  the 
territorial  constitutions. 

§7.   ESTABLISHMENT   OF   THE    NATIONAL  EVANGELICAL 
CHURCHES.     (152G-29.) 

It  was  now  not  only  the  privilege,  but  the  duty,  of  the  states 
to  arrange  ecclesiastical  affairs,  within  their  territories,  according 
to  their  best  judgment.  The  next  succeeding  three  years,  there- 
fore, form  the  period  of  the  founding  and  organization  of  the 
evangelical  state  churches.  Electoral  Saxony  set  a  good  ex- 
ample. In  imitation  of  her  ecclesiastical  constitution,  the 
churches  of  Hesse,  Franconia,  Luneburg,  East  Friesland, 
Schleswig  and  Holstein,  Silesia,  Prussia,  and  a  number  of  cities 
of  lower  Germany,  were  organized. 

1.  Organization  of  the  Church  in  the  Electorate  of  Saxony  (1528-29). 
(Cf.  JEm.  L.  Richter,  Die  ev.  Kirchenordungen  d.  1G.  Jahrh.  Weim. 
1840.  Bd.  I.) — Luther  advised  the  elector  to  order  a  thorough  Church- 
visitation  of  his  entire  country,  in  order  thus  to  gain  accurate  informa- 
tion of  its  ecclesiastical  condition.  To  this  end,  Melanchthon  drafted 
a  paper  of  "  Instructions  of  the  Visitors  to  the  Clergy  in  the  Electorate 
of  Saxony,"  which  Luther  published  early  in  1528.  In  these  the  min- 
isters were  directed  what  and  how  to  preach  and  teach.  The  instruc- 
tions were  moderate,  but  positive  in  tone..  Controversy  with  the  papacy 
was  not  encouraged.  Reforms  in  worship  were  to  be  made  with  ex- 
treme forbearance.  To  guard  against  an  abuse  of  the  doctrine  of  justi- 
fication by  faith  alone,  the  necessity  of  preaching  the  law,  and  the 
freedom  of  the  human  will,  in  matters  of  worldly  righteousness 
(justitia  civilis),  was  recognized.  This  modification  of  strict  Lutheran 
doctrines  exposed  Melanchthon  to  the  assault  of  some  zealous  adhe, 
rents  of  Luther  (especially  Amsdorf  and  John  Agricola).  But  Luther 
reconciled  these  difficulties.  —  Thereupon  instructions  for  the  visitors 
themselves  were  prepared,  in  accordance  with  which  they  performed 


THE    NATIONAL    EVANGELICAL    CHURCHES.  55 

their  circuit  in  1528-29.  The  entire  territory  was  divided  among  four 
commissions,  consisting  of  secular  and  clerical  members.  To  Luther 
the  electorate  was  assigned  ;  to  Melanchthon,  another  district.  Igno- 
rant or  otherwise  unfit  clergymen  were  removed,  but  provided  for.  A 
large  number  of  abuses  were  corrected  ;  preachers  and  teachers  of 
schools  were  carefully  instructed  how  to  discharge  their  duties  most 
efficiently,  and  their  future  supervision  was  entrusted  to  superintend- 
ents, to  whom,  also,  matrimonial  questions  were  referred.  Those  who 
adhered  to  the  old  order,  and  would  not  accept  of  improvements,  were 
"commended  to  God,"  but  not  disturbed;  vacated  benefices  were  pro- 
tected against  avarice,  and  applied  to  the  improvement  of  churches  and 
schools  ;  those  not  yet  vacated,  were  obliged  to  contribute  their  portion 
to  the  same  objects.  Various  measures  were  also  adopted  for  the  erec- 
tion of  hospitals,  the  relief  of  the  poor,  and  the  founding  of  schools. 
The  Constitution  of  the  Church  of  Saxony,  which  resulted  from  this 
visitation,  became  the  model  for  the  organization  of  the  other  evan- 
gelical State  Churches.  The  gloomy  experience  which  Luther  thus 
acquired  of  the  incredible  ignorance  of  the  people  and  their  teachers, 
led  him  to  prepare  his  two  catechisms  (1529). 

2.  Organization  of  the  Church  in  Hesse  (1526-28).  (Cf.  B.  Den- 
hard,  Gesch.  d.  Entw.  d.  Christenth.  in  d.  hess.  Landern  bis  zur  Thei- 
lung.  Frkf.  1847. — Martin,  Nachr.  v.  d.  Syn.  zu  Romberg.  Cass.  1804. — 
W.  Bach,  Gesch.  d.  kurhess.  Kirchenverf.  Marb.  1832. — K.  A.  C'redner, 
Philipp's  hess.  K.  0.  Giess.  1852.  —  /.  W.  Baum,  Franz  Lambert  v. 
Avignon.  Strassb.  1840.) — As  early  as  Oct.  1526,  the  Landgrave  Philip, 
of  Hesse,  had  convened  the  temporal  and  spiritual  states  of  his  ter- 
ritory at  Romberg,  for  consultation  in  regard  to  ecclesiastical  reforms. 
A  reactionary  attempt  of  the  Catholic  party  quailed  before  the  fiery 
eloquence  of  the  Franciscan,  Francis  Lambert,  of  Avignon.  He  was  a 
most  remarkable  man,  and  had  been  awakened  by  reading  Luther's 
works,  in  his  convent  at  Avignon.  Not  fully  convinced,  he  started  for 
Wittenberg,  stopped  on  the  way  at  Zurich,  and  engaged  in  a  public 
disputation  (1522)  against  Zwingli's  reforms.  Converted  by  his  oppo- 
nent, he  left  Zurich,  passed  through  Luther's  school  at  "Wittenberg, 
and  then,  at  Melanchthon's  recommendation,  went  to  Hesse.  Lam- 
bert's spirit  ruled  the  Synod.  An  organization  of  the  Church  was 
drafted,  according  to  Lambert's  ideal  of  a  communion  of  saints,  on  a 
democratic  basis,  and  with  a  strict  church  discipline,  to  be  adminis- 
tered by  the  congregations  themselves.  But  the  inadequacy  of  this 
Homberg  scheme  was  soon  demonstrated,  and,  in  1528,  the  Hessian 
Church  adopted  the  principles  of  the  Saxon  Church  visitation.  The 
confiscated  benefices  were  appropriated  to  the  foundation  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Marburg  (1527),  as  the  second  nursery  of  reformed  theology. 
Lambert  became  one  of  its  first  professors. 

3.  Organization  of  other  German  State  Churches  (1528-30).  (Cf. 
Rhesa,  de  primis  sacrorum  reformataribus  in  Prussia.  Regiom.  1825-27. 


5G         SECTION   III.  —  FIRST   PERIOD    (CENT.  1  6  A.  D.)  . 

—  TV.  Lohe,  Erinner.  aus  d.  Refgesch.  v.  Franken.  Niirnb.  1847.  —  L 
Wallis,  Abr.  d.  Refgesch.  L'uneb.    Liineb.  1832). — Margrave  George,  of 
Franconian-Brandenburg,  after  the  death  of  his  brother  Casimir,  organ- 
ized the  Church  of  his  territory,  at  the  diet  of  Anspach  (1528),  upon 
the  model  of  that  in  Saxony.     Under  the  direction  of  its  excellent 
recorder,  Lazarus  Spengler,  Nuremberg  united  with  George  in  intro- 
ducing the  organization  adopted.     The  same  was  done  in  Lilneburg,  at 
the  diet  of  Scharnebeck  (1527).      Vlric  of  Dornum  took  the   matter 
into  his  own  hands  in  East  Friesland,  the  ruler  of  the  country  not 
venturing  to  introduce  a  reformation  of  the  Church  there.     In  Schles- 
wig  and  Holstein,  the  prelates  made  no  opposition,  and  the  civil  go- 
vernment favored  the  change.    In  Silesia,  both  the  princes  of  Liegnitz, 
Podiebrad's  grandsons,  and  Margrave   George  of  Brandenburg,  who 
had  estates  there,  cheerfully  granted  the  request  of  the  people  for  an 
evangelical  constitution.     In  Breslau,  the  Reformation  had  long  been 
predominant ;  and  even  the  archduke,  who,  as  King  of  Bohemia,  pos- 
sessed feudal  supremacy  over  Silesia,  found  himself  obliged  to  allow 
his  states  there  the  same  rights  which  the  diet  of  Spires  had  granted 
to  the  imperial  states.     In  Prussia,  the  grand-master  Albert  of  Bran- 
denburg (the  brother  of  the  Margraves  Casimir  and  George)  had,  with 
the  approval  of  the  Polish  crown,  become  hereditary  duke  (1525),  and 
gave  to  his  duchy,  with  the  cordial  cooperation  of  both  his  bishops,  a 
thoroughly  evangelical  constitution. 

4.  Tlie  Reformation  in  the  Cities  of  Lower  German;/  (1524-31). — 
In  the  cities  of  Lower  Germany  there  prevailed,  even  before  the  rise 
of  the  Reformation,  a  powerful  effort  to  effect  emancipation  of  epis- 
copal and  aristocratic  rule.  Hence  their  inhabitants,  for  the  most 
part,  embraced  the  Reformation  with  open  arms.  A  characteristic 
feature  of  the  work,  there,  is  the  surprisingly  potent  influence  of  Lu- 
theran psalms  and  hymns.  The  Reformation  was  introduced  into 
Magdeburg  as  early  as  1524,  and  the  Church  there  was  organized  by 
Nick,  of  Amsdorf  whom  Luther  sent  thither.  From  1525,  Martin 
Scultetus  preached  and  labored  there  with  great  success.  In  1526,  the 
city  joined  the  Torgau  alliance.  In  Brunswick,  at  the  close  of  a  Ca- 
tholic controversial  sermon  (1520),  the  congregation  began  to  sing: 
"Ach  Gott  vom  Himmel  sieh  darein."  In  1528,  Bugenhagen  went 
over  from  Wittenberg  and  organized  the  Church.  In  Gosslar,  Eim- 
beck,  Gottingen,  Rostock,  Hamburg,  etc.,  the  enthusiasm  of  the  people 
for  Lutheran  hymns  and  doctrine:)  carried  the  council  with  them, 
whether  they  would  or  no.  In  Bremen,  as  early  as  1525,  all  the 
churches  but  the  cathedral  were  in  the  hands  of  Lutheran  preachers  ; 
in  1527,  the  monasteries  were  converted  into  schools  and  hospitals,  and 
the  cathedral,  with  its  grounds,  taken  from  the  Catholics.  Still  more 
violent  excitement  attended  the  introduction  of  the  Reformation  into 
LMbeck  (1529-31).  Until 'then,  the  nobility,  council,  and  clergy,  had 
suppressed  all  reformatory  movements,  and  expelled  the  evangelical 


MARTYRS     OF     THE     EVANGELICAL     FAITH.  57 

preachers.  But  financial  embarrassments  compelled  the  souncil  (1529) 
to  ask  the  citizens  for  extraordinary  levies.  They  appointed  a  com- 
mittee of  sixty-four  citizens,  who  constrained  the  council  to  yield  one 
condition  after  another.  The  expelled  preachers  were  to  be  recalled, 
the  Catholic  priests  to  be  removed,  the  monasteries  to  be  converted  into 
hospitals  and  schools,  and,  finally,  Bugenhagen  was  called  in  to  fram6 
a  Lutheran  constitution  for  the  Church. 

§8.   MARTYRS   OF   THE   EVANGELICAL  FAITH. 

(1521-29). 

Cf.  L.  Volkert  u.  G.  W.  H.  Brock,  d.  h.  Martyrer  d.  evang.  K.  Erlg 
1845.  —  M.  Gubel,  Gosch.  d.  chr.  Lebens  in  d.  rhein.  westph.  K.  Cobl. 
1849.  Bd.  l.—Rudelbach,  chr.  Biogr.  Bd.  I.  II.  4. 

The  lands  of  the  Reformation  were  early  enriched  by  the  blood 
of  martyrs.  Persecutions  were  begun,  soon  after  the  issue  of 
the  edict  of  Worms,  by  some  Catholic  princes,  Duke  George  of 
Saxony  taking  the  lead.  He  imprisoned,  scourged,  and  banished 
Luther's  adherents;  and,  in  1521,  had  a  bookseller,  who  sold 
Luther's  works,  beheaded  (cf.  §  6,  6).  Persecution  raged  most, 
however,  in  the  Netherlands,  the  hereditary  territories  of  the 
emperor,  not  connected  with  the  German  Empire  (where,  really, 
the  first  martyr's  blood  was  shed,  1523),  but  also  in  the  Austrian 
domains,  in  Bavaria,  and  in  the  territory  of  the  Swabian  league, 
especially  after  the  conclusion  of  the  Regensburg  confederacy 
(1524).  The  peasants'  war  (1525),  added  fuel  to  the  persecu- 
tions. Under  pretence  of  punishing  the  insurgents,  the  execu- 
tioners of  the  Regensburg  confederates  went  through  the  land, 
and,  along  with  the  guilty,  put  to  death  many  who  were  innocent 
of  every  crime  but  adherence  to  the  Gospel.  The  decision  of  the 
diet  of  Spires  fanned  the  flames  (1526).  The  more  cheerfully 
the  evangelical  states,  on  the  strength  of  that  decision,  pro- 
ceeded to  organize  evangelical  Churches  in  their  territories,  so 
much  the  more  zealously  did  the  foes  of  the  innovations  inflict 
upon  their  evangelical  subjects  the  most  cruel  persecutions. 
The  forgeries  of  Pack,  moreover,  revived,  and  increased  the 
spirit  of  persecution.  In  152*7-28,  a  church-visitation  was  insti- 
tuted in  Austria,  similar  to  that  in  Saxony,  but  for  the  purpose 
of  detecting  and  punishing  heretics.  In  Bavaria,  the  public 
roads  were  guarded,  to  prevent  pilgrims  from  going  abroad 
into  other  countries  ;  those  caught  were  first  fined,  then  drowned 
or  burned  in  large  numbers. 


58  SECTION    III. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

1.  The  first  martyrs  were  two  young;  Augustine  monks,  at  Antwerp, 
Henri/  Voes  and  John  Esch,  whose  heroic  sufferings  (1523)  Luther  cele- 
brated in  a  beautiful  hymn  ("  Ein  neues  Lied  wir  heben  an").     Then 
example  was  followed  by  Lampert  Thorn,  the  prior  of  the  monastery, 
who  was  suffocated  in  prison.     The  same  year,  George  Buchjuhrer  was 
burnt  in  Hungary,  and,  during  the  next  year,  a  large  number  of  scaf- 
folds and  stakes  were  erected,  for  Protestants,  in  Austria,  Bavaria, 
and  Swabia.     The  most  notable  of  these  was  Caspar  Tauber,  who  was 
beheaded  and  burnt  in  Vienna.     Instead  of  the  recantation  he  was 
expected  to  announce,  he  bore  powerful  testimony,  from  the  pulpit,  in 
favor    of  evangelical  truth.      Among   later   martyrs,    Leonard  Kciser 
(Kaiser)  holds  a  distinguished  place.     Impelled  by  filial  love  to  visit 
his  dying  father  in  Passau,  he  perished  there  at  the  stake,  with  joyful 
courage,  Aug.  16,  1527.     A  few  months  previously,  George  Carpenta- 
ria, an  ecclesiastic,  had  obtained  the  honor  in  Munich. — The  Swabian 
League,  after  the  recess  of  Spires,  revived  its  cruel  executions  against 
all  who  held  evangelical  views,  under  an  order  for  the  extermination 
of  Anabaptists.     In  1527,  the  Bishop  of  Constance  had  John  Hiiglin 
(Ileuglin)   burnt   alive,  as   an   opposer  of  the  Holy   Mother   Church. 
The  Elector  of  Mayence  summoned  the  cathedral  preacher  of  Halle, 
George  Winkler,  to  Anschafienburg,  for  having  administered  the  Com- 
munion   under   both   forms.      Winkler   vindicated    himself,    and   was 
acquitted,  but  was  murdered  on  his  way  home.     This  led  Luther  to 
write  his  li  Trostungen  an  die  Christen  zu  Halle  liber  den  Tod  ihres 
Predigers."  — In   Cologne,  on  Sept.  28,  1529,  Adolf  Clarenbaeh   and 
Peter   Fhjsteden,  were    honored    with    martyrdom,    and   the  joy    and 
steadfastness  of  their  faith  shone  forth  amid  the  flames. — In  Northern 
Germany    no    blood    was    shed,    but    Duke    George    drove    those   who 
confessed  the  evangelical  faith  out  of  the  land  with  scourges.     The 
Elector  Joachim  of  Brandenburg  and  his  states  resolved,  1527,  zealously 
to  maintain  old  doctrines  and  customs.     Nevertheless,  the  Gospel  took 
continually  deeper  root  in  his  territory ;  and  his  own  wife,  Elizabeth, 
secretly   read    and   admired    Luther's  writings,  and,  in    her   private 
chamber,  even  received  the  Lord's  Supper  according  to  the  Lutheran 
mode.     But  she  was  betrayed,  and  the  elector  raged  and  threatened  to 
imprison  the  offender.    Disguised  as  a  peasant,  she  fled  to  her  relative, 
the  Elector  of  Saxony. 

I  9.  LUTHER'S    PRIVATE    AND   PUBLIC    LIFE.     (1523-29.) 

Cf.  W.  F.  Walch,  warh.  G'esch.  d.  Fran  Kath.  v.  Bora.  Halle,  1751. 
—  W.  Beste,  Kath.  v.  B.  Halle.  1843.  — J7.  G.  Hoffmann,  Luther  als 
Gatte  u.  Vater.  Lpz.  1845.  —  Apologetisches  liber  Luther's  Tischreden 
in  d.  Ztschr.  fur  Protestantism  u.  K.  Bd.  II.  II.  4.  5. 

Luther  and  the  prior,  the  last  of  its  inhabitants,  did  not  leave 
the  monastery  until  December,  1524.     In  July,  1525,  he  married 


LUTHER* S     PRIVATE     AND     PUBLIC     LIFE.  59 

Catharine  v.  Bora,  of  the  monastery  of  Nimptsch.  Although 
Luther  was  often  prostrated  by  sickness,  almost  overwhelmed 
with  business,  and  kept  constantly  sensible  of  the  uncertainty  of 
his  life  by  the  threats  of  enemies  against  it,  he  still  preserved  a 
cheerful  disposition,  and  spent  many  happy  hours  in  the  circle 
of  his  friends,  joining  them  in  simple  repasts,  in  singing,  music, 
religious  conversation,  and  harmless,  though  often  pungent  and 
lively  jokes  (cf.  his  Table- Talk,  subsequently  collected  by  Auri- 
faber).  At  the  same  time  he  cheered  and  aided,  by  his  counsel 
and  efforts,  all  who  were  in  straits.  By  his  unremitted  literary 
labors,  by  personal  intercourse  with  students  and  strangers  who 
flocked  to  Wittenberg,  and  by  extensive  correspondence,  he  ac- 
quired and  retained  an  extraordinary  influence  upon  the  spread 
and  firmer  establishment  of  the  Reformation.  By  his  transla- 
tions and  expositions  of  the  Scriptures,  by  his  sermons  and 
didactic  writings,  his  evangelical  views  spread  among  all  classes 
of  people.  German  hymns  proved  a  mighty  lever  of  the  Re- 
formation ;  by  them  a  pure  knowledge  and  cheerful  confession 
of  the  truth  were  planted  deeply  in  the  heart  of  the  nation.  By 
translating  or  reconstructing  older  hymns,  and  by  composing  new 
ones  of  unsurpassed  excellence,  which  he  furnished  at  the  same 
time  with  remarkably  vigorous  and  beautiful  tunes,  Luther  laid 
the  basis  of  the  incomparably  rich  and  glorious  hymnological 
treasury  of  the  German  evangelical  Church.  He  labored,  also, 
with  special  diligence  for  the  improvement  of  instruction  in  the 
churches  and  schools  ;  urged  the  establishment  of  new  schools, 
both  for  the  higher  and  ordinary  branches  of  education,  and 
insisted  upon  the  importance  of  philological  studies  for  the 
Church  of  the  pure  word. 

The  first  collection  of  spiritual  hymns  and  j)salms  appeared  in 
1524,  with  a  preface  by  Luther.  In  the  reformation  of  the  cultus, 
Luther  proceeded  cautiously  and  with  forbearance.  In  1523,  he  issued 
his  "  Deidsches  Tcuifbachlein,"  and  his  "  Weise,  christliche  Messe  zu 
halten  und  zum  Tische  Gottes  zu  gehen,"  in  which  all  allusions  to  a 
sacrifice  were  avoided,  and  the  communio  sub  utraque  was  maintained. 
In  1524,  he  sent  forth  his  tract:  "  Vom  Greuel  der  Stillmesse,"  in 
which  he  directly  assailed  the  canon  of  the  mass,  the  central  point  of 
the  Romish  system.  Finally,  in  152G,  he  published  his  "Deutsche 
Messe  und  Ordnung  des  Gottesdienstes,"  which  was  introduced  into 
most  of  the  churches  of  electoral  Saxony.  The  system  of  education 
was  especially  improved  by  his  impressive  tract:  "An  die  Burgermeister 
und  Rathshcrren  aller  St'adte  Deutschlands,  dass  sie  christliche  Schulen 


GO  SECTION    III. — FIRST   PERIOD    (CENT.  16   A.  D.). 

aufrichten  und  halten  sollen."  Besides  his  controversy  with  Erasmus 
and  Carlstadt,  against  Miinzer  and  the  insurgent  peasants,  as  well  as 
against  the  sacramentarians  of  the  upper  countries  (cf.  \  11),  lie  had, 
during  this  period,  his  dispute  with  Cochlceus,  whose  abusive  assault 
Luther  parried  with  his  tract:  "Wider  den  gewappneten  Mann 
Cochlaus,  ein  Bcscheid  vom  Glauben  und  Werken"  (1523).  A  papal 
bull,  canonizing  Bishop  Benno  of  Meissen  (died,  HOG),  called  forth 
Luther's  tract:  "Wider  den  neuen  Abgott  und  alten  Teufel,  so  zu 
Meissen  soil  erhoben  werden"  (1524).  In  reply  to  a  soldier  who  had 
doubts  concerning  the  lawfulness  of  his  profession,  he  wrote  the  small 
volume:  "Ob  Kriegsleute  auch  in  seligem  Stande  sein  konnen" 
(1526)  ;  and,  for  sport,  had  some  copies  struck  off,  without  the  author's 
name,  or  that  of  the  place  of  publication,  and  sent  to  Duke  George. 
At  the  persistent  request  of  Christian  II.,  of  Denmark,  he  wrote  a  very 
humble  letter  to  Henry  VIII. ,  which  called  forth,  from  England,  an 
extremely  malignant  and  opprobrious  answer.  He  quieted  the  tri- 
umphant outcry  of  his  foes,  that  he  had  recanted,  by  his  tract : 
"Wider  des  Kiinig's  von  England  Lasterschrift"  (1527),  in  which  he 
again  displayed  the  confident  tone  and  fearlessness  of  his  polemics. 
He  fared  no  better  in  an  equally  humble  attempt  to  reconcile  Duke 
George,  to  which  he  was  persuaded  (152G).  He  continued  to  work, 
untiringly,  at  the  translation  of  tlie  Scriptures.  The  first  edition  of 
the  entire  Bible  was  published  in  1534,  by  Hans  Luftt,  Wittenberg.'25 

I  10.  THE   REFORMATION   IN   GERMAN   SWITZERLAND. 

(1519-31). 

Whilst  Luther's  Reformation  in  Germany  spread  more  widely 
every  day,  and  became  purer,  stronger,  and  more  fully  organized, 
a  similar  movement  was  started  in  the  adjacent  country  of  (Ger- 
man) Switzerland.  Indeed,  its  first  symptoms  were  of  earlier 
date  (1516)  ;  but  it  did  not  make  decided  or  comprehensive  pro- 
gress until  two  years  after  Luther  came  forward.  The  differ- 
ently constituted  peculiarities  of  its  first  and  chief  leader,  and 
the  politico-democratic  current  in  which  it  moved,  imparted  to 
it  a  tendency  differing  from  the  Lutheran  reform,  in  various 
respects.  Most  strongly  did  the  opposition  between  them  ap- 
pear in  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper  (§  11).  As  the  Swiss 
view  of  this  doctrine  found  favor  in  the  cities  of  Upper  Ger- 
many, the  division  spread  into  the  Reformed  Church  of  Germany, 
and.  in  spite  of  common  interests  and  perils,  hindered  their  com- 
mon progress  and  co-operation  (§  13,  14). 

1.  Ulrie  Ziaingli.  (Cf!  Zwingli's  Lcbcn  von  Osw.  Mi/conius.  Bas. 
1536;  J.J.  Hess,  Zurich,  1818;  Botermund,  Bremen,  1818;  Schuler, 


REFORMATION     IN     GERMAN     SWITZERLAND.      61 

Zurich,  1818  ;  /.  J.  Hottinger,  Zurich,  1843   [transl.  by  T.  C.  Porter, 
Harrisburg,  1857]  ;  W.  Bocler,  St.  Gall,  1854.     [Especially:  R    Chris- 
toffel,  Elberfeld,  1857.]—  Zwingli's  Works:  Gualter,  Tig.  1581,  4  voll.; 
Schider  u.  SchuUhess,  Zurich,  1829,  etc.,  8  vols.,  royal  8vo. ;    Usteri  u. 
Vogelin,  Zurich,  1819,  2  Bde.).  —  Zwingli,  bom  in  Wildhaus,  in  the 
Toggenburg,  on  Jan.  1,  14R4,  a  pupil  of  the  learned  humanist,  Thomas 
Wyttenbach,  in  Basel,  arose  as  a  reformer,  in  German  Switzerland, 
almost  simultaneously  with  Luther.     Unlike  Luther,  he  was  not  led 
to  greater  purity  and  freedom  of  religious  knowledge  by  any  inward 
experience,  but  by  classical  culture,  and  a  scientific  study  cf  the  Sacred 
Scriptures.    After  serving  the  parish  of  Glarus  as  pastor  for  ten  years, 
he  received  charge  of  that  at  Einsiedeln,  in  151G.     The  miraculous 
virtues  attributed  to  an  image  of  Mary,  there,  attracted  crowds  of 
pilgrims.    This  led  Zwingli  to  preach  against  superstitious  reliance  on 
good  works.    But  he  took  a  much  more  decided  stand  after  Jan.  1,  1519, 
as  a  public  preacher  in  Zurich,  where  he  first  learned  of  Luther's  move- 
ments, and  defended  his  course  against  Rome.     But,  from  the  begin- 
ning, Zwingli's  reformatory  measures  diverged  from  those  of  Luther. 
He  aimed  at  being  not  only  a  religious  but  political  reformer.     For 
several  years  he  had  strenuously  endeavored  to  abolish  the  practice  of 
hiring  Swiss  youth  as  mercenary  soldiers  to  foreign  powers.    He  main- 
tained the  struggle  with  this  evil  during  his  whole  life.     His  political 
opponents,  the  oligarchy,  who  were  anxious  to  retain  this  source  of 
revenue,  were  consequently  also  his  religious  enemies,  as,  reversely, 
the  democracy  supported  him.     A  still  more  fundamental  difference 
was,  that  Zwingli  had  been  trained  for  his  reformatory  work,  not  by 
convictions    of  sin,   or  spiritual    struggles,   but  by  classical    studies. 
Justification  by  faith,  therefore,  was  by  no  means  so  central  and  vital 
a  matter,  in  his  life  and  labors,  as  in  Luther's  case.     He  began  his 
work,  as  a  reformer,  not  so  much  with  the  purification  of  doctrine  as 
the  life-blood  of  all  churchliness,  but  with  external  improvements  in 
worship,  order,  and  manners.      Of  the  two  anti-Romish  reformatory 
principles    [material,    in    opposition    to   Romish   work-righteousness: 
justification  by  faith; — formal,  in  opposition  to  an  unqualified  adhe- 
rence to  all  the  traditions  of  the  Romish  Church :  the  sole  authority 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures),  the  Wittenberg  Reformation  gave  most  promi- 
nence to  the  material,  the  Zurich  Reformation  to  the  formal,  principle. 
The  former  rejected  only  such  things  as  were  irreconcilable  with  the 
Scriptures,  the  latter  every  thing  not  expressly  taught  by  them.     The 
former  proceeded  cautiously  and  forbearingly  in  changing  forms  of 
worship  and  external  customs ;  the  latter  was  destructive,  impetuous, 
and  violent.    Luther  retained  images,  altars,  the  ornaments  of  churches, 
and  the  sacerdotal  character  of  public  worship,  simply  pruning  off  its 
unevangelical  excrescenses  and  deformities ;  Zwingli  rejected  all,  un- 
conditionally, as  idolatry,  and  even  abolished  organs  and  bells.    Despite 
the  one-sided  prominence  given  by  Zwingli  to  his  forniAl  principle,  he 
49 


62         SECTION    III. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.   D.). 

often  did  violence  to  the  Scriptures  ;  for  he  approached  them  externally, 
and  explained  them  according  to  his  subjective  judgment,  and  called 
Luther's  real  submission  to  them  servitude  to  their  letter !  Luther 
acknowledged  no  operation  of  the  Spirit,  excepting  through  the  Word 
and  the  Sacraments ;  Zwingli  severed  the  influence  of  the  Spirit  from 
those  instruments,  and  held  that  he  could  operate  immediately  upon 
the  heart.  He  regarded  the  sacraments  as  only  commemorative  signs  ; 
in  the  doctrine  of  the  person  of  Christ,  he  verged  towards  Nestorian- 
ism,  by  denying  that  the  human  nature  of  Christ  participated  in  the 
divine  predicates.  For  him,  justification  by  the  merits  of  Christ  alone 
was  less  of  positive  than  of  negative  (in  opposition  to  Romish  work- 
righteousness)  importance,  for,  in  original  sin,  he  saw  only  a  moral 
disease,  which,  of  itself,  did  not  constitute  sin  ;  and  his  views  of  the 
essence  of  virtue  were  so  superficial,  that  he  ranked  even  heathen, 
like  Socrates  and  Cato,  without  further  qualifications-,  in  the  com- 
munion of  saints.  Along  with  this,  his  speculations  led  him  to  adopt 
&  fatalistic  predestination,  which  deprives  the  will  of  moral  freedom, 
as  over  against  divine  providence.  —  Luther  was  right  in  subsequently 
saying  to  Zwingli :  "  Ihr  habt  einen  andern  Geist,  denn  wir."  —  (Cf. 
E.  Zeller,  das  theol.  System  Zwingli's.  Tiibg.  1853. —  Chr.  Sigwart, 
Ulr.  Zw.  Der  Char.  sr.  Theol.  mit  bes.  Rlicks.  auf  Pic.  v.  Mirandola. 
Stuttg.  1855.  [See,  also,  Ebrard's  Lehre  v.  heil.  Abendm.,  for  a  com- 
plete refutation  of  the  above,  and  Zwingli  no  Radical,  in  the  Mercers- 
burg  Review,  1849,  p.  2G3,  etc.—  Tr.]  ' 

2.  The  Reformation  in  Zurich  (1519-25).  (Cf.  Sal.  Hess,  Urspr. 
Gang,  etc.,  der  durch  Zw.  in  Z.  bewirkt.  Ref.  Zurich,  1820.) — In  Swit- 
zerland, also,  a  seller  of  indulgences,  Bernard  Sampson,  prosecuted 
his  scandalous  business.  At  Zwingli's  instigation,  the  gates  of  Zurich 
were  closed  against  him.  Soon  afterwards  (1520)  the  council  granted 
the  priests  and  preachers  of  the  city  and  territory  the  privilege  of 
preaching  according  to  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
alone.  All  this  took  place  under  the  eyes  of  two  papal  nuncios,  then 
in  Zurich — and  yet  it  went  unpunished,  for  the  Roman  court  was  then 
too  intent  upon  procuring  troops  for  a  papal  army,  designed  for  the 
conquest  of  Milan.  Nevertheless,  a  large  annuity  was  offered  to 
Zwingli,  if  he  would  cease  to  preach  against  the  Pope.  He  rejected 
the  oiler,  and  went  forward  on  his  reformatory  course.  Under  the  con- 
tinued forbearance  of  Rome,  the  new  views  took  deeper  root.  During 
Lent,  1522,  the  people  of  Zurich  unscrupulously  ate  moat  and  eggs. 
Then  first  did  the  bishop  (of  Constance)  adopt  corrective  measures ; 
the  opponents  of  reform  in  the  city  and  council  also  roused  themselves. 
At  this  time,  Francis  Lambert,  of  Avignon  {'i  J,  2),  came  to  Zurich. 
He  preached  against  the  innovations,  had  a  public  del  .ate  with  Zwingli 
in  July,  and  declared  himself  vanquished  and  convinced.  Zwingii'a 
opponents  had  reckoned  confidently  upon  Lambert's  eloquence  and 
dialectic  skill.      The  unexpected  result  of  the  disputation  produced 


REFORMATION    IN    GERMAN    SWITZERLAND.       63 

the  greater  effect.  The  council  changed  the  permission  to  preach  the  Gos- 
pel into  a  command  to  do  nothing  else.  Against  this  the  adherents  of 
Rome  protested.  A  public  disputation  was  therefore  appointed  in 
Feb.,  1523.  John  Fuber,  a  former  friend  of  Zwingli,  but  who  had 
totally  changed  his  views,  ifter  a  visit  to  Rome,  and  had  been  made 
vicar-general  of  the  Bishop  of  Constance,  undertook  the  defence  of 
old  doctrines  and  customs  against  Zwingli.  Having  let  himself  be 
drawn  into  the  Scriptural  argument,  he  was  defeated.  The  clergy  now 
began  to  marry,  and  the  monasteries  were  forsaken.  Violent  assaults 
were  made  upon  the  mass,  and  the  worship  of  images  and  saints.  The 
council  resolved  to  have  the  question  concerning  images  decided  by 
another  disputation,  in  Oct.,  1523.  Leo  Jada,  pastor  of  St.  Peter's,  in 
Zurich,  discussed  the  worship  of  images ;  Zwingli,  the  mass;  and  they 
met  with  scarcely  any  opposition.  At  Whitsuntide,  1524,  the  council 
ordered  all  images  to  be  removed  from  the  churches,  the  frescoes  to  be 
cut  out,  and  the  walls  to  be  painted  white.  The  playing  of  organs  and 
ringing  of  bells  were  likewise  to  be  abolished,  because  they  were  con- 
nected with  superstitions.  A  new,  purely  Scriptural  formula  of  bap- 
tism was  introduced,  and,  finally,  the  mass  abolished  (1525).  At 
Easter,  1525,  Zwingli  administered  a  love-feast,  at  which  the  bread  was 
carried  about  in  wooden  trays,  and  the  wine  was  drunk  from  wooden 
cups.  Thus  he  thought  he  had  restored  the  Lord's  Supper  to  its  apos- 
tolic Christian  simplicity  ! 

3.  The  Reformation  in  Basel  (1520-25).  (Cf.  (Ecolampad's  Leben, 
by  Gri/naeus,  Bas.  1536. — Sal.  Hess,  Zurich,  1793. — /.  /.  Herzog,  Bas. 
1843,  2  Bde.—  [K.  R.  Hagenbach,  Elberfeld,  1859.]  —  BurcJchard,  die 
Ref.  in  Basel.  Bas.  1818.)  —  Wolfgang  Fabricius  Capito  (Kiipflin)  ana 
Caspar  Hedio  early  began  to  preach  the  Gospel  in  Basel.  But,  before 
they  could  lay  a  firm  foundation,  they  obeyed  a  call  to  Mayence  (1520), 
and  soon  afterwards  went  to  Strassburg.  Their  work  was  carried  on 
with  zeal  and  success  by  William  Roublin.  He  preached  against  the 
mass,  purgatory,  and  the  worship  of  images,  often  to  four  thousand 
nearers.  At  Corpus  Christi,  instead  of  relics,  which  he  ridiculed  as 
dead  men's  bones,  he  carried  a  Bible  before  him.  He  was  banished, 
and  subsequently  joined  the  Anabaptists.  A  new  epoch  for  Basel 
opened  with  1523.  John  Haitsschein  or  (Ecolampadins,  of  Weinsberg, 
in  Franconia  (Zwingli's  Melanchthon),  preached  in  Basel,  as  early  as 
1516.  Then  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  cathedral  in  Augsburg,  but,  in 
the  course  of  a  year,  withdrew  to  a  monastery  of  St.  Bridget,  in  Augs- 
burg. There  he  studied  Luther's  writings,  and,  being  persecuted  for 
this,  he  took  refuge  in  the  castle  of  Sickingen,  where  he  officiated  for 
a  season  as  chaplain.  After  Sickingen's  overthrow,  he  fled  to  Basel 
(1523),  became  preacher  at  St.  Martin's,  and  professor  in  the  univer- 
sity. A  circle  of  young  men,  awakened  by  him,  soon  gathered  around 
him,  and  energetically  sustained  him  in  his  reformatory  lal  ors.  They 
baptized  in  German,  administered  the  eucharist  in  both  forms,  and 


6-4  SECTION    III.  —FIRST    PERUD    (CEN1     16    A.  D.). 

were  untiring  in  their  preaching.  In  1524,  the  council  gave  all  monks 
and  nuna  liberty  to  quit  the  monastery.  William  Farel,  of  Dauphine, 
a  refugee  from  France,  whom  (Ecolampadius  kindly  received,  remained 
several  months  in  Basel  (1524),  and  rendered  important  service  in 
furthering  the  Reformation.  In  February,  he  had  a  public  disputation 
with  the  opponents  of  the  cause.  The  university  and  bishop  had  for- 
bidden it,  but  the  council  was  only  the  more  intent  upon  it.  Its  resuh 
gave  a  mighty  impulse  to  the  Reformation. 

4.   The  Reformation  in  other  Cantons  (1520-25).     (Cf.  Stierlein,  die 
Ref.  in  Bern.   Bern.  1827.— S.  Fischer,  d.  Ref.  in  Bern.  1827.—/.  Kuhn, 
die  Reformatoren  Berns.  Bern.  1828.  —  M.  Kirchhofer,  B.  Ilaller's  Le- 
ben.  Zurich.  1828.  —  C.  Gruneisen,  Nicl.  Manuel,  Leb.  u.  Wirk.  eines 
Malers,   Dichters,    Kriegers,    Staatsm.  u.  Ref.  Stuttg.  1837.)  —  From 
1518,  Berchtold  Holler,  of  Rothweil,  in  Swabia,  with  Francis  Kolb 
and  Sebad.  Meyer,  labored  in  Bern  as  political  and  religious  reformers, 
in  harmony  with  Zwingli.    As  an  auxiliary  to  their  preaching,  Nicholas 
Manuel,  poet  and  painter,  wrote  and  issued  satirical  plays  for  the  car- 
nival   ("Der   Todtenfresser,"    1522;    "Die   Krankheit    der   Messe," 
1526,  etc.).     In  1523,  the  council  authorized  the  monks  and  nuns  to 
leave    tiie    monastery ;    some  left  and  married.      The  opposite  party 
called  upon  John  Heim,  a  Dominican,  to  defend  their  cause  in  the  city 
(1524).     A  violent  controversy  arose  between  him  and  the  Franciscan, 
Sebastian  Meyer,  and  the  council  expelled  both  from  the  city.     Thus 
Sailer   alone    remained.      But  he  was  vigilant,  and    the    cause  pro- 
gressed.—  In  Miihlhausen,  where  Ulric  v.  Ilutten  had  found  refuge  in 
his  last  days,  the  council  issued  an  ordinance  (1524)  which  gave  free 
course    to    the  Reformation  ;    in   Bid,   also,  it  was  admitted  without 
restriction.     In  Eastern  Switzerland,  St.  Gall  distinguished  itself  for 
zeal  in  the  cause,  under  the  lead  of  its  burgomaster,  Yadian.     John 
Kessler  (§  4,  1)  preached  the  Gospel  in  the  corporation  hall  of  Sattler- 
schurz,  and  Balfh.  Hubmeier  from  the  pulpit.     Hubmeier  afterwards 
went  over  to  the  Anabaptists.     In  Schaffhausen,  the  Catholics  put  for- 
ward Erasmus  Bitter  in  a  disputation  with  the  Reformed   preacher, 
Sebast.  Hqfmeister.     Ritter  acknowledged  his  defeat,  and  thenceforth 
cooperated  with  Hofmeister.     In  Valais,  Thomas   Plater,  the  original 
and  learned  rope-maker  (afterwards  rector  of  the  high-school  of  Burg), 
was  active  in  preparing  the  way  for  the  Reformation.     In  Appenzel 
and  Giants  also,  as  well  as  in  the  confederate  cantons,  the  cause  every- 
where   progressed.  —  In    the  interior,  on    the   contrary,   the  nobility, 
clinging  to  their  pensions,  resisted  ;   the  mountain  people  also,  whose 
idea  of  religion  consisted  of  pilgrimages,  images,  and  saints,  persist- 
ently opposed  all  innovations.      Luzerne,  at  the  head  of  the  original 
cantons,  and  Freiburg  in  the  West,  were  the  chief  bulwarks  of  popery 
in  Switzerland. 

5.  Anabaptist  Disorders.  —  Although  the  Reformers  in  Switzerland 


REFORMATION     IN     GERMAN     SWITZERLAND         65 

carried  their  operations  to  greater  extremes,  a  multitude  of  fan  .tical 
ultraists  sprang  up,  who  thought  that  far  too  little  was  done.  Among 
them,  also,  Anabaptism  was  t've  symbol  of  those  fanatical,  spiritual- 
istic, communistic  movements  which  first  overran  Zwickau.  Their 
chief  leaders  in  Switzerland  were  Lewis  Hetzer,  Conrad  Grebel,  Felix 
Manz,  Balth.  Hubmeier,  and  Stephen  Slohr.  They  began  their  dis- 
orders in  Zoltikon,  near  Zurich.  Hubmeier,  on  Easter-eve  (1525), 
held  a  council  of  Anabaptists  at  Waldshut.  The  district  of  Basel, 
where  Thomas  Miinzer  had  been  uprooting  the  soil,  now  arose  in  open 
clamors  against  the  city.  In  St.  Gall,  alone,  there  were  800  Anabap- 
tists. At  Zwingli's  urgent  advice,  Zurich  adopted  thorough  measures 
against  them.  Many  were  banished,  some  were  drowned  without 
mercy.     Bern,  Basel,  at  St.  Gall,  followed  this  example. 

6.  The  Disputation  at  Baden  (1526).  — At  the  public  assemblies,  the 

anti-reform  party  of  the  oligarchs,  whose  spirit  of  opposition  was  sus- 
tained by  their  fear  of  losing  their  annuities,  was  still  predominant. 
John  Faber,  of  Constance,  was  the  soul  of  the  party.  Zurich  was 
repeatedly  required  to  abstain  from  the  innovations.  At  the  assembly 
of  1525,  it  declared  itself  ready  to  comply,  as  soon  as  they  were  refuted 
by  the  Scriptures.  The  oligarchs  could  not  evade  the  demands  for  a 
disputation  ;  but,  in  spite  of  all  protests,  they  appointed  it  in  the 
strictly  Catholic  Baden.  The  contestants  and  representatives  of  the 
cantons,  and  bishops,  met  there  in  May,  152G.  Faber  again  stood  at 
the  head  of  the  papists,  but  wisely  committed  the  defence  to  Eck  of 
Ingolstadt,  who  had  offered  his  services.  Opposed  to  him  were  Holler, 
of  Berne,  and  (Ecolampadius,  of  Basel.  The  Reformed  party  was 
treated  most  shamefully,  whilst  every  honor  and  advantage  was  shown 
the  Catholics.  Eck,  it  was  said,  bathed  in  Baden,  but  in  wine. 
Zwingli  was  not  there  ;  the  council  of  Zurich  had  forbid  his  going ; 
but  Thomas  Plater  sent  him  a  daily  account  of  the  proceedings.  Eck's 
theses  were  discussed  one  by  one;  this  took  eight  days.  Eck's  bois- 
terousness  drowned  (Ecolampadius'  weak  voice  ;  but  the  calm  self- 
possession  of  the  latter  had  an  imposing  effect,  At  the  close,  Thomas 
Murner  (|  5,  2),  the  monk  of  Luzerne,  arose  and  read  forty  abusive 
articles  against  Zwingli.  (Ecolampadius,  and  ten  of  his  friends,  per- 
severed to  the  end  in  rejecting  Eck's  theses;  all  the  rest  subscribed 
them.  The  assembly  pronounced  the  Reformers  heretics,  and  called 
upon  the  respective  cantons  to  banish  them. 

7.  The  Disputation  at  Berne  (1528).  (Cf.  S.  Fischer,  Gesch.  d.  Disp. 
zu  Berne.  Berne,  1828.)  —  Berne  and  Basel  were  highly  offended  at 
the  indignity  done  to  their  deputies  at  Baden.  The  democratic  ele- 
ment, which  was  on  the  side  of  the  Reformers,  was  increasing  in 
strength.  Berne  grew  weary  of  the  distraction.  A  sole-nn  disputation 
was  therefore  instituted,  to  which  deputies  were  invited  from  all  parts, 
who  should  decide  the  matter.     It  took  place  on  January  7-°7   1528. 

49* 


66         SECTION    III. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

Zwingli  was  present.  On  the  Catholic  side  there  were  no  competent 
debaters,  and  they  were  completely  defeated.  Every  trace  of  Ca- 
tholicism, in  worship  and  discipline,  was  then  exterminated.  The 
various  institutions  and  monasteries  were  secularized;  preachers 
made  their  oath  of  office  to  the  civil  rulers.  Some  violent  measures 
attended  the  abolition  of  images.  The  valuable  organ,  in  the  church 
of  St.  Vincent,  was  stamped  to  pieces  under  the  rough  heels  of  the 
iconoclasts.  The  political  reformation  progressed  simultaneously  with 
that  of  religion,  and  all  annual  stipends  were  recalled. 

8.  Complete  Triumph  of  the  Reformation  in  Basel,  St.  Gall,  and 
Schaffhausen  (1529). — The  burgomaster.  Vadian,  brought  back  tidings 
of  the  triumphant  issue  of  the  Berne  disputation  to  St.  Gall.  This 
was  the  death-blow  to  the  Catholic  party.  As  early  as  1528,  though 
not  without  some  iconoclastic  excesses,  the  Reformation  gained  sole 
sway. — In  Basel  the  council  was  divided,  hence  its  measures  were  par- 
tial and  wavering.  On  Good  Friday,  some  citizens  (without  the  know- 
ledge of  GEcolampadius)  destroyed  the  images  in  St.  Martin's  Church. 
They  were  imprisoned  for  it.  But  an  insurrection  of  the  citizens  com- 
pelled the  council  to  release  them,  and  to  grant  the  Reformed  the  un- 
conditional use  of  several  churches,  from  which,  of  course,  all  images 
were  removed.  In  December,  1528,  the  guilds  presented  a  petition, 
couched  in  the  most  moderate  terms,  for  the  entire  abolition  of  "idol- 
atry." The  Catholic  party  took  up  arms;  the  Reformed  followed  their 
example;  a  civil  war  threatened.  The  council  succeeded  in  quelling 
the  disturbance  by  appointing  another  public  disputation,  after  which 
the  whole  matter  was  to  be  decided  by  a  vote  of  the  citizens.  But  the 
Catholic  minority  protested  so  energetically  against  this,  that  the 
council  again  had  recourse  to  half-way  measures.  The  dissatisfaction 
of  the  Reformed  exploded  in  a  fearful  destruction  of  images,  on  Shrove 
Tuesday,  1529.  Great  piles  of  broken  images  and  altars  were  burnt. 
The  strictly  Catholic  members  of  the  council  fled,  and  the  rest  had  to 
yield  to  the  will  of  the  burghers.  Erasmus,  also  (Vol.  I.,  g  120,  3), 
escapfd. — In  Schaffhausen,  likewise,  dissensions  prevailed  until  1529. 
But  the  course  of  things  in  Berne  and  Basel  hastened  the  victory  of 
the  new  measures.  Here  the  drama  ended  very  cheerily  with  a  double 
marriage.  The  Abbot  of  All-Saints  married  a  nun,  and  Erasmus 
Hitter  married  a  sister  of  tin;  abbot.  The  images  were  removed  with- 
out a  tumult,  and  the  mass  abolished. 

9.  The  First  Peace  of  Cappel  (1529).  — The  Catholic  party  had  re- 
tained the  ascendency  in  the  live  primitive  cantons.  They  were  as 
unwilling  to  lose  the  annuities,  and  the  right  of  engaging  in  foreign 
military  service,  as  to  give  up  the  mass  and  saints,  and  sanguinarily 
punished  every  attempt  to  smuggle  the  new  doctrine  into  their  terri- 
tories. But  they  wished  to  have  their  measures  carried  out  in  all  the 
allied  bailiwicks.     Zurich  and  Berne  resolved  no  longer  to  eudure  this. 


REFORMATION    IN    GERMAN    SWITZERLAND.      67 

As,  moreover,  Unterwalden  had,  under  these  circumstances,  teen 
guilty  of  publicly  violating  the  peace  of  the  confederacy,  and  was 
sustained  by  the  other  four  cantons,  the  burgher  cities  threatened 
serious  vengeance  against  this  infraction.  The  forest  cities  turned  to 
Austria,  the  old  hereditary  foe  of  Swiss  liberty,  and,  in  the  beginning 
of  1529,  concluded  a  formal  treaty  Avith  King  Ferdinand,  at  Insbriick, 
pledging  reciprocal  aid  in  matters  of  faith.  Emboldened  by  this 
treaty,  they  increased  their  persecutions  of  the  Reformed,  nailed  the 
escutcheons  of  the  burgher  cities  to  the  gallows,  and  burnt  alive  a 
Zurich  preacher,  Jacob  Keyser,  whom  they  took  on  the  highway,  in 
neutral  territory.  Then  the  Zurichers  broke  out.  With  their  decided 
preponderance,  they  might  easily  have  put  down  the  five  cantons,  and 
thus  have  opened  all  Switzerland  to  the  Reformation  ;  and  Zwingli 
urged  this  course.  But  Berne  was  jealous  of  Zurich's  growing  power, 
and  even  many  Zurichers,  fearing  war,  were  inclined  to  negotiate  for 
peace  with  their  confederated  brethren.  This  led  to  the  First  Peace 
of  Cappel,  Nov.  1G,  1529.  The  five  cantons  gave  up  the  deed  of  con- 
federation with  Austria,  which  the  mediators  immediately  tore  in 
pieces ;  they  agreed  to  pay  the  costs  of  the  war,  and  conceded  that,  in 
the  bailiwicks,  each  congregation  should  decide  by  vote  upon  matters 
of  faith.  In  regard  to  preaching  the  Gospel,  it  was  agreed  that  neither 
party  would  disturb  the  faith  of  the  other.  The  matter  of  foreign  pen- 
sions was  adroitly  evaded.  Thus,  much  was  gained,  but  less  than 
Zwingli  desired.  On  the  basis  of  this  peace,  Thurgovia,  Baden,  Schaff- 
hausen,  Solothurn,  Neuenburg,  Toggenburg,  etc.,  did  away  with  the 
mass,  images,  and  altars. 

10.  The  Second  Peace  of  Cappel  (1531).  —  Even  after  the  peace,  the 
five  cantons  continued  stubborn  in  excluding  and  persecuting  the  Re- 
formed, and  formed  a  new  alliance  with  Austria.  At  the  diet,  by  the 
old  laws  of  confederacy,  they  still  had  the  preponderance  ;  a  fact  which 
stood  in  glaring  contrast  with  the  actually  much  greater  preponderance 
of  the  burgher  cities.  Zurich,  therefore,  insisted  upon  a  reorganization 
of  the  confederacy.  On  the  other  hand,  the  forest  cantons  treated  the 
Reformed  with  greater  cruelty.  Then  Zurich  decided,  forthwith,  to 
6eize  arms ;  but  Berne  carried  a  decree  to  punish  the  forest  cantons  by 
cutting  ofl7  all  intercourse  with  them.  This  measure,  however,  totally 
failed.  It  excited,  in  those  cantons,  the  greatest  indignation  and  anger, 
not  against  their  stubborn  rulers,  as  the  Bernese  hoped,  but  against 
their  unmerciful  oppressors,  so  that  the  people  only  clung  the  more 
closely  to  their  governments.  At  the  diet  of  Luzerne,  the  five  cantons 
resolved  (Sept.,  1531)  to  save  themselves  from  perishing  with  hunger, 
by  immediately  renewing  the  war.  By  carefully  guarding  the  borders, 
they  kept  their  resolution  and  preparations  so  secret,  that  no  tidings 
thereof  reached  the  burgher  cities.  These,  conscious  of  their  greater 
strength,  were  therefore  wholly  unprepared,  when  suddenly,  Oct.  9, 
an  army  of  8000  men,  breathing  vengeance,  invaded  the  territory  of 


68         SECTION   III.  — FIRST   PERIOD    (CENT.  16  A.  D.). 

Zurich.     Zurich  hastily  collected  a  force  of  2000  men,  which  met  the 
foe  at  Cappcl,  Oct.  11,  and  was  wellnigh  annihilated.     Zwingli  was 
among  the  slain.     His  body  was  quartered,  burned,  and  his  ashes  scat 
tered  to  the  winds.     Zurich  and  Berne  soon  brought  to  the  field  au 
army  of  20,000  men;  but  the  courage  and  audacity  of  the  enemy  had 
increased,  whilst  the  defeat  of  Cappel  had  robbed  the  Reformed  of  con- 
fidence and  hope.    They  attacked  the  enemy,  intrenched  at  Baar,  near 
the  Zug  mountain,  but  were  repulsed  with  great  loss.     The  season  was 
against  them,  and,  what  was  worse,  they  were  disheartened.     Hence, 
when  the  forest  cantons  reassumed  the  offensive,  the  other  party  sub- 
mitted to  the  scandalous  Second  Peace  of  Cappel  (1531),  which,  whilst 
it  guaranteed  them  liberty  to  maintain  the  Reformation  in  their  own 
territories,  gave  to  the  five  cantons  the  right  of  restoring  Catholicism 
in  the  bailiwicks.     The  Reformed  had  to  defray  the  costs  of  the  war, 
and    to    surrender  their  deed    of  confederacy  with    Strassburg,  Con- 
stance, and  Hessen.      A  restoration  of  Catholicism  was  now  begun. 
The  Catholic  minority,  till  then  kept  down,  was  active  on  all  sides, 
and  carried  its  measures  more  or  less  triumphantly  through  in  many 
places.    Thus  in  Aargau,  Thurgovia,  Rheiuthal,  Sollure,  Glarus,  Rap- 
perschwyl,  St.  Gall,  etc. 

I  11.  THE    SACRAMENTARIAN   CONTROVERSY.     (1525-29). 

Cf.  (Selnecker  u.  Chemintez),  Hist.  d.  Sacramentstreites.  Lpz.  1591.' 
—  V.  E.  Loscher,  ausf.  hist,  motuum  Zw.  Luth.  u.  Ref.  2.  A.  Frkf.  u. 
Lpz.  1722,  etc.  —  M.  Gobel,  Luther's  Abendmahlslehre  vor  u.  in  der 
Streite  mit  Karlstadt ;  in  d.  Studd.  u.  Kritt.  1843,  III.  — lb.,  Karl- 
stadt's  Abendmahlslehre,  id.  1842,  II.— J.  II.  A.  Ebrard,  d.  Dogma,  v. 
h.  Abdra.  u.  s.  Gesch.  Frkf.  1840.  Bd.  II.;  adv.:  A'.  F.  A.  Kahnis,  d. 
Lehre  v.  Abdm.  Lpz.  1851.— A.  W.  Dieckhoff,  d.  <wang.  Abendmahlsl. 
im  Reform.  Zeitalter.  Gottg.  1854,  Bd.  l.—  C.  F.  Jager  {I  4,  3). 

Luther,  in  his  work  on  the  Babylonian  captivity  of  the  Church 
(1520),  bad  given  rather  undue  prominence  to  the  subjective 
aspect  of  the  sacraments,  in  opposition  to  the  prevailing  view, 
which  attributed  their  efficacy  to  the  mere  objective  reception 
of  them,  independently  of  subjective  faith  (opus  operatum). 
Thus,  in  the  first  period  of  his  reformatory  labors,  lie  was  in 
danger,  as  he  subsequently  admitted  in  his  message  to  the  Strass- 
burgers,  of  erring  by  a  depreciation  or  denial  of  the  divinely- 
objective  contents  of  the  sacraments.  But,  whilst  he  decidedly 
opposed  transubstantiation  as  a  scholastic  invention,  and  was 
naturally  inclined  to  regard  the  bread  and  wine  as  mere  symbols 
the  words  of  Holy  Writ  impressed  him  so  powerfully,  that  he 
could  not  deny  the  real  presence  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ. 


THE     SACRA  MENTARIAN     CONTROVERSY.  69 

The  vagaries  of  fanatics  and  sacramentarians  soon  led  him  to 
that  unconditional  submission  to  the  letter  of  the  Scriptures,  to 
that  firm  and  joyful  confidence  in  its  import,  which  thenceforth 
became  the  support  and  guide  of  his  life.  Teaching  that  the 
true  body  and  blood  of  Christ  were  received  in,  with,  aud 
under,  the  bread  and  wine — to  the  benefit  of  believers,  and 
the  judgment  of  unbelievers  —  he  maintained  the  true  Biblical 
medium  between  the  unbiblical  extremes  of  papists  and  sacra- 
mentarians. 

1.  Carlstadt  had  already,  in  Orlamund  ($  4,  3),  advanced  his  doc- 
trine of  the  Supper,  totally  denying  the  presence  of  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ  in  the  sacrament.  He  explained  away  the  force  of  the 
words  of  institution  by  an  absurd  explanation  of  tovto.  lie  argued 
that  Christ  thereby  pointed  to  his  body  then  present,  and  designed  to 
say:  "This  is  my  body,  which  I  will  offer  in  death  for  you,  and,  in 
remembrance  of  the  fact,  eat  this  bread."  When  Carlstadt,  driven 
from  Saxony,  went  to  Strassburg,  he  interested  the  ministers  of  that 
city,  Martin  Barer  and  Wolfgang  Capito,  in  favor  of  his  views.  Their 
efforts  to  effect  a  reconciliation  were,  of  course,  unavailing  with  Luther. 
Zwingli,  also,  sympathized  with  Carlstadt.  Agreeing  with  him,  essen- 
tially, though  on  different  grounds,  Zwingli  explained  the  words  of 
institution,  "  This  is"  by  "  this  signifies,"  and  reduced  the  entire  sig- 
nificance of  the  sacrament  to  a  symbolical  commemoration  of  the  suf- 
ferings and  death  of  Christ.  In  a  letter  to  Matthew  Alber,  in  Eeut- 
lingen  (1524),  who  held  Luther's  view,  he  expressed  this  opinion,  and 
defended  Carlstadt  against  Luther.  He  developed  the  same  opinion 
mure  fully  in  his  "  Commentarius  de  vera  et  falsa  religione,"  1525,  in 
which  he  designates  Luther's  view  as  an  opinio  non  solum  rustica  sed 
etiam  impia  et  frivola.  (Ecolampadius  also  took  part  in  the  contro- 
versy, and  vindicated  his  friend  Zwingli  against  Bugenhagen's  attack, 
in  his  "  De  genuina  verborum  Domini :  Hoc  est  corpus  meum,  expo- 
tione,"  1525.  In  this  work,  (Ecolampadius  attempts  to  show  that 
crw^ia,  in  the  words  of  institution,  signify  as  much  as  "sign  of  the 
bod;/."  He  submitted  the  work  to  the  Swabian  reformers,  John  Brenz 
and  Erhard  Schnepf,  who,  in  conjunction  with  twelve  other  Swabian 
preachers,  replied  to  it  in  accordance  with  Luther's  view.  The  con- 
troversy spread,  disputants  multiplied,  each  eagerly  replying  to  his 
opponent.  Luther  issued  two  more  powerful  works  upon  the  subject : 
one  in  1527,  "Das  die  Worte :  das  ist  mein  Leib,  noch  fest  stehen;" 
the  other  in  1526,  "  Bekenntniss  vom  Abendmahle."  The  struo-o-le 
progressed,  in  spite  of  the  conciliatory  efforts  of  the  Strassburg  divines. 
Zwingli's  view  became  the  shibboleth  of  the  Swiss  Reformation,  and 
was  approved  in  many  cities  of  Upper  Germany.  Strassburg,  Lindau, 
Memmingen,  and  Constance  adopted  it;  it  even  found  favor  in  Ulm 
Augsburg,  Reutlingen,  etc. 


70  SECTION    III. —  FIRST   PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  J).). 


§  12..  THE   PROTEST  AND   CONFESSION  OF  THE  EVANGEL 
ICAL  STATES.     (1529-30.) 

After  the  diet  of  Spires,  public  action  upon  religious  matters 
was  suspended  for  three  years.  But,  incited  by  the  growing 
strength  and  the  progress  of  the  Reformation  during  this  time, 
embittered  by  intervening  mistakes,  and  encouraged  by  the  im- 
provement of  the  emperor's  political  position,  the  Catholic  party 
obtained  the  preponderance  again  at  the  next  diet  of  Spires 
(1529),  and  secured  the  passage  of  a  decision  designed  to  put 
a  full  end  to  the  evangelical  cause.  The  evangelical  party 
entered  a  formal  protest  (thenceforth  they  were  called  Protest- 
ants), and  made  every  effort  to  give  it  effect.  The  attempted 
union  with  the  Swiss  and  cities  of  Upper  Germany  failed  ;  but, 
in  the  Augsburg  Confession,  they  raised,  at  Augsburg  (1530), 
a  banner  in  the  presence  of  the  emperor  and  empire,  around 
which  they  thenceforth  confidently  rallied. 

1.  The  Affair  of  Pack  (1527-28).  —  In  1527,  gloomy  reports  were 
spread  of  some  imminent  peril  to  the  evangelical  cause.  The  land- 
grave suspected  a  conspiracy  of  the  Catholic  princes  in  Germany.  He, 
therefore,  pressed  Otto  r.  Pack,  the  chancellor  of  Duke  George,  to 
reveal  what  he  knew  of  the  matter.  Pack,  at  length,  confessed  that  a 
leasue  was  already  formed  against  the  Lutherans.  The  landgrave 
offered  him  10,000  guilders  for  the  original  document.  Pack  brought 
a  copy  with  the  ducal  seal  affixed.  According  to  this  paper,  the  Ca- 
tholic princes  of  Germany  had  bound  themselves  to  fall  upon  electoral 
Saxony  and  Hesse  with  their  united  forces,  to  exterminate  the  Reform- 
ation, and  divide  the  country  among  them,  etc.  The  landgrave  was 
fired  with  indignation,  and  even  Elector  John  allowed  himself  to  be 
drawn  into  a  league,  by  virtue  of  which  both  were  to  make  energetic 
demonstrations  against  the  impending  assault.  But  Luther  and  Me- 
lanchthon  reminded  the  elector  of  the  words  of  the  Lord:  "He  that 
takcth  the  sword  shall  perish  by  the  sword;"  and  persuaded  him  to 
await  the  attack,  and  confine  himself  to  a  simple  defence  against 
attack.  The  landgrave,  greatly  provoked  by  the  loss  of  his  ally,  sent 
a  copy  of  Pack's  document  to  Duke  George,  who  pronounced  it  a 
shameful  falsehood  and  forgery.  Meanwhile,  Philip  had  entered  the 
territory  of  his  ecclesiastical  neighbor.  At  Wittenberg,  bitter  tears 
were  shed  at  this  violent  infraction  of  the  peace  of  the  country.  The 
landgrave,  also,  on  calmer  reflection  after  his  return,  was  ashamed  of 
his  course.  Pack  was  examined;  he  contradicted  himself,  and  was 
soon  found  to  he  a  bad  character,  who  had  been  guilty  of  other  frauds. 
The  landgrave  banished  him.     For  a  long  time  he  wandered  about, 


EVANGELICAL     PROTEST     AND     CONFESSION.         71 

and,  finally  at  the  instigation  of  Duke  George,  was  beheaded  in  the 
Netherlands.  This  affair  greatly  damaged  the  evangelical  cause. 
Mutual  confidence  was  irretrievably  lost ;  the  Catholic  princes  now 
seemed  to  be  the  injured  party,  and  they  were  highly  exasperated. 

2.  The.  Emperor's  Position  (1527-29).  —  The  treachery  of  the  King 
of  France,  and  the  consummation  of  the  league  of  Cognac,  had  placed 
the  emperor  in  a  most  trying  position.  Old  Freundsberg  gathered  an 
army  in  Germany ;  and  the  German  soldiery,  burning  with  a  desire 
to  vex  the  pope,  marched  over  the  Alps  without  hire  or  pay.  On  May 
6,  1527,  they  stormed  Rome  ;  the  pope  yielded  himself  a  captive.  But 
once  more  Germany's  hope  in  her  emperor  failed.  Regard  for  the 
sentiments  prevailing  in  his  Spanish  hereditary  domains,  and  his  own 
antipathy  against  the  Saxon  heresy,  together  with  other  political 
combinations,  caused  him  to  forget  that  he  had  been  rescued  by 
Lutherans.  In  June,  1528,  he  concluded  a  peace  with  the  pope  at 
Barcelona,  and  pledged  his  entire  strength  for  the  extermination  of  the 
heresy.  The  Peace  of  Cambray  (July,  1529)  finally  terminated  the 
war  with  France.  In  the  articles  of  peace,  both  sovereigns  promised 
to  support  the  dignity  of  the  papal  chair,  and  Francis  I.  renewed  the 
pledge  to  furnish  aid  against  heretics  and  the  Turks.  Charles  then 
hastened  to  Italy,  to  be  crowned  by  the  pope,  intending,  after  that,  to 
go  to  Germany  in  person,  and  adjust  existing  difficulties  there. 

3.  The  Diet  of  Spires  (1529).  (Cf.  /.  J".  Milller,  Hist.  v.  d.  ev.  Stande 
Protestation.  Jena,  1705,  4to.  —  J.  A.  H.  Tittmann,  d.  Protest,  d.  ev. 
Stande,  Lpz.  1829.)  —  In  the  latter  part  of  1528,  an  imperial  message 
was  sent  from  Spain,  appointing  a  diet  at  Spires,  on  Feb.  21,  1529,  for 
the  purpose  of  devising  measures  in  regard  to  the  war  with  the  Turks, 
and  to  religious  innovations.  The  existing  state  of  affairs  differed 
widely  from  that  in  1526  ($  G,  7).  The  Catholic  princes  were  irritated 
by  the  frauds  of  Pack  ;  the  wavering  states  were  controlled  by  fear 
of  the  emperor ;  the  prelates  were  present  in  full  numbers ;  and  the 
Catholic  party  had,  for  the  first  time  since  the  diet  of  Worms,  a  de- 
cided majority.  The  proposition  of  the  imperial  commissaries,  to 
annul  the  decision  of  the  diet  of  1526,  was  approved  by  a  committee, 
adopted  by  a  majority,  and  engrossed,  by  Ferdinand's  orders,  as  a 
decision  of  the  diet.  Thus  all  who  had  hitherto  observed  the  edict  of 
Worms  were  still  to  maintain  it,  and  others  were  forbidden  to  intro- 
duce further  innovations,  at  least  until  a  council  should  be  held  ;  the 
mass  was  to  be  tolerated,  and  the  jurisdiction  and  revenues  of  the 
bishops  were  to  be  every  where  restored.  It  was  the  death-sentence 
of  the  Reformation  ;  for  the  last  point,  especially,  gave  bishops  full 
power  arbitrarily  to  punish  or  depose  offensive  ministers.  As  no 
remonstrances  availed  with  the  stubborn  Ferdinand,  the  evangelical 
party  entered  a  solemn  protest  against  the  decision,  and  demanded  its 
incorporation  with  the  decision.    But  Ferdinand  declined  accepting  it 


72         SECTION    III. —  FIRST    PERIOD    (CE  N  T.  1  6  A.  I).). 

The  Protestants  at  once  prepared  and  published  a  document  legally 
drawn  up,  and  containing  all  the  acts,  in  which  they  stated  their 
grievances,  and  appealed  to  the  emperor,  a  free  council,  and  a  German 
national  convention.  The  document  was  signed  by  the  Elector  <f 
Saxony,  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  Margrave  George  of  Brandenburg,  the 
two  Dukes  of  Lilneberg,  and  Prince  Wolfgang  of  Aiihalt,  Fourteen 
cities  of  Upper  Germany  subscribed  it. 

4.  The  Marburg  Colloquy  (1529).  (Cf.  Rudelbach,  Ref.  Lutherth.  u. 
Union,  p.  345,  etc. — H.  Heppe,  d.  15  Marb.  Artikel.  With  a  fac-simile 
of  the  autographs.  2  Aufl.  Kass.  1854.) — Before  leaving  Spires,  elec- 
toral Saxony  and  Hesse  united  with  Strassburg,  Ulm,  and  Nuremberg, 
in  a  defensive  alliance.  The  theologians  present  strongly  opposed  the 
admission  of  Strassburg  to  this  league,  on  account  of  its  Zwinglian 
views.  At  the  same  time  the  landgrave  formed  a  compact  with  Zurich, 
and  Zurich  applied  to  Francis  I.  of  France.  Thus  a  coalition  was 
forming  which  might  have  become  more  dangerous  to  the  house  of 
Austria  than  any  preceding  one.  But  one  point  was  ignored  which 
soon  frustrated  all  these  plans,  the  diversity  between  the  Lutheran  and 
Zwinglian  confessions.  Melanchthon  returned  to  Wittenberg  with 
severe  chidings  of  conscience.  Luther  was  opposed  to  any  confederacy 
— most  of  all,  to  fraternization  with  sacramentarians — and  the  elector 
half  agreed  with  him.  The  Nuremberg  theologians  had  the  same 
scruples.  The  league  was  to  be  ratified  at  Rotach,  in  June.  The 
parties  met,  but  effected  nothing.  The  landgrave  was  distracted,  but 
the  elector  remained  firm.  Philip  then  invited  the  leading  theologians 
of  both  sides  to  hold  a  colloquy  at  his  castle  in  Marburg.  It  lasted 
from  Oct.  1-3,  1529.  On  the  one  side  were  Luther,  Melanchthon,  Justus 
Jonas,  from  Wittenberg,  John  Brenz,  from  Swabian  Hall,  and  Andn  w 
Osiander,  from  Nuremberg ;  on  the  other  side  were  Zwingli,  from 
Zurich,  (Ecolampadius,  from  Basel,  and  Bucer  and  Hedio,  from  Strass- 
burg. After  private  interviews  between  Zwingli  and  Melanchthon, 
and  Luther  and  (Ecolampadius,  according  to  the  well-considered 
arrangement  of  the  landgrave,  the  public  colloquy  commenced  on  the 
second  day.  In  the  first  place,  several  points  were  discussed  touching 
tire  divinity  of  Christ,  original  sin,  baptism,  the  Word  of  God,  etc., 
regarding  which  the  Wittenbergers  suspected  the  orthodoxy  of  Zwingli. 
These  were  all  secondary  matters  with  Zwingli,  in  reference  to  which 
he  dropped  his  unchurchly  views,  and  declared  his  agreement  with  the 
views  of  the  oecumenical  councils.  But,  in  regard  to  the  article  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  he  was  the  more  persistent.  Appealing  to  John, 
(') :  33,  "  The  flesh  profiteik  nothing,"  he  showed  the  supposed  absurdity 
of  Luther's  view.  Luther  bad  written,  with  chalk,  on  the  table: 
"This  is  my  body,"  and  insisted  that  these  were  words  of  God,  which 
should  not  lie  perverted.  Agreement  was  out  of  the  question.  Zwingli, 
nevertheless,  declared  himself  ready  to  maintain  fraternal  fellowship, 
but  Luther  and  his  party  rejected  the  offer.     Luther  said:   "  Ihr  habt 


EVANGELICAL     PROTEST     AND     CONFESSION.         73 

einen  amlern  Geist  derm  wir."  Still  Luther  found  that  his  opponents 
did  not  hold  as  offensive  views  as  he  supposed;  and  the  Swiss,  also, 
that  Luther's  doctrine  was  not  so  gross  and  Capernaitic  as  they  thought. 
They  united,  therefore,  in  a  mutual  promise  to  drop  disputes,  and  to 
earnestly  pray  God  to  lead  them  all  to  a  right  understanding  of  the 
truth.  They  adopted  and  subscribed  fifteen  articles.  In  the  first  four- 
teen they  declared  unanimous  consent  to  the  oecumenical  faith  of  the 
Church  against  the  errors  of  Papists  and  Anabaptists.  In  the  fifteenth, 
the  Swiss  conceded  that  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  were  present  in 
the  sacrament,  but  they  could  not  agree  to  his  corporeal  presence  in  the 
oread  and  wine. 

5.  The  Convention  of  Schicabach  (1520).  —  Whilst  the  theologians 
were  conferring  at  Marburg,  the  Elector  John  and  Margrave  George 
were  in  consultation  at  Sehleiz.  They  agreed  that  unanimity  in  faith 
was  the  indispensable  condition  of  fraternity.  In  October  following, 
a  convention  was  held  at  Schicabach,  in  accordance  with  the  agreement 
at  Rotach.  On  the  basis  of  the  Marburg  articles,  Luther  had  drawn 
up  a  confession  [the  seventeen  articles  of  Schicabach),  which  the  dele- 
gates from  Upper  Germany  were  required  to  subscribe  before  pro- 
ceeding further.  They  declined  doing  this,  and  the  convention  was 
adjourned.  Meanwhile,  the  imperial  orders  with  regard  to  the  recess 
of  the  diet,  which  arrived  from  Spain,  contained  very  ungracious  ex- 
pressions against  the  Protestants.  The  evangelical  States  sent  an 
embassy  to  the  emperor,  then  in  Italy ;  but  he,  also,  refused  to  receive 
their  protest,  and  wellnigh  treated  the  commissioners  as  prisoners. 
But  they  escaped,  and  brought  back  bad  news.  Hitherto  the  only 
question  had  been  about  a  defensive  and  offensive  league  against  the 
apprehended  assaults  of  the  Swabian  league,  or  other  Catholic  princes. 
Luther's  hope  that  the  emperor  would  still  examine  the  matter  was 
now  destroyed.  The  question  could  not  be  shunned,  what  to  do  if  the 
assault  upon  their  faith  came  from  the  emperor  himself.  The  jurists, 
indeed,  thought  that  the  German  princes  were  not  in  a  relation  of  un- 
conditional subjection  to  the  emperor,  but  that  they  themselves  were 
rulers  by  the  grace  of  God,  and,  as  such,  bound  to  protect  their  sub- 
jects. But  Luther  did  not  hesitate,  for  a  moment,  to  compare  the 
relation  of  his  elector  to  the  emperor  with  that  of  the  burgomaster  of 
Targau  to  the  elector,  for  he  clung  to  the  idea  of  the  empire  as  firmly 
as  to  that  of  the  Church.  He  entreated  the  princes  not  to  resist  the 
emperor,  and  for  God's  sake  to  suffer  every  thing  for  themselves  and 
their  countries.  Only,  if  the  emperor  should  require  them  to  perse- 
cute, banish,  or  put  to  death  their  own  subjects  for  conscience'  sake, 
they  were  not  bound  to  obey.  Under  such  circumstances,  the  Convcn' 
Hon  of  Smalcald,  agreed  upon  at  Schwabach,  took  place,  but  without 
result. 

6.  The  Diet  of  Augsburg  (1530).  (Cf.  die  Jubelschr.  v.  Pfaff,  Nu- 
rernb.   1830 ;    Veesenmeycr,    Nuremb.    1830 ;  Facias,  Lpz.    1830,   and 

50 


74  SECTION    III — FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

Forstemann,  Urkundenb.  z.  Gesch.  d.  Reichst.  zu  Augsb.  Lpz.  1830-35, 
2  Bde.)  —  From  Bologna,  where  the  Pope  crowned  him,  the  emperoi 
issued  a  call  for  a  diet  at  Augsburg,  which,  after  being  absent  from 
Germany  nine  years,  he  promised  to  attend  in  person.     The  removal 
of  religious  errors  was  to  be  the  chief  business.     He  wished,  first  of 
all,  to  try,  by  peaceable  means,  to  win  back  the  Protestants  to  the  old 
faith.     Hence  his  proclamation  was  conciliatory  in  its  tone.     But  be- 
fore his  arrival  in  Augsburg,  new  disorders  arose.     The  Elector  John 
had  brought  Melanchthon,  Jonas,  and  Spalatin,  with  him  to  Augsburg, 
and  had  them  preach  there.       The  emperor  heard  of  this  with  great 
displeasure,   and  dispatched   a  message  requiring  him   to   have    this 
stopped.     The  admonition  was  not  heeded.     On  June  15,  he,  accom- 
panied by   the  papal  legate,   Campegius,   entered   the   city   in   great 
pomp;    the  Protestants   (according  to  2  Chr.  5 :  18,  19)   participated, 
without  opposition,  in  all  the  religious  and  civil  ceremonies  of  recep- 
tion.   The  emperor  then  the  more  confidently  demanded  the  preaching 
to  be   stopped.      But  the   Protestants   were   firm.      Margrave  George 
broke  the    fury  of   the   emperor's  rage  by  bis   equally  decided    and 
humble  declaration:   before  he  would  renounce  the  Word  of  God,  he 
would  kneel  down  on  the  spot,  and  let  his  head  be  cut  off.     With  like 
firmness  did  they  refuse  to  participate  in  the  procession  of  Corpus 
Christi,  because  it  was  announced  to  be  "  in  honor  of  Almighty  God." 
In  regard  to  preaching,  they  finally  consented  to  impose   silence  on 
their  clergy  during  the  emperor's  stay,  since  the  opposite  party  was 
also  required  to  abstain  from  controversial  discourses.     The  diet  was 
opened  on  June  20.     The  matter  of  the  Turkish  war,  which  the  em- 
peror first  introduced,  was  postponed   until  the   religious  questions 
should  be  settled. 

7.  The  Augsburg  Confession  {June  25,  1530).  (Cf.  I).  Chytraus,  Hist, 
d.  Augsb.  Conf.  Post.  1576,  4to.— E.  Sal.  Cyprian,  Hist.  d.  A.  C.  Gotha, 
1730.  —  Chr.  A.  Salig,  vollst.  Hist,  d.  A.  6.  Halle,  1730,  4to.  —  G.  G. 
Weber,  krit.  Gesch.  d.  A.  C.  Frkf.  1784,  2  Bde.  —  A.  G.  Rudelback, 
hist.-krit,  Einl.  in  d.  A.  C.  Lpz.  18  11.  [G.  J.  Planch,  Gesch.  d.  prot. 
Lehrbegr.  III.] — When  the  imperial  proclamation  announced  the  pur- 
pose of  settling  religious  dissensions  amicably,  the  elector  requested 
his  theologians  to  prepare  a  brief  and  lucid  statement  of  the  evangel- 
ical faith.  They  presented  him,  accordingly,  a  revised  copy  of  the 
seventeen  Articles  of  Schwabach  (the  Torgau  Articles).  As  the  em- 
peror's arrival  was  delayed,  Melanchthon  improved  the  interval  in 
preparing  the  Augsburg  Confession  (Confessio  Augustana)  on  the  basis 
of  the  Torgau  Articles.  This  compact,  lucid  document,  as  decided  as 
it  was  mild,  received  the  full  approval  of  Luther,  whom  the  elector 
had  left  in  Coburg,  because  he  was  still  under  sentence  of  excommuni- 
cation and  proscription.  It  contained  twenty-one  articuli  fidei  prn> 
cipui,  and  seven  articuli  in  quibus  recensentur  abusus  mutati.  On 
June  24,  the  Protestants  desired  to  read  their  confession  ;  but  it  was 


EVANGELICAL     PROTEST     AND     CONFESSION.         75 

only  with  great  difficulty  that  the  emperor  consented  to  its  being  read 
on  June  25 — and  then  not  in  the  great  hall  of  the  public  sessions,  but 
in  the  much  smaller  chamber  of  the  episcopal  chapter,  to  which  only 
the  members  of  the  diet  were  admitted.  The  chancellors  of  electoral 
Saxony,  Doctors  Baier  and  Bruck,  each  came  forward  with  a  copy  of 
the  Confession,  the  former  in  German,  the  latter  in  Latin.  Charles 
wished  the  latter  to  be  read,  but  the  elector  carried  the  point  of  having 
the  German  copy  read  on  German  soil.  This  done,  Bruck  handed  both 
copies  to  Charles,  who  kept  the  Latin  copy  and  gave  the  other  to  the 
Elector  of  Mayence.  The  former  was  subsequently  placed  in  the 
archives  of  Brussels,  but  was  taken  thence  by  the  Duke  of  Alba,  and 
lost  ;  the  other  was  deposited  in  the  archives  of  Mayence,  but  only  a 
copy  of  it  was  afterwards  found  there.  Both  were  signed  by  the 
Elector  John,  the  Margrave  George,  Duke  Ernest  of  Luneburg,  the 
Landgrave  Philip,  Prince  Wolfgang  of  Anhalt,  and  the  cities  of  Nu- 
remberg and  Reutlingen.  The  Confession  made  a  favorable  impression 
upon  many  of  the  assembled  princes,  and  scattered  many  prejudices 
against  the  faith  of  the  Protestants,  whilst  the  evangelical  confessors 
felt  themselves  greatly  strengthened  by  the  unanimous  confession  of 
their  faith  before  the  emperor  and  nation.  Charles  now  directed  the 
Catholic  theologians,  John  Faber,  Eck,  and  Cochlceus,  to  refute  the 
Confession.  They  prepared  a  so-called  Confutation,  which  was  read 
Aug.  3.  Charles  declared  that  their  document  contained  the  views  by 
which  he  would  abide;  that  he  •would  expect  the  princes  to  do  the 
same  ;  otherwise,  he  was  the  protector  of  the  Church,  and  was  not  dis- 
posed to  tolerate  a  schism  in  Germany.  The  Protestants  requested  a 
copy  of  the  Confutation,  that  they  might  examine  it  more  closely  ;  this 
was  denied  them.  Then  the  landgrave  left  the  diet.  He  told  the 
elector  that  he  placed  person  and  property,  country  and  people,  at  his 
disposal ;  and  to  the  delegates  of  the  cities  he  wrote  :  "  Tell  the  cities 
not  to  be  women,  but  men.  You  need  not  fear;  God  is  on  our  side." 
The  Zwiuglian  cities  of  Strassburg,  Memmingen,  Constance,  and  Lin- 
dau,  handed  in  their  own  confession  {Confessio  tetrapolitana),  the  18th 
article  of  which  declares:  Christ,  in  the  sacrament,  gives  his  true  body 
and  true  blood,  to  be  eaten  and  drunk  for  the  nourishment  of  the  soul. 
Charles  directed  a  Catholic  refutation  of  this  also  to  be  read,  as  a  set- 
tlement of  the  matter.  —  Meanwhile  Luther,  at  Coburg,  had,  by  his 
earnest  prayers,  counsel,  and  encouragement  (Exod.  7  :  11),  sustained 
his  friends  in  their  conflicts  at  Augsburg.  He  preached  often,  wrote 
numerous  letters,  negotiated  with  Bucer  ($  13,  7),  labored  at  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Prophets,  and  wrote  several  works  for  edification.  Pro- 
bably the  powerful  hymn  :  "  Eine  veste  Burg,"  etc.,  and  its  tune,  were 
not  composed  here. 

8.  Recess  of  the  Augsburg  Diet  (1530.)  — The  hopeful  firmness  with 
which  the  Protestant  minority  maintained  their  position,  caused  the 
Catholic  majority  to  hesitate  about  a  public  rupture.     They  therefore 


76         SECTION    III. — FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16   A.  L.). 

resolved  to  attempt  a  mediation  once  more.  For  this  purpose  the  em- 
peror appointed  a  commission  of  two  princes,  two  doctors  of  canon  law, 
and  three  theologians,  from  each  party.  The  21  doctrinal  articles  of 
the  Confession  were  assented  to,  without  altering  a  single  fundamental 
point;  on  the  other  hand  the  Protestants  were  to  give  up  everything 
relating  to  constitution  and  customs.  So  the  measure  i'ailed.  Five 
imperial  cities  took  sides  with  the  emperor,  the  others  attached  them- 
selves to  the  protesting  princes.  At  the  close  the  Protestants  desired 
to  read  and  present  an  Apology  of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  drawn  up 
by  Melanchthon,  as  an  offset  to  the  Catholic  confutation,  but  the  Em- 
peror inflexibly  refused  permission.  (After  the  adjournment  of  the 
diet,  Melanchthon  obtained  a  full  copy  of  the  confutation,  and  revised 
his  admirable  apology  ;  —  it  is  among  the  most  decided  productions  of 
his  pen,  and  was  translated  into  German  by  Justus  Jonas.)  On  Sept. 
22,  the  Protestant  states  were  notified  by  the  recess  of  the  diet,  that 
time  would  be  given  them  until  April  15  following,  to  consider  the 
matter ;  but  meanwhile  no  new  work  should  be  published,  and  confes- 
sion and  the  mass  should  be  tolerated  in  their  dominions.  A  promise 
was  also  given  that  a  general  council  should  be  called  within  six 
mouths.  The  spiritual  princes  were  confirmed  anew  in  all  their  pre- 
rogatives. The  emperor  declared  that  it  was  his  fixed  purpose  strictly 
to  maintain  the  edict  of  Worms,  and  enjoined  his  fiscal  to  prosecute  all 
violations,  even  to  passing  sentence  of  proscription.  The  supreme 
court  of  judicature  itself  was  formally  and  expressly  bound  to  maintain 
the  recess  of  the  diet.  Finall}r,  Charles  expressed  the  desire  that,  in 
view  of  his  frequent  absence,  his  brother  Ferdinand  might  be  chosen 
King  of  the  Romans.  This  was  soon  afterwards  done  at  Frankfurt; 
but  electoral  Saxony  entered  a  protest  against  it. 

I  13.  EVENTS  AND  NEGOTIATIONS  DURING  1531-36. 

The  Protestants  had  not  yet  been  able  to  effect  a  permanent 
alliance.  Now,  however,  it  became  necessary  to  set  themselves 
earnestly  about  it.  Thus  arose  the  Smalcaldic  league,  1531,  for  six 
years.  To  this  energetic  measure,  and  the  simultaneous  political 
exigency  of  the  emperor,  the  Protestants  owed  the  concession 
of  the  first  or  Nuremberg  Religious  Peace.  The  bold  progress 
of  the  landgrave  released  Wurtemberg  from  the  Austrian  yoke, 
and  popish  coercion.  At  the  same  time  the  Reformation  tri- 
umphed in  Anhalt,  Pomerania,  and  several  cities  of  Westpha- 
lia.  But  for  the  Anabaptist  disorders  of  Milnsler,  all  Westphalia 
would  have  become  Protestant.  The  untiring  assiduity  of  Bacer, 
also,  secured  the  northern  countries  for  the  Smalcaldic  league, 
by  means  cf  the  Wittenberg  concord.  The  league  now  presented 
an  imposing  and  powerful  front. 


EVENTS    AND    N  E  G  0  T  I  A  T  I  0  N  S  (l  53  1-3  6).  77 

1.  The  Formation  of  the  Smalcaldic  League  (1530-31).  —  The  obliga- 
tion of  the  imperial  chamber  to  carry  out  the  Augsburg  recess,  threat- 
ened most  danger  to  the  Protestants.  To  ward  off  this  danger  the 
evangelical  states  unanimously  resolved,  at  a  convention  in  Snralcald 
(Dec.  1530),  to  sustain  each  other  against  every  attack  of  the  chamber. 
But  when  the  question  arose  whether,  in  any  extremity,  they  would 
be  justified  in  taking  arms  against  the  emperor  himself,  their  views 
were  divided.  The  legal  opinions  of  the  jurists  finally  prevailed  over 
all  religious  scruples,  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony  demanded  the  forma- 
tion of  a  league  against  every  assailant,  even  should  it  be  the  emperor 
himself.  At  a  second  convention  in  Smalcald,  March,  1531,  such  a 
league  was  formally  concluded,  for  six  years.  The  parties  to  it  were : 
Electoral  Saxony,  Hesse,  L'uneburg,  Anhalt,  Mansfeld,  and  eleven 
cities. 

2.  The  Religious  Peace  of  Nuremberg  (1532).  —  The  energetic  combi- 
nation of  the  Protestants  made  an  impression  ;  its  effect  was  also  in- 
creased by  a  threatened  attack  of  the  Sultan  Soliman,  who  seemed 
determined  to  enforce  his  pretensions  to  imperial  power  and  universal 
dominion.  In  order  to  subdue  the  Protestants,  it  would  be  necessary 
to  make  terms  with  the  Turks  ;  or,  if  these  were  to  be  humbled,  a  peace- 
able union  with  the  Protestants  was  indispensable.  Ferdinand  de- 
cided upon  the  latter  policy,  and  by  his  advice  the  emperor  ordered  a 
diet  at  Regensburg,  and  directed  his  fiscal  of  the  chamber  to  stay  all 
proceedings,  instituted  by  virtue  of  the  Augsburg  recess,  until  the 
diet  should  convene.  But  the  catastrophe  in  Switzerland,  soon  after, 
(|  10,  10,)  changed  Ferdinand's  policy.  This  seemed  to  him  the  best 
time  for  inflicting  the  same  fate  upon  the  evangelical  party  in  Germany 
which  befell  the  Swiss.  He  therefore  sent  an  embassy  to  the  Sultan, 
which  was  authorized  to  propose  the  most  ignominious  terms  of  peace. 
But  Soliman  spurned  every  offer,  and,  in  April,  1532,  marched  for- 
ward with  an  army  of  300,000  men.  In  the  meantime  the  diet  was 
opened  at  Regensburg,  April  17, 1532.  Here  the  Protestants  were  not, 
as  two  years  previously,  the  suppliants,  but  the  entreated  party.  They 
would  no  longer  listen  to  a  compromise,  but  demanded  peace  in  reli- 
gious matters,  the  annulling  of  all  religious  processes  in  the  chamber, 
and  a  free  general  council,  where  matters  at  issue  should  be  decided 
alone  according  to  the  Word  of  God.  As  long  as  Ferdinand  could  hope 
that  his  ambassadors  to  the  Turks  would  obtain  a  favorable  answer,  he 
did  not  seriously  entertain  negotiations  for  peace.  But  when  this  hope 
was  destroyed,  and  he  saw  the  terrible  army  of  Soliman  rolling  on- 
ward, there  was  no  time  to  be  lost.  To  be  nearer  the  emperor,  (in 
Brussels,)  the  diet's  further  proceedings  were  transferred  to  Nuremberg, 
where  the  first,  or  Nuremberg  Religious  Peace,  was  concluded  (July  23, 
1532).  On  account  of  the  Catholic  majority,  and  the  papal  legate,  the 
demand  regarding  the  imperial  chamber  could  not  be  engrossed  in  the 
public  records ;  hence  the  emperor  granted  it  in  a  separate  pledge,  but 

50* 


78         SECTION    III    — FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

only  in  favor  of  the  then  existing  states.  It  was  permitted  the  Elector 
John,  as  a  reward  for  his  fidelity,  to  see  this  peace  concluded.  He  died 
soon  after  (1532)  of  apoplexy,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  John  /'/-- 
derick  the  Magnanimous.  —  A  considerable  army  was  soon  gathered. 
Solinian  was  defeated  by  land  and  sea,  and  returned  home  discom- 
fited. The  emperor  then  went  to  Italy,  and  urged  the  pope  to  call  a 
general  council.  The  pope,  however,  thought  the  measure  premature. 
The  other  condition  of  the  peace,  the  staying  of  processes  before  the 
chamber,  was  also  disregarded  for  a  time.  Charles  had  indeed  at 
Mantua  directed  his  fiscal  to  delay  all  religious  suits  until  further  orders. 
But  the  chamber  declared  that  the  pending  processes  (mostly  relating 
to  the  restitution  of  ecclesiastical  property  and  immunities)  were  not 
of  a  religious  nature,  but  involved  violations  of  public  peace  and  con- 
fiscations. Then  the  Protestants  entered  (Jan.,  1534)  a  formal  recusa- 
tion of  the  chamber,  which,  nevertheless,  did  not  stay  its  proceedings, 
and  was  about  to  pass  sentence  of  ban  upon  some  states,  when  occur- 
rences in  Wiirtemberg  changed  the  aspect  of  things. 

3.  The  Evangelization  of  Wiirtemberg  (1534-3f>).-(Cf.  J.  C.  Schmidt 
u.  F.  E.  Pfisicv,  Denkw.  d.  wiirttb.  Kef.  Gesch.  Tub,-.  1817.  —  J.  lln-l- 
mann,  Gesch.  d.  Kef.  in  W.  Stuttg.  1835. — A'.  Mann,  Jubclbiichl.  d.  ev. 
Ref.  in  W.  Stuttg.  1836.—  C.  Homer,  K.  G.  Ws.  Stuttg.  1848;  A.  Th. 
Keim,  schwab.  Kef.  Gesch.  T'ubg.  1855. — L.  E.  Heyd,  ilerz.  Ulr.  v.  W. 
Tiibg.  1841,  etc.,  u.  3  13de.  —  J.  Hartmann  u.  A'.  Jager,  Lcb.  u.  Wirk. 
d.  Joh.  Brenz.  Hamb.  1840,  2  Bde. — J.  G.  Vaihinger,  Lcb.  u.  Wirk.  d. 
Job.  Brentz.  Stuttg.  1841.)  —  After  the  expulsion  of  Duke  Ulrich,  by 
virtue  of  the  Swabian  league  (1528)  Wiirtemberg  was  under  Austrian 
rule.  The  fanaticism  with  which  every  reformatory  movement  was  put 
down,  had  long  awakened  in  the  breast  of  the  people  a  desire  for  the 
return  of  their  hereditary  prince,  and  this  desire  was  increased  by  his 
adoption  of  the  evangelical  faith  in  his  Swiss  exile.  But  the  vigilance 
of  the  Swabian  league  had  thus  far  frustrated  all  the  attempts  of  Ulrich 
to  regain  the  inheritance  of  his  fathers.  His  son  Christopher  was  edu- 
cated at  the  court  of  Ferdinand,  and  was  to  accompany  (1532)  the 
emperor  to  Spain.  Whilst  crossing  the  Alps  he  fled,  ami  openly  re- 
claimed his  inheritance  in  Germany.  The  Landgrave  Philip,  Finch's 
personal  friend,  had  Long  resolved  to  seize  the  first  opportunity  of  re- 
covering Wiirtemberg  for  him.  At  length,  in  the  spring  of  1534,  he 
carried  out  his  plan,  with  the  aid  of  French  -old.  At  Lavfen,  Ferdi- 
nand's army  was  well-nigh  destroyed,  and  he  was  compelled,  at  the 
Peace  of  Kadan  (1534)  to  cede  "Wiirtemberg  to  Ulrich  as  a  mesne  fief, 
granting  him.  however,  a  seal  and  vote  at  the  diet,  and  allowing  him 
full  liberty  to  introduce  the  Reformation  into  his  territory.  The  Elector 
of  Saxony,  also,  participated  in  this  Peace,  by  acknowledging  Ferdi- 
nand as  King  of  the  Romans,  and  for  this  receiving  the  assurance  that 
the  chamber  should  definitively  arrest  all  proceedings  against  existing 
members  of  the  Smalcald  league.     From  the  beginning,  Luther's  views 


EVENTS    AND    NEGOTIATIONS    (1531-36).  79 

had  met  with  a  warm  response  in  Wiirtemberg ;  but  all  expressions 
of  sympathy  therewith  had  been  suppressed  by  Ferdinand's  bloody 
rule.  Now  the  Reformation  spread  all  the  more  rapidly  over  the  land. 
Ulrich  committed  the  reformation  of  the  district  above  the  Staig  to 
Ambrose  Blaurer,  a  respectable  theologian  of  that  section,  a  pupil  of 
Zwingli,  and  a  friend  of  Bucer,  approving  of  Bucer's  conciliatory  mea- 
sures (n.  7).  The  reformation  of  the  countries  below  the  Staig  was 
undertaken  by  Erhard  Schnepf,  a  professor  at  Marburg,  and  a  decided 
adherent  of  Luther.  Both  agreed  upon  a  doctrinal  formula  ("  Corpus 
et  sanguinem  Christi  vere,  i.  e.  substantialiter  et  essentialiter,  non  aut<  m 
quant i/n tire  vel  localiter  prcesentia  esse  et  exhiberi  in  cosna.")  Ulrich 
merits  special  praise  for  the  establishment  of  the  university  at  Tubin- 
gen, modelled  after  that  at  Marburg,  and  which  became  one  of  the  most 
important  nurseries  of  Protestant  learning.  The  example  of  "Wurtem- 
berg encouraged  many  of  the  neighboring  courts  of  the  empire  and 
imperial  cities  to  follow  its  course,  and  among  them  the  powerful 
city  of  Augsburg. 

4.  The  Reformation  in  Anltalt  and  Pomerania  (1532-34). — (Cf.  F.  L. 
B.  v.  Medem,  Gesch.  d.  Einf.  d.  ev.  Lehre  in  Pommer.  Greifsw.  1837.) — 
Prince  Wolfgang  of  Anlialt,  one  of  the  evangelical  confessors  at  Spires 
and  Augsburg,  had  previously  introduced  the  Reformation  into  the 
district  along  the  Saale  and  into  Zerbst.  In  1532,  another  Anhalt 
prince,  George,  cathedral  provost  of  Magdeburg  and  Merseburg,  at 
first  an  opponent  of  Luther,  but  afterwards  won  over  by  his  writings, 
began  the  work  in  the  district  east  of  the  Elbe,  not  so  much  by  his 
authority  as  a  temporal  prince  as  by  virtue  of  his  ecclesiastical  juris- 
diction, in  exercising  which  he  did  not  allow  the  opposition  of  the 
archbishop  cardinal  Albrecht  to  hinder  him.  At  his  right  hand  stood 
Nicholas  Hausmann,  a  friend  of  Luther  ;  and  when  the  Bishop  of  Bran- 
denburg refused  to  consecrate  his  married  priests,  he  had  them  ordained 
by  Luther  in  Wittenberg.  In  Pomerania,  however,  the  cause  was 
introduced  amid  more  violent  agitations.  The  nobility  and  clergv  en- 
deavored to  restrain  by  force  the  inclinations  of  the  people.  Prince 
Barnim  had  been  an  admirer  of  Luther  ever  since  the  Leipsic  disputa- 
tion, whilst  his  brother  George  united  with  the  clergy  in  their  opposi- 
tion. But  George  died,  and  his  son  Philip  cooperated  with  Barnim  in 
introducing  the  Reformation  into  the  entire  territory.  At  the  diet  of 
Treptow  (Dec.,  1534)  they  submitted  a  plan  for  carrying  on  the  work, 
which  the  cities  hailed  with  joy,  and  which  Bugenhagen  executed  by  a 
visitation  of  the  churches  like  that  pursued  in  Saxony. 

5.  The  Reformation  in  Westphalia  (1532-34).  — (Cf.  C.  A.  Cornelius, 

Gesch.  d.  Monster.  Anfruhrs.  Bd.  I.  Die  Reformation.  Lpz.   1855. • 

JL  Jochmus,  Gesch.  d.  Kirchenref.  zu  Minister.  Munst.  1825.  —  Max. 
Gobel,  Gesch.  d.  Chr.  Lebens  in  d.  rhein.  Westphal.  K.  Cobl.  1840. 
Bd.  I.)  —In  the  cities  oe  Westphalia,  the  Reformation  assumed  the 


80    SECTION  III.  —  FIRST  PERIOD  (CENT.  1  6  A.  D.). 

same  character  as  in  those  of  Lower  Germany,  Lutheran  hymns  doing 
the  chief  work.  Pideritz,  a  pastor  in  Lemgo,  was  an  adherent  of  Eck. 
In  order  to  see  the  nature  of  Lutheran  ism  with  his  own  cms.  he  v  Vited 
Brunswick,  and  returned  with  wholly  altered  views.  He  then  reformed 
the  city  without  opposition. — In  Scesf,  the  Catholic  council  resolved  to 
inspire  terror  by  condemning  to  death  Schlachtorp,  a  tanner,  who  had 
severely  denounced  the  council.  The  Lutheran  citizens,  following 
Luther's  example,  endured  the  violence  of  the  authorities  without  re- 
sistance. But  the  executioner,  missing  the  neck  of  his  victim,  dealt 
him  a  terrible  wound  in  the  back.  Another  executioner  came  forward 
to  finish  the  work,  when  Schlachtorp,  reviving,  wrested  the  sword  from 
his  hand,  and  was  borne  home  in  triumph  by  the  crowd.  S.  died  the 
next  day.  The  council  left  the  city,  and  thus  Catholicism  lost  its  last 
footing  there  (July,  1533).  —  In  Paderborn,  the  people  had  defiautly 
claimed  the  freedom  of  the  pulpit;  and  when  the  Elector  Hermann  of 
Cologne  visited  the  place  to  receive  allegiance  (§  15,  7),  the  refractori- 
ness of  the  Lutherans  was  reported  to  him  in  so  glaring  a  light,  that 
he  ordered  some  of  the  leaders  to  be  seized.  By  means  of  the  torture 
he  wrung  from  them  a  confession  of  a  treasonable  combination  with 
the  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  of  which  they  had  been  falsely  accused,  and 
for  this  he  condemned  them  to  death.  But  when  they  reached  the 
scaffold,  the  request  of  an  old  man  to  be  beheaded  with  them,  and  the 
entreaties  of  the  women  and  maidens,  so  wrought  upon  Hermann,  tha* 
he  spared  their  lives.  The  nobility  and  clergy,  however,  managed  to 
maintain  Catholicism.  —  In  Mlinster,  the  doctrine  of  Luther  was  early 
preached  by  Bemh.  Rottmann.  The  council  had  to  open  St.  Lambert 
church  to  him,  and  the  friends  of  the  new  cause  soon  became  ascendant. 
The  council  and  priests  left  the  city.  The  new  bishop,  Francis  of 
Waldeck,  cut  off  all  communication  with  the  city,  but  during  Christmas, 
1532,  900  armed  citizens  of  Mlinster  fell  upon  Telgt,  by  night,  where 
the  diet  was  then  convened,  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance.  The  bishop, 
who  had  just  departed,  escaped  the  assailants,  but  the  most  noted 
leaders  among  the  nobility  and  priests  were  captured  and  taken  to 
Mlinster.  The  bishop  was  then  compelled  to  grant  the  city  uncondi- 
tional religious  liberty.  Neighboring  cities  bad  already  begun  to 
follow  this  example,  when  a  catastrophe  occurred,  which  resulted  in 
the  full  restoration  of  Catholicism. 

6.  The  Minster  Faction. — (Cf.  Jochmus,  I.e.  J.  C.  Wa  Ihnann,  John  v. 
Leyden.  Quedlb.  1844.— A*.  Hase,  neue  Propheten.  Lpz.  1851.— C.  A. 
Cornelius,  Berichte  d.  Augenzeu^en  iib.  d.  Minister.  Wiedertauferreich. 
M'rinst.  1853).  —  Rottmann  had  for  some  time  embraced  the  Zwinglian 
doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper;  his  next  step  was  to  reject  infant  bap- 
tism. In  a  disputation  with  some  theologians  of  Hesse,  he  was  defeated. 
Nevertheless,  lie  managed  to  remain  in  the  city,  and  to  strengthen  his 
party  by  gathering  in  Anabaptist  elements  from  other  places.  On  the 
festival  of  the  Three  Kings,  1534,  the  prophet  John  Mathys,  a  baker 


EVENTS     AND     NEGOTIATIONS    (1531-3  6).  81 

of  Harlem,  and  his  ardent  apostle,  John  Bochelson,  a  tailor  of  Leyden, 
came  to  Minister.     The  populace,  especially  women,  crowded  to  their 
preaching.    Rottmann,  and  a  few  other  preachers,  at  once  joined  them 
Their  adherents  soon  multiplied  to  such  an  extent,  that  they  thought 
they  might  bid  defiance  to  the  council.     During  an  insurrection,  the 
council  was  so  weak  and  forbearing,  that  it  made  a  treaty  which  secured 
to  them  legal  recognition.    Anabaptist  fanatics  then  poured  into  Mon- 
ster from  ail  directions.    After  a  few  weeks  they  had  the  preponderance 
in  the  council.     Mathys,  the  prophet,  announced  it  as  the  will  of  God, 
that  all  unbelievers  should  be  driven  from  the  city.     This  was  done, 
Feb.  27,  1534.     Seven  deacons  divided  the   effects  they  left  behind, 
among  the  believers.     In  May,  the  bishop  laid  siege  to  the  city.     By 
this  means  the  disorder  was  at  least  confined  to  Miinster.   After  having 
destroyed  all  the  images,  organs,  and  books,  (only  saving  the  Bible,) 
the  fanatics  introduced  a  community  of  goods.     Mathys,  who  imagined 
himself  called  to  slay  the  besieging  foe,  fell  during  a  sally  by  their 
sword.     Bockelson  took  the  prophet's  place.     In  accordance  with  his 
revelations  the  council  was  deposed,  and  a  theocratic  government  of 
twelve  elders,  who  let  themselves   be  inspired  by  the  prophet,  was 
established.     That  he  might  marry  the  beautiful  widow  of  Mathys, 
Bockelson  introduced  polygamy.     The  still  surviving  moral  sense  of 
the  citizens  in  vain  resisted  this  enormity.    Those  who  were  dissatisfied 
rallied  around  Mollenhbk,  a  blacksmith,  were  defeated,  and  all  con- 
demned to  death.     Bockelson,  proclaimed  king  of  the  whole  earth  by 
one  of  his  co-prophets,  set  up  a  splendid  court,  and  introduced  the  most 
heinous  abominations.    He  claimed  authority  to  inaugurate  the  Millen- 
nium, sent  out  twenty-eight  apostles  to  spread  his  kingdom,  and  ap- 
pointed twelve  dukes,  to  govern  the  earth  as  his  vicegerents.     Mean- 
while the  besieging  army  failed  in  an  attempt  to  storm  the  city  (Aug., 
1534)  ;  had  not  help  arrived  from    Hesse,  Treves,  Cleve,  Mayence,  and 
Cologne,  they  would  have  been  compelled  to  raise  the  siege.     All  they 
could  do  was  to  starve  out  the  city,  and  this  plan  was  succeeding  well. 
But  on  St.  John's  eve,  1535,  a  deserter  led  the  soldiers  to  scale  the  walls. 
After  a  stubborn  struggle,  the  Anabaptists  were  overpowered.     Rott- 
mann plunged  into  the  thickest  part  of  the  fight,  and  perished.     King 
John,  with  his  governor,  Knipper  dolling,  and  chancellor,  Krechting. 
were  captured,  pinched  to  death  with  red-hot  tongs,  and  then  hung 
up  at  the  tower  of  St.  Lambert's  church  in  iron  cages.     Catholicism, 
in  an  absolutely  exclusive  form,  was  restored. 

7.  Extension  of  the  Smalcaldic  League  (1536).  —  In  the  summer  of 
1534,  the  emperor  determined  to  chastise  those  German  princes  who 
had  sundered  Wlirtemburg  from  the  possessions  of  his  house.  But 
he  was  hindered  from  executing  this  purpose  by  fear  of  the  bold  pirate 
Chaireddin  (Barbarossa),  who  had  established  himself  in  Tunis,  and 
constantly  threatened  the  coasts  of  his  Italian  and  Spanish  States. 
In  the  summer  of  1535,  the  corsair  was  defeated,  but  a  war  which  then 


82         SECTION    III. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.   16    A.  D.)  . 

broke  out  with  France  (1536)  engaged  all  the  emperor's  powers.  The 
danger  was  increased  by  a  formal  league  which  Francis  I.  concluded  with 
Soliman  for  a  united  attack  upon  the  emperor.  Instead,  therefore,  of 
chastising  the  Protestant  princes,  Charles  had  to  use  all  means  to  secure 
their  friendship,  and  especially  as  Francis  offered  them  great  induce 
ments  to  engage  them  on  his  side.  Accordingly,  from  the  summer  of 
1535,  Ferdinand  made  advances  towards  the  Protestants.  In  No- 
vember, the  elector  visited  him  in  Vienna,  conferred  upon  him  the 
electoral  dignity,  and  guaranteed  the  extension  of  the  Nuremberg  Peace 
to  all  the  States  that  had  since  then  gone  over  to  Protestantism.  From 
Vienna  the  elector  went  to  a  convention  at  Smalcald,  where  the  Smal- 
caldic  League  was  extended  to  ten  years,  whilst  the  overtures  of  the 
French  ambassadors  were  declined,  and  the  hostile  position  towards 
Austria  was  abandoned.  On  the  basis  of  the  Vienna  compact,  Wiirt- 
emberg,  Pomerania,  Anhalt,  and  several  cities,  were  admitted  to  the 
League;  but  subscription  to  the  Augsburg  Confession  was  the  indis- 
pensable condition.  Bucer  has  the  credit  of  having  induced  the  cities 
to  do  this. 

8.  The  Wittenberg  Concord  (153G).  (Cf.  Rudelbach,  Pvef.  Lutherth. 
u.  Union,  p.  3G3,  etc.) — The  study  of  Luther's  works  upon  the  Lord's 
Supper,  and  the  colloquy  at  Marburg,  had  led  Bucer  to  a  deeper  appre- 
ciation of  the  views  of  Luther  upon  that  subject.  This  fact  exerted 
an  important  influence  upon  the  Confessio  tetrapolitana  (|  12,  7),  in 
preparing  which  he  took  a  prominent  part.  But  Bucer  desired  to  effect 
a  union,  and  conferred  with  Luther  on  the  subject  (1530)  at  Coburg. 
As  he  confessed  in  his  own  name,  and  that  of  his  colleagues,  that 
Christ  was  present  in  the  bread  and  to  the  month  in  the  sacrament,  and 
admitted,  at  least  on  his  own  part,  that  the  ungodly  also  really  par- 
took of  the  body  of  Christ,  Luther  declared  himself  satisfied,  and  will- 
ing to  concede  the  nice  distinctions  by  which  Bucer  sought  to  reconcile 
a  spiritual  participation  with  the  real  presence,  and  a  symbolical  with 
a  sacramental  significance  of  the  elements.  The  cities  actually  assented 
to  this  accommodation,  and  even  CEcolampadius  was  not  wholly  averse 
to  it.  But  Zwingli  utterly  rejected  it.  Bucer,  therefore,  exerted  him- 
self the  more  to  persuade  tin1  Churches  of  Upper  Germany  to  adhere 
to  it.  In  December,  1535,  he  and  Melanchthon  hail  a  colloquy  at 
Cassel.  They  there  agreed  upon  a  fuller  conference  at  Eisenach, 
which,  however,  was  held  at  Wittenberg,  on  account  of  Luther's  bad 
health.  Bucer  and  Capito,  with  eight  of  the  most  distinguished  theo- 
logians of  Upper  Germany,  were  present.  And  as  they  assented,  in 
advance,  to  the  real  presence  of  the  body  of  Christ  in  the  bread,  and 
its  oral  reception,  as  well  as  to  the  formula  in,  with,  anil  under,  the 
only  question  discussed  related  to  the  participation  of  unbelievers.  The 
theologians  from  Upper  Germany  at  length  conceded  this  in  regard  to 
unworthy  communicants,  but  not  to  ungodly  persons,  and  Luther  de- 
clared himself  satisfied.     Accordingly,  on   May  25,  the  so-called  Wit- 


EVENTS    AND     NEGOTIATIONS     (1537-39).  83 

tenberg  Concord  was  signed  by  all,  and  further  confirmed  by  their  com- 
mon celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper. — In  consequence  of  this  union, 
the  most  influential  theologians  of  Switzerland  met  in  Basel,  and  ap- 
pointed three  of  their  number  (Henry  Bullinger  of  Zurich,  Oswald 
Mgconivs  and  Simon  Ghrynaeus  of  Basel)  to  prepare  a  confession  of 
faith  distinctly  setting  forth  Zwingli's  doctrine  concerning  the  Lord's 
Supper.  This  originated  the  Confess io  Helvetica  prior,  which  Leo  Juda 
translated  into  German. 


I  14.  EVENTS   AND   NEGOTIATIONS   DURING   1537-39. 

Pope  Clement  VII.  endeavored,  by  various  excuses,  to  evade  the 
emperor's  increasingly  urgent  demand  for  a  council.  At  length, 
in  1533,  he  promised  to  convoke  a  council  at  Mantua,  within  a 
year,  but  insisted,  in  advance,  that  the  Protestants  should  pledge 
unconditional  submission  to  its  decrees;  a  pledge  which,  of 
course,  they  would  not  make.  His  successor,  Paul  III. 
(1534-49),  actually  summoned  a  council  at  Manilla,  in  1537. 
Luther  prepared  the  Smalcald  Articles  for  presentation,  but  the 
Protestants  finally  forbade  the  transmission  of  them,  as  they  re- 
solved to  renew  their  demand  for  a  free  council  in  a  German  city. 
Hence  the  summoned  council  never  convened.  On  the  contrary, 
the  Catholic  States  concluded,  at  Nuremberg,  the  so-called  Holy 
League  (1538),  for  the  strict  maintenance  of  the  recess  of  Augs- 
burg;  but  political  exigencies  compelled  the  emperor  to  make 
new  concessions  to  the  Protestants  in  the  Frankfort  Suspension 
(1539).  During  the  same  year,  the  Duchy  of  Saxony  and  the 
Electorate  of  Brandenburg  embraced  the  Reformation.  At  the 
commencement  of  1540,  almost  the  whole  of  Northern  Germany 
was  Protestant.  Duke  Henry  of  Brunswick,  alone,  remained  in 
the  tottering  citadel  of  the  old  faith. 

1.  The  Smalcald  Articles  (1537).  (Cf.  M.  Mcurer,  d.  Tag  zu  Schmalk. 
u.  d.  schm.  Artt.  Lpz.  1837.—  Chr.  Ziemssen,  d.  welthist.  Bedeut.  d. 
Schmalk.  Convents  im  J.  1537  ;  in  d.  hist,  theol.  Ztschr.  1840,  III.— 
Chr.  H.  Sixt,  Petr.  Paul.  Yergerius,  papstl.  Nuntius,  kath.  Bischof.  u. 
Vorkiimpfer  d.  Evang.  Braunschw.  1855).  —  Paid  III.  sent  (1535)  his 
legate,  Yergerius  (cf.  §  19,  13),  mainly  to  secure  definite  agreement  as 
to  the  place  for  holding  the  council.  He  visited  Wittenberg,  where 
Luther,  in  company  with  Bugenhagen,  called  upon  him.  Luther  did 
not  expect  much  from  a  council,  and  therefore  was  indifferent  as  to  the 
place  of  holding  it ;  the  elector  was  of  the  same  mind.  Hence,  in  the 
fall  of  1536,  a  general  council  was,  in  due  form,  convoked  to  meet  in 
Mantua,  May  23,  1537.     The  call  was  written  with  care  and  modera- 


84  SECTION    III. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

tion,  but  expressions  made  by  the  Pope,  in  other  places,  showed  clearly 
what  Protestants  had  to  expect.  The  matter  was  discussed  at  a  diet 
in  Smalcald,  Feb.  1537.  At  the  request  of  the  elector,  Luther  had 
previously  drawn  up  articles,  which  would  be  immovably  adhered  to 
at  the  council.  These  articles,  written  in  German,  and  known  as  the 
Smalcald  Articles,  Luther  brought  with  him  to  Smalcald.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  circumstances,  their  character  is  predominantly  polemic. 
They  boldly  break  through  the  limits  of  cautious  forbearance  towards 
the  papal  hierarchy,  within  which  all  the  official  declarations  of  the 
evangelical  party  had  thus  far  been  kept.  The  first  part,  concerning 
the  Majesty  of  God,  briefly  set  forth  four  undisputed  articles  concern- 
ing the  Trinity  and  the  person  of  Christ;  —  the  second  part  treats  of 
the  office  and  work  of  Christ,  or  our  redemption,  and  definitely  lays 
down  points  of  difference  between  the  two  parties,  from  which  there 
would  be  no  retraction  ; — the  third  part  states  those  points  which  were 
open  for  discussion  by  the  Council. — In  the  second  part,  Luther  uncon- 
ditionally rejected  the  primacy  of  the  pope,  as  unsupported  by  the. 
Word  of  God,  and  incompatible  with  the  character  of  a  truly  evan- 
gelical Church.  When  the  theologians  subscribed  the  paper,  Me 
lanchthon  added  to  his  name  this  statement:  "Concerning  the  pope, 
I  hold  that,  if  he  would  grant  a  free  Gospel,  he  might  lie  allowed,  for 
the  sake  of  peace  and  unity  among  Christians  now,  or  who  may  here- 
after be,  subject  to  him,  to  exercise  a  jure  humano  superiority  over 
the  bishops."  At  the  request  of  the  meeting,  Melanchthon  further 
prepared  a  historical  paper:  "Concerning  the  Power  and  Authority 
of  the  Pope,"  and  "Concerning  the  Power  and  Jurisdiction  of  Bishops," 
which  was  likewise  subscribed  by  the  theologians,  and  added  to  the 
Articles  of  Smalcald.  —  They  then  debated  the  question  of  attending 
the  council,  and  on  what  conditions  to  do  so.  They  finally  agreed  tc 
decline  attending  it,  but  once  more  to  ask  the  emperor  to  convene  a 
truly  free  Christian  council,  in  a  German  city.  The  elector  boldly 
proposed  that  Dr.  M.  Luther  and  his  co-bishops  should  call  a  council 
(at  Augsburg,  if  they  pleased)  in  opposition  to  that  of  the  pope;  but, 
as  this  measure  was  directly  at  variance  with  the  entire  policy  of  the 
Protestants  thus  far,  it  was  rejected. 

2.  The  Nuremberg  League  (1538).  —  Near  the  close  of  the  Con- 
vention of  Smalcald  (1537),  the  imperial  orator  (vice-chancellor),  Dr. 
Held,  appeared.  The  Protestant  princes  had  good  reason  to  suppose 
that  they  stood  on  the  best  of  terms  with  the  emperor.  They  were, 
therefore,  no  little  astonished  when  the  orator  declared  to  them,  avow- 
edly in  the  emperor's  name,  that  the  court  was  fully  justified  in  pro- 
secuting the  pending  suits,  nay,  even  bound  to  do  so;  but  he  seemed 
to  know  nothing  of  the  Peace  of  Kadan  and  the  Treaty  of  Vienna. 
They  immediately  reassumed  their  posture  of  opposition.  But  Held 
visited  all  the  Catholic  courts,  and  sought — avowedly  by  the  emperor's 
authority — to  effect  a  confederation  of  Catholics,  for  the  complete  sup- 


EVENTS     AND     NEGOTIATIONS    (l5o7-39).  85 

pression  of  the  Protestants,  on  the  basis  of  ban  edicts  of  the  imperial 
chamber.  Ferdinand,  who  well  knew  that  Held  had  gone  beyond  his 
instructions,  or  even  against  them,  was  very  indignant,  for  the  emperor 
was  placed  in  a  very  critical  position.  But  matters  had  been  carried 
so  far  that  it  was  impossible  to  recede  without  greatly  oifending  the 
Catholic  princes.  Hence  a  confederacy,  called  the  Holy  League,  was 
formed  at  Nuremberg,  July  10,  1538,  by  George  of  Saxony,  Albert  of 
Brandenburg,  Henry  and  Erich  of  Brunswick,  King  Ferdinand,  and 
the  Archbishop  of  Salzburg;  its  object  was  to  sustain  the  imperial 
chamber  in  its  official  acts,  and  in  the  immediate  execution  of  the  ban 
edicts.  On  the  other  side,  the  Smalcald  States  prepared  to  meet  vio- 
lence with  violence.     A  general  sanguinary  war  seemed  inevitable. 

3.  The  Frankfort  Suspension  (1539).  —  At  this  juncture,  however, 
the  emperor  needed  the  vigorous  support  of  the  empire  against  the 
threatening  advances  of  Soliman.  It  was  highly  important  for  him, 
therefore,  to  assuage  the  anger  of  the  Protestants.  Held  was  recalled, 
and  John  v.  Veeze,  former  Archbishop  of  Leyden,  took  his  place.  The 
Electors  of  Brandenburg  and  the  Palatinate  offered  to  act  as  mediators. 
They  went,  with  the  new  orator,  to  Frankfort  on  the  M.,  and  opened 
negotiations  with  the  Protestants  then  there.  These  demanded  an  un- 
conditional, permanent,  indisputable  peace,  which  should,  under  no 
circumstances,  be  disturbed,  and  that  the  chamber  should  be  constituted 
of  an  equal  number  of  Protestants  and  Catholics.  Though  the  orator 
was  disposed  to  concession,  he  could  not  yield  this  point.  But  the 
danger  from  the  Turks  daily  increased,  and  compelled  him  to  renew 
the  negotiations,  which  had  been  suspended.  He  adopted  another 
course,  proposing  that,  at  the  diet  to  be  held  during  the  following  sum- 
mer, a  committee  of  learned  theologians,  and  discerning,  peaceable 
laymen,  should  meet,  and  endeavor  to  effect  a  final  arrangement  in 
regard  to  doctrines  and  usages.  He  also  agreed  to  a  suspension  of  all 
proceedings  against  Protestant  States  for  eighteen  months.  Thus  the 
Protestants  gained  a  prospect  of  securing,  finally,  what  they  had  in 
vain  sought  after  since  the  diets  of  Nuremberg  (1523,  1524).  They 
consented,  therefore,  to  this  compromise  (the  Frankfort  Susjiension). 
It  was  a  triumph  of  the  Smalcald  League  over  that  of  Nuremberg 
(which  was  really  not  represented  at  Frankfort).  Confidence  in  Pro- 
testantism grew  mightily,  and  an  important  extension  of  its  territory 
was  the  consequence. 

4.  The  Reformation  in  Albcrtinian  Saxony  (1539).  (Cf.  H.  G.  Hasse, 
Abr.  d.  meissnisch-albertinisch-sachs.  K.  G.  Bd.  II.  Lpz.  1S47.) — Duke 
George  of  Saxony  (1500-39)  had  endeavored,  with  extreme  severity, 
to  suppress  the  Reformation,  for  which  no  country,  probably,  showed 
stronger  sympathy  than  his  own.  Only  one  of  his  four  sons  was  still 
living,  and  he  was  imbecile.  Nevertheless  he  had  him  married,  but 
he  died  a  few  months  after  his  wedding.     The  old  duke  was  in  great 

51 


86         SECTION    III. — FIRST    PERIOD    (CE.NT.  16    A   D.)  . 

perplexity,  his  only  heir  being  his  brother  Henry,  whose  small  ter- 
ritory (with  its  capital,  Freiburg)  had  long  before  embraced  the  Re- 
formation, and  become  a  refuge  for  all  whom  George  persecuted  and 
banished  for  conscience'  sake.     He  could  not  endure  the  thought  that 
all  the  painful  toils  of  his  life  should  be  frustrated  in  a  single  night. 
On  the  day  of  his  last  son's  death,  therefore,  he  submitted  a  plan  of 
succession  to  his  States,  by  which  his  brother  Henry  should  not  be 
allowed  to  succeed  him,  unless  he  would  bind  himself  to  stand  by  and 
immovably  maintain  the  League  of  Nuremberg.     If  he  refused  to  do 
this,  the  duchy  should  pass  over  to  the  emperor  or  the  king.     Henry, 
of  course,  rejected  this  proposal,  and  George  died  before  other  measures 
could  be  devised.     The  country  received  its  new  prince  with  great 
rejoicings ;  and,  whilst  he  was  receiving  homage  in  Leipsic,  Luther 
once   more'  visited  the   city   (the   first  time   for  twenty  years),  and 
preached  with  the  greatest  acceptance.     The  reformation  of  the  entire 
duchy  was  now  rapidly  carried  forward.     Ferdinand  desired,  indeed, 
to  carry  George's  will  into  effect,  but  the  Smalcald  League  declared 
that  they  would  defend  the  new  duke  against  all  opposition,  and  Fer- 
dinand prudently  abstained  from  further  measures. 

5.   The  Reformation  in  Mark  Brandenburg,  and  some  adjacent  Dis- 
tricts  (1539).     (Cf.  A.  Midler,  Gesch.  d.  Ref.  in  d.  M.  Br.  Berl.  1839.— 
C.  W.  SpieJcer,  K.  u.  Ref.  Gesch.  d.  M.  Br.  Berl.  1839.  Bd.  l.  —  H.  v. 
Midler,  Gesch.  d.  ev.  K.  Verf.  in  d.  M.  Br.  Weim.  ISVo.—JuJ.  Wiggers, 
K.  G.  Mecklenb.  Parch.  1840.)  — The  Elector  Joachim  I.  (oft.  1535),  on 
his  death-bed,  bound  both  his  sons  to  maintain  the  old  faith.     Henri', 
the  younger,  who  inherited  the  new  Mark,  had  for  some  time  embraced 
evangelical  views.     He  joined  the  Smalcald  League,  and  reformed  his 
territory.     But  the  older.  Elector  Joachim  II.  (1535-71),  adhered  for 
several  years  to  the  old  faith  and  usages,  but  nowhere  prevented  the 
preaching  of  the  pure  Gospel,  which  was  quietly  gaining  influence  over 
bis  own  mind.     Finally,  at  the  beginning  of  1539,  his  mind  was  fully 
convinced,  probably  under  the  influence  of  the  negotiations  at  Frank- 
fort.    At  the  same  time  his  States  became  desirous  to  introduce  evan- 
gelical doctrines.     Berlin  requested  permission  to  have  the  communio 
sub  utraque,  and  a  large  number  of  the  nobility  earnestly  begged  Mat- 
thias of  Janow,  the  Bishop  of  Brandenburg,  "to  embrace  and  stead- 
fastly confess  the  pure  doctrines  of  God."     On  Nov.  1,  1539,  Joachim 
assembled  all  the  preachers  of  his  country  in  the  churcb  of  St.  Nicholas 
in  Spandau  ;  the  Bishop  of  Brandenburg  celebrated  the  first  evangelical 
mass,  and  the  entire  court,  together  with  many  knights,  received  the 
communion  in  both  forms.     The  country  Followed  the  example  of  the 
princes.     Joachim  prepared  a  liturgy  which  retained  more  of  the  old 
ceremonies  than  those  of  other  countries,  but  set  forth  justification  by 
faith  as  a  central  doctrine,  and  adopted  the  communio  sub  utraque  as  the 
basis  of  Christian  worship.     Ferdinand  was  displeased  at  the  elector's 
soursc,  but  seemed  contented  with  the  assurance  that  he  had  not  joined 


THE    PERIOD     OF     UNION     EFFORTS.  87 

the  Smalcald  League.  The  Duchess  Elizabeth  of  Calenberg-Brnnswick 
(sister  of  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg)  followed  the  example  of  her 
brother.  After  the  death  of  her  husband,  Erich,  who  held  other  views, 
she  used  her  authority  as  regent  to  reform  the  duchy.  On  the  other 
hand,  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  cardinal-archbishop,  endeavored  in  every 
way  to  prevent  the  defection  of  his  territory,  but  in  order  to  secure 
compliance  with  his  constant  demands  for  money,  he  had  to  grant  the 
cities  the  free  preaching  of  the  Gospel.  He  opposed  the  innovations 
more  earnestly  in  Halle,  but  the  citizens  only  insisted  more  deter- 
minedly upon  being  allowed  the  saine  privileges  with  other  cities. 
Justus  Jonas,  of  Wittenberg,  introduced  the  reformation  into  the  city 
under  his  very  eyes ;  the  only  vengeance  he  could  take  was  to  leave 
Halle,  and  remove  his  court  to  Mayence.  About  the  same  time  the 
Mecklenburg  countries  obtained  an  evangelical  constitution,  in  estab- 
lishing which,  Magnus,  one  of  the  princes,  and  also  Bishop  of  Schwerin, 
was  particularly  active.  Anna  of  Stolberg,  abbess  of  Quedlinburg,  did 
not  venture  publicly  to  avow  her  evangelical  views  during  the  lifetime 
of  George  of  Saxony ;  but  now  she  introduced  the  reform  into  her  con- 
vent and  the  city  without  opposition. 

I  15.  THE  PERIOD  OF  UNION  EFFORTS.     (1540-46). 

The  Frankfort  Suspension  revived  the  idea  of  a  free  union 
on  the  basis  of  a  common  faith  and  worship,  which  had  been 
dropped  since  the  Nuremberg  diet  of  1524,  and  awakened  hopes 
of  its  speedy  realization.  And  as  the  embarrassment  of  the 
emperor  continued,  a  series  of  religious  conferences  with  refer- 
ence to  this  object  was  really  held.  But  although  the  desired 
result  seemed,  several  times,  to  be  almost  achieved,  the  negotia- 
tions as  often  failed  in  the  end,  because  the  emperor  would  not 
recognize  them  unless  a  papal  legate  had  taken  part  in  them. 
And  just  at  the  time  when  the  imposing  power  of  the  Protestant 
States  justified  the  most  brilliant  hopes,  the  Protestant  princes 
themselves  laid  the  root  of  their  extreme  subsequent  humiliation 
— the  Landgrave  Philip,  by  his  bigamy,  and  the  elector  by  his 
quarrel  with  the  court  of  ducal  Saxony. 

1.  The  Landgrave's  Bigamy  (1540).  (Cf.  II.  Heppe,  urkundl.  Beitr. 
z.  Gesch.  d.  Doppelehe,  etc.;  in  d.  Hist.  Theol.  Ztschr.  1853.  ILL)  — 
Landgrave  Philip  of  Hesse  had  married  Christina,  a  daughter  of  the 
deceased  Duke  George  of  Saxony.  Bodily  disorders  and  offensive  habits 
had  alienated  him  from  her ;  and  gross  sensuality,  which  had  gained 
a  mastery  over  him,  had  led  him  to  frequent  acts  of  infidelity.  For 
this  his  conscience  so  troubled  him,  that  he  thought  himself  unworthy 
to  commune,  ardently  as  he  desired  to  do  so,  and  he  was  harassed  with 


88  SECTION    III. — FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

doubts  of  his  salvation.  Regard  for  his  wife,  however  deterred  him 
from  seeking  a  divorce.  Assuming,  therefore,  the  tolexation  of  poly- 
gamy in  the  Old  Testament,  as  nowhere  abolished  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, it  occurred  to  him  that,  with  his  wife's  consent,  he  might  formally 
contract  a  second  marriage  with  Margaret  v.  d.  Saale,  a  court  lady  of 
his  sister.  In  Nov.,  1539,  he  sent  Bucer,  one  of  his  spiritual  advisers, 
to  Wittenberg,  to  obtain  the  advice  of  Luther  and  Melanchthon.  Ac- 
cording to  Bucer's  account,  the  only  question  discussed  was  the  alter- 
native of  Philip's  continuance  in  adultery,  and  so  incurring  temporal 
and  eternal  ruin,  or  his  being  allowed,  with  his  wife's  consent,  to  have 
another  wife,  and  thus  live  within  the  due  restraints  of  lawful  marriage. 
Luther  and  Melanchthon  both  strove,  in  their  reply,  to  dissuade  Philip 
from  his  proposed  course,  as  well  for  his  own,  as  for  the  Gospel's  sake, 
on  which  his  conduct  would  bring  great  scandal;  but,  in  conclusion, 
half  conceded  that  bigamy  would  be  more  advisable,  as  doing  less  vio- 
lence to  the  conscience,  than  to  live  in  adultery.  But,  to  avoid  causing 
public  offence,  they  required  that  he  should  be  secretly  married,  and 
that  their  answer  should  not  be  taken  as  a  theological  opinion,  but  only  as 
private  counsel.  Thereupon,  Philip  took  a  second  wife  in  May,  1540.  But 
the  matter  was  soon  rumored  abroad.  The  Albertine  Saxon,  court  became 
greatly  enraged,  the  elector  furious,  the  theologians  fearfully  perplexed. 
About  this  time  Melanchthon  started  for  the  religious  conference  at 
Ilagenau,  but  anxiety  about  the  case,  and  the  conviction  that  he  had 
done  wrong  with  the  rest,  prostrated  him  with  disease  when  he  reached 
Weimar.  He  was  on  the  brink  of  death  when  Luther  hastened  to  him, 
and  rescued  him  by  the  omnipotence  of  Christian  prayer.  At  Eisenach 
the  Hessian  and  Saxon  theologians  discussed  the  propriety  of  publicly 
justifying  the  step  taken  by  Philip.  Luther  opposed  it  with  all  his 
might.  But  Bucer  went  so  far  as  to  publish  an  apology  under  the  as- 
sumed name  of  Vlrich  Neohulus,  for  doing  which  Luther  called  him  a 
villain  and  a  ncbulo.  Even  the  landgrave  endeavored  to  suppress  Bucer's 
tract.  This  affair,  besides  bringing  reproach  upon  the  Gospel,  proved 
sorely  detrimental  to  the  Reformation,  as  it  resulted  in  a  temporary 
alienation  of  Philip  from  his  confederates,  and  led  him,  as  a  security 
against  the  capital  penalty  to  which  his  bigamy  exposed  him,  to  attach 
himself  more  closely  to  the  emperor's  interests.  This  did  the  cause 
of  Protestantism  more  harm,  probably,  than  if  he  had  wholly  aban- 
doned it. 

2.  The  Religious  Conference  at  Worms  (1540).  The  Pope  did  all  in 
his  power  to  frustrate'  the  union  measures  of  the  Frankfort  Suspen- 
sion. To  remove  all  obstacles  out  of  the  emperor's  way,  he  endea- 
vored to  restore  peace  with  France,  and  secured  an  armistice  with  the 
Turks.  But  his  negotiations  with  France  proved  abortive,  so  that 
Charles  could  not  risk  an  open  rupture  with  the  Protestants.  The 
emperor,  therefore,  summoned  the  States  to  meet  at  Spires  for  consul- 
tation with  reference  to  the  prospective  compact  at  Frankfort  (Juno, 


THE  PERIOD  OF  UNION  EFFORTS.         89 

1540).  A  contagious  disease,  however,  led  him  to  transfer  the  meeting 
to  Uagenau.  There,  in  spite  of  the  stubborn  opposition  of  the  Catholic 
majority,  it  was  resolved  that  a  religious  conference  should  be  convoked 
at  Worms,  in  ten  weeks  from  that  date,  for  the  purpose  of  effecting  a 
Christian  settlement  of  their  differences,  on  the  basis  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures. Ferdinand  himself  designated  to  the  Catholic  States  what  theo- 
logians to  select,  and  showed  by  his  choice  how  anxious  he  was  that 
the  measure  should  succeed.  In  Nov.,  1540,  the  delegates  met  at 
Worms,  the  imperial  orator  Granvella  presiding.  On  the  Protestant 
side  were:  Melanchthon,  Bucer,  Capito,  Brenz,  and  Calvin  (from  Strass- 
burg)  ;  on  the  other  side:  Eck,  the  Spaniard  Malvenda,  etc.  But 
Charles  insisted  upon  having  the  papal  nuncio  Morrone  allowed  to  take 
part,  and  thus,  contrary  to  his  intention,  frustrated  the  entire  measure. 
For  Morrone  first  placed  a  number  of  obstacles  in  the  way,  and  when 
at  length  the  conference  fairly  began,  Jan.,  1541,  and  aroused  threat- 
ening fears  for  the  papacy,  he  did  not  rest  until  Granvella  dissolved 
the  conference,  in  the  emperor's  name,  before  they  had  finished  dis- 
cussing the  first  article,  concerning  original  sin.  But  the  emperor  did 
not  relinquish  the  scheme  ;  he  convoked  a  diet  at  Begensburg,  where 
the  interrupted  negotiations  should  be  resumed. 

3.  The  Conference  at  Regensburg  (1541).  (Cf.  A.  Jansen,  de  Julio 
Pflugio  ejusque  sociis.  Berl.  1858.) — The  diet  of  Regensburg  was  opened 
April  5,  1541.  The  imperial  address  insisted  earnestly  upon  the  adop- 
tion of  a  common  Christian  platform,  and,  in  spite  of  the  resistance 
of  the  Catholic  States,  he  would  not  relinquish  the  right  of  appointing 
collocutors.  He  appointed  Eck,  John,  Cropper,  canon  of  Cologne,  and 
Julius  v.  Pflugk,  cathedral  dean  of  Meissen,  on  the  Catholic  side  (ex- 
cepting Eck,  the  most  conciliatory  to  be  found)  ;  and  on  the  Protestant 
side,  Melanchthon,  Bucer,  and  John  Pistorivs,  a  pastor  from  Nidda  in 
Hesse.  Granvella  and  Count  Palatine  Frederick  were  to  preside ; 
the  nuncio  Contarini  was  to  represent  the  court  of  Borne.  From  par- 
ties so  well  chosen  there  was  reason  to  hope  for  the  desired  issue.  A 
party  of  men  versed  in  the  Scriptures  had  sprung  up  in  Italy,  who, 
starting  from  the  principle  of  justification  by  faith,  hoped,  on  this 
basis,  to  regenerate  the  Church,  without  disturbing  the  papal  primacy, 
or  the  hierarchical  system.  Contarini  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  this 
party.  He  agreed  with  the  emperor,  that  the  doctrine  of  justification 
by  faith,  the  cup  for  the  laity,  and  the  marriage  of  priests,  should  be 
yielded  to  Germany,  and  that  the  Protestants,  on  their  part,  should 
acknoAvledge  the  primacy  of  the  Pope.  Bucer  had  already  drawn  up 
a  plan  of  agreement,  which,  after  being  circulated  among  those  inte- 
rested, was  adopted  as  a  basis  of  negotiations.  The  doctrine  of  man's 
original  state,  and  of  original  sin,  passed  without  difficulty,  in  an 
essentially  Protestant  form.  In  regard  to  justification,  a  justitia  im- 
putativa,  in  the  evangelical  sense,  was  admitted  ;  but  Contarini  insisted 
upon  affirming,  also,  a  justitia  inha3rens  (i.  e.  a  virtue  wrought  in  man 
51* 


90         SECTION    III.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

by  his  acceptance  of  Christ's  merits,  so  that  he  was  thus  not  only  pro 
nounced  righteous,  but  was  really  made  righteous).  But  as  he  so> 
Leinnly  acknowledged  the  former  to  be  the  marrow  of  the  entire  system 
of  faith,  and  the  latter  only  a  consequence  of  the  former,  and  based 
■wholly  upon  the  grace  of  God,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  personal  merit, 
the  Protestants  yielded.  Upon  the  article  concerning  the  Church, 
however,  such  diversities  of  opinion  were  expressed,  that  it  was  post- 
poned for  subsequent  consideration.  Then  the  sacrament  of  the  altar 
was  taken  up.  The  Communio  sub  utraque  was  readily  conceded. 
But  on  the  margin  of  Bucer's  concord,  the  word  transubstantio  was 
written  by  some  unknown  hand.  On  this  rock  the  whole  measure  was 
dashed  into  pieces.  Contarini,  who  had  received  admonitions  from 
Rome,  would  yield  nothing  more,  and  the  Protestants  were  equally 
firm.  The  colloquy  closed.  Nevertheless,  the  emperor  desired  that 
the  articles,  so  far  agreed  upon,  should  be  made  a  common  basis  for 
both  parties,  and  that,  in  reference  to  other  points,  they  should  exer- 
cise mutual  toleration  ;  but  he  could  not  prevail  upon  the  Catholic 
majority  to  assent  to  this.  Wherefore  the  recess  of  the  diet  confirmed 
the  Peace  of  Nuremberg,  extended  it  to  all  then  connected  with  the 
Smalcald  League,  and  bound  the  Protestants  alone  by  the  articles 
agreed  upon  [Regensburg  Interim). 

4.  The  Regensbnrg  Declaration  (1541). — The  Protestants,  naturally 
enough,  were  not  pleased  with  the  recess.  To  pacify  them,  the  em- 
peror granted  them  a  special  declaration,  which,  whilst  not  obligatory 
upon  the  imperial  States,  still  bound  him  their  supreme  head.  The 
declaration  conceded  that  the-  assessors  of  the  imperial  chamber  should 
no  longer  be  sworn  to  execute  the  Augsburg  Recess,  and  that  the  ad- 
herents of  the  Augsburg  Confession  should  be  allowed  a  representation 
in  the  chamber,  and  not  be  excluded.  It  was  further  granted  that 
religious  institutions  and  monasteries  should  adhere  to  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  should  teach,  in  addition  to  the  articles  agreed  upon,  the 
additions  of  the  Protestant  members  of  the  Conference.  The  decision 
of  the  recess,  that  no  one  should  deprive  the  clergy  of  their  rents, 
was  likewise  extended  to  Protestant  clergy.  —  But  on  the  very  day 
when  the  emperor  signed  this  declaration,  he  had  a  separate  meeting 
with  the  Catholic  majority,  at  which  the  Nuremberg  League  was  renewed, 
and  the  pope  admitted  as  a  member  of  it.  In  this  way  he  hoped  to 
secure  aid  from  both  parties,  and  to  delay  a  warlike  conflict  between 
them,  until  a.  more  favorable  season  for  resuming  his  scheme  of  recon- 
ciliation. Moreover,  he  concluded  separate  treaties  with  the  Landgrave 
Philip,  and  the  Elector  Joachim  II.  Both  obligated  themselves  to  ad- 
here firmly  to  the  emperor  in  all  political  divisions.  The  elector  also 
promised  not  to  join  the  Smalcald  League,  and  in  return  the  constitu- 
tion of  his  Church  was  confiri 1.    The  landgrave  obligated  himself  to 

oppose,   not  only  every  alliance  of  the  Smalcald  League  with    foreign 
powers  (England  and  France),  but  also  with  the  Duke  of  Cleves,  with 


THE  PERIOD  OF  UNION  EFFORTS.         91 

whom  the  emperor  was  then  in  dispute  about  a  hereditary  claim  to 
Guelderland.  The  landgrave  on  his  part  obtained  an  amnesty  for  all 
he  had  done,  and  a  promise  that  he  should  be  left  undisturbed  in  reli- 
gious matters.  The  emperor  had,  also,  special  negotiations  with  the 
Elector  of  Saxony,  but  they  failed  on  account  of  the  claims  of  Charles 
to  Gueldei-laud,  for  Cleves  was  the  elector's  brother-in-law. 

5.   The  See  of  Naumburg  and  the  Wurzen  Quarrel  (1541-42).     (Cf. 
Lepsius,  Bericht  ub.  d.  Wahl  u.  Einfuhr.  Nik.  v.  Amsd.  Norah.  1835.) 
—  Lutheran  doctrines  had  gained  the  ascendancy  in  the  See  of  Naum- 
burg-Zeitz,  from  1520,  notwithstanding  the  constant  opposition  of  the 
papal  chapter.    On  the  death  of  the  bishop  (1541),  the  chapter  hastened 
to  elect  the  learned  and  gentle  provost,  Julius  v.  Pflugk,  to  the  vacancy. 
But  the  elector  thought  it  his  duty  to  furnish  a  Lutheran  country  with 
a  Lutheran  bishop  ;  and  having  been  displeased  by  the  deceitful  conduct 
of  the  chapter,  which  first  concealed  the  death  of  the  bishop  for  a  long 
time,  then  secretly  held  an  election,  without  regard  to  the  rights  of  the 
prince,  and  finally  paid  no  attention  to  his  protest,  he  persistently  re- 
fused to  confirm  their  choice.     He  still  hoped  that  Pflugk,  who  asked 
six  months'  time  for  considering  the  matter,  would  decline  the  election. 
But  this  expectation  was  disappointed.     Indeed  Pflugk,  supported  by 
the  emperor,  maintained  his  claims.     Then   the  elector,  not  without 
some  violent  means,  placed  Nich.  v.  Amsdorf,  superintendent  of  Mag- 
deburg, in  the  See.     Luther  ordained  him  on  Jan.  20,  1542,  "  without 
chrism,  and  also  without  butter,  lard,  fat,  grease,  incense,  or  coals." 
The  temporal  jurisdiction  of  the  See  devolved  upon  an  electoral  officer. 
Amsdorf  was  satisfied  with  the  scanty  salary  of  600  guilders;  the  re- 
maining revenues  Avere  applied  to  pious  uses.     After  the  battle  of 
M'uhlberg,  1547,  Amsdorf  was  driven  off,  and  Pflugk  restored.    Pflugk 
died  in  1564.     The  chapter  then  became  Lutheran,  but  Amsdorf  was 
not  restored  ;  the  administration  was  transferred  to  a  Saxon  prince. — 
The  violent  course  of  the  elector  in  this  case,  caused  great  displeasure 
at  the  Albertine  court.    But  a  much  more  threatening  difficulty  occurred 
in  the  same  year.    On  the  occasion  of  collecting  the  Turkish  tax  (1542), 
the  elector  sought  to  exercise  his  supremacy  over  the  district  of  Wur- 
zen, in  the  See  of  Meissen.     But  when  the  bishop  refused  to  submit  to 
his  demands,  he  ordered  his  soldiers  forthwith  to  occupy  the  district. 
The  Albertine  court,  however,  also  claimed  sovereignty  over  Wurzen. 
Duke  Henry  died  in  1541.     Maurice,  his  son  and  successor,  at  once 
placed  an  army  in  the  field ;  the  elector,  also,  prepared  for  war.     It 
was  with  difficulty  that  Luther  and  the  landgrave  succeeded  in  amica- 
bly adjusting  the  quarrel.     But  the  mutual  estrangement  and  rivalry 
of  the  two  courts  from  that  time  burned  like  a  hidden  fire,  and  after  a 
few  years  broke  out  in  a  devastating  conflagration. 

6.  The  Reformation  in  Brunswick  and  the  Palatinate  (1542—43). 
(Cf.  G.  H.  Lenz,  braunschw.  K.  Ref.  Wolfb.  1828.—  G  W.  H.  Brock, 
Gesch   d.  ev.  luth.  K.  d.  Pfalsgrafsch.  Neuburg.     Nordl.  1847. —  F, 


92         SECTION   III. — FIRST   PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

Blavl,  d.  Keformationsw.  in  d.  Pfalz.  Speier.  1S4G.)  —  Duke  Henry  of 
Brunswick- Wolf enbuttel  entered  complaint  against  the  city  of  Goslar, 
before  the  imperial  chamber,  because  it  had  torn  down  two  monaste- 
ries, from  which  the  duke  might  easily  have  assailed  the  city.  In  spite 
of  all  the  concessions  of  the  emperor  and  king  to  the  Protestants,  the 
court  proscribed  the  city  (at  the  end  of  15-40),  and  Henry  resolved  to 
execute  the  ban.  But  the  Smalcald  League  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
city,  and  substituting  offensive  for  defensive  measures,  the  landgrave 
and  the  Elector  of  Saxony  invaded  Henry's  territory  and  subdued  it 
(1542).  Brunswick  now  obtained  the  long-desired  preaching  of  the 
Gospel,  and  Bugenhagen  introduced  into  it  an  evangelical  organization 
and  agenda.  Thus  the  whole  of  northern  Germany  became  a  trophy 
of  the  Gospel,  Avhilst  in  the  south  and  west  of  Germany  it  also  spread. 
In  Oct.,  1542,  Regensburg  adopted  the  Reformation.  Bavaria  forbade 
its  subjects  having  any  intercourse  with  the  heretical  city,  but  did  not 
venture  an  open  assault  upon  it ;  King  Ferdinand  would  not  have  toler- 
ated in  a  rival  such  an  attempt  to  extend  its  power.  In  the  upper 
Palatinate,  evangelical  preachers  had  long  been  tolerated  by  t he  terri- 
torial diet.  Next  in  turn  came  the  Neulmrg- Palatinate.  Its  young 
prince,  OtCheinrich,  called  Osiander  from  Nuremberg,  who  introduced 
the  Reformation.  The  prince  joined  the  Smalcald  League  (1543).  In 
1543,  the  Elector  Lewis,  of  the  Palatinate,  died.  His  brother,  Frederic 
II.,  though  not  averse  to  the  Reformation,  did  not  formally  introduce 
it  into  the  Electoral  Palatinate  until  1546.  In  Austria,  also,  consider- 
ing the  circumstances  of  the  times,  the  new  religious  movement  made 
daily  progress.  Ferdinand  was  neither  able  nor  disposed  to  hinder  its 
progress  with  the  determined  and  bloody  measures  with  which  he  had 
previously  opposed  it. 

7.  The  Reformation  in  the  Electoral  Principality  of  Cologne  (1542- 
44).  (Of.  L.  Ennen  (Catholic),  Gesch.  d.  Etef.  in  d.  Erzdioc,  Koln. 
Koln  1849.— if.  Decker's  (Oath.).  Herm.  v.  Wied.  Koln,  1840.)—  Her- 
mann v.  Weid  (|  13,  5),  Archbishop  and  Elector  of  Cologne,  had  studied 
Luther's  version  of  the  Bible,  and  become  fully  convinced  that  the 
Augsburg  Confession  harmonized  with  its  doctrines.  After  much 
hesitation  he  resolved  to  introduce  the  Reformation  into  his  territory, 
supposing  that  the  recess  of  the  Regensburg  diet,  which  recommended 
a  Christian  reformation  of  their  several  institutions  to  the  prelates, 
obligated  him  to  such  a  course.  At  the  next  diet,  held  in  Bonn.  March, 
1542,  he  reported  what  he  bad  done,  and  received  the  most  cordial  ap- 
proval of  his  States.  The  elector  hoped  to  realize  in  his  domain  the 
plan  of  union,  which  it  was  expected  the  Regensburg  dietwould  secure 
for  the  whole  country,  but  which  was  there  frustrated.  To  accomplish 
this  lie  summoned  Bucer  to  his  aid  :  Gropper  was  to  cooperate,  but  his 
contracted  popish  views  soon  led.  him  to  withdraw.  Melanchthon  took 
his  place.  Already  in  -July,  1543,  the  electorwas  enabled  to  lav  before 
his  States  a  Reformed  constitution,  to  which  they  fully  assented.     But 


THE  PERIOD  OF  UNION  EFFORTS.        93 

meantime  an  opposition  party  was  formed.  The  cathedral  chapter  and 
university  resisted  from  regard  for  the  papacy  ;  the  Council  of  Cologne 
objected  because  it  feared  lest  by  the  change  its  authority  would  be 
curtailed.  The  movement,  however,  steadily  progressed,  and  it  was 
hoped  that  the  opposition  would  be  gradually  weakened,  or  at  least 
prove  harmless.  In  other  respects  the  Cologne  Reformation  took  a 
peculiar  course  ;  the  chapter  was  not  secularized,  but  continued  an 
ecclesiastical  principality,  only  in  an  evangelical  form.  The  Bishop 
of  Minister  at  once  prepared  to  follow  this  example  ;  and  had  the  work 
in  Cologne  proved  permanent,  a  number  of  other  chapters  wTould  doubt- 
less have  adopted  the  same  measures.     (Cf.  \  10,  2). 

8.  Embarrassments  of  the  Emperor  (1543-44). — Soon  after  the  Re- 
gensburg  diet  (1541),  which  had  granted  but  inconsiderable  aid  against 
the  Turks,  Soliman  had  taken  Hungary  without  opposition.  He  con- 
verted the  principal  church  at  Ofen  into  a  mosque,  and  appointed  a 
pasha  with  three  tails  over  the  whole  country,  which  he  proclaimed  a 
Turkish  province.  Early  in  1852,  a  diet  met  in  Spires.  Though  there 
was  much  wrangling  about  religious  matters,  large  aids  were  voted 
against  the  Turks,  for  which  the  Protestants  obtained  an  armistice  of 
five  years  after  the  termination  of  the  war.  The  campaign  against  the 
Turks,  however,  commanded  by  Joachim  II.,  accomplished  nothing. 
Meanwhile  new  disputes  arose  -with  France,  and  Soliman  prepared  for 
another  campaign.  In  this  strait  Charles  summoned  a  diet  at  Nurem- 
berg (Jan.,  1543).  The  Protestants  demanded  that  the  Regensburg 
declaration  should  be  included  in  the  recess  of  the  diet,  and  the  disso- 
lution of  the  existing  imperial  chamber.  Ferdinand  consented,  but 
William  of  Bavaria  declared  that  he  would  rather  see  the  world  perish, 
or  the  crescent  rule  over  ail  Germany.  The  recess  postponed  the  Bruns- 
wick affair  until  the  emperor  should  be  present,  and  guaranteed  anew 
to  the  Protestants  a  five  years'  armistice ;  but  these  demanded  an  in- 
disputable, permanent  peace,  and  rejected  the  recess.  A  grant  of  aid 
against  the  Turks  was  out  of  the  question.  With  the  summer  of  1543, 
apprehended  dangers  broke  in  upon  the  emperor  from  all  sides  ;  France 
seized  upon  the  Netherlands,  Soliman  conquered  Gran,  the  Danes 
barred  the  Sund  against  the  emperor's  subjects,  a  Turkish-French  fleet 
held  mastery  over  the  Mediterranean,  and  had  already  taken  Nizza, 
and  the  Protestants  also  assumed  a  threatening  posture.  Christian  III. 
of  Denmark,  and  Gustavus  Vasa  of  Sweden,  sought  admission  to  the 
Smalcald  League  (which,  of  course,  could  not  be  allowed,  unless  the 
landgrave,  by  his  separate  compact  with  Charles,  would  withdraw  from 
it).  The  Duke  of  Cleves,  also,  broke  the  stipulated  armistice.  This 
provoked  the  emperor  most  of  all.  He  hastened  forth,  and  subdued 
Cleve  and  Geldern  ;  the  Smalcald  League  had  to  allow  it,  on  the  land- 
grave's account  (1543).  Both  countries  were  restored  to  Catholicism. 
The  position  of  the  emperor  then  somewhat  improved.  Cleve  was  dis- 
posed of;  England  and  Denmark  made  peace  with  him.     But  his  most 


94  SECTION    III. — FIRST   PERIOD    (CENT.  16   A.  D). 

dangerous  foes,  Soliman  and  Francis  I.,  were  still  in  arms.     He  still 
needed  the  most  vigorous  support  of  the  empire,  i.  e.  of  the  Protestants. 

9.  The  Diet  of  Spires  (1544). —  The  diet  of  Spires  was  opened  by  the 
emperor  in  Feb.,  1544.  He  knew  well  that  he  could  obtain  help  against 
the  French  or  Turks  only  by  making  important  religious  concessions. 
And  he  yielded  to  this  necessity.  The  recess  allowed  the  Protestants 
to  use  the  ecclesiastical  property  for  the  improvement  of  their  churches 
and  schools  ;  earlier  unfavorable  recesses  were  annulled  ;  Lutherans 
likewise  were  admitted  as  advisory  members  of  the  imperial  chamber. 
The  territory  of  Brunswick  was  ceded  to  the  emperor  for  temporary 
sequestration,  only  its  religion  was  to  remain  in  statu  quo.  The  adjust- 
ment of  religious  dissensions  was  referred  to  a  "general,  free,  Chris- 
tian" council ;  and  if  it  could  not  succeed,  matters  should  be  fully  and 
finally  settled  by  a  national  convention,  to  be  held  the  following  fall, 
independently  of  the  pope  or  a  council.  The  emperor  promised  to  bring 
a  plan  of  reformation  with  him  then,  and  allowed  the  other  States  to 
do  the  same.  After  such  concessions  the  Protestants  entered  with 
spirit  upon  the  consideration  of  the  emperor's  political  propositions. 
First  of  all,  he  desired  aid  against  the  French.  It  was  granted,  and 
the  same  year  yet  he  marched,  with  an  army  composed  chiefly  of  Pro- 
testants, into  France,  and  forced  upon  the  king  the  Peace  of  Crespy 
(Sept.,  1544).  This  would  have  been  the  time  to  prepare  for  the  war 
against  the  Turks,  according  to  the  agreement  at  Spires.  The  Pro- 
testants burned  with  a  desire  to  give  the  emperor  proof  of  their  zeal 
and  devotion.  Having  confidence  in  the  success  of  the  national  con- 
vention promised  at  Spires,  the  Elector  of  Saxony  directed  his  theolo- 
gians to  draw  up  a  plan  of  reformation,  to  lie  laid  before  the  conven- 
tion. This  document,  known  as  the  Wittenberg  Reformation,  is  re- 
markable for  having  proposed  a  new  measure ;  it  guaranteed  the 
prelates  their  spiritual  and  temporal  prerogatives,  their  dignities,  do- 
mains, and  jurisdictions,  as  well  as  the  right  of  ordination,  visitation, 
and  excommunication  ;  though,  of  course,  on  the  condition  that  all  this 
should  be  understood  in  an  evangelical  sense. 

10.  Quarrels  of  the  Emperor  with  the.  Evangelical  States  (1545-46). 
The  recess  of  Spires,  with  its  promise  of  a  national  convention,  finally 
induced  the  pope  to  order  the  long-called-for  Council  at  Trent.  He 
trusted  that  its  decisions  would  sever  the  emperor  from  the  Protestants 
— but  the  very  appointment  of  it,  already,  produced  thia  result.  After 
the  Protestants  had  conquered  the  Peace  of  Crespy  for  the  3mperor, 
and  thus  cleared  the  way  for  his  general  policy,  he  desired  to  carry  out 
his  earlier  scheme  of  a  complete  reformation  of  the  whole  Church,  the 
execution  of  which  had  been  checked  by  the  premature  death  of 
Hadrian  VI.  But,  to  effect  this,  he  could  not  exempt  the  Protestants 
from  subjection  to  the  council.  At  the  diet  of  Worms  (May,  1545), 
however,  they  decidedly  refused  consent.     Charles  assured  them  that 


THE  PERIOD  OF  UNION  EFFORTS.        95 

be  had  no  thought  of  using  violence  against  them  in  matters  of  reli- 
gion, but  insisted  on  his  demand,  and  began  to  make  secret  prepara- 
tions. The  Cologne  affair  (n.  7)  also  estranged  him  from  them.  The 
agitations  which  the  reformation  of  the  archbishopric  excited  in  the 
Netherlands,  -were  of  the  most  threatening  character  for  the  system  of 
government  which  obtained  there.  Hence  the  emperor  took  part  with 
the  opposition,  and  admitted  a  complaint  of  the  chapter  against  the 
elector.  An  energetic  intercession  of  the  Sinalcald  League  aggravated 
his  antipathies.  The  growing  power  of  the  league  filled  him  with  ap  ■ 
prehensions.  Henry  of  Brunswick  had  just  made  an  attempt  to  recover 
his  domain,  but  was  defeated  by  the  united  forces  of  Hesse  and  the 
two  Saxonies,  and  taken  prisoner.  Simultaneously  Frederick  II.  com- 
menced the  reformation  of  the  Palatinate,  and  negotiated  for  admission 
to  the  Smalcald  League.  Thus  four  of  the  six  electors  had  already 
defected,  and  the  fifth,  Sebastian  of  Heusenstamm,  who,  after  the  death 
of  Cardinal  Albert  (1545),  had  been  made  Elector  of  Mayence,  through 
the  influence  of  Hesse  and  the  Palatinate,  had  promised  to  do  the 
same.  Charles  became  alarmed.  He  concluded  an  armistice  with  the 
Turks  (Oct.,  1545),  and  negotiated  with  the  pope,  who  pledged  all  his 
possessions  and  his  triple  crown  for  the  overthrow  of  the  heretics.  On 
Dec.  13,  1545,  he  opened  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  did  not  conceal  that 
its  purpose  was  to  suppress  the  Protestants.  Charles  once  more  endea- 
vored to  induce  the  Protestants  to  take  part,  and  once  more  he  insti- 
tuted a  colloquy  at  Regensburg  (Jan.,  1546).  The  zealous  papists, 
Malvenda,  Cochlcevs,  and  Billik,  and  a  little  later,  Jul.  v.  Pflugk,  were 
opposed  by  Bucer,  Brcnz,  and  Major.  The  former  would  not  yield  a 
hair-breadth,  and  demanded  a  promise  that  no  one  should  be  told  what 
transpired.  Hence  the  colloquy  failed.  The  horrible  fratricide  perpe- 
trated during  that  time  upon  a  young  Spaniard,  John  Diaz,  in  Neu- 
burg  (whose  brother  Alphonso  preferred  his  death  to  his  joining  the 
heretics),  went  unpunished,  and  furnished  Protestants  an  instance  of 
the  way  in  which  good  Catholics  thought  heretics  should  be  treated. 

11.  Luther's  Last  Days  (1546).  (Cf.  K.  E.  Fdrstemann,  Denkm.  d. 
Dr.  M.  L.  errichtet.  Nordh.  1846,  and  the  Jubelschrr.  v.  Pasig,  Lpz. 
1846;  Kothe,  Jen.  1846;  John,  Magd.  1846).  —  Whilst  the  storm  was 
gathering  which  should  soon  burst  upon  the  heads  of  the  evangelical 
party,  the  mercy  of  God  hastened  the  man,  who  had  laid  the  immova- 
ble basis  of  a  renovation  of  the  Church,  away  from  the  struggles  and 
trials  of  his  completed  labors.  Luther  died  at  Eisleben,  Feb.  18,  1546, 
at  the  aye  of  63  years.  His  last  years  were  burdened  with  manifold 
tribulations.  The  thoroughly  political  character  forced  upon  the  Re- 
formation after  the  diet  of  Augsburg,  was  repugnant  to  him,  but  he 
could  not  alter  it.  Many  things  occurred  in  Wittenberg,  also,  of  which 
he  disapproved,  and  which  caused  him  much  anxiety  and  sorrow. 
Weary  of  his  arduous  labors,  suffering  violent  bodily  pains,  and  with 
increasing  debility,  he  often  longed  to  die  in  peace,  and  his  prayer  was 


96         SECTION    III. — FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.)  . 

answered.  Early  in  154G,  the  counts  of  Mansfeld  called  him  to  Eisle- 
ben,  to  settle  the  disputes  then  existing  between  them.  Thus  engaged, 
he  spent  the  last  three  weeks  of  his  life  in  the  place  of  his  birth,  and 
without  any  particular  previous  illness,  fell  peacefully  and  happily 
asleep  in  the  Lord,  during  the  night  of  Fell.  18.  His  corpse  was  taken 
to  Wittenberg,  and  there  deposited  in  the  chapel  of  the  castle. 


I  1G.  THE  SMALCALD  WAR  AND  THE  INTERIM.    (1546-51.) 

All  attempts  at  reconciliation  in  religious  matters  had  failed. 
The  pope,  on  the  contrary,  had  ultimately  consented  to  order  a 
general  council  in  some  German  city.  The  emperor  turned  to- 
wards it  with  his  conciliatory  schemes,  and  hoped  that,  as  his 
hands  were  again  free,  since  the  conclusion  of  peace  with  France, 
he  might  carry  out  his  idea  of  a  reformation,  i.  e.,  thoroughly 
correct  all  hierarchical  abuses,  allow  priests  to  marry,  grant  the 
cup  to  the  laity,  and  yield  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith. 
But  on  this  subject  he  quarrelled  with  the  Protestants,  and  war 
broke  out  before  the  Smalcald  confederates  were  ready  for  it. 
Still  their  strength  far  exceeded  the  emperor's  ;  but,  through 
useless  scruples,  delays,  and  indecision,  they  allowed  victory  to 
escape  them,  when  they  had  several  certain  opportunities  of 
securing  it.  The  power  of  the  league  was  completely  annihilated  ; 
that  of  the  emperor  reached  its  highest  point.  The  whole  of 
southern  Germany  was  compelled  to  submit  to  the  odious  Augs- 
burg Interim  ;  and  even  in  northern  Germany,  despised  Magde- 
burg alone  maintained  pure  Protestantism,  in  spite  of  the  em- 
peror and  empire. 

1.  Preparations  for  the  Smalcald  IFar(1546).  (Cf.  Sortleder,  Handl. 
u.  Auschr.  v.  d.  Ursachen  d.  deutsch.  Krieg.  Frkf.  1017.  2  Bde.  f.  J.  G. 
Jahn,  Gesch.  d.  schm.  Kr.  Lpz.  1837. — F.  A.  v.  Langenn,  Moritz,  Herz. 
u.  Kurf.  v.  Sachsen.  Lpz.  1841.  2  Bde.) — After  the  emperor  had  con- 
cluded a  league  with  the  pope  against  the  Protestants,  he  tried  to  find 
confederates  in  Germany  also.  To  the  Duke  of  Bavaria  he  held  out 
the  prospect  of  the  electoral  dignity,  to  which  be  had  long  aspired. 
This  succeeded,  but  to  guard  against  unfortunate  issues,  the  duke  pro 
mised  only  secret  pecuniary  aid.  Charles  next  attempted  to  gain  allies 
from  among  the  Protestants  themselves,  whose  mutual  discords  gave 
him  hope  of  success.  .Margrave  Hans  of  Kustrin  and  Duke  Eric  of 
J',rinixiricl;-(  'ah  nl>i  i<j,  the  former  a  son-in-law,  the  latter  an  uncle  of 
the  expelled  and  captured  Prince  of  Wolfenbiittel,  offered  their  services 
in  the  contest  against  the  robbers  of  that  invaded  country  But  Charles 
was  more  concerned  to  gain  the  young  Duke  Maurice  of  Saxony.     The 


THE     SJIALCALD     WAR     AND     THE     INTERIM.  97 

continued  rivalry  and  variance  between  him  and  his  uncle,  the  elector, 
gave  ground  to  hope  that  he  also  might  be  won  over.  The  attempt 
succeeded.  For  the  electoral  dignity  of  Saxony,  and  the  greater  part 
of  the  lands  belonging  to  electoral  Saxony,  Maurice  turned  traitor. 
The  emperor  could,  indeed,  no  more  exempt  him  than  the  other  two 
princes  from  a  formal  subjection  to  the  council,  but  he  promised  them 
forbearance  in  the  application  of  the  decree  of  the  council,  and  that  in 
any  case,  the  doctrine  of  justification,  the  cups  for  the  laity,  and  the 
marriage  of  priests,  should  be  guaranteed  to  their  countries.  Having 
thus  secured  Maurice,  the  emperor  prosecuted  his  preparations  quite 
openly,  and  made  no  secret  of  his  intention  to  chastise  some  princes 
who  had  shown  contempt  for  his  imperial  dignity,  and  violently  seized 
possessions  not  belonging  to  them,  under  the  cloak  of  religion.  The 
Smalcald  confederates  could  no  longer  deceive  themselves.  They  also 
made  preparations  for  war.  With  this  open  rupture  ended  the  diet  of 
Regensburg  (June,  154G). 

2.   The  Campaign  along  the  Danube  (154G). — The  northern  cities  were 
most  zealous  in  their  preparations.     Uniting  with  Wurtemberg,  they 
sent  a  respectable  army  into  the  field,  under  the  command  of  the  vigi- 
lant Schartlin,  before  the  emperor  had  matured  his  preparations.    Had 
the  Protestant  council  of  war  in  Ulm  permitted,  Schartlin  would  have 
marched  forthwith  to  Regensburg,  where  the  emperor  was  surrounded 
by  an  excited  Protestant  population,  and  without  protection.     But  the 
council  thought  nothing  should  be  done  to  irritate  William,  of  Bavaria, 
who  was  playing  a  neutral  part.    Then  Schartlin  wished  to  take  Tyrol, 
and  pay  a  visit  to  the  Council  of  Trent.     He  had  already  started,  when 
the  council  commanded  him  to  return,  in  the  foolish  hope  that  King 
Ferdinand  would  remain  neutral.     Thus  Charles  gained  time  to  collect 
his  forces.     Under  date  of  June  20,  1546,  he  issued  from  Regensburg 
a  ban  edict  against  the  Landgrave  Philip  and  the  Elector  John  Frede- 
rick, as  vassals  who  had  violated  their  duty  and  oath.    Both  published 
proclamations  in  defence  of  their  course,  entered  the  field  with  consi- 
derable forces,  and  joined   Schartlin  at  Donawert.     There  papal  des- 
patches to  the  Catholic  cantons  of  Switzerland  fell  into  their  hands,  in 
which  the  pope  informed  them   that  he  had  made  a  league  with  the 
emperor  for  the  extermination  of  heretics,  and  promised  plenary  in- 
dulgence to  all  who  would  aid  the  crusade  against  them  with  prayers 
or  money.    Even  after  all  the  delays,  the  issue  of  the  war  would  hardly 
have  been  doubtful,  had  the  Protestants  carried  out  their  plans  with 
unity,  decision,  and  vigor.     But  in  this  they  failed.     The  winter  was 
approaching  without  their  coming  to  a  battle.     Meanwhile,  however, 
Maurice,  (to  whom  the  emperor  had  transferred  the  Saxon  electorate, 
by  a  formal  decree  of  Oct.  27,  1546),  on  pretence  of  friendly  concern, 
took  possession  of  the  domain  of  the  dishonored  elector,  and  received 
the  oath  of  allegiance.     Tidings  of  these  events  constrained  the  land- 
grave and  ex-elector  to  return  to  their  countries,  and  Schartlin,  in  want 

52 


98    SECTION  III.  —  FIRST  PERIOD  (CENT.  1  6  A.  D.)  . 

of  money  and  munitions,  was  unable  even  to  establish  permanent  win- 
ter quarters  in  Franconia,  for  the  protection  of  northern  Germany. 
The  whole  country,  therefore,  was  exposed  to  the  emperor.  One  city 
after  another  capitulated,  on  more  or  less  severe  terms.  Wurteinberg 
and  the  Palatinate  had  also  to  yield.  In  regard  to  religious  matters, 
the  emperor  wisely  granted  to  all  the  same  privileges  he  had  promised 
before  the  campaign  to  his  allied  princes.  At  the  beginning  of  1547. 
he  was  master  of  the  whole  of  southern  Germany.  He  then  disposed, 
also,  of  the  Cologne  affair  (£  15,  7).  In  April,  154G,  the  pope  had  pro- 
nounced the  ban  against  its  archbishop,  and  authorized  Charles  to  exe- 
cute it.  But  the  emperor  prudently  delayed,  lest  the  elector  should 
attach  himself  to  the  enemy.  Now,  however,  Charles  published  the 
ban.  His  commissaries  called  a  meeting  of  the  States  at  Cologne,  and 
made  the  coadjutor  archbishop  and  elector,  in  spite  of  the  opposition 
of  the  States.  Hermann  was  ready  to  purchase  the  religious  freedom 
of  the  country  by  a  voluntary  resignation  ;  but  this  was  rejected,  and 
having  no  power  to  resist,  he  resigned  unconditionally.  Thus  the  Rhine 
country  was  hopelessly  lost  to  Protestantism. 

3.  The  Campaign  of  the  Elbe  (15-17). — John  Frederick  entered  Thu- 
ringia  about  the  middle  of  Dec,  1546.  He  was  received  warmly  and 
with  rejoicings,  and  in  a  short  time  conquered  not  only  his  own  do- 
main, but  the  greater  part  of  the  Albertine  district.  The  cities  of  lower 
Germany  formed  a  league  with  him.  The  Bohemians,  also,  refused 
Ferdinand's  demand  that  they  should  fight  against  their  brethren  in 
the  faith,  and  on  their  own  responsibility  confederated  with  the  ex- 
elector.  John  Frederick  once  more  assumed  a  highly  important  posi- 
tion, the  danger  of  which  the  emperor  fully  appreciated.  Hastily 
gathering  a  considerable  army,  Charles  joined  Ferdinand  and  Maurice 
in  Eger,  and  by  rapid  marches  moved  towards  the  Elbe.  At  Muhlberg, 
he  overtook  his  enemy.  There  was  hardly  a  battle.  John  Frederick's 
troops  were  overpowered  by  the  imperial  army,  of  whose  approach  he 
had  no  knowledge,  and  he  was  taken  prisoner  (April  24,  1547).  Sen- 
tence of  death  was  pronounced  upon  him,  as  a  rebel  and  heretic.  But 
the  council  of  war  thought  it  more  prudent  to  force  from  him  by  treaty 
the  surrender  of  his  fortress,  than  to  waste  time  in  uncertain  attempts 
at  conquest.  In  matters  of  religion  the  pious  prince  would  not  yield, 
but  he  resigned  his  electoral  dignity,  and  consented  to  the  surrender 
of  his  fortress,  the  transfer  of  the  greater  portion  of  his  domain  to 
Maurice,  and  imprisonment  for  life.  The  Landgrave  Philip,  meanwhile, 
had  been  able  to  do  nothing,  for  want  of  munitions,  money,  and  troops. 
The  tidings  of  John  Frederick's  misfortune  filled  him  with  dismay. 
Unable  to  offer  any  resistance,  he  surrendered  unconditionally  to  the 
emperor.  His  son-in-law  Maurice,  and  the  Elector  Joachim  IT..  oiTered 
to  act  as  mediators.  In  a  document,  which  was  immediately  accepted 
in  the  case,  the  emperor  vowed  that  "solche  Ergebung  weder  zu  Lei- 
besstrafe  noch  zu  cwigem  (al.  einigem)  GePungniss  gcreichen  solle, "  for 


TIIE     SMALCALD     WAR     AND     THE     INTERIM.  99 

the  landgrave.  Ranke's  careful  investigations  have  shown  that  the 
first  version  is  undoubtedly  the  correct  one.  But  in  the  further  trans- 
actions in  the  matter,  this  compact,  with  its  document,  was  so  far  lost 
sight  of,  that  both  the  mediators  must  have  considered  it  set  aside,  and 
even  feared  they  would  offend  the  emperor  by  asking  for  its  formal 
annulment.  An  imprisonment  was  not  named  in  any  of  the  subsequent 
transactions,  nor  in  the  final  capitulation  ;  indeed  the  latter,  in  most 
of  its  conditions,  assumed  the  personal  freedom  of  the  landgrave.  In 
conformity  with  it,  the  landgrave,  of  course,  surrendered  himself  at 
discretion,  but  the  emperor  promised  an  amnesty  in  advance.  The 
landgrave  was  required  to  prostrate  himself  before  him,  to  demolish 
ill  his  fortresses  but  one,  to  give  up  all  his  arms,  never  to  tolerate  an 
enemy  of  the  emperor  in  his  territory,  to  enter  into  no  leagues,  to 
liberate  Duke  Henry  of  Brunswick,  and  restore  him  to  his  domain. 
The  ceremony  of  prostration  took  place  on  July  10,  at  the  residence  in 
Halle.  Both  the  electors,  with  the  landgrave,  then  went  unsuspiciously 
to  sup,  by  invitation,  with  the  Duke  of  Alba.  After  supper,  the  duke 
declared  that  the  landgrave  was  his  prisoner.  The  electors  remon- 
strated in  vain  with  the  duke,  and  the  next  day  with  the  imperial 
councillors,  who  coolly  produced  the  earlier  document.  The  emperor 
was  also  entreated  without  avail. 

4.  The  Council  of  Trent  (1545-47). — The  Council  of  Trent  was  opened 
in  Dec,  1545.  At  the  very  beginning,  the  pope,  against  the  express 
will  of  the  emperor,  introduced  resolutions  which  precluded  the  parti- 
cipation of  the  Protestants.  The  Scriptures  and  tradition  were  first 
discussed.  The  same  authority  was  ascribed  to  the  Apocrypha  as  to 
the  other  books  of  the  Bible,  and  the  Vulgate  was  acknowledged  as  the 
authentic  version  and  only  basis  of  all  theological  transactions,  discus- 
sions, and  sermons.  Tradition  was  declared  fully  coordinate  with  the 
sacred  Scriptures,  only  care  was  taken  for  once  to  settle  and  fix  the 
limits  of  its  contents.  The  total  extermination  of  original  sin  by  bap- 
tism was  affirmed,  the  remaining  concupiscence  being  pronounced  no 
sin  ;  after  baptism  there  were  none  but  actual  sins.  The  scholastic 
view  of  justification  was,  substantially,  reasserted,  although  it  was 
purged  of  its  worst  excrescences,  and  conformed  as  much  as  possible 
to  scriptural  modes  of  expression.  Justification  was  made  to  consist 
in  the  actual  conversion  of  a  sinner  into  a  righteous  person — not  only 
in  the  forgiveness  of  sin,  but  the  sanctification  and  renewal  of  the 
inner  man.  It  is  effected  not  by  an  imputation  of  Christ's  merits,  but 
by  an  infusion  of  habitual  righteousness,  which  enables  man  to  secure 
eternal  life  by  his  own  good  works.  It  is  not  an  actus  Dei  forensis,  but 
an  actus  physicus,  is  effected  not  at  once,  and  through  faith  alone,  but 
gradually,  under  the  training  of  the  Chui'ch,  through  those  means 
which  it  offers,  and  by  man's  free  cooperation.  The  emperor,  who  saw 
his  own  conciliatory  schemes  set  aside  by  these  decisions,  was  greatly 
displeased,  and  peremptorily  demanded  that  their  promulgation  shouJo 


100       SECTION    III. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

be  postponed.  The  pope  listened  for  a  time,  but  as  the  interference  of 
the  victorious  emperor  in  the  affairs  of  the  council  assumed  a  mora 
threatening  character,  he  directed  his  legates  forthwith  to  publish  the 
suspended  decisions  (Jan.,  1547),  and  a  few  weeks  later,  on  pretence 
of  a  dangerous  pestilence,  transferred  the  council  to  Bologna  (March, 
1547),  where,  however,  it  did  no  additional  business. 

5.  The  Augsburg  Interim  (1548).  (Cf.  J.  E.  Bick,  das  dreifache  Int. 
Lpz.  1721.  J.  A.  Schmid,  hist,  interimistica.  llelmst.  1750.) — Early 
in  Sept.,  1547,  the  emperor  opened  a  diet  at  Augsburg.  The  humbled 
Protestants  promised,  almost  unresistingly,  to  submit  to  the  council, 
if  it  were  restored  to  Trent,  and  its  proceedings  begun  afresh.  Charles 
energetically  urged  the  pope  to  concede  these  unavoidable  demands. 
The  refusal  of  the  pope  compelled  him  once  more  to  attempt  effecting 
a  religious  union  without  the  pope  or  council,  and  to  institute  an  in- 
terim which  should  be  the  law  for  both  parties  until  the  action  of  a 
proper  council  could  be  obtained.  King  Ferdinand  proposed  Bishop 
Julius  v.  Pflugle  and  the  suffragan  Bishop  Michael  Helding  of  Mayence  ; 
the  Elector  Joachim  II.,  his  court-preacher  John  Agricola  of  Eisleben, 
as  a  committee  to  prepare  the  interim.  Charles  consented.  Agricola's 
boasts  of  his  influence  in  the  committee  were  as  vain  as  his  magnilo- 
quent promises  that  large  concessions  would  be  granted  were  proven 
to  be  falsehoods.  Joachim  had  enjoined  it  upon  him  to  adhere  to  four 
points  (justification,  the  cup  for  the  laity,  the  marriage  of  the  clergy, 
and  the  setting  aside  of  the  opus  operatum),  but  Agricola  could  not 
even,  unqualifiedly,  secure  them.  The  second  and  third  were  granted, 
but  in  regard  to  the  doctrine  of  justification,  the  Bishop  of  Nauniburg 
could  not  go  directly  in  the  face  of  the  decrees  of  Trent,  whilst  the 
Protestants  on  their  part  could  make  no  concessions  on  this  point. 
They  agreed  therefore,  to  reject  the  inanis  fiducia  of  faith  without 
work?,  as  well  as  the  false  confidence  of  resting  in  works  without  true 
faith,  and  to  acknowledge  both  an  inherent  and  imputed  righteous- 
ness; —  and  if,  on  the  one  hand,  they  declared  that  God  justifies  men 
not  on  account  of  works,  but  of  his  mercy,  and  without  any  merit  of 
man,  they  affirmed  on  the  other  that  there  might  be  works  which 
transcended  the  divine  commands,  and  that  such  were  meritorious. 
Upon  the  mass  they  agreed  more  readily.  Pflugk,  indeed,  clung  to  the 
idea  of  a  sacrifice,  but  not  in  the  sense  of  an  atonement,  but  of  a  me- 
morial or  thank-offering;  not  as  a  repetition  of  the  death  of  Christ,  but 
as  an  appropriation  of  its  fruits.  In  the  doctrine  of  the  Church,  the 
power  of  the  pope  was  essentially  limited ;  he  was  acknowledged  only 
as  the  supreme  bishop,  in  the  sense  of  a  primus  inter  pares,  in  whom 
the  unity  of  the  Church  was  visibly  represented.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  right  of  interpreting  the  Scriptures,  and  to  ordain  doctrines  and 
usases  according:  to  it,  was  claimed  exclusively  for  the  Chun-!).  The 
seven  sacraments  were  confirmed,  including  chrism  and  extreme  unction, 
and  special  stress  was  laid  upon  transubstantiation.     The  duty  of  fast- 


THE     SMALCALD     "WAR     AND     THE     INTERIM.  101 

lag  and  of  praying  to  the  Virgin  and  saints  for  their  intercessions,  all 
the  ceremonies  of  Catholic  worship,  the  pomp  of  processions,  the  festi- 
vals of  saints,  of  Mary,  and  especially  Corpus  Christi,  remained  in  full 
force.  —  This  compromise  received  the  emperor's  entire  approval,  and 
even  several  Protestant  princes  believed  that  any  wrong  thus  done  to 
pure  doctrine  was  richly  compensated  by  the  prospect  of  having  some 
of  their  views  legally  introduced  into  Catholic  countries.  The  Electors 
of  Brandenburg  and  the  Palatinate  at  once  assented  to  the  measure. 
Maurice  found  it  more  difficult  to  do  so ;  he  could  not  shut  his  eyes  to 
the  impossibility  of  getting  the  consent  of  his  States.  Finally  he  half 
consented,  and  the  emperor  took  it  as  a  full  approval.  Huns,  of  Klis- 
fcrin,  and  Wolfgang,  of  Zweibrlicken,  decidedly  opposed  the  plan,  but 
Charles  took  no  further  notice  of  them  than  to  say  to  them  that  in  a 
short  time  a  few  thousand  Spaniards  would  be  sent  into  their  districts. 
Then  it  came  to  the  turn  of  the  Catholic  princes.  William  of  Bavaria 
irritated,  apart  from  this,  on  account  of  supposed  neglect  on  the  part 
of  the  emperor,  had  consulted  the  pope,  and  decidedly  rejected  the 
Interim.  The  other  Catholic  States  followed  his  example.  The  em- 
peror did  not  think  himself  powerful  enough  to  compel  their  approval, 
and  the  recess  of  the  diet  made  the  Interim  binding  only  on  the  Pro- 
testant States.  The  Landgrave  Philip,  whose  power  was  completely 
broken,  assented,  but  nothing  could  induce  the  brave-hearted  John 
F)-ederick  to  do  it.  Even  the  pope  persistently  declined  acknowledging 
the  Interim,  until  in  Aug.,  1540,  he  authorized  his  bishops  to  tolerate 
the  concessions  it  made  for  the  Protestants. 

6.  The  Introduction  of  the  Interim  (1548). — Everywhere  the  Interim 
had  to  be  introduced  by  violence.  This  was  first  done  in  the  cities  of 
northern  Germany.  People  and  preachers  steadfastly  resisted  it,  but 
the  magistrates  let  themselves  be  overawed  by  the  threats  and  demon- 
strations of  the  emperor,  and  thus  it  was  admitted  by  one  city  after 
another — by  Nuremberg,  Augsburg,  and  Vim.  Constance  made  a  show 
of  resistance,  but  it  was  proscribed,  lost  all  its  privileges,  and  instead 
of  the  Interim,  popery  was  restored,  and  evangelical  preaching  pro- 
hibited on  pain  of  death.  Intimidated  by  this  example,  the  other  cities 
submitted  to  what  was  unavoidable.  The  Palatinate  yielded  at  once. 
Wiirtemberg  soon  followed  its  example.  All  the  ministers  who  refused 
to  accept  the  Interim  were  banished  and  persecuted.  About  400  faith- 
ful pi-eachcrs  of  the  Gospel,  with  their  wives  and  children,  wandered 
without  food  or  shelter  through  southern  Germany.  Frecht,  of  Ulm, 
was  loaded  with  chains,  and  dragged  after  the  imperial  camp.  John 
Brenz,  of  Swabian-IIall,  one  of  the  most  decided  opponents  of  the 
Interim,  more  than  once,  in  his  wanderings,  miraculously  escaped  being 
captured.  In  northern  Germany,  the  opposition  was  more  persistent. 
The  example  of  John  Frederick  encouraged  others  to  imitate  him.  The 
opposition  was  concentrated  in  the  cities  of  lower  Germany,  especially 
in  Maqdeburg,  which  had  been  under  the  imperial  ban  since  the  Smal 
52*  ' 


102      SECTION    III.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

cald  war.  The  fugitive  opponents  of  the  Interim  gathered  there  from 
nil  pans;  there  alone,  (in  "God's  chancery,")  the  press  was  still  free 
to  combat  the  Interim.  A  flood  of  tracts,  satires,  and  caricatures  issued 
thence,  spread  over  all  Germany,  and  fanned  the  inextinguishable 
hatred.  The  Landgrave  Philip  advised  his  sons  to  accept  the  Interim, 
but  the  people  would  not  consent.  Even  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg 
could  not  carry  it  out  in  his  domain,  still  less  the  Elector  Maurice. 

7.  The  Leipsic  or  Small  Interim  (1548).  (Cf.  H.  Rossel,  Melanchth. 
u.  d.  Int.,  in  his  theol.  works.  Berl.  1847). — The  Elector  Maurice  was 
surrounded  by  peculiar  difficulties.  Pressed  by  his  States,  whom  he 
had  promised  to  protect  in  maintaining  pure  doctrines,  and  no  less 
pressed  by  the  emperor,  who  expected  him  at  once  to  adopt  the  In- 
terim, he  resolved  to  prepare  a  compromise  of  these  adverse  demands, 
with  which  both  parties  might  be  satisfied.  To  effect  this  he  needed 
the  consent  and  aid  of  the  Wittenberg  theologians,  above  all  of  Me- 
lanchthon.  Melanchthon  had  for  several  years  been  greatly  restrained 
in  his  theological  views  by  Luther,  and  by  the  strictly  Lutheran  court 
of  John  Frederick  ;  but  since  Luther's  death,  and  the  change  of  dynasty, 
he  felt  more  at  liberty,  but  was  also  loss  decided.  He  was  compliant 
beyond  all  expectations.  His  timid  spirit  feared  that  unconditional 
opposition  would  utterly  destroy  Protestantism,  whilst  obedience  and 
concession  would  at  least  save  the  essentials  of  the  Gospel  as  seed-corn 
for  better  times.  In  a  letter  to  Carlowitz,  he  spoke  in  very  moderate 
terms  of  a  sketch  of  the  Interim,  approved  of  the  restoration  of  old 
usages,  and  revelled  in  the  remembrance  of  the  powerful  impressions 
which  they  had  made  on  him  in  his  youth.  In  his  pliancy  he  so  far 
forgot  himself  as  to  complain  to  this  man,  the  most  hitter  enemy  of 
Luther  and  of  the  noble  John  Frederick,  of  Luther's  obstinacy  and 
controversial  spirit,  and  to  utter  odious  insinuations  against  the  former 
government.  In  an  official  opinion  which  he  was  requested  to  give,  he 
said  that  it  was  necessary  to  adapt  one'seif  to  the  sad  times,  and  to 
approve  and  obey  the  will  of  the  emperor,  as  far  as  it  could  be  done  in 
harmony  with  the  essentials  of  evangelical  faith.  At  Meissen,  Torgau, 
Monkscell,  and  Jliterbock,  the  States  had  shown  a  more  unmanageable 
and  firm  spirit  than  the  theologians,  and  the  subject  of  their  conventions 
was  extensively  discussed.  At  length,  at  the  diet  of  Leipsic,  Dec.  2'2, 
1548,  the  Interim  prepared  by  the  Wittenberg  theologians  [Melanch- 
thon, G.  Major,  1\  Eber,  Bugenhagen,  and  Cruciger),  according  to  Me- 
lanchlhon's  modified  views,  was  adopted  as  the  law  of  religious  worship 
and  usages  lor  the  countries  of  Saxony,  and  the  theologians  were 
directed  to  prepare  a  liturgy  corresponding  with  the  new  Interim, 
which  was  aceordirgly  published  in  July,  1549.  Julius-  o.  Pfiugk  was 
very  well  satisfied  with  this  Leipsic  Inlirim.  and  offered  to  recommend 
it  to  the  emperor  :  Agricola  triumphed,  the  preachers  of  the  Margravite 
naively  wrote  to  the  Wittenbergers,  asking  whether  the  incredible 
news  was  true,  the  letters  of  Calvin  and  Brenz  lacerated  Mclanchthon's 


TIIE     SMALCALD     WAR    ANt     THE     INTERIM.  103 

besirt.  zealous  Lutherans  everywhere  were  enraged,  and  denounced  the 
measure,  and  the  Protestants  generally  hated  the  Leipsic  more  than 
the  Augsburg  Interim.  Its  introduction  was  aided  by  imprisonment 
and  exile,  but  hostility  to  it  daily  increased.  The  Leipsic  Inteiim 
restored  Catholic  customs  and  ceremonies,  almost  without  exception, 
as  adiaphora,  took  no  notice  of  less  essential  doctrinal  differences,  and 
set  forth  fundamental  articles  in  such  terms,  that  they  might  accord 
either  with  pure  evangelical  tenets  or  at  the  same  time  with  the  Augs- 
burg Interim.  The  evangelical  doctrine  of  justification  was,  indeed,  not 
essentially  altered,  but  it  was  not  expressed  in  decided  and  unequivocal 
terms,  and  still  less  were  Catholic  errors  distinctly  and  unambiguously 
rejected.  Good  works  were  declared  to  be  useful  and  necessary,  though 
not  as  meritorious  of  salvation.  It  was  not  said  whether  good  works 
could  be  done  beyond  the  requirements  of  the  divine  law.  Concerning 
the  Church  and  the  hierarchy,  the  definitions  of  the  Augsburg  Interim 
were  retained  ;  all  the  clergy  should  be  subject  and  obedient  to  the 
pope,  as  the  supreme  bishop,  and  to  other  bishops  who  discharged  their 
office  according  to  the  will  of  God,  to  edification  and  not  injuriously. 
The  seven  sacraments  were  recognized,  but  not  in-  the  Romish  sense  of 
them.  In  the  mass,  the  Latin  language  was  restored.  Saints'  images 
were  allowed,  but  not  to  be  worshipped,  and  also  the  festivals  of  Mary 
and  Corpus  Christi,  but  without  processions,  etc. 

8.  Resumption  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (1551). — In  Sept.,  1549,  Paul 
III.  dissolved  the  council  at  Bologna,  the  nullity  of  which  had  long 
been  apparent.  His  successor,  Julius  III.  (1550-55),  who  had  been 
elevated  by  the  imperial  party,  resolved  at  once  to  reopen  the  council 
at  Trent,  in  accordance  with  the  emperor's  desire.  The  Protestant 
States  declared  themselves  ready  to  take  part  in  it,  but  demanded  the 
reconsideration  of  its  previous  proceedings,  as  well  as  a  seat  and  vote 
fir  their  delegates.  These  demands  the  emperor  was  willing  to  grant, 
but  the  pope  and  prelates  demurred.  The  council  was  opened  on  May 
1,  1551,  with  the  discussion  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
Meanwhile,  the  Protestants  equipped  themselves  for  it  by  drawing  up 
new  confessions  of  faith  which  should  be  made  the  basis  of  their  trans- 
actions with  the  Council.  Melanchthon,  whose  courage  began  to  revive, 
prepared  the  Oonfessio  Saxonica  (or,  as  he  could  properly  call  it,  the 
Repetitio  Conf.  Augustanoe),  in  which  we  discover  no  further  trace  of 
the  vacillation  and  duplicity  of  the  Leipsic  Interim.  On  the  contrarv, 
the  true  doctrine  is  set  forth  positively  and  polemically,  with  firmness 
and  confidence,  though  in  moderate  and  conciliatory  terms.  Brenz, 
also,  who  had  so  far  remained  in  concealment,  drew  up  the  Wiirtemberg 
Confession,  by  direction  of  his  ruler,  Duke  Christopher.  Both  con- 
fessions were  subscribed,  likewise,  by  other  States.  The  first  Protest- 
ants arrived  in  Trent  in  Nov..  1551.  They  were  the  temporal  delegates 
of  Wiirtemberg  and  Strassburg.  In  Jan.,  1552,  the  delegates  of  elec« 
toral  Saxony.    On  Jan.  24,  they  presented  their  demands  to  the  Council, 


104       SECTION    III.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (CKNT.   16  A.D.), 

but  despite  the  support  of  the  imperial  commissary,  they  were  unable 
to  carry  them  through.  In  March,  the  theologians  of  Wiirtemberg 
and  Strassburg  arrived,  -with  Brcnz  at  their  head.  Melanchthon,  and 
two  Leipsic  preachers,  -were  on  the  'way.  Suddenly,  Maurice  put  an 
end  to  the  inextricable  perplexities  of  the  council. 

I  17.   THE   ELECTOR  MAURICE   AND   THE   PExYCE   OF 
AUGSBURG.     (1550-55). 

In  1550,  the  affairs  of  the  Reformation  were  in  a  worse  con- 
dition than  at  any  previous  time.  Bound  by  the  fetters  of  the 
Interim,  it  seemed  like  a  culprit  on  whom  sentence  of  death  was 
about  to  be  passed.  But  in  this  extremity  there  arose  a  man 
who  burst  the  fetters,  and  restored  strength  and  honor  to  the 
cause.  He  was  the  Elector  Maurice.  By  betraying  the  Pro- 
testant cause,  he  had  brought  it  to  the  verge  of  ruin  ;  by  trea- 
chery towards  the  emperor,  he  rescued  it.  The  treaty  of  Pansau 
guaranteed  full  religious  liberty  to  the  Protestant  States,  and 
equal  rights  with  the  Catholics,  until  a  new  council  could  be 
convened.  The  Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg  finally  removed 
this  restriction  also,  and  terminated  the  history  of  the  German 
Reformation. 

1.  The  State  of  Affairs  in  1550.  —  It  was  a  dark  and  perilous  period 
for  Germany.  The  emperor  had  reached  the  summit  of  his  power,  the 
end  of  all  his  desires  and  efforts.  He  now  openly  avowed  his  cherished 
plan  of  securing  to  his  son,  Don  Philip  of  Spain,  the  succession  in  his 
imperial  dignity.  In  the  affairs  of  the  empire  he  publicly  assumed 
autocratic  power,  regardless  of  the  rights  of  the  States.  In  violation 
of  treaties  and  capitulations,  he  retained  the  Spanish  troops,  who  daily 
became  more  exacting,  insolent,  and  oppressive.  Although  all  the 
conditions  were  long  fulfilled,  on  which  the  landgrave  was  promised 
freedom,  Charles  obstinately  refused  to  liberate  him.  Protestant  Ger- 
many was  groaning  under  bondage  to  the  Interim.  The  most  that 
could  be  expected  of  the  Council  was  the  confirmation  of  the  hated 
Interim  ;  and  even  this  was  uncertain.  But  one  bulwark  of  evangelical 
liberty  still  stood  in  the  emperor's  way,  the  enthusiasm  of  the  brave, 
outlawed  city  of  Magdeburg.  How  long  it  might  hold  out,  no  one 
knew.  Until  the  fall  of  1550,  all  attempts  to  storm  it  had  failed.  Then 
Maurice  undertook  to  execute  the  ban,  by  the  emperor's  direction,  and 
at  the  cost  of  the  empire. 

2.  The  Elector  Maurice  (1551).  —  Maurice  had  wholly  alienated  the 
hearts  of  his  subjects.  Man)-  of  his  Slates  were  directing  their  atten- 
tion to  his  brother  Augustus,  whilst  others  thought  of  a  restoration  of 
the  old  electoral  house.     Throughout  Protestant  Germany  he  was  re- 


THE     PEACE     OF     AUGSBURG.  105 

garded  with  aversion.  Had  the  smothered  hatred  exploded,  he  might 
easily  have  lost  Germany,  in  spite  of  imperial  aid.  On  the  other  hand, 
Maurice  was  still  too  much  of  a  German  and  Protestant  prince  to  give 
his  unconditional  approval  to  the  emperor's  dynastic  and  compromise 
measures,  whilst,  at  the  same  time,  he  was  personally  aggrieved  by 
the  continued  imprisonment  of  his  father-in-law.  Under  these  circum- 
stances he  resolved  to  make  amends,  by  treachery  against  the  emperor, 
for  the  wrong  he  had  done  by  treachery  against  his  evangelical  con- 
federates. Skilful  in  dissimulation,  he  vigorously  prosecuted  the  siege 
of  Magdeburg,  but  at  the  same  time  made  a  secret  compact  with  the 
Margrave  Hans  of  Klistrin,  Albert  of  Franconian-Brandenburg,  and  the 
sons  of  the  landgrave,  for  the  restoration  of  the  liberty  of  religion  and 
of  the  States.  He  also  opened  negotiations  with  Henry  II.  of  France, 
who  gladly  promised  pecuniary  aid.  At  length,  Magdeburg  capitulated, 
and  Maurice  entered  the  city  on  Nov.  4,  1551.  The  arrearages  still  due 
served  as  a  pretext  for  not  discharging  the  troops  of  the  empire,  and 
strengthened  by  the  possession  of  Magdeburg,  and  by  the  subsidies 
which  his  confederates  furnished,  he  threw  oif  the  mask,  and  issued 
public  proclamations,  in  which  he  set  forth  a  long  list  of  accusations 
and  complaints  against  the  emperor,  and  declared  that  he  would  no 
longer  submit  to  be  trampled  upon  by  priests  and  Spaniards.  All  the 
interests  of  the  emperor  were  once  more  at  stake.  In  vain  he  looked 
to  the  Catholic  princes  for  help.  Without  men  or  money,  he  was  shut 
up  in  Innspruck,  which  could  not  endure  a  siege,  and  every  way  of 
escape  to  his  hereditary  domains  seemed  closed  against  him  ;  for,  inde- 
pendently of  his  exposure  to  the  confederated  German  princes,  the 
Turks  were  watching  him  by  sea,  and  the  French  by  land.  Maurice 
was  on  his  way  to  Innspruck,  in  order,  as  he  irreverently  said,  "  to 
catch  the  fox  in  his  hole."  But  the  refractoriness  of  his  troops  de- 
manding their  pay,  detained  him,  and  Charles  gained  time  to  flee 
from  Innspruck.  During  a  cold  rainy  night,  suffering  with  severe 
illness,  he  fled  over  the  mountains  covered  with  snow,  and  found  refuge 
in  Villach.  Three  days  later,  Maurice  entered  Innspruck  ; — the  council 
had  long  been  scattered. 

3.  The  Treaty  of  Passau  (1552).  —  Before  the  flight  of  the  emperor 
from  Innspruck,  Maurice  had  met  King  Ferdinand  at  Linz.  He  there 
demanded,  not  only  the  liberation  of  the  landgrave,  but  also  the  abro- 
gation of  the  Interim,  a  German  national  assembly  for  the  purpose  of 
effecting  religious  union,  and,  in  case  this  could  not  be  brought  about, 
permanent  and  unconditional  religious  liberty.  Ferdinand  was  not 
averse  to  these  demands,  but  the  emperor,  in  spite  of  his  embarrassment, 
indignantly  rejected  them.  The  negotiations  at  Linz,  therefore,  failed  ; 
but  their  early  resumption  at  Passau  was  agreed  upon.  Meanwhile  the 
flight  of  Charles  from  Innspruck,  and  the  entrance  of  Maurice  into  the 
city,  occurred.  At  the  appointed  time,  delegates  from  most  of  the  States 
arrived  at  Passau.    The  Protestants  had  once  more  a  decided  majority, 


106       SECTION    III. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

and  the  Catholic  States,  by  no  moans  favorable  to  the  dynastic  schemes 
of  the  emperor,  were  more  yielding  than  ever.     Maurice  resumed  his 
Linz  demands,  and  the  States  in  the  main  assented  to  them.     Ferdi- 
nand, also,   agreed  to  them ;  but  not  the  emperor.     Ferdinand  went 
personally  to  Villach,  and  used  all  his  eloquence  to  persuade  Charles ; 
but  in  regard  to  the  chief  point,  the  demand  of  a  permanent,  uncondi- 
tional peace,  even  if  the  States  should  succeed  in  establishing  religious 
concord,  the  emperor  would  not  yield.     Ferdinand  had  to  return  to 
Passau  without  having  accomplished  his  purpose,  and  the  perseverance 
of  Charles  triumphed.    The  majority  bowed  to  his  firmness,  and  a  treaty 
was  concluded,  which   secured  to  the  Protestants  complete  amnesty, 
universal  peace,  and  equal  rights,  until  a  national  assembly  or  general 
council  could  be  held,  to  effect  a  religious  union.     Provision  for  such  a 
council  or  assembly  was  to  be  made  by  the  next  diet.    In  the  meantime 
the  emperor  had  made. great  preparations  for  war.     Frankford  was  the 
place  of  rendezvous.  Maurice  hastened  to  the  city,  and  besieged  it,  but 
a  sally  of  the  besieged  inflicted  a  heavy  loss  upon  him,  and  a  speedy 
conquest  of  the  city  was  out  of  the  question.     At  this  juncture  the 
Passau  delegates  arrived  in  his  camp  with  the  projected  treaty.     Had 
he  refused  to  sign  it,  he  would  doubtless  have  been  put  under  the  ban, 
and  his  relative  restored  to  the  electoral  dignity.     He  therefore  signed 
it.    Ferdinand  had  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  the  emperor's  signature, 
who  now  thought  himself  able  to  maintain  the  conflict.     The  captive 
princes  were  thus,  at  length,  set  at  liberty,  and  preachers  who  had 
been  banished  by  the  Interim  returned  to  their  homes. 

4.  The  Death  of  Maurice  (1553).— Domestic  and  foreign  disturbances 
occurred  the  following  years.  Of  chief  moment  was  the  death  of  the 
Elector  Maurice,  whilst  involved  in  a  contest  with  his  early  friend  and 
confederate,  the  Margrave  Albert  of  Brand 'en burg,  the.son  of  the  Mar- 
grave Casimir.  Although  a  Protestant,  Albert  had  stood  with  Maurice, 
in  the  Smalcald  war,  on  the  emperor's  side;  with  Maurice  he  also  took 
part  in  opposition  to  the  emperor.  Whilst  Maurice  attacked  Charles 
personally.  Albert  laid  the  spiritual  principalities  and  Sees  under  tri- 
bute, and"  compelled  them  to  make  the  most  disadvantageous  treaties. 
After  the  treaty  of  Passau,  which  he  did  not  sign,  he  continued  the 
war  against  the  spiritual  princes  on  his  own  responsibility.  Thus  lie 
fell  out  with  Maurice.  But  Charles  enlisted  his  services,  and  n.it  only 
granted  him  full  amnesty  for  all  his  pillages  and  infractions  of  the 
peace  of  the  country,  but  even  promised  the  recognition  of  all  the 
treaties  which  had  been  forced  from  the  bishops.  In  return,  Albert 
assisted  the  emperor  against  the  French,  and  then,  on  his  own  respon- 
sibility, prosecuted  his  invasions  of  German  territories.  Ere  Ions;  he 
and  Maurice  were  involved  in  an  open  war.  In  the  battle  of  Sievers- 
hausen,  .Inly  11.  1553,  Maurice  gained  a  brilliant  victory,  but  also 
received  a  fatal  wound,  of  which  he  died  after  two  days.  Albert  fled 
to  France.     Hin  misfortune  suijdued  his  warlike  spirit;  the  religious 


THE     PEACE     OF     AUGSBURG.  107 

impressions  of  his  youth  revived  ;  and  the  composition  of  the  beautiful 
nymn :  "  Was  mein  Gott  will,  das  gescheh  allzeit,"  exhibits  the  great 
change  which  now  took  place  in  him.  He  died  in  1557.  The  year  1554 
was  wholly  occupied  with  the  gradual  settlement  of  the  internal  dis- 
tractions of  the  empire.  There  was  a  predominant  desire  for  final  and 
permanent  peace.  In  the  dissensions  of  the  last  year,  Protestants  and 
Catholics  were  leagued  together  on  both  sides.  In  this  way  Maurice 
and  Henry  of  Brunswick  were  closely  united,  and  the  latter  now  volun- 
tarily tolerated  Protestantism  in  his  territory. 

5.  The  Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg  (1555).  (Cf.  LeJimann,  Acta 
publ.  de  pace  rel.  d.  i.  Reichverhandll.  u.  Protokk.  d.  Rel.  Fr.  Frkf. 
1707-9,  fob—  G.  Litzel,  Gesch.  d.  Rel.  Fr.  Frkf.  1755,  4to.  —  Clir.  W. 
Spieker,  Gesch.  d.  A.  Rel.  Fr.  Schleiz,  1854.) — It  happened,  fortunately 
for  Protestantism,  that  the  next  diet,  which  by  the  treaty  of  Passau 
should  have  been  held  within  a  half  year,  did  not  convene  for  two  and 
a  half  years ;  for  the  intervening  political  distractions  and  embarrass- 
ments so  far  mellowed  the  temper  of  Charles,  that  he  consented  to 
what  he  had  no  power  to  alter.  The  diet  of  Augsburg  was  opened  in 
Feb.,  1555.  The  emperor  could  not  shut  his  eyes  against  the  fact  that 
the  aim  and  results  of  all  his  past  endeavors  were  about  to  perish  ;  but 
his  pride  and  his  conscience  would  not  allow  him  personally  to  approve 
and  sancti  fa  what  was  unavoidable.  He  therefore  disclaimed  all  par- 
ticipation in  the  transactions  —  his  brother  might  see  to  it,  how  to  re- 
concile his  course  with  his  conscience,  and  settle  the  matter  with  his 
States.  After  a  long  and  violent  struggle,  the  Protestants  carried  the 
point  of  having  the  subject  of  a  religious  peace  first  taken  up.  Then 
followed  a  controversy  about  the  official  designation  of  both  parties. 
The  Protestants  had  to  allow  their  opponents  to  be  styled — adherents 
of  the  ancient  Catholic  religion:  themselves — adherents.-  of the  Augsburg 
confession.  The  decree  of  perpetual,  unconditional  religious  peace, 
then  passed  the  electoral  college  without  difficulty ;  but  in  the  council 
of  the  princes  it  met  with  violent  opposition.  There  the  papal  legate 
Morrone  (?  15,  2),  unexpectedly  made  fanatical  use  of  his  influence, 
and  Otto  v.  Tnichsess,  Bishop  of  Augsburg,  solemnly  declared  that  he 
could  consent  to  no  part  of  the  plan  proposed,  and  affirmed  that  he 
would  rather  forfeit  property  and  life  than  take  part  in  such  negotia- 
tions. This  firmness  made  a  great  impression  upon  the  Catholic  States ; 
but  the  Protestants,  also,  united  more  closely,  and  refused  to  yield. 
Ferdinand  inclined  to  their  side.  Nevertheless,  the  severest  conflict 
was  yet  to  be  passed  through,  and  it  might  even  result  in  the  hostile 
dissolution  of  the  diet.  Then  the  condition  of  affairs  suddenly  changed. 
Julius  III.  died.  Morrone  and  Tnichsess,  both  cardinals,  hastened  to 
Rome,  to  take  part  in  the  election  of  a  new  pope.  Thus  the  power  of 
the  fanatical  papal  opposition  was  broken  in  the  diet.  The  plan  of  a 
peace  was  now  carried  ;  but  new  disputes  arose  concerning  the  details 
of  the  peace.     The  Protestant  States  demanded  that  all  should  enjoy 


108       SECTION    III. — FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.) 

its  advantages  who,  in  the  future,  might  embrace  their  confession.  In 
the  electoral  college  Cologne  opposed  this,  but  Treves  turned  the  scale 
in  favor  of  the  demand.  In  the  council  of  the  princes  the  demand 
aroused  a  new  storm.  Finally,  they  united  upon  the  simple,  general 
statement,  that  "  no  one  should  be  assailed  for  adhering  to  the  Augs- 
burg confession."  But  the  contest  about  this  question  merely  formed 
the  transition  to  another  of  infinitely  greater  importance,  as  to  what 
should  be  done,  if,  in  future,  spiritual  princes  themselves  should  join 
that  confession.  This  was  the  proper  life-question  of  German  Catho- 
licism ;  to  decide  that,  as  the  Protestants  desired,  would  have  dealt  a 
death-blow  to  it.  This  the  spiritual  States  full  well  understood,  and 
struggled  pro  aris  et  focis.  They  urged  the  claims  of  the  reservatum 
ecclesiasticum,  by  which  every  defecting  prelate  lost  not  only  his  eccle- 
siastical dignity  and  prerogatives,  but  also,  unavoidably,  his  temporal 
power  and  dominion.  In  this  instance,  the  Protestants  did  not  carry 
their  point,  not  even  in  the  electoral  college.  Daniel  Brendel  had  just 
been  appointed  successor  of  the  recently  deceased  Heuxeiistamm,  as 
Archbishop  of  Maycnce,  which,  thus  far,  had  always  voted  for  the  Pro- 
testants, and  Brendel  had  now  to  act  with  reference  to  the  pope's  con- 
firmation of  his  appointment.  Both  parties  were  obstinate.  Two 
opposite  drafts  were  submitted  to  Ferdinand,  who  hesitated  to  decide. 
Meanwhile,  the  States  proceeded  to  ths  consideration  of  the  peace  of 
the  country.  This  brought  up  the  affairs  of  the  imperial  chamber. 
The  Protestants  obtained  an  enactment,  requiring  associate  members 
to  be  sworn  to  maintain  the  Religious  Peace,  and  to  be  selected  equally 
from  both  parties.  At  length,  on  Aug.  30,  Ferdinand  reported  his 
decision.  It  was  to  be  expected  that  he  would  support  the  opinion  of 
the  Catholic  States  in  regard  to  ecclesiastical  reservations  ;  but  con- 
trary to  all  expectation,  he  wont  still  further,  and  refused  to  confirm  a 
perpetual  unconditional  peace.  But,  in  regard  to  the  latter  point,  he 
was  evidently  not  in  earnest.  On  Sept.  6,  he  declared  himself  ready 
to  yield,  provided  the  Protestants  would  do  the  same  in  regard  to  eccle- 
siastical reservations.  His  affirmation  that  he  would  never  give  that 
up,  was  so  decided  and  solemn,  that  the  Protestants  abandoned  all 
hope  of  changing  his  mind.  But  they  determined  to  sell  their  conces- 
sion as  dearly  as  possible,  by  requiring  legislative  assurance  that 
evangelical  subjects  of  Catholic  States  should  be  forever  protected  in 
the  free  enjoyment  of  their  religion.  But  the  Catholic  prelates  were 
unwilling  to  surrender  the  advantages  of  the  territorial  system  v\hich 
the  Protestants  themselves  had  introduced  (g  6,  7).  The  subject  led  to 
the  most  violent  debates,  and  the  excitement  hourly  increased.  Ferdi- 
nand settled  the  dispute  by  a  medium  measure.  It  was  decided  that  in 
matters  of  religion  the  States  should  have  territorial  power,  but  that 
subjects  of  a  different  faith,  if  refused  the  free  enjoyment  of  their  reli- 
gion, should  be  allowed  to  leave  the  territory  without  impediment,  or 
loss  of  h<rior,  property,  or  liberty.     On  Sept.  25,  1555,  the  recess  was 


REFORMATION     IN     FRENCH     SWITZERLAND.       109 

published.  The  hope  of  effecting  a  reconciliation  in  religious  matters 
at  some  future  time  was  by  no  means  abandoned,  but  the  Religious 
Peace  was  not  made  contingent  thereon.  The  maintenance  of  the  peace 
was  devolved  upon  the  Corpus  Catholicorum  et  Evangelicorum.  The 
Reformed  were  not  admitted  to  the  Peace.  In  Germany,  the  political 
strength  and  extent  of  the  Protestant  and  Catholic  Churches  were 
almost  equal.  Over  against  the  three  spiritual  electors  of  Cologne, 
Mayence,  and  Treves,  stood  the  three  Protestant  electors  of  Saxony, 
the  Palatinate,  and  Brandenburg ;  and  the  power  of  the  Protestant 
cities  of  the  empire,  as  well  as  of  most  of  the  smaller  princes,  nearly 
balanced  that  of  Austria  and  Bavaria. 

6.  Second  Attempt  to  introduce  the  Reformation  into  the  Electorate  of 
Cologne  (1582).  —  Ecclesiastical  reservation  was  a  mighty  obstacle  tc 
the  progress  of  Protestantism  ;  in  fact  it  prevented  its  further  territo- 
rial spread.  The  only  attempt  made  to  extend  it,  failed.  In  1582, 
Gebhard  Truchsess,  of  Waldenberg,  the  Archbishop  and  Elector  of 
Cologne,  joined  the  Protestant  Church,  married  the  Countess  Agues  of 
Mansfield,  proclaimed  unqualified  religious  liberty,  and  intended  to 
convert  his  spiritual  into  a  temporal  electorate.  His  plan  was  highly 
approved  by  the  people  and  the  nobility,  but  the  cathedral  chapter 
opposed  it  with  all  its  might.  The  pope  fulminated  a  ban  against  him, 
and  the  Emperor,  Rudolph  II.,  declared  him  deposed.  The  Protestant 
princes  ultimately  deserted  him,  and  the  newly  elected  Archbishop, 
Duke  Ernest  of  Bavaria,  overcame  him  by  force  of  arms  (1584).  The 
issue  of  Gebhard's  attempt  deterred  several  other  spiritual  princes  wlio 
had  contemplated  a  similar  movement.     (Cf.  $  31,  2.) 

I  18.  THE  REFORMATION  IN  FRENCH  SWITZERLAND. 

Cf.  G.  Weber,  gesch.  Darst.  d.  Calvinism,  im  Verh'altniss  zum  Staate 
in  Genf.  u.  Frankr.     Heidelb.  1836. 

The  Reformation  penetrated  French  Switzerland  somewhat 
later  than  German  Switzerland,  and  assumed  a  peculiar  form. 
It  is  primarily  associated  with  the  names  of  Farel  and  Viret, 
the  forerunners  of  Calvin,  who  completed  its  organization. 
Calvin's  powerful  mind  gained,  for  the  system  he  adopted,  a 
victory  over  Zwinglianism  in  Switzerland,  in  his  lifetime  already, 
and  from  Switzerland  it  spread  triumphantly  through  the  Re- 
formed Churches  of  other  countries. 

1.  Calvin's  Forerunners.  (Cf.  M.  Kirchhofer,  Farel's  Lebon.  Ziir. 
1831,  2  Bde. —  Ch.  Schmidt,  Etudes  sur  Farel.  Strassb.  1836. —  Chene- 
viire,  Farel,  Froment,  Viret.  Strassb.  1836. — Jaqucmot,  Viret,  reforma- 
teur  de  Lausanne.  Strassb.  1836. —  [Schmidt,  Farel  u.  Viret,  in  the, 
Leben,  etc.,  d.  Vater,  etc.,  d.  Ref.  K.  Elberf.  I860].)—  William  Farel 
53 


110      SECTION    III.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.  16    A.  D.). 

a  pupil  and  friend  of  the  liberal  exegete  and  critic  Faber  Stapulensia, 
(vol.  i.  £  120,  4),  was  born  at  Gap,  Dauphine,  in  1 IS2.  When  the  Sor- 
bonne,  in  1521,  condemned  Luther's  doctrines  and  writings,  Farel,  who 
was  known  as  a  zealous  adherent  of  Luther,  had  to  leave  Paris.  II" 
withdrew  to  Meaux,  Avhere  Bishop  Briqonnet  kindly  received  him,  and 
where  he,  and  his  friend  Le  Clerc,  founded  a  Reformed  congregation. 
But,  in  1523,  the  authorities  took  measures  against  the  movement. 
Farel  fled  to  Basel,  where  he  labored  as  a  champion  of  reform  (§  10,  3). 
Next  he  went  to  Montbeliard.  His  reckless  zeal  often  endangered  his 
life.  At  length  he  had  to  flee.  He  first  gained  a  firm  footing  in  Neuf- 
chatel,  where  he  succeeded  in  getting  the  Reformation  introduced  in 
Nov.,  1530.  In  1532,  he  left  Neufchatel  to  labor  in  Geneva.  But  the 
civil  authorities  of  the  city  could  not  protect  him  against  the  power  of 
the  bishop  and  clergy.  He  had  to  leave  the  city,  and  Anthony  Fro- 
mad  and  Robert  Olivetanus  carried  on  the  work.  Violent  agitations 
followed,  the  bishop  withdrew,  and  fulminated  the  ban  against  the 
rebellious  metropolis.  Farel  then  returned  to  Geneva  (1534),  accom- 
panied by  Peter  Viret,  the  subsequent  reformer  of  Lausanne.  Viret 
was  born  at  Orbe,  in  1511,  and  during  his  studies  at  Paris  had  imbibed 
the  principles  of  the  Reformation.  On  this  account  he  too  had  to  slum 
Paris.  He  went  to  Orbe,  and  toiled  zealously  there  for  the  spread  of 
evangelical  knowledge.  There  Farel  learned  to  know  him.  The  arrival 
of  both  these  reformers,  glowing  with  zeal,  caused  a  struggle  for  life 
in  Geneva,  in  which  the  Reformation  triumphed.  After  a  public  dis- 
putation in  1535,  the  magistracy  declared  itself  in  favor  of  the  new 
cause,  to  which  Farel  imparted  doctrinal  firmness  by  preparing  a  con- 
fession of  faith.  In  1530,  Calvin  passed  through  Geneva.  Farel  adjured 
him  in  the  name  of  God  to  remain.  Indeed  Farel  needed  a  co-laborer 
of  Calvin's  spirit  and  power,  for  severe  struggles  still  awaited  them. 

2.  Calvin  prior  to  his  Labors  in  Geneva.  (Cf.  Theod.  de  Blze,  hist, 
de  la  vie  et  mort  de  J.  Calvin.  Gen.  15G4,  4to.) — (In  opposition  a  libel 
by  Bolsec,  hist,  de  la  vie  de  Calv.  Par.  1577).  P.  Henry  Leb.  Calv. 
Ilamb.,  1836-45,  4  Bde.  [transl.  by  Stebbing,  N.  York,  1854].  —  J.  ./. 
Herzog,  J.  Calv.  eine  biogr.  Skizze.  Bas.  1843. — J.  M.  Audin  (Catholic), 
Gesch.  d.  Leb.  d.  Lehre  u.  Schriften  Calvin's,  aus  d.  Franz,  v.  Egger, 
Augsb.,  1843.) — John  Calvin,  a  son  of  the  episcopal  procureur  Gerard 
Caulvin,  was  born,  1509,  in  Noyon,  Picardy.  Intended  for  the  priest- 
hood, lie  held  a  benefice  so  early  as  his  twelfth  year.  Intercourse  with 
his  relative,  Bob.  Olivctan,  awakened  doubts  in  his  mind  as  to  the 
truth  of  the  Catholic  system.  This,  together  with  a  special  preference 
for  politics,  led  him  to  relinquish  his  benefice,  and  engage  in  the  study 
of  law,  which  he  prosecuted  at  Orleans  and  Bourges  with  zealous  assi- 
duity. In  Bourges,  however,  a  German,  Melchioy  II ' dinar,  professor 
of  Greek,  exerted  so  powerful  an  influence  upon  him,  especially  through 
the  study  >f  the  Scriptures,  that  he  resolved  thenceforth  to  devote  him- 
self exclusively  to  theology.    To  this  end  he  went  to  Paris,  1532     There 


REFORMATION     IN     FRENCH     SWITZERLAND.      Ill 

he  zealously  embraced  the  principles  of  the  Reformation.  A  remark- 
able occurrence  soon  caused  his  hasty  departure  from  the  city.  The 
recently  appointed  reotor  of  the  Sorbonne,  Nicliolas  Cop,  had,  accord- 
ing to  custom,  to  deliver  a  discourse  on  All-Saint's  day,  1533.  Calvin 
wrote  it  for  him,  and  gave  utterance  to  views  which  had  never  before 
been  preached  there.  Cop  read  it  all,  and  escaped  imprisonment  by 
timely  flight.  Calvin  also  found  it  advisable  to  leave  Paris.  The 
bloody  persecutions  of  Protestants  under  Francis  I.  led  Calvin,  at 
length,  to  resolve  to  leave  France.  In  1535,  he  went  to  Basel,  where 
he  became  intimate  with  Capito  and  Grynasus.  During  the  same  year 
he  issued  the  first  edition  of  his  Institutio  llelig.  Christianse.  It  was 
designed  as  a  vindication  of  the  Protestants  in  France,  whom  Francis  I. 
was  persecuting,  under  the  pretence  of  quelling  Anabaptist  and  insur- 
rectionary movements  ;  hence  it  was  dedicated  to  the  king  in  an  earnest 
and  candid  preface.  Not  long  afterwards  he  left  Basel,  and  went  to  the 
court  of  the  Duchess  Renata  of  Ferrara,  a  sister-in-law  of  the  French 
king,  and  a  warm  friend  of  the  Reformation,  to  solicit  her  interference 
on  behalf  of  his  oppressed  brethren.  But  having  failed  in  this  attempt, 
he  set  out  on  his  return.  In  Geneva,  Farel  and  Viret  detained  him 
(1536),  and  succeeded  in  having  him  appointed  preacher  and  teacher 
of  theology.  On  Oct.  1,  1536,  the  three  reformers,  in  a  public  disputa- 
tion at  Lausanne,  vindicated  the  principles  of  the  Reformation.  Viret 
remained  in  Lausanne,  and  completed  the  work  of  the  Reformation 
there. 

3.  Calvin's  First  Period  of  Labor  in  Geneva  (1536-38). — In  Geneva, 
as  elsewhere,  there  sprung  up  a  movement  simultaneously  with  the  Re- 
formation, and  in  opposition  to  it,  which  aimed  at  tearing  down  existing 
institutions,  and  emancipating  itself  from  all  law  and  order.  The  doc- 
trines of  these  Geneva  Spirituels  and  Libertins  were  thoroughly  pan- 
theistic ;  they  made  God  and  man  identical,  sin  a  mere  conceit,  marriage 
a  hateful  infringement  on  personal  liberty,  the  Scriptures  nothing,  and 
the  so-called  spirit  everything.  In  his  conflict  with  this  dangerous 
narty,  which  found  much  favor  with  the  aristocratic  youth  of  Geneva, 
Calvin  displayed  the  full  power  of  his  consistent  and  determined  mind, 
and  he  sought  to  subdue  it  by  an  inexorably  severe  Church  discipline. 
He  instituted  an  ecclesiastical  consistory,  which  had  the  power  of  in- 
flicting heavy  civil  penalties,  as  well  as  of  excommunication.  This  not 
only  roused  the  Libertine  party  to  violent  opposition,  but  excited  the 
jealousy  of  the  magistrates.  Both  conspired  for  the  overthrow  of  the 
consistory,  which  placed  the  city  under  ban  and  interdict.  The  magis- 
trates banished  the  preachers  (April,  1538).  Farel  went  to  Neufchatel, 
and  remained  there  until  his  death  (1565).  Calvin  went  to  Strassburg, 
where  Bucer,  Capito,  and  Hedio  procured  him  a  post  as  professor  and 
preacher.  During  his  three  years'  residence  there,  he  often  officiated 
as  the  delegate  of  Strassburg,  and  was  thus  brought  into  intimate  re 
lations   with   the   German   reformers,    especially  with    Melauchthon 


112   SECTION  III.  —  FIRST  PERIOD  (CENT.  16  A.  D.). 

(Frankford,  Hagenau,  Worms,  and  Regensburg  (Cf.  §  14,  15).  Bi  he 
still  kept  up  close  correspondence  with  Geneva,  and  his  friends  then 
did  all  in  their  power  to  turn  the  minds  of  the  council  and  citizens  in 
his  favor.  In  this  they  found  it  easier  to  succeed,  as  the  Libertino 
party  had  carried  its  disorders  to  the  furthest  extreme  since  the  over- 
throw of  the  theocratic  consistory.  By  a  decree  of  the  council,  Oct.  20, 
1540,  Calvin  was  most  honorably  recalled.  After  protracted  considera- 
tion he  returned  in  Sept.,  1541,  and  now  prosecuted  his  work,  with  in- 
creased vigor  and  energy,  to  its  legitimate  completion. 

4.  Calvin's  Second  Residence  in  Geneva  (1541-64).  —  Immediately 
after  his  return,  Calvin  restored  the  consistory,  and  through  it  exer- 
cised almost  unlimited  authority.  It  was  a  thoroughly  organized  in- 
quisitorial tribunal,  which  kept  strict  watch  over  the  moral  and  reli- 
gious conduct  of  the  citizens,  called  them  to  account  for  every  suspicious 
expression,  banished  the  incorrigible,  and  put  dangerous  persons  to 
death.  The  Ciceronian  translator  of  the  Bible,  Sebastian  Castellio, 
promoted  by  Calvin  to  the  rectorship  of  the  Genevan  school,  fell  out 
with  the  severe  moral  discipline  and  the  rigidhy  maintained  orthodoxy 
of  the  Calvinistic  rule,  charged  the  clergy  with  arrogance  and  pride, 
and  controverted,  in  Pelagian  style,  the  doctrine  of  predestination. 
Calvin  assailed  him  with  such  violence,  that  Castellio  thought  it  prudent 
to  get  out  of  the  way  of  further  proceedings,  by  fleeing  to  Basel.  A 
Genevan  physician,  Jerome  Bolsec  (previously  a  Carmelite  monk  in 
Paris),  was  put  in  prison  for  speaking  rather  freely  of  Calvin's  doctrine 
of  predestination,  and  then  banished  (1551).  Subsequently  he  avenged 
himself  by  writing  a  biography  of  Calvin,  which  teemed  with  bitter 
invectives.  Michael  Serve! 'us  ($  28,  2),  a  Spaniard,  fared  still  worse,  for 
denying  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  Bucer,  Melanchthon,  and  Beza, 
approved  of  his  execution.  Calvin  died,  May  25, 1564,  and  committed  the 
prosecution  of  his  work  to  his  milder  friend,  Theodore  Beza  (died  1605), 
the  learned  critic,  translator,  and  expounder  of  the  New  Testament. 

5.  Calvin's  Works. — Of  the  numerous  works  of  Calvin,  the  Institutio 
christ.  relig.  is  the  most  important;  it  corresponds  with  Melanchthon's 
loci,  but  is  more  complete  in  its  formal  scientific  construction  (1535). 
It  exhibits  Calvin's  religious  depth  of  thought,  the  speculative  power 
and  copiousness  of  his  mind,  the  bold  consistency  of  his  thoughts  in 
pursuing  a  theory  to  its  last  results,  combined  with  a  clear  and  beauti- 
ful style,  and  surprising  massiveness  of  conception.  Next  to  the  Insti- 
tutes, his  expositions  of  nearly  all  the  books  of  the  Bible  are  most  dis- 
tinguished. In  these,  also,  he  proves  himself  to  be  a  man  of  brilliant 
acuteness,  religious  geniality,  profound  Christian  sentiment,  and  con- 
siderable exegetical  talent;  but,  at  the  same  time,  he  betrays  a  hyper- 
critical disposition,  and  a  defiant  adherence  to  doctrinal  prejudices. 
Moreover,  we  do  not  find  in  his  exegetical  works  the  genial  warmth 
and  childlike  devotion  to  the  text,  which  so  eminently  distinguished 


REFORMATION     IN     FRENCH     SWITZER1AND.       113 

Lather,  whilst  they  are  formally  more  scientific  and  pregnant.  On  the 
pulpit,  Calvin  was  the  same  strict  and  consistent  logician,  as  in  his 
theological  and  polemic  writings.  He  had  not  a  particle  of  Luther's 
popular  eloquence.  The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  of  Amster- 
dam, in  0  folio  volumes. 

6.  Calvin's  Doctrinal  System. —  Calvin  thought  Zwingli  far  inferior 
to  Luther,  and  did  not  hesitate  to  pronounce  the  doctrine  of  the  former 
concerning  the  Lord's  Supper,  profane.  He  never  stood  in  any  close 
personal  relation  with  Luther  (who  highly  esteemed  him),  but  was  in- 
timate with  Melanchthon,  and  exerted  some  influence  over  him.  Far 
as  he  surpassed  Zwingli  in  religious  depth  and  fervor,  and  decidedly  as 
his  views  approximated  those  of  Luther,  he  stood,  in  the  fundamental 
principle  of  his  system,  on  the  same  basis  with  Zwingli,  and  not  with 
Luther.  Fundamentally,  he  sustains  the  same  relation  as  Zwingli  to 
the  principles  of  the  Reformation.  His  expositions  of  the  Scriptures 
are  incomparably  more  profound  than  Zwingli's,  and  often  more  tho- 
rough, acute,  and  scientific  than  Luther's  ;  but  he  could  not  enter  into 
the  inmost  sense  of  the  text  with  the  childlike  freedom  from  prejudice 
and  simplicity  of  Luther,  and  exhibit  its  meaning  with  the  same  bold- 
ness and  ease.  He  was  as  decidedly  hostile  to  ecclesiastical  tradition 
as  Zwingli.  On  the  doctrine  of  the  person  of  Christ,  he,  like  Zwingli, 
inclined  to  Nestorianism,  and  therefore  could  not  apprehend  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  the  fullness  of  Luther's  faith.  He  taught, 
as  Berengar  had  done  previously,  that  the  believer  was,  through  faith, 
fed  only  spiritually,  but  in  a  real  way,  by  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ 
in  the  supper  (through  a  virtue  issuing  from  the  glorified  body  of 
Christ,  seated  at  the  right  hand  of  God),  but  that  unbelievers  receive 
mere  bread  and  wine.  In  regard  to  justification,  he  agreed  formally 
with  Luther,  but  differed  fundamentally  in  maintaining  a  rigid  legality, 
almost  like  that  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  inexorable  consistency 
with  which  he  carried  out  his  views  of  predestination,  made  them  ex- 
ceed Augustine's  doctrine  in  inflexible'rigidity  and  severity. 

7.  Triumph  of  Calvinism  over  Zwinglianism. — After  Zwingli's  death, 
Henr;/  Bullinger  stood  at  the  head  of  the  clergy  of  Zurich.  Calvin 
opened  a  theological  correspondence  with  him,  and  they  soon  came  to 
a  mutual  understanding  with  regard  to  their  views.  In  the  Consensus 
Tigurinus  (1549),  prepared  by  Calvin,  German  Switzerland  embraced 
Calvin's  view  of  the  Lord's  Supper ;  and  by  the  Consensus  Genevensis 
(1554),  his  doctrine  of  predestination  secured  a  victory.  By  means  of 
extensive  correspondence,  and  his  numerous  works,  his  influence  reached 
far  beyond  the  limits  of  Switzerland.  Geneva  became  the  refuge  of  all 
religious  fugitives;  and  the  university  which  Calvin  founded  there, 
furnished  almost  all  foreign  Eeformed  congregations  with  pastors 
trained  in  the  strictly  Calvinistic  spirit.  The  Second  Helvetic  Confes- 
sion (Conf  Helv.  posterior),  prepared  in  Zurich  by  Bullinger,  at  the 

53* 


114       SECTION    III. — FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A    D.). 

request  of  Frederic,  III.  of  the  Palatinate,  by  far  the  most  important 
of  all  the  Reformed  confessions,*  was  published  in  1566,  was  acknow- 
ledged by  all  the  Reformed  countries  (last  of  all  by  Basel),  and  is  de- 
cidedly Calvinistic. 

§  19.  THE  REFORMATION  IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES. 

A  religious  movement  so  powerful  as  the  Reformation,  could 
not  be  confined  to  the  countries  in  which  it  originated  (Germany 
and  Switzerland).  Its  mighty  waves  soon  rolled  beyond  the 
parent  countries,  and  spread  to  the  utmost  boundaries  of  Europe. 
And  the  conscious  or  unconscious  sense  of  the  need  of  ecclesias- 
tical improvement  was  so  deep  and  general,  that  the  movement 
was  everywhere  welcomed.  Opposition  was,  indeed,  also  made 
to  it  on  all  sides,  but  it  is  indubitably  certain,  that  it  would  have 
triumphed,  even  to  the  remotest  corners  of  Europe,  if  the  contest 
had  been  conducted  on  that  field  alone,  where  all  such  contests 
should  be  settled,  and  with  those  weapons  which  alone  should  be 
employed.  But  the  champions  of  the  Catholic  Church  checked 
the  steady  progress  of  the  Reformation  by  means  of  armies, 
stakes,  and  scaffolds,  and  thus  succeeded  in  wholly  suppressing 
the  cause  in  some  countries,  and  in  having  it  restricted  in  others 
to  the  limits  of  a  merely  tolerated  sect.  In  general,  the  German 
Lutheran  confession  was  received  with  more  favor  in  the  North-, 
the  Swiss  reformed  in  the  South  and  West ;  the  former  prevailed 
in  Scandinavian,  the  latter  in  Roman  countries ;  whilst  both  wen- 
received,  side  b}r  side,  by  Slavonians  and  Magyars.  That  Luther- 
anism,  which  first  struck  root  in  Roman  countries  also,  was  sub- 
sequently supplanted  by  the  Reformed  faith,  was  owing  to  various 
external  causes.  The  first  of  these  was  the  powerful  ascendency 
and  wide-spread  influence  acquired  by  Geneva  through  Calvin's 
illustrious  labors,  by  its  active  intercourse  with  other  countries, 
through  countless  fugitives,  travellers,  and  students,  and  partly, 
also,  by  affinity  of  language  and  nationality,  geographical  proxi- 
mity (at  least  in  the  case  of  France  and  Italy),  etc.  But  these 
external  reasons  furnish  only  a  partial  explanation  of  the  fact, 
indeed  they  indicate,  already,  the  existence  of  internal  causes. 


":  This  is  one  among  several  misstatements  concerning  the  Reformed  Church, 
to  which  tin-  author's  strong  Lutheran  prejudices  have  betrayed  him.     The  Hci- 

delbirg  {Jatrchiim  (g  2  1,  1:.  published  three  years  before  (1563),  has  the  preemi. 

Deuce  even  over  the  Helvetic  Confession.  —  Tit. 


REFORMATION     IN     OTHER     COUNTRIES.  115 

A  nd  these  lie,  as  it  seems,  in  the  fact  that  their  national  pecu- 
•iarities  were  more  strongly  attracted  by  the  Genevan  than  the 
"Wittenberg  plan  and  method  of  effecting  a  Reformation.  Two 
things  especially  led  to  this  :  the  tendency  of  the  Romanic  na- 
tional character  to  extremes,  which  found  fuller  satisfaction  in 
the  more  thorough  and  radical  measures  of  the  Genevan  Refor- 
mation, than  in  the  more  moderate  and  mediating  cours  of 
the  Wittenbergers  ;  and  a  preference  for  a  democratic  repub- 
lican form  of  government,  which  the  former  favored. 

Beyond  the  German  confederated  States,  the  Lutheran  Re- 
formation first  took  root  (1525)  in  Prussia,  the  seat  of  the 
Teutonic  knights  (§  7,  3),  then  in  Scandinavian  domains.  It 
acquired  complete  and  exclusive  predominance  in  Siveden  (1527). 
Denmark  and  Norivay  (1537).  It  penetrated  the  countries  along 
the  Baltic  within  the  first  twenty  years.  In  Livonia  and  Estho- 
via,  all  opposition  was  overcome  as  early  as  1539.  In  Gourland, 
it  was  not  fully  organized  until  some  twenty  years  later.  The 
Reformed  Church  was  exclusively  established  in  England  (1562), 
Scotland  (1560),  and  in  the  Netherlands  (1579).  Mere  toleration 
was  secured  for  the  Reformed  Church  in  France  (1598),  for  the 
Reformed  and  Lutheran  Churches  in  Poland  (1573),  in  Bohemia 
and  Moravia  (1609),  in  Hungary  (1606),  and  in  Transylvania 
(1557).  In  Spain  and  Italy  alone  could  the  Catholic  Church 
completely  master  the  Reformed  movement.  A  few  attempts  to 
enlist  the  Greek  Church  in  favor  of  the  cause,  proved  fruitless 

1.  The  Reformation  in  Sweden.  (Cf.  J.  A.  Schinmeyer,  Lebensbeschr. 
d.  drei  schwed.  Reformatoren.  Llib.  1783. — P.  E.  Thyselius,  Einfuhr. 
d.  Ref.  in  Schw. ;  in  the  hist,  theol.  Ztschr.  184G.  II.)  —  Siveden  had 
freed  itself  of  the  Danish  yoke,  which,  for  fifty  years,  had  been  im- 
posed upon  it  by  the  Calmar  union  (1397).  But  the  higher  clergy  was 
constantly  conspiring  with  Denmark.  Gustavus  Trolle  had  an  open 
rapture  with  the  regent,  Sfen  Sture,  and  was  deposed.  Leo  X.  placed 
Sweden  under  ban  and  interdict,  and  Christian  II.  of  Denmark  sub- 
dued the  country  (1520),  and  during  the  coronation  ceremonies,  com- 
manded 600  of  the  first  men  of  Sweden,  whom  the  archbishop  had 
pointed  out  as  enemies  of  the  Danes,  to  be  executed  by  the  massacre 
of  Stockholm.  But  Christian  had  scarcely  reached  home,  when  Gus- 
tavus Vasa  returned  from  L'ubeck,  whither  he  had  fled,  drove  out  the 
Danes,  and  was  chosen  king  (1521).  During  his  exile,  indeed,  he  had 
become  inclined  to  the  Reformation  ;  he  now  adopted  it  as  a  confederate 
against  the  predominance  of  the  resisting  clergy.  Two  brothers,  Olaus 
and  Lawrence  Peterson,  who  had  studied  in  "Wittenberg,  had  labored 


116        SECTION   III. —  FIRST   PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

for  the  spread  of  evangelical  doctrines  in  their  native  country  sine* 
1519,  in  connection  with  Lawrence  Anderson,  episcopal  vicar  at  Streng 
n'as.     Gustavus  Vasa  appointed  Anderson  his  chancellor  ;  Olaus  was 
chosen  preacher  at   Stockholm  ;  his  brother,  professor  of  theology  at 
Upsala.    But  during  the  king's  absence  two  Anabaptists,  Melchior  Ring 
and  Knipperdolli'Hj  (g  13,  G),  arrived  in  Stockholm,  gained  adherents, 
and  began  to  tear  down  images,  altars,  and  organs.     Even  the  impetu- 
ous Olaus   allowed  himself  to  be  shaken  by  them.     Fortunately  the 
king  soon  returned,  and  by  energetic  measures  speedily  put  an  end  to 
the  disorders.    In  1524,  he  instituted  a  disputation  at  Upsala,  in  which 
Olaus  Petri  and  Peter  Galle  opposed  each  other.     Galle  used  decretals 
and  councils  as  his  weapons ;  Olaus  used  only  the  Bible.     The  king 
declared  Olaus  victorious.     Meanwhile  Anderson  translated  the  New 
Testament,  and  Olaus,   aided  by  his  learned  brother,  undertook  the 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament.     But  notwithstanding  all  this,  the 
Reformation  made  but  slow  progress,  for  the  people  clung  tenaciously 
to  the  ancient  faith.     Moreover,  the  overbearing  bishops  caused  the 
king  much  trouble.     Wherefore,   at  the  diet  of  Westerns  (1527),  he 
earnestly  submitted  to  the  States  the  alternative  of  his  abdication,  or 
the  Reformation.    The  clergy  violently  opposed  the  latter,  and  Gustavus 
went  away  from  the  assembly  in  tears,  firmly  resolved  to  lay  down  his 
sceptre.    Then  the  love  of  the  people  for  their  king  burst  the  fetters  by 
which  the  clergy  hold  them  bound.     They  did  not  rest  until  Gustavus, 
after  much  opposition,  resumed  his  abandoned  crown.    The  States  had 
now  to  yield  to  his  wishes.     The  Reformation  was  introduced  into  the 
whole  country  without  resistance  or  force,   and  the  diet  of  (Erehro 
(1529,   1537),  and  Westeras  (1544),  completed  the  work.     Episcopacy 
was  transferred  to  the  new  organization,  and  in  worship  many  Catholic 
ceremonies  were  still  retained   (exorcism,  the  elevation  of  the  host, 
prayers  for  the  dead,  sacerdotal  robes),  from  connivance  at  the  preju- 
dices  of  the    people.     Gustavus  died  in  1560.     Under  his  son  Eric,  a 
Catholic  reaction  sprung  up,  and  his  brother,  John  III.,  secretly  con- 
fessed Catholicism  to  the  Jesuit  Possevin;  he  was  prompted  to  this  by 
his  Catholic  wife,  and  the  prospect  of  obtaining  the  crown  of  Poland. 
John's  son  Sigismund,  King  of  Poland,  publicly  professed  the  Catholic 
faith.     But  his  uncle,  Charles  of  Sudermania,  a,  zealous  Protestant, 
having  been   appointed  regent  after  John's  death,  immediately  assem- 
bled the  States  at  Upsala,  1593,  where  the  Latin  missal  imposed  upon 
the  country  was  prohibited,   and   the  Augsburg  Confession  was  rein- 
stated.   But  as  Sigismund  continued  to  favor  Catholicism,  the  States 
declared  (1G04)  that  he  had  forfeited  his  throne:  and  his  uncle,  Charles 
IX.,  was  made  king.     From  Sweden  the  Reformation  had  long  before 
spread  into  Finland. 

2.  The  Reformation  in  Denmarlc.  (Cf.  E.  Pontoppidan,  kurzgef. 
Ref.  Gesch.  d.  dan.  K.  Koph.  17.i4. —  F.  Milnier,  K.  G.  v.  D.  Bd.  III. — > 
C.  II.   Clauss,   Christian  III    Ein  biogr.   Beitrag  zur  Gesch.   d    16, 


REFORMATION     IN     OTHER     COUNTRIES.  117 

Jahrh.  Dessau,  1859.)— Although  Christian  II.,  nephew  of  the  Elector 
of  Saxony,  and  brother-in-law  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  had  leagued 
with  the  Catholic  hierarchy  for  the  suppression  of  the  national  party 
in  Sweden,  he  took  sides  in  Denmark  with  the  friends  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, against  the  predominant  clergy.    At  his  request,  Martin  Reinhard 
was  sent  to  him  from  Wittenberg  (1520).     Reinbard's  preaching  met 
with  great  favor,  and  was  supported  by  the  Carmelite' provost,  Paul 
Eha.     But  the  clergy  compelled  the  former  to  flee,  and  Elia,  fearing  a 
violent  outbreak,  withdrew.    Christian  now  (1521)  endeavored  to  secure 
the  services  of  Luther,  or  at  least  of  Carlstadt.     The  latter  went,  but 
as  the  affairs  of  Christian  grew  worse,  he  had  goon  to  leave  again.    At 
length  the  clergy  and  nobility  renounced  allegiance  to  the  king,  and 
transferred  the  crown  to  his  uncle,  Duke  Frederick  I.  of  Schleswig  and 
Ilolstein.     Christian   fled   to  Saxony,  was  there  led  fully  by  Luther 
to  embrace  the.  Reformation,  even  converted  his  wife,  the  emperor's 
sister,  and  had  the   first  Danish  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
printed  at  Leipsic,  and  circulated  in  Denmark.    But  in  order  to  secure 
the  emperor's  aid,  he  abjured  the  evangelical  faith  at  Augsburg  (1530). 
In  1531,  he  conquered  Norway,  and  on  receiving  the  oath  of  alfegiance, 
he  had  to  pledge  himself  to  protect  the  Catholic  Church.     In  1532, 
however,  he  had  to  surrender  himself  to  Frederick  I.,  and  spent  his 
last  years  (ob.  153G)  in  prison,  where  he  enjoyed  leisure  to  repent  of 
his  apostacy,  and  to  confirm  his  views  of  truth  by  studying  the  Danish 
Bible.     But  Frederick  I.,  also,  was  from  the  first  favorable  to  the  Re- 
formation.   His  hands  were  tied,  however,  by  the  terms  of  his  election. 
His  son  Christian  carried  forward  the  work  all  the  more  vigorously  in 
the  duchies,  and  by  this  course  encouraged  his  father.     In  152G,  he 
publicly  confessed  the  evangelical  faith,  and  called  John  Tausen,  the 
Danish  reformer,  a  pupil  of  Luther,  who  had  labored  for  the  Gospel 
amid   much  persecution  since  1524,  as  preacher  to  Copenhagen..     He 
laid  the  basis  of  a  general  reformation  for  the  country,  at  the  diet  of 
Odense  (1527),  by  limiting  episcopal  jurisdiction,  proclaiming  universal 
religious  liberty,  allowing  priests  to  marry,  and  monks  to  forsake  their 
cloisters.    At  the  same  diet,  Tausen  submitted  to  the  States  a  separate 
confession  (Confessio  Hafnica).     From   that   time   the   cause   spread 
rapidly,  and  the  considerate  monarch  directed  his  attention  to  check, 
by  timely  measures,  violent  disorders  which   broke   out  in   different 
places.     He  died  in  1533.     The  States  refused  to  acknowledge  his  son, 
Christian  III.    But  when  George  Wulleniceber,  burgomaster  of  Liibeck' 
sought  to  avail  himself  of  the  prevailing  anarchy,  and  bring  Denmark 
under  the  dominion  of  the  proud  commercial  city,  the  States  of  Jutland 
hastily  recognized  Christian  III.    He  expelled  the  Liibeck  foes,  and  by 
1536  subdued  the  whole  country.     Then  he  resolved  to  put  an  end  to 
the  machinations  of  the  clergy.     In  August,  1536,  he  ordered  all  the 
bishops  to  be  seized  in  one  day,  and  at  the  diet  of  Copenhagen  they 
were  formally  deposed.     Th«ir  property  was  cast  into  the  royal  trea- 


118       SECTION    III.— FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16  A.  D.). 

sury;  all  the  monasteries  were  secularized;  in  part  bestowed  upon 
the  nubility,  and  in  part  converted  into  hospitals  and  schools.  John 
Bugenhagen  was  called  over  to  complete  the  organization  of  the  Church. 
He  crowned  the  royal  couple,  drew  up  a  liturgy,  which  the  diet  of 
Odense  adopted,  taught  at  the  university  of  the  capital  until  1542,  and 
then  returned  to  Wittenberg.  Lutheran  superintendents  were  substi- 
tuted for  the  bishops,  though  this  latter  title  was  afterwards  restored. 
The  Augsburg  Confession  became  the  standard  of  doctrine.  Simulta- 
neously the  Reformation  was  introduced  into  Norway,  which  took  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  king  in  1536.  Olaus  Engelbrechtsen,  Arch- 
bishop of  Drontheim,  fled  to  the  Netherlands  with  the  treasures  of  the 
Church.  Iceland  resisted  the  movement  for  some  time,  but  yielded  in 
1551,  when  the  power  of  the  insurrectionary  priests  was  broken. 

3.  The  Reformation  in  Courland,  Livonia,  and  Esthonia.  (Cf.  Brack- 
mann,  d.  Ref.  in  Livl.,  — in  the  "Mittheill.  aus  d.  livl.  Gesch."  V.  I. 
Riga,  1849.—  Th.  Kallmeyer,  d.  Begriind.  d.  ev.  luth.  K.  in  Kurl.  [do. 
VI.  1,  2.]  Riga,  1851.)— Livonia  was  under  the  dominion  of  the  Teutonic 
Knights  of  Prussia,  but  had  its  own  Grand-Master,  who  then  was 
Walter  v.  Plettenberg,  who,  in  1521,  dissolved  his  connection  with  the 
(hand-Master  Albert,  and  was  recognized  as  an  independent  prince  of 
the  German  empire.  Soon  after  this,  Andrew  Knbpken,  a  school-teacher, 
driven  from  Pomerania  as  a  Lutheran  heretic,  arrived  in  Riga  (1521). 
He  was  appointed  archdeacon,  and  in  a  moderate  way  preached  evan- 
gelical doctrines.  Ere  long,  Sylv.  Tegetmeir,  of  Rostock,  became  his 
assistant,  and  preached  so  violently  against  image-worship,  that  the 
excited  populace  forced  open  the  churches,  and  destroyed  the  images. 
Nevertheless,  he  was  protected  by  the  council  and  General.  John  Loh- 
muller,  city  clerk  in  Riga,  cooperated  with  them,  with  untiring  zeal, 
for  the  establishment  and  spread  of  the  Reformation  in  the  city  and 
country.  As  early  as  1522,  he  opened  a  correspondence  with  Luther. 
Melchior  Hoffmann,  a  furrier  from  Swabia,  whose  Lutheranism,  how- 
ever, had  already  degenerated  into  Anabaptist  fanaticism,  labored  in 
Dorpat.  The  monastery  of  (Esel  passed  over  to  the  evangelical  Church 
without  opposition,  and  at  the  aame  time  a  Lutheran  congregation  was 
formed  in  Reoal.  In  1523,  Plettenberg  sent  his  chancellor  to  Luther, 
who  took  that  occasion  to  address  an  earnest  letter  of  instruction  and 

a<3 nition  to  the  Christians  of  Livonia.    In  spite  of  constant  collisions 

and  conflicts  with  the  archbishop,  but  supported  by  the  Grand-Master, 
Riga  maintained  its  evangelical  confession,  and  joined  the  Smalcald 
League  in  1538.  When  William  of  Brandenburg,  the  brother  of  the 
Duke  of  Prussia,  became  archbishop  (1539),  he  favored  the  evangelical 
cause,  and  all  opposition  to  it  ceased,  so  that  in  a  short  time  all  Livonia 
and  Esthonia  embraced  the  Augsburg  Confession.  But  political  diffi- 
culties (caused  especially  by  the  Russians),  compelled  the  last  Grand- 
Master,  Gotthard  Kettler,  to  cede  Livonia  to  Sigismund  Augustus  of 
Poland,  though  with  a  if  rinal  guarantee  of  the  evangelical  faith  (1561). 


REFORMATION     IN     OTHER     COUNTRIES.  3 19 

Kettler  received  Courland  and  Semgallia  as  a  hereditary  duchy,  under 
Polish  supremacy,  and  devoted  his  untiring  care  to  the  evangelical 
organization  of  his  country,  in  which  he  was  energetically  aided  by 
Stephen  B'ulau,  the  first  superintendent  of  Courland. 

4.  The  Reformation  in  England.  (Cf.  A.  W.  Bohme,  Acht  Biicher 
v.  d.  Ref.  d.  K.  in  Engl.  Altona,  1734.  —  C.  Fr.  Staudlin,  K.  G.  v. 
Grossbrit.  Gottg.- 1849.  Bd.  I.—  G.  Weber,  Gesch.  d.  akath.  Kirchen  u. 
Secten.  v.  Grossbrit.  Lpz.  1845,  etc.  2  Bde.  —  /.  v.  Gumpach,  Gesch.  d. 
Trennung  d.  engl.  K.  v.  Rom.  Darmst.  1845. — [For  English  lit.  on  this 
subject  see:  Herzog's  Theol.  and  Eccl.  Encycl.,  Philad.  1860,  art. 
England,  etc.  Also:  Short's  Hist,  of  the  Ch.  of  England,  etc.  Philad. 
1843.  —  Massingberd,  the  Engl.  Kef.  ;  Soitfhey's  Book  of  the  Church; 
and  D'Aubigne"s  Ref.  vol.  V.—Tr.].)— Henry  VIII.  (1509-47),  King  of 
England,  after  his  literary  feud  with  Luther  ($  5),  preferred  prosecuting 
his  vocation  as  "defender  of  the  faith,"  by  means  of  the  gallows  and 
the  sword.  But  his  adulterous  love  for  Anna  Boleyn  impelled  him  to 
renounce  the  pope  (1532),  who  refused  to  annul  his  marriage  with 
Catharine  of  Aragon,  his  brother's  widow,  for  fear  of  offending  her 
nephew,  the  emperor.  Nevertheless,  Henry  wished  to  continue  a  good 
Catholic  in  doctrine,  and  so  raved  both  against  Lutherans  and  Papists. 
Luther's  works  were  diligently  read  in  England,  and  two  noble  Eng- 
lishmen, John  Frith  and  William  Tyndale,  furnished  their  native  coun- 
try with  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament,  published  as  early  as 
1526,  at  Antwerp.  [Two  Gospels  were  published  at  Hamburg  in  1524. 
Tr.]  Frith  was  rewarded  by  being  burnt  at  the  stake,  1533,  and  Tyn- 
dale by  being  beheaded  in  the  Netherlands,  1535.  The  Catholic  bishop, 
Fisher,  also  suffered  martyrdom,  and  the  former  chancellor,  Sir  TJwmas 
More  (Vol.  I.,  \  120,  4).  Thomas  Cranmer  was  chosen  to  carry  out  the 
king's  plan  of  reform,  and  to  this  end  he  was  elevated  to  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Canterbury  ;  but  at  heart  Cranmer  was  a  zealous  friend 
of  the  Swiss  Reformation,  and  secretly  did  all  he  could  to  introduce  it. 
Under  the  youthful  Edward  VI.  (1547-53),  he  could  act  with  less  re- 
straint. At  his  solicitation,  many  foreign  theologians  were  called  to 
England,  among  whom  were  Martin  Bucer  (ob.  1551),  Paid  Fagius  of 
Strassburg,  Peter  Martyr  Verm  ill io,  Bernard  Ochino,  John  a  Lasco, 
(see  below,  8,  13),  and  others,  who,  as  professors  and  preachers,  pro- 
claimed pure  doctrine,  mostly  according  to  the  Reformed  system.  In 
unison  with  the  noble  Bishop  Ridley,  Cranmer  prepared  (1549)  a  liturgy 
for  the  English  Church,  and  in  1552  drew  up  42  articles  of  faith.  The 
former  was  a  medium  between  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  form  of 
worship,  the  latter  a  medium  between  Lutheranism  and  Calvinism. 
After  Edward's  early  death,  the  fanatical  Catholic  Mary,  Catharine's 
daughter,  obtained  the  crown  (1553-58).  Ridley  and  Cranmer  were 
burnt  (1556),  and  the  devout  Mary  raved  with  unsparing  cruelty  against 
all  who  confessed  the  Gospel.  Two  hundred  and  seventy-seven  persons, 
bishops,  preachers,  and  laymen,  women,  children,  and  aged  persons,. 


'20       SECTION    III. — FIRST    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.   16    A.  D.)  . 

perished  in  the  flames,  and  measures  were  already  adopted  to  establish 
a  permanent  inquisition,  when  Miry  was  called  away  from  her  bloody 
work.     She  was  followed  by  Elizabeth   (1558-1603),  the  daughter  of 
Anne  Boleyn.     Educated   by  Cranmer   in    the    Protestant    faith,   she 
triumphantly  established  the  Reformation  in  England.     On  the  basis 
of  the  previous   labors  of  Cranmer   and   Ridley,  the   Convocation  of 
London  (1562),  adopted  XXXIX Articles  as  a  confession  of  faith,  and 
a  liturgical  directory  for  the  Anglican  Church      Both  were  combined, 
for  more  general  use,  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.     The  XXXIX 
Articles,  which  were  incorporated  into  the  English  statutes  by  an  act 
of  Parliament  (13  Eliz.  c.  II.,  April,  1571),  adopted  Calvin's  view  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  but  not  his  dogma  of  predestination  [see  Hcrzog's 
Encycl.,  art.  Anglican  Church].     In  the  organization  and  worship  of 
the  Church,  many  catholicizing  elements  were  retained  (the  episcopacy, 
apostolical  succession,  a  copious  ceremonial).    In  opposition  to  this,  the 
Puritans  or  Presbyterians  introduced  a  presbyterial  constitution,  mo- 
delled after  that  of  Geneva,  with  a  strict  discipline,  and  a  rigid,  one- 
sided predominance  of  the  formal  principle,  touching  the  sole  authority 
of  the  Scriptures  (extermination  of  the  Apocrypha),  a  zealous  adher- 
ence to  Calvinism,  an  extremely  bald  form  of  worship,  which  scrupu- 
lously excluded  the  leaven  of  popery  (clerical  vestments,  altars,  candlesv 
crucifixes,  the  sign  of  the  cross,  forms  of  prayer,  sponsors  in  baptism, 
confirmation,  kneeling  at  the  sacrament,  bowing  the  head  at  the  name 
of  Jesus,  bells,  organs,  and  all  festivals,  retaining  only  the  Sabbath). 
To  restore  ecclesiastical  unity,  the  queen  directed  the  passage  of  the 
Act  of  Uniformity  (15G3),  and  punished  all  non-conformists  with  fines, 
imprisonment,  and  banishment.     This  increased  the  evil.     A  party  of 
non- conformists,    called    Independents    (also    CongreyationaUsts,    and 
Brownists,  after  their  founder  Robert  Browne),  carried  their  opposition 
t<>  all  ecclesiastical  courts  so  far  that  they  rejected  synods  and  presby- 
teries, and  made  their  preachers  amenable  to  the  arbitrary  vote  of  single 
congregations,    though   they   established    a   Congregational  Board   at 
London,  as  a  central  point  of  union,  which  was  a  synod  formed  of  de- 
legates sent  by  the  respective  congregations.    Persecuted  by  the  govern- 
ment, they  fled  to  Holland,  but  returned  under  Cromwell,  and  subse- 
quently emigrated  to  North  America. — Elizabeth  introduced  the  Angli- 
can Church  into  Ireland,  also,  and  gave  it  all   the   church   property 
I  here.     But   is.,  spite   of  constant  oppression,    the   mass  of  the  Irish 
adhered  to  the  Catholic  Church.      (Of.  \  33,  3  ;   34,  3.) 

5.  'Hie  Reformation  in  Scotland.  (Cf.  Stdudlin  and  G.  Weber,  1.  c. 
K.  G.  v.  Uudloff,  Gesch.  d.  Ref.  in  Schottl.  Berl.  1847.  2  Bde.— K.  II. 
Sack,  d.  K.  v.  Schottland.  Eeidelb.  L844.  2  Bde.— J.  Kostlin,  .1.  Schott. 
K.  seit  d.  Ref.  Hamb.,  1852.  —  A.  II.  Niemeyer,  ■>.  Knox  and  the  two 
Marys.  Lpz.,  L824.— [M'Crie's  Life  of  John  Knox.  Edinb.,  1814.— F. 
Tytler,  Hist,  of  Scotl.,  vols.  VLVIL— Tr.].)— In  Scotland,  the  Gospel  was 
early  preached  by  Patrick  Hamilton,  who  had  studied  in  Wittenberg, 


'Aeformation   in   other   countries.        121 

and  perished  at  the  stake  (1528)  at  the  age  of  24  years.  His  martyr- 
dom was  followed  by  many  others.  But  amid  all  the  political  disorders, 
the  Reformation  took  deeper  root  in  the  hearts  of  the  people  and  no- 
bility, in  spite  of  the  hostility  of  the  Stuarts  and  the  bishops.  John 
Knox  (ob.  1572),  however,  was  the  proper  reformer  in  Scotland.  Edu- 
cated at  Genera,  he  impressed  the  most  severe  and  rigid  Calvinism 
upon  the  constitution  and  doctrines  of  the  Scotch  Church.  Having,  as 
a  galley  slave,  acquired  an  iron  inflexibility  of  character,  he  set  at 
defiance  both  the  anger  and  tears  of  the  young  queen,  Mar;/  Stuart, 
and  with  glowing  zeal,  and  by  a  revolutionary  storm,  urged  the  Refor- 
mation to  a  triumphant  issue.  (Confessio  Scotica,  15G0.)  To  the  un- 
fortunate queen  there  was  nothing  left  at  last  but  to  throw  herself 
into  the  arms  of  her  deadly  foe  Elizabeth.  In  1587,  she  suffered  death 
on  an  English  scaffold.  Her  son  James  VI.,  still  a  child,  was  crowned, 
and  the  reformers  exercised  the  regency.  After  Elizabeth's  death,  he 
assumed  the  united  crowns  of  England  and  Scotland. 

6.  The  Reformation  in  the  Netherlands.  (Cf.  H.  I^eo,  Zwb'lf  Bb. 
niederl.  Gesch.  Halle,  1835.  2  Bde.— J.  L.  Motley,  Hist,  of  the  Dutch 
Republ.  [Herzog,  Encycl.,  art.  Holland].) — CharlesY.  held  the  Nether- 
lands as  an  inheritance  from  his  grandmother,  Maria  of  Burgundy.  So 
much  had  .happened  in  the  period  preceding  the  Reformation  (see  Vol. 
I.,  |  119,  6)  to  prepare  the  way  for  it,  that  it  was  now  received  with 
very  great  favor  by  the  people,  who  had  independent  and  active  minds. 
Luther's  writings  were  early  circulated,  and  the  first  martyrs  of  the 
Lutheran  faith  (§  8,  1)  perished  at  Antwerp  (1523).  Connections  with 
France  and  Switzerland,  however,  subsequently  led  to  the  predominance 
of  the  Reformed  Confession.  Here  the  emperor  commanded  the  edict 
of  Worms  to  be  executed  in  all  its  severity,  and  thousands  perished  by 
the  sword  and  at  the  stake  as  martyrs  to  the  evangelical  faith.  Under 
Charles's  son  and  successor,  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  the  Inquisition  perpe- 
trated still  more  terrible  cruelties,  with  the  purpose  of  suppressing  the 
spirit  of  both  political  and  religious  liberty  (from  1555).  The  Belgic 
Confession  (1562),  maintained  Calvinistic  tenets.  The  Compromise 
(1566),  a  confederacy  of  nobles  for  the  overthrow  of  the  Spanish  rule, 
and  which  adopted  the  name  of  Gvyses  (gueux-beggars),  which  the 
Spaniards  applied  to  them  in  ridicule,  daily  grew  stronger,  and  the 
maddened  populace  tore  down  churches,  images,  and  altars.  The  Duke 
of  Alba  was  sent  with  an  army  to  put  down  the  insurrection,  which 
Margaret  of  Parma  was  unable  to  control,  notwithstanding  the  bloody 
measures  she  was  compelled  to  adopt  (1567).  By  unexampled  cruelties 
he  temporarily  succeeded.  But  the  seven  northern  provinces  combined 
in  the  Utrecht  Union  (1579),  and  William  of  Orangt.  and,  after  his 
murder  (1584),  his  son  Maurice,  secured  civil  and  religious  liberty  for 
the  northern  Netherlands,  after  a  tedious  and  sanguinary  struggle. 
The  southern  Belgic  provinces  were  held  by  Alexander  of  Parma, 
under  Spanish  rule,  and  in  the  Catholic  faith. 
54 


122        SECTION    III. FIRsT    PERIOD    (CENT.   10    A.  >    ). 

7.  The  Reformation  in  France.  (Cf.  Th.  Beza,  Hist,  ecclst.  des  egl 
reformees  du  royaume  de  France.  Anv.  1580. — A.  L.  Heermann, 
Frankr.  Rel.  u.  Biirgerkriege  ini  16  Jahrh.  Lpz.,  1828. — Leop.  Ranke, 
franz.  Gesch.  in  16.  u.  17.  Jahrh.  Stuttg.,  1852.  Bd.  I.  —  W.  G.  Soldan, 
Gesch.  d.  Protestsm.  in  Frank,  bis  zum  Tode  Karl's  IX.  Lpz.,  1855. 
2  Bde—  G.  v.  Polenz,  Gesch.  d.  franz.  Calvinism,  Bd.  I.     Gotha,  1857. 

—  F.  W.  Barthold,  Deutschl.  u.  d.  Hugenotten.  Brem.,  1847. —  G. 
Weber,  1.  c.  (g  18).— L.  Wackier,  die  par.  Bluthochz.  Lpz.,  1828.— 
W.  G.  Soldan,  Frankr.  u.  d.  Barthol.  Nacht,  in  Raumer's  hist.  Taschb., 
1854.— iJ.  Stdhelin,  d.  Uebertritt  Konig  Heinrich's  IV.     Basel,  1856.) 

—  The  first  occasion  of  the  Reformation  in  France  proceeded  from 
Wittenberg.  In  1521,  the  Sorbonne  directed  Luther's  writings  to  be 
burned  in  Paris.  But  Geneva  soon  acquired  preponderant  and  exclusive 
influence.  Francis  I.  (1515-47),  favored  the  Reformation  in  Germany, 
but  persecuted  the  Protestants  (Huguenots)  of  his  own  country.  Henry 
II.  (ob.  1559),  and  Francis  II.  (ob.  1560).  did  likewise.  Many  thou 
sands  of  heroic  confessors  were  put  to  death  by  the  sword  and  by  fire. 
And  yet  the  Reformed  Church,  especially  in  southern  France,  spread 
rapidly,  and  at  the  first  General  Synod  in  Paris  (1559),  adopted  the 
Confessio  Gallicana.  Even  a  powerful  branch  of  the  royal  family,  the 
Bourbons  [Anthony  of  Navarre,  and  his  spirited  wife  Jeanne  d'Albret, 
Anthony's  brother  Louis  Bourbon,  and  Prince  Louis  of  Condi),  and 
persons  of  eminence  (Admiral  Coligny,  and  several  parliamentary  coun- 
cillors, etc.),  embraced  Protestantism,  whilst  their  political  rivals,  the 
Guises,  of  the  ducal  house  of  Lorraine  (Francis  Guise,  and  his  brother 
Charles,  Cardinal  of  Lorraine),  sought  support  in  the  hostility  of  the 
Catholics.  This  gave  additional  strength  to  the  peculiar  tendency  of 
the  Reformed  Church,  to  combine  political  with  religious  aims  (accord- 
ing to  the  theocratic  example  of  the  Old  Testament),  in  their  reforma- 
tory measures,  and  decidedly  impressed  it  with  the  character  of  a 
political  party.  Under  the  regency  (from  1560)  of  Catharine  de  Medici 
(the  mother  of  Charles  IX.,  ob.  1574),  the  prospects  of  the  Huguenots 
brightened.  The  noble  Chancellor  Michael  del ' Hospital,  a  Catholic, 
but  a  foe  of  all  sanguinary  proceedings,  instituted  a  religious  confer- 
ence in  the  abbey  of  Poissy,  near  Paris  (1561),  where,  among  others, 
Theodore  Beza  and  the  Jesuit  General  Lainez,  confronted  each  other. 
The  edict  of  St.  Germain  (1562)  secured  toleration  and  the  free  enjoy- 
ment of  religious  worship  to  the  Protestants  of  the  border  cities.  This 
encouraged  large  numbers  of  secret  friends  of  Protestantism  openly  to 
avow  their  faith,  and  the  rage  of  the  Catholics  was  inflamed  anew.  At 
Cahors,  a  Huguenot  meeting-house  was  surrounded  by  the  rabble  and 
fired  :  all  assembled  perished  ;  those  who  escaped  the  fire  were  murdered 
At  Vassi,  in  Provence,  where  the  Huguenots  were  gathered  for  wor- 
ship in  a  barn,  Francis  of  Guise  perpetrated  a  more  fearful  carnage, 
swearing  that  he  would  cut  the  accursed  edict  into  pieces  with  his 
sword.    The  religious  and  civil  war  then  broke  out  in  consuming  flames. 


REFORMATION     IN     OTHER     COUNTRIES.  123 

Twice  a  peace  of  short  duration  was  concluded  (at  Amboise,  1563,  and 
at  Longjumeau,  15G8).  A  third  Peace  of  St.  Germain  (1.370)  secured  to 
the  Huguenots  full  liberty  of  conscience  and  religion;  only  Paris  and 
the  residence  of  the  court  were  excepted.  As  a  pledge  of  peace,  four 
important  fortresses  were  given  to  them  (La  Rochelle,  Montaubon, 
Cognac,  and  La  Charite),  and  Henry  of  Navarre,  Anthony's  son,  was 
betrothed  to  the  sister  of  Charles  IX.  At  their  marriage  (Aug.  18, 
1572),  the  Huguenot  chieftains  assembled  in  Paris.  Henry's  mother, 
Jeanne  d'Albret,  died  soon  after  her  arrival ;  her  death  having  probably 
been  caused  by  poisoned  gloves  presented  to  her,  and  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  was  made  to  assassinate  Coligny.  Late  in  Bartholomew's  night 
(Aug.  24,  1572),  the  castle-bell  suddenly  tolled.  It  was  the  signal  for 
the  butchery  of , all  the  Huguenots.  The  bloody  tragedy  lasted  inces- 
santly for  four  days.  Coligny  fell,  praying,  under  the  blows  of  his 
murderers;  no  Huguenot  was  spared  —  neither  children,  women,  nor 
the  aged.  Henry  and  Conde  were  offered  the  mass  or  death  ;  they 
chose  the  former.  Meanwhile,  couriers  were  dispatched  with  the  mur- 
derous decree  through  the  provinces,  and  the  slaughter  was  renewed. 
The  number  of  the  slaughtered  is  variously  given  at  20,000 — 100,000. 
Pope  Gregory  XIII.  commanded  all  the  bells  in  Rome  to  be  rung,  a 
Te  Deum  to  be  sung,  and  a  medal  to  be  struck  with  the  inscription 
Ugonottorum  Strages,  in  honor  of  the  glorious  victory  of  the  Church. 
(The  result  of  Soldan's  investigations  is,  that  the  horrible  decree  of 
death  was  enacted,  not  after  long  consultation,  but  suddenly,  in  conse- 
quence of  political  complications.  The  queen-mother  having  disagreed 
with  her  son,  determined  to  maintain  her  position  by  Coligny's  assassi- 
nation. This  failed.  The  king  swore  that  he  would  severely  avenge 
the  iniquity  upon  the  unknown  authors  of  it.  Then  Catharine  used 
all  means  to  avert  the  threatening  destruction.  She  succeeded  in  con- 
vincing the  king  that  Coligny  was  at  the  head  of  a  Huguenot  conspi- 
racy. Beside  himself  with  rage,  the  king  swore  that  not  only  the 
leaders,  who  alone  were  implicated,  but  all  the  Huguenots  of  France 
should  die,  so  that  no  one  might  remain  to  reproach  him  for  the  deed. 
But  it  is  certain,  notwithstanding,  that  the  thought  of  such  a  Satanic 
deed  was  previously  broached,  though  it  may  have  been  but  transiently. 
At  the  Spanish  and  Roman  courts,  the  French  government  reported 
the  tragedy  as  an  acte  premedite  ;  at  the  German  court  as  an  acte  non 
premedite  ;  but  in  a  letter  previously  sent  to  the  emperor  from  Rome, 
it  was  said:  Que  a  cette  heure  (the  marriage  festival)  que  tous  les 
oyseaux  estoient  en  la  cage,  ou  les  pouvoit  prendre  tous  ensemble,  et 
qu'il  y  en  avoit,  qui  le  desiroient.) — But  the  horrible  deed  failed  of  its 
purpose.  If  even  100,000  were  murdered,  ten  times  that  number  re- 
mained, and  found  strong  rallying  points  in  their  fortresses.  Hence 
civil  war  broke  out  afresh.  The  Peace  of  Beaulieu  (157G),  which  once 
more  guaranteed  to  the  Huguenots  their  rights,  was  of  brief  duration. 
The  Guises  formed  a  Holy  League,  which  was  directed  as  much  against 


122        SECTION    III. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.   10    A.  >    ). 

7.  The  Reformation  in  France,  (Cf.  Th.  Beza,  Hist,  ecclst.  des  egl 
reformers  du  royaume  de  France.  Anv.  1580.  —  A.  L.  Heermann, 
Frankr.  Rel.  u.  Biirgerkriege  ini  16  Jahrh.  Lpz.,  1828. — Leop.  Ranke, 
franz.  Gcsch.  in  16.  u.  17.  Jahrh.  Stuttg.,  1852.  Bd.  I.  —  W.  G.  Soldan, 
Gesch.  d.  Protestsm.  in  Frank,  bis  zum  Tode  Karl's  IX.  Lpz.,  1855. 
2  Bde. —  G.  v.  Polenz,  Gesch.  d.  franz.  Calvinism,  Bd.  I.     Gotha,  1857. 

—  F.  W.  Barthold,  Deutschl.  u.  d.  Ilugenotten.  Brem.,  1847. —  <?. 
Weber,  1.  c.  (<j  18).— L.  WaeUer,  die  par.  Bluthochz.  Lpz.,  1828.— 
W.  G.  Soldan,  Frankr.  u.  d.  Barthol.  Nacht,  in  Raumer's  hist.  Taschb., 

1854.— E.  Stdhelin,  d.  Uebertritt  Konig  Ileinrich's  IV.     Basel,  1856.) 

—  The  first  occasion  of  the  Reformation  in  France  proceeded  from 
Wittenberg.  In  1521,  the  Sorbonne  directed  Luther's  writings  to  be 
burned  in  Paris.  But  Geneva  soon  acquired  preponderant  and  exclusive 
influence.  Francis  I.  (1515-47),  favored  the  Reformation  in  Germany, 
but  persecuted  the  Protestants  [Huguenots)  of  his  own  country.  Henry 
II.  (ob.  1559),  and  Francis  II.  (ob.  1560).  did  likewise.  Many  thou 
sands  of  heroic  confessors  were  put  to  death  by  the  sword  and  by  fire. 
And  yet  the  Reformed  Church,  especially  in  southern  France,  spread 
rapidly,  and  at  the  first  General  Synod  in  Paris  (1559),  adopted  the 
Confessio  Gullicana.  Even  a  powerful  branch  of  the  royal  family,  the 
Bourbons  (Anthony  of  Navarre,  and  his  spirited  wife  Jeanne  d'Albret, 
Anthony's  brother  Louis  Bourbon,  and  Prince  Louis  of  Conde),  and 
persons  of  eminence  (Admiral  Coligny,  and  several  parliamentary  coun- 
cillors, etc.),  embraced  Protestantism,  whilst  their  political  rivals,  the 
Guises,  of  the  ducal  house  of  Lorraine  (Francis  Guise,  and  his  brother 
Charles,  Cardinal  of  Lorraine),  sought  support  in  the  hostility  of  the 
Catholics.  This  gave  additional  strength  to  the  peculiar  tendency  of 
the  Reformed  Church,  to  combine  political  with  religious  aims  (accord- 
ing to  the  theocratic  example  of  the  Old  Testament),  in  their  reforma- 
tory measures,  and  decidedly  impressed  it  with  the  character  of  a 
political  party.  Under  the  regency  (from  1560)  of  Catharine  de  Medici 
(the  mother  of  Charles  IX.,  ob.  1574),  the  prospects  of  the  Huguenots 
brightened.  The  noble  Chancellor  Michael  de  I  'Hospital,  a  Catholic, 
but  a  foe  of  all  sanguinary  proceedings,  instituted  a  religious  confer- 
cure  in  the  abbey  of  Poissy,  near  Paris  (1561),  where,  among  others, 
Theodore  Beza  and  the  Jesuit  General  Lainez,  confronted  each  other. 
The  edict  of  St.  Germain  (1562)  secured  toleration  and  the  free  enjoy- 
ment of  religious  worship  to  the  Protestants  of  the  border  cities.  This 
encouraged  large  numbers  of  secret  friends  of  Protestantism  openly  to 
avow  their  faith,  and  the  rage  of  the  Catholics  was  inflamed  anew.  At 
Cahors,  a  Huguenot  meeting-house  was  surrounded  by  the  rabble  and 
fired  ;  all  assembled  perished  ;  those  who  escaped  the  fire  were  murdered 
At  Vassi,  in  Provence,  where  the  Huguenots  were  gathered  for  wor- 
ship in  a  barn,  Francis  if  Guise  perpetrated  a  more  fearful  carnage, 
swearing  that  he  would  cut  the  accursed  edict  into  pieces  with  his 
sword.    The  religious  and  civil  war  then  broke  out  iu  consuming  flames. 


REFORMATION     IN     OTHER     COUNTRIES.  123 

Twice  a  peace  of  short  duration  was  concluded  (at  Amboise,  1563,  and 
at  Longjumeau,  15G8).  A  third  Peace  of  St.  Germain  (1570)  secured  to 
the  Huguenots  full  liberty  of  conscience  and  religion;  only  Paris  and 
the  residence  of  the  court  were  excepted.  As  a  pledge  of  peace,  four 
important  fortresses  were  given  to  them  (La  Roehelle,  Montaubon, 
Cognac,  and  La  Charite),  and  Henri/  of  Navarre,  Anthony's  son,  was 
betrothed  to  the  sister  of  Charles  IX.  At  their  marriage  (Aug.  18, 
1572),  the  Huguenot  chieftains  assembled  in  Paris.  Henry's  mother, 
Jeanne  d'  Albret,  died  soon  after  her  arrival ;  her  death  having  probably 
been  caused  by  poisoned  gloves  presented  to  her,  and  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  was  made  to  assassinate  Coligny.  Late  in  Bartholomew's  night 
(Aug.  24,  1572),  the  castle-bell  suddenly  tolled.  It  was  the  signal  for 
the  butchery  of  >all  the  Huguenots.  The  bloody  tragedy  lasted  inces- 
santly for  four  days.  Coligny  fell,  praying,  under  the  blows  of  his 
murderers;  no  Huguenot  was  spared  —  neither  children,  women,  nor 
the  aged.  Henry  and  Conde  were  offered  the  mass  or  death  ;  they 
chose  the  former.  Meanwhile,  couriers  were  dispatched  with  the  mur- 
derous decree  through  the  provinces,  and  the  slaughter  was  renewed. 
The  number  of  the  slaughtered  is  variously  given  at  20,000 — 100,000. 
Pope  Gregory  XIII.  commanded  all  the  bells  in  Rome  to  be  rung,  a 
Te  Deum  to  be  sung,  and  a  medal  to  be  struck  with  the  inscription 
Ugonottorum  Strages,  in  honor  of  the  glorious  victory  of  the  Church. 
(The  result  of  Soldan's  investigations  is,  that  the  horrible  decree  of 
death  was  enacted,  not  after  long  consultation,  but  suddenly,  in  conse- 
quence of  political  complications.  The  queen-mother  having  disagreed 
with  her  son,  determined  to  maintain  her  position  by  Coligny's  assassi- 
nation. This  failed.  The  king  swore  that  he  would  severely  avenge 
the  iniquity  upon  the  unknown  authors  of  it.  Then  Catharine  used 
all  means  to  avert  the  threatening  destruction.  She  succeeded  in  con- 
vincing the  king  that  Coligny  was  at  the  head  of  a  Huguenot  conspi- 
racy. Beside  himself  with  rage,  the  king  swore  that  not  only  the 
leaders,  wdio  alone  were  implicated,  but  all  the  Huguenots  of  France 
should  die,  so  that  no  one  might  remain  to  reproach  him  for  the  deed. 
But  it  is  certain,  notwithstanding,  that  the  thought  of  such  a  Satanic 
deed  was  previously  broached,  though  it  may  have  been  but  transiently. 
At  the  Spanish  and  Roman  courts,  the  French  government  reported 
the  tragedy  as  an  acte  premedite  ;  at  the  German  court  as  an  acte  non 
premedite ;  but  in  a  letter  previously  sent  to  the  emperor  from  Rome, 
it  was  said:  Que  a  cette  heure  (the  marriage  festival)  que  tous  lea 
oyseaux  estoient  en  la  cage,  ou  les  pouvoit  prendre  tous  ensemble,  et 
qu'il  y  en  avoit,  qui  le  desiroient.) — But  the  horrible  deed  failed  of  its 
purpose.  If  even  100,000  were  murdered,  ten  times  that  number  re- 
mained, and  found  strong  rallying  points  in  their  fortresses.  Hence 
civil  war  broke  out  afresh.  The  Peace  of  Beaidieu  (157G),  which  once 
more  guaranteed  to  the  Huguenots  their  rights,  was  of  brief  duration. 
The  Guises  formed  a  Holy  League,  which  was  directed  as  much  against 


126      SECTION    III.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

for  the  spread  of  pure  doctrine.  King  Lewis  II.  threatened  its  adherents 
with  the  severest  penalties.  But  he  fell  in  the  battle  of  Mohacz,  (1526). 
The  new  election  produced  two  kings:  Ferdinand  of  Austria,  and  the 
Vaivode  John  Zapoyla.  Both  immediately  persecuted  the  Reformation, 
in  order  to  gain  the  support  of  the  clergy ;  the  cause  nevertheles?  ac- 
quired a  powerful  ascendancy.  Matliias  Devay,  also  a  disciple  of  Lu- 
ther, translated  the  Bible,  and  the  synod  of  Erdod  (1545)  adopted  the 
Augsburg  Confession.  But  the  Swiss  doctrines  had  also  found  their 
way  into  the  country,  and  daily  gained  new  adherents.  The  Reformed 
held  a  council  at  Czenger  (1557),  at  which  the  Confessio  Hungarica, 
embracing  the  Calvinistic  view  of  the  Lord's  Supper  and  of  predesti- 
nation, was  adopted.  Under  Maximilian  II.  the  Reformation  made 
unobstructed  progress.  But  when  Rudolph  II.  revived  forcible  mea- 
sures, the  Protestants  arose  under  Stephen  Botskai,  and  compelled  him 
to  conclude  the  Peace  of  Vienna  (1606),  which  guaranteed  them  full 
religious  liberty.  Among  the  native  Hungarians,  the  Reformed  Con- 
fession prevailed,  but  the  German  settlers  remained  true  to  Luther- 
anism. 

11.  The  Reformation  in  Transylvania.  —  Merchants  from  Herman- 
stadt  brought  Luther's  writings  to  Transylvania  as  early  as  1521.  But 
there,  also,  Lewis  II.  of  Hungary  persecuted  the  Evangelicals;  and, 
after  his  death,  John  Zapoyla  did  the  same.  Nevertheless,  in  1529, 
Ilermanstadt  ventured  to  drive  all  the  adherents  of  the  pope  from  the 
city.  In  Cronstadt,  the  reform  was  introduced  (1534)  by  Jacob  Sonter, 
who  had  studied  in  Basel.  After  Zapoyla  had  secured  the  permanent 
possession  of  Transylvania  by  a  treaty  with  Ferdinand  (1538),  he 
showed  more  moderation  towards  the  Protestants.  After  his  death,  the 
monk  Mariinuzzi,  then  made  Bishop  of  Groswardein,  exercised  the 
regency  during  the  minority  of  Zapoyla' a  son.  He  threatened  the 
Protestants  with  bloody  persecutions,  whilst  Isabella,  Zapoyla's  widow, 
favored  them.  On  this  account,  Martinuzzi  transferred  the  country  to 
Ferdinand,  but  he  was  murdered  in  1551.  After  some  years,  Isabella 
returned  with  her  son,  and  a  diet  at  Clausenburg  (1557)  constituted  the 
country  an  independent  principality,  and  proclaimed  universal  reli- 
gious Liberty.  The  Saxons  adhered  to  Lutheranism,  whilst  the  Szecler 
and  Magyars  preferred  the  Reformed  Confession. 

12.  The  Reformation  in  Spain.  (Cf.  Th.  M'Crie,  Hist,  of  the  Ref. 
in  Spain.  E.  Bohmer,  Inquisit.  u.  Evang.  in  Sp.,  in  Schneider's 
deutsch.  Ztschr.  1852,  No.  13,  etc.)  —  The  connection  with  Germany, 
brought  about  by  the  empire  of  Charles  V.,  led  to  the  early  trans- 
plantation of  Luther's  doctrine  to  Spain.  Very  many  theologians  and 
statesmen  who  accompanied  Charles  to  Germany,  returned  dome  with 
evangelical  convictions  —  among  these  were  Alfonso  de  Virves,  court 
chaplain  to  the  emperor,  and  his  private  secretary,  Alfonso  Valdez, 
also  a  statesman.  Rodrigo  de  Valero,  a  layman,  attained  to  evangeli 
cal  knowledge,  by  diligently  studying  the  Scriptures,  and  led  many 


REFORMATION     IN     OTHER     COUNTRIES.  127 

others  into  the  way  of  salvation.  The  Inquisition  seized  his  property, 
and  condemned  him  to  wear  the  sanbenito.  Juan  Egidius  (Gil),  Ya- 
lero's  friend,  Bishop  of  Tortosa,  formed  societies  for  the  study  of  the 
Bible.  The  Inquisition  deposed  him,  and  but  for  the  protection  of 
Charles,  he  would  have  perished  at  the  stake.  After  his  death,  his 
remains  were  exhumed  and  burnt.  The  first  martyr  in  Spain  was 
Francisco  San  Romano,  a  merchant,  who  had  become  acquainted  with 
Luther's  doctrines  in  Antwerp.  He  was  burnt  at  the  stake  in  Valla- 
dolid,  in  1544.  Franc.  Enzina  translated  the  New  Testament.  He 
was  imprisoned,  and  the  book  prohibited.  About  1550,  the  reforma- 
tory movement  acquired  so  general  and  comprehensive  a  character, 
that  a  Spanish  historian  of  that  period  expresses  the  belief  that  all 
Spain  would  have  fallen  a  prey  to  the  heresy,  if  the  Inquisition  had 
delayed  the  application  of  the  remedy  but  three  months.  But  it  now 
began  vigorously  to  apply  the  remedy,  especially  after  Philip  II. 
(1555-98)  assumed  the  government.  Scarcely  a  year  passed  in  which 
each  of  the  twelve  inquisitorial  tribunals  did  not  celebrate  one  or  more 
great  auto-da-fes,  at  which  multitudes  of  heretics  were  burned.  The 
remedy  proved  effectual.  In  twenty  or  thirty  years  the  evangelical 
cause  was  suppressed. 

13.  The  Reformation  in  Rah/.  (Cf.  TJi.  M'Crie,  Hist,  of  the  Ref.  in 
Italy.  —  E.  F.  Leopold,  d.  Ref.  u.  deren  Verfall  in  Ital. ;  in  the  hist, 
theol.  Ztschr.  1843,  II.)  —  Reformatory  measures  in  Italy  took  various 
courses.  A  large  part  of  the  Humanists  had  given  up  all  interest  in 
Christianity  for  a  self-sufficient  sort  of  heathenism,  and  maintained  the 
same  position  towards  the  Reformation  as  to  the  old  Church  ;  another 
portion  desired  a  reformation  in  an  Erasmian  sense.  Both  remained 
in  their  old  ecclesiastical  relations.  At  the  same  time  many  learned 
men  took  a  more  decided  stand,  some  of  whom  took  matters  into  their 
own  hands,  and  assailed  the  fundamental  truths  of  Christianity.  (Italy 
was,  especially,  the  rendezvous  of  many  Anti-Trinitarians,  $  28),  whilst 
others  attached  themselves  to  the  German,  but  most  to  the  Helvetic 
Reformation.  Each  party  endeavored  to  reach  the  people  by  preaching 
and  writings,  and  they  often  succeeded  in  founding  separate  congrega- 
tions in  Italian  cities.  But  to  save  their  lives  the  reformers  had  to  flee 
from  the  country  ;  and  in  1542,  a  special  Inquisition  was  instituted  to 
suppress  Protestantism  in  Italy,  which,  with  reckless,  fanatical  fury, 
punished  every  appearance  of  Protestantism  with  imprisonment,  the 
galleys,  the  scaffold,  and  the  stake ;  nevertheless  it  did  not  accomplish 
its  purpose  until  towards  the  close  of  the  century.  Almost  all  the 
writings  of  the  German  and  Swiss  Reformers  were  translated  into 
Italian  soon  after  their  publication,  and  being  anonymous,  were  widely 
circulated  before  the  Inquisition  seized  upon  them.  Antonio  Brucioli 
translated  the  Bible  (1530,  etc.)  It  was  placed  in  the  Index  prohibi- 
torum,  although  the  translator  remained  in  the  Catholic  Church.  The 
Duchess  Renata  de  Ferrara,  a  sister  of  Francis  I.  of  France,  distin- 


128       SECTION    III.  — FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.   16  A.  D.) 

guished  herself  as  a  promoter  of  the  Reformation.  Her  court  became 
the  refuge  and  resort  of  French  fugitives.  Previously  ($  15,  3),  it  had 
been  proposed  to  establish  in  Italy  a  propaganda  of  noble  Catholic 
Christians,  whose  personal  experience  had  convinced  them  that  justifi- 
cation by  faith  was  the  central  doctrine  of  all  true  faith  and  practice, 
and  who  hoped  to  reanimate  the  Catholic  Church,  without  fighting 
against  it.  To  this  society  such  men  as  Cardinal  Reginald  Polus  be- 
longed ;  Bishop  Moroae  of  Modena ;  the  Spaniard  Juan  Yaldez  (secre- 
tary of  the  Viceroy  of  Naples)  ;  James  Sadoletus  (author  of  a  Commen- 
tary on  the  Romans)  ;  the  legate  Contarini,  and  others.  The  principles 
of  this  movement  are  most  clearly  and  perfectly  set  forth  in  the  small 
work  del  beneficio  di  Giesu  Christo,  whose  author,  Aonius  Palearius, 
was  prof,  of  class,  liter,  at  Siena.  In  sis  years,  GO, 000  copies  were 
printed  at  Venice  alone.  A  large  number  of  editions  appeared  else- 
where, partly  in  the  original,  partly  in  translations.  But  thirty  years 
afterwards,  no  copy  in  the  original  could  be  found,  and  after  one  hun- 
dred years  no  translation  ;  so  thoroughly  and  consistently  had  the  In- 
quisition done  its  work  of  extermination.  In  Rome,  piles  of  it  as  high 
as  houses  wei'e  burnt.  But  in  1843,  a  copy  of  the  original  of  1543,  was 
discovered  and  republished  in  London  in  1853.  Among  the  most  dis- 
tinguished reformers  who  wholly  renounced  popery  were  :  (1.)  Bernar- 
dino Ochino,  from  1538  General  of  the  Capuchins,  and  long  renowned 
as  a  controversialist  against  the  Lutheran  and  Zwinglian  heresy  ;  but 
in  that  very  way  led  to  a  closer  acquaintance  with  reformation  writings. 
He  united  with  the  Reformed  Church  in  1542,  fled  to  Geneva,  and  after 
that  labored  in  Basel,  Augsburg,  Strassburg,  and  London.  After  the 
death  of  Edward  VI.  he  had  to  flee  from  England,  became  preacher  in 
Zurich,  inclined  to  Socinianism,  and  even  vindicated  polygamy.  On 
this  account  he  was  deposed,  fled  to  Poland,  and  died  (15G4)  in  Mora- 
via. (2.)  Peter  Martyr  Vermilio,  an  Augustine  monk  and  esteemed 
preacher.  He  was  induced  to  leave  the  Catholic  Church  by  studying 
the  writings  of  Erasmus,  Zwingli,  and  Bucer.  He  fled  to  Zurich,  be- 
came Professor  in  Strassburg,  and  was  also  called  to  England  by 
Cranuher,  where  he  accepted  a  Professorship  in  Oxford.  When  Mary 
became  queen,  he  returned  to  Strassburg,  and  died  whilst  professor  in 
Zurich  (15G2).  [Cf.  C.  Schmidt,  P.  M.  Vermigli,  etc.  Elberfeld,  1857. 
— Tr.]  (3.)  Peter  Paid  Vcrgcrius,  Bishop  of  Capo  d'Istria,  and  papal 
legate  in  Germany  (§  14,  1),  when  he  personally  conferred  with  Luther. 
After  that,  his  enemies  accused  him  with  being  a  secret  adherent  of 
Luther.  To  clear  himself  of  this  charge,  he  studied  Luther's  writings 
with  the  purpose  of  assailing  them,  and  thus  attained  to  the  knowledge 
of  evangelical  truth,  and  had  to  flee.  The  awful  end  of  Francis  Speira 
in  Padua  (who  denied  his  faith  in  the  Gospel,  and  thereafter  fell  a  prey 
to  tormenting  doubts,  and  fears  that  he  had  committed  the  sin  against 
the  Holy  Ghost),  made  a  tremendous  impression  on  him.  He  then 
openly  joined  the  evangelical  Church,  labored  for  some  time  in  the 


CHARACTER  OF  LUTHERAN  CHURCH.      129 

district  of  Graublinden  (but  as  a  Lutheran,  not  as  a  Reformed),  and 
died  whilst  professor  in  Tubingen  (15G5).  (Cf.  C.  H.  Sixt.,  P.  P.  Verg. 
Eine  reformationsgeschichtliche  Monogr.  Braunschw.  1855.) 

14.  Common  opposition  to  the  Punnan  papacy  awakened  a  desire  to 
form  a  connection  with  the  Eastern  Church.  Demetrius  Mysos,  a  deacon 
of  Constantinople,  spent  some  months  with  Melanchthon  in  1559,  and 
on  his  return  took  a  Greek  translation  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  with 
him ;  but  no  notice  was  taken  of  the  matter.  Twenty  years  later,  the 
other  theologians  opened  new  negotiations  with  the  patriarch  Jeremiah 
II.,  through  the  Lutheran  clergyman  Stephen  Gerlach,  who  visited 
Constantinople  on  an  embassy  of  Maximilian  II.  Thereupon,  the 
ministers  of  Tubingen  sent  the  patriarch  a  Greek  translation  of  the 
Augsburg  Confession,  prepared  by  Martin  Crusius,  and  requested  his 
opinion  upon  it.  The  patriarch  candidly  pointed  out,  in  his  reply,  the 
errors  of  the  book.  The  Tubingen  clergy  vindicated  their  creed,  and 
in  a  second  reply  the  patriarch  reiterated  his  objections.  A  third  letter 
was  written,  but  the  patriarch  refused  to  give  further  explanations  ; 
and  to  a  fourth  he  made  no  reply.     (Cf.  \  32,  2.) 


B.    INNER    HISTORY    OF    THE    CHURCHES    OF 
THE    REFORMATION. 

§  20.  THE  DISTINCTIVE  CHARACTER  OF  THE  LUTHERAN 

CHURCH. 

Cf.  Max  Gbbel,  d.  rel.  Eigenthumlichk.  d.  luth.  u.  ref.  K.  1837.— J?u- 
delbach,  Ref.,  Luthersh.,  u.  Union.  Lpz.,  1839. —  Wiggers,  kirchl. 
Statistik.  I.  92,  etc. — K.  Strbbel,  d.  Unterschied  d.  luth  u.  ref.  K. ;  in 
the  luth.  Ztschr.  1842,  III.  —  [D  'Aubigne,  Lutheranism  and  the  Re- 
form. ;  in  the  Bibl.  Repository  for  Jan.  1845. — Tr.] 

Western  Christianity  has  reached  its  purest,  richest,  and  most 
vigorous  form  in  the  Lutheran  Church.  In  it  the  Germanic 
Christian  spirit,  which  had  striven  after  independence  from  the 
time  of  Boniface  and  Charlemagne,  attained  to  Christian  matu- 
rity, and  emancipated  itself  from  its  Roman  tutor,  who  had  be- 
come a  selfish  tyrant.  It  appropriates  without  solicitude  the 
rich  treasures  of  true  catholicity  which  the  ancient  Church  had 
developed  in  the  form  of  Graco-Romanic  culture,  enriched  by 
the  experiences  and  events  of  mediaeval  toils.  It  is  the  Church 
occupying  the  true  medium  between  all  sensualizing  and  spi- 
ritualizing forms  of  Religion,  between  a  slavish  objective  and  an 


130        SECTION    III. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

arbitrary  subjective  ecclesiasticism,  as  the  former  has  more  of 
less  predominated  in  the  Roman  Catholic,  and  the  other  in  the 
Helvetic  Reformed  Church.  This,  its  proper  mission,  to  repre- 
sent and  develop  the  true  harmonizing  medium  between  the  eccle- 
siastical extremes  of  the  West,  the  Lutheran  Church  has  accom- 
plished primarily,  most  vigorously,  purely,  and  completely,  with 
reference  to  doctrine.  And  it  was  right  to  do  so.  For  the 
doctrine  of  the  Gospel  is  the  life-blood  of  the  Church,  the  pulsa- 
tions of  which  throb  through  her  entire  organism.  But  the 
Lutheran  Church  had  a  similar  vocation  in  regard  to  all  the 
other  forms  of  ecclesiasticism.  And  this  calling  it  endeavored 
from  the  start  to  fulfil.  It  must  indeed  be  admitted  that  in  its 
process  of  reformation  and  resuscitation,  it  may  not  have  at- 
tained to  that  complete  firmness  and  certainty,  clearness  and 
truth,  of  which  it  can  boast  in  regard  to  doctrine.  Nevertheless, 
it  cannot  be  denied,  that  even  its  otherwise  still  imperfect  or 
defective  forms  are  animated  by  a  powerful  impulse  to  harmonize 
extremes.  But  this  much  is  undeniable,  and  has  been  its  most 
distinctive  characteristic  ever  since  its  establishment  at  the 
Augsburg  diet,  in  opposition  to  the  Catholic  and  Reformed 
Churches  :  it  is  the  Church  of  the  pure  doctrine,  a  doctrine 
which  truly  reconciles  and  unites  extremes,  equally  guarded 
against  heresy,  and  open  to  scientific  development.      [Cf.  §  21]. 

The  Lutheran  Church  maintains  a  genuine  conciliatory  character 
between  the  Catholic  and  Reformed  Churches,  even  in  its  fundamental 
view  of  Christianity.  The  essence  of  Christianity  consists  in  the  union 
of  the  divine  and  human  (in  the  person  of  Christ  as  the  prototype,  also 
in  the  Bible,  in  the  Church,  in  the  sacrament,  in  the  Christian  life, 
etc.)  The  ultimate  and  inmost  ground  of  diversity  between  the  three 
Western  Churches,  lies  in  their  different  manner  and  method  of  con- 
templating and  apprehending  this  union.  The  Catholic  Church  wishes 
to  see  it,  the  Lutheran  to  believe  it,  the  Reformed  to  understand  it.  The 
tendency  of  the  Catholic  Church  is  to  confound  the  divine  with  the 
human,  and  in  such  a  way  that  the  human  loses  its  character  as  human, 
and  the  union  with  the  divine  is  regarded  as  an  identification.  The 
Reformed  Church,  on  the  other  hand,  is  disposed  to  separate  the  two, 
contemplating  each  by  itself,  and  regarding  the  union  as  a  juxtaposi- 
tion, not  objectively  but  subjectively,  not  really  but  ideally.  The  Lit- 
theran  Church,  equally  avoiding  t lie  idea  of  a  confusion  and  a  separa- 
tion of  the  two  elements,  regards  the  union  as  a  must  vital,  intimate, 
and  efficient  communion,  penetration,  and  reciprocity,  thus  completely 
harmonizing  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  3d  and  4th  General 


CHARACTER  OF  LUTHERAN  CHURCH.      131 

Councils,  most  clearly  developing  them,  and  giving  them  their  most 
comprehensive  application.  In  the  view  of  the  Catholic  Church,  the 
human  and  earthly,  which  is  often  the  imperfect  hearer  of  the  divine, 
in  which  the  divine  is  too  often  manifested  under  narrowing  limitations, 
are  often  taken  in  themselves  for  the  divine.  Thus  in  its  conception 
of  the  Church,  which  leads  to  the  doctrine  of  a  merely  external  Church, 
which  alone  can  give  salvation ;  its  idea  of  the  human  historical  deve- 
lopment of  the  Church,  leading  to  the  absolute  authority  of  tradition, 
and  the  perversion  of  the  true  relation  between  the  Scriptures  and 
tradition  ;  its  view  of  the  sacraments,  hence  its  contemplation  of  them 
as  opus  operatum,  and  its  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  ;  its  theory 
of  the  priesthood,  leading  to  the  hierarchy ;  its  doctrine  of  sanctifica- 
tion,  favoring  semipelagianism,  and  righteousness  by  works,  etc.  The 
Reformed  Church  contemplated  truth  in  a  diametrically  opposite  way. 
It  isolated  the  divine  in  Christianity  from  its  earthly,  visible  bearer, 
sublimating  and  spiritualizing  the  former,  despising  the  other,  and  re- 
garding the  operation  of  the  divine  upon  the  human  as  purely  spiritual, 
and  conditioned  by  personal  faith.  In  the  Scriptures  it  largelv  denies 
the  human  historical  element,  so  that  even  the  vowel  points  and  punc- 
tuations were  thought  to  be  inspired.  The  divinely  historical  in  the 
Church,  on  the  other  hand,  was  not  recognized  by  it,  but  all  tradition 
was  rejected,  and  with  it  all  historical  development,  normal  or  abnor- 
mal, was  cut  off.  In  its  apprehension  of  Scriptures,  the  literal  sense 
was  disregarded  in  favor  of  the  spiritual  import,  and  in  its  conception 
of  the  Church,  the  significance  of  the  visible  was  disparaged  in  favor 
of  the  invisible  Church.  In  reference  to  the  person  of  Christ,  it  allowed 
itself,  in  Nestorian  style,  to  exclude  the  human  nature  of  the  exalted 
Redeemer  from  a  full  personal  participation  in  all  the  attributes  of  his 
Godhead.  In  the  sacraments,  it  separated  the  supersensuous  grace 
from  the  material  elements ;  and  in  the  doctrine  of  predestination,  it 
isolated  the  divine  predetermination  from  human  self-determination, 
etc.  The  Lutheran  Church,  on  the  contrary,  shunned  both  these  ex- 
tremes, and  combined  the  truths  which  underlay  each,  into  a  living," 
connected  unity.  In  regard  to  the  Bible,  it  neither  holds  to  the  letter 
without  the  spirit,  nor  to  the  spirit  without  the  letter ;  in  history,  it 
recognizes  the  presence  and  operation  of  the  Spirit  of  God  within  the 
sphere  of  the  human  development  of  the  Church,  and  only  rejects  a 
false  tradition,  which  does  not  proceed  organically  from  the  Scriptures, 
but  is  rather  contradictory  to  it.  In  regard  to  the  Church,  it  maintains 
the  significance  of  the  invisible  as  much  as  that  of  the  visible  Church. 
Touching  the  doctrine  of  the  person  of  Christ,  it  affirms  the  complete 
humanity  and  complete  divinity  of  both  natures,  in  their  living  union, 
and  most  intimate  reciprocal  relation.  In  regard  to  the  sacraments,  it 
concedes  the  reality  of  the  objective  act  of  God,  which  offers  heavenly 
grace  through  earthly  elements,  and  that  of  man's  subjective  position, 
by  which,  according  to  his  faith  or  unbelief,  the  sacrament  ministers 


132      SECTION   III. — FIRST   PERIOD    (CENT.  16   A.  D.)  . 

to  his  salvation  or  condemnation.   And  in  regard  to  the  divine  decrees 
it  solves  the  seeming  contradiction  between  God's  predestination  and 
man's  self-determination,  by  making  the  former  conditional  upon  God's 
prescience  (not  reversely,  as  Calvin  declares). 


I  21.  DOCTRINAL  CONTROVERSIES  IN  THE  LUTHERAN 

CHURCH. 

Cf.  G.  Walch,  Einleit,  in  d.  Religionstreitigk.  d.  luth.  K.  Jena,  1733, 
5  Bde. —  Thmnasius,  d.  Bekenntn.  d.  ev.-luth.  K.  in  d.  Consequ.  s. 
Princips.  Nliremb.  1848.  —  Planck,  Gesch.  d.  protest.  Theol.  bis  z. 
Concordienformel.  Lpz.,  179G,  3  Bde.  —  H.  Heppe,  Gesch.  d.  deutsch. 
Protestant,  v.  J.  1551-81.     4  Bde.  1852,  etc. 

Even  during  Luther's  life,  and  still  more  after  his  death  (1546), 
various,  and,  in  part,  very  violent  doctrinal  controversies,  broke 
out  in  the  newly  established  Lutheran  Church.  The  same  ne- 
cessity which  impelled  the  ancient  Church,  in  the  4th  and  5th 
centuries,  accurately  to  define  and  fix  Catholic  views  of  doctrine, 
prevailed  in  this  case  also ;  and  what  was  said,  in  the  history  of 
that  period,  of  the  importance  of  ecclesiastical  controversies  in 
general,  and  the  violence  which  often  attended  them,  applies  in 
part  to  the  present  instance.  The  Lutheran  Church,  moreover, 
was  driven  into  these  struggles  by  its  peculiar  character.  As 
the  Church  which  occupied  the  true  middle  ground,  it  had  to 
define  the  limits  which  separated  it  from  the  frontiers  of  the  two 
ecclesiastical  extremes,  strictly  and  sharply,  distinctly  and  truly  ; 
and  as  the  Church  of  pure  doctrine,  it  was  necessary  for  it  to 
clear  up,  perfect,  and  definitely  settle  its  own  doctrinal  system. 
But  these  struggles,  notwithstanding  their  violence,  did  not  lead 
to  a  schism  in  the  communions,  because  the  Lutheran  Church 
was  so  firmly  and  securely  rooted,  from  the  start,  in  ancient, 
genuine  Catholicity. 

1.  The,  Pliilippisfs.  —  Soon  after  the  adoption  of  the  common  confes- 
sion at  Augsburg,  two  tendencies,  which  gradually  separated  more 
widely,  began  to  develop  themselves  in  the  Lutheran  Church.  The  one 
partv,  headed  by  Melanchthon  (Philippists),  endeavored  fco  widen  the 
platform,  on  which  Catholics  on  the  one  hand,  and  Reformed  on  the 
other,  might  stand,  and  thus  effect  an  approximation  to  union  and 
harmony.  The  other  party,  led  by  Amsdorf,  Flaeius,  and  Wigand, 
strove  rather  to  define  the  pure  Lutheran  system  with  all  possible 
strictness,  so  as  to  guard  it  against  any  admixture  with  Catholicising 
or  Calvinistic  elements.     Luther  attached  himself  to  neither  part}',  but 


CONTROVERSIES  IN  LUTHERAN  CHURCH.   133 

endeavored  to  keep  both  from  plunging  into  their  respective  extremes, 
and,  as  far  as  possible,  to  maintain  peace  between  both.  In  a  new 
edition  of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  of  1540,  Melanchthon  modified  the 
statement  concerning  faith  and  works,  to  conciliate  Catholics,  and  that 
touching  the  Lord's  Supper  to  accommodate  Calvinists.  The  unaltered 
confession  declared :  Docent,  quod  corpus  et  sanguis  Domini  vere  adsint 
et  disiribuantur  vescentibus  in  coena  Domini,  et  improbant  secus  do- 
centes.  For  this  he  substituted:  Quod  cum  pane  et  vino  vere  exhibeantur 
corpus  et  sanguis  Christi  vescentibus  in  coena  Domini.  This  statement 
was,  indeed,  not  directly  and  exclusively  Calvinistic,  for  then  it  should 
have  used  credentibus  for  vescentibus.  Nevertheless,  this  arbitrary 
and  Calvinising  change  embittered  the  stringent  Lutherans,  and  even 
Luther  admonished  the  author  that  the  book  was  not  his,  but  was  the 
confession  of  the  entire  Church.  When  the  Philippists,  therefore,  after 
Luther's  death,  made  many  other  concessions  to  the  Catholics,  in  the 
Leipsic  Interim  (1548/),  the  Lutherans  pronounced  it  open  treachery  to 
the  Church.  Magdeburg  persistently  rejected  the  Interim,  and  became 
the  refuge  of  all  zealous  Lutherans ;  and  in  opposition  to  Philippist 
Wittenberg,  the  sons  of  the  ex-elector,  John  Frederick,  founded,  by  his 
direction,  the  university  of  Jena,  as  the  stronghold  of  rigid  Lutheranism. 
From  the  antagonisms  of  these  two  parties  sprang,  chiefly,  the  doctrinal 
controversies  of  the  Reformation  period. 

2.  The  Antinomian  Controversy  (1537-40)  was  about  the  authority  of 
the  law  in  Christianity.  John,  Agricola  of  Eisleben  (from  1536  Prof,  in 
Wittenberg,  and  from  1540  court-preacher  in  Berlin,  aided  in  preparing 
the  Augsburg  Interim,  1548,  ob.  1566),  took  offence,  as  early  as  1527, 
at  Melanchthon's  urging  the  preacher,  in  the  visitation  circulars,  to  in- 
struct the  people  diligently  in  the  law.  From  1537,  he  disputed  with 
Luther  himself  about  it.  He  did  not  contend  against  the  use  of  the 
law  outside  of  the  Church  for  educational  and  civil  purposes  ;  but  upon 
the  correct  principle  that  an  authoritative  system  of  morality  could  not 
help  man,  he  erroneously  maintained  that  the  law  no  longer  concerned 
Christians,  and  that  only  the  Gospel  should  be  preached,  which  would 
lead  men  to  repentance  through  the  power  of  divine  love.  Melanch- 
thon and  Luther,  on  the  contrary,  regarded  sorrow  and  contrition  over 
sin  as  the  fruits  of  the  law,  but  the  saving  purpose  of  amendment  as 
the  effect  of  the  Gospel;  and  they  required  the  law  to  be  continuously 
preached,  because,  in  the  imperfection  of  man's  present  holiness,  a  re- 
pentance daily  renewed  is  necessary.  The  deeper  ground  of  difference  in 
these  views  lay  in  Agricola's  over-estimate  of  human  nature,  which  he 
did  not  think  so  depraved  but  that,  without  being  smitten  by  the  ter- 
rors of  the  law  and  condemnation,  it  might  be  induced  to  hate  sin  and 
follow  righteousness.  In  antithesis  to  the  Catholic  "  Pelagianism  of  the 
law,"  which  concedes  to  man  a  natural  ability  to  do  good  works,  and  coop- 
eration in  his  justification,  he  fell  into  a  "Pelagianism  of  the  Gospel," 
which  ascribes  to  man  a  natural  ability  to  accept  proffered  righteous- 
55 


134        SECTION    III. FIRST    PERIOD    (1ENT.  16    A.  D.). 

ness  for  its  own  sake.  After  carrying  on  the  controversy,  orallj  and 
with  the  pen,  for  several  years,  Agricola  discovered  the  error  of  his 
theory,  and  formally  renounced  it.     (Berlin,  1540.) 

3.  The  subject  of  the  Osiandrian  Controversy  (1549-67)  was  the  na- 
ture of  Justification  and  its  relation  to  sanctification.  In  opposition  to 
the  Catholic  doctrine  of  justification  by  works  also,  Luther  regarded 
redemption  as  a  twofold  act  of  God,  bestowed  upon  man  only  through 
faith.  He  distinguished  between  justification  as  a  divine  act  wrought 
for  man,  and  sanctification  as  a  divine  operation  in  man.  The  former 
consists  in  this,  that  Christ  made  atonement  on  the  cross,  once  for  all, 
for  the  sins  of  the  whole  world,  and  that  God  now  imputes  the  merits 
of  Christ's  atoning  death  to  every  single  believer,,  as  his  own  (as  it 
were  forensically),  and  thus  declares  him  righteous,  but  does  not  make 
him  so.  The  believer  becomes  actually  righteous,  rather  on  the  ground 
and  as  a  consequence  of  his  being  declared  so,  through  a  growing 
sanctification,  extending  over  his  entire  earthly  life,  but  never  attaining 
absolute  perfection  hare,  by  virtue  of  the  communication  of  the  new 
life,  provided  and  brought  to  light  by  Clirist.  Andrew  Osiander  (from 
1522  preacher  in  Nuremberg,  and  in  1549  made  professor  at  the  newly 
founded  university  of  Kiinigsberg,  by  Duke  Albert  of  Prussia,  who 
had  been  converted  to  the  evangelical  faith  by  his  preaching.  He  died 
in  1552),  advocated,  in  Konigsberg,  a  view  varying  from  this,  and  ap- 
proximating the  Catholic  doctrine.  He  confounded  sanctification  with 
justification,  and  regarded  the  latter  not  as  a  declaring  righteous,  but 
as  a  making  righteous,  not  as  a  judicial  but  a  sanitary  act,  effected 
by  an  infusion,  i.  e.,  a  constant  inflowing  of  the  righteousness  of 
Christ.  He  considered  the  atoning  death  of  Christ  only  as  the  nega- 
tive condition  of  justification,  the  positive  condition  being  Christ's  in- 
carnation, and  justification  the  formation  of  Christ  in  the  believer. 
Osiander  objected  to  Luther's  forensic  view,  because  it  seemed  to  him 
to  exclude  the  subjective  element  in  justification  (which,  however,  is 
present  in  faith  as  the  subjective  condition  of  man's  being  declared 
righteous).  The  controversy  was  carried  on  by  the  Osiandrists  and 
their  Konigsberg  opponents  (MOrlin,  Staphylas,  Stancarus,  etc.)  with, 
equal  vagueness  and  vehemence,  and  several  theologians  from  a  dis- 
tance failed,  by  written  opinions  sent  in  (among  them  one  from  Me- 
lanchthon,  and  another  from  Brenz),  to  settle  the  dispute.  After  Osian- 
der's  death,  his  son-in-law,  the  court-preacher  John  Funk,  also  in  favor 
with  the  duke,  was  at  the  head  of  the  party,  and  filled  all  the  offices 
with  his  adherents.  He  likewise  rashly  mixed  in  with  political  in- 
trigues, and,  in  execution  of  a  sentence  of  the  supreme  Polish  commis- 
sion, was  beheaded  for  high  treason  in  L556.  The  other  Osiandrists 
were  deposed  and  banished.  Morlin,  previously  exiled,  returned,  and 
as  Bishop  of  Samland,  reorganized  the  Prussian  Church,  ami  Martin 
Chemnitz  (previously  rector  in  Konigsberg,  then  superintendent  in 
Brunswick),  was  called  to  prepare  a  standard  i>f  doctrine  (Corpus  doc- 


CONTROVERSIES  IN  LUTHERAN  CHURCH.    135 

trinae  Pruthenicum). — The  preference  given  by  Osiander  to  the  divine 
nature  in  the  work  of  redemption,  led  to  another  controversy  about  the 
declaration  of  Stancar  (a  man  notorious  for  his  petty  disputes  —  hence 
the  expression  :  St'ankereien),  that  man's  redemption  rests  wholly  upon 
the  human  nature  of  Christ.  (Cf.  H.  Wilken,  Osiander's  Leben,  etc. 
I.  Strals.,  1844.  —  Hiiberle,  Osiander's  Lehre  ;  in  the  Studd.  u.  Kritt., 
1844.  —  Ritschl,  d.  Rechtfertigungsl.  d.  A.  Os.  in  the  Jahrbb.  fur 
deutsehe  Theol.  von  Dorner  u.  Liebner.  II.  H.  4.) 

4.  The  Adiaphoristic  Controversy  (1548-55),  concerning  the  admissi- 
bility of  Catholic  forms  in  the  constitution  and  worship  of  the  Church, 
sprang  from  the  introduction  of  the  Catholicising  Leipsic  Interim.  This 
regarded  most  Catholic  forms  as  adiaphora,  or  neutral  matters,  which 
might  be  admitted  as  non-essential.  On  the  other  hand  the  Lutherans 
maintained  that  matters  in  themselves  indifferent,  ceased  to  be  so  under 
circumstances  like  the  present.  Of  course  the  cause  of  this  controversy 
was  removed  by  the  Augsburg  Peace. 

5.  The  Majoristic  Controversy  (1551-G2)  turned  upon  the  necessity 
of  good  works.  The  Interim  led  strict  Lutherans  to  regard  the  Philip- 
pists  with  boundless  mistrust.  When,  therefore,  in  1551,  George  Major 
of  AVittenberg  affirmed,  in  essential  accordance  with  the  Interim  and 
Melanchthon's  theology,  that  good  ivorks  were  necessary  to  salvation, 
and  refused  to  retract,  Amsdorf  took  the  equally  objectionable  position 
that  good  works  were  detrimental  to  salvation.  Notwithstanding  the 
violence  of  this  controversy,  also,  more  reflecting  persons  saw  that  both 
parties  erred  by  using  vague  and  extreme  expressions,  and  acknow- 
ledged, on  the  one  hand,  that  not  good  works  in  themselves,  but  only 
faith,  was  necessary  to  salvation,  whilst  at  the  same  time,  good  works 
were  the  indispensable  fruit  of  genuine  saving  faith,  and  necessary  to 
its  maintenance  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  good  works  were  not  in 
themselves  pernicious,  but  only  reliance  upon  them,  instead  of  upon 
the  merits  of  Christ  alone.  For  the  sake  of  peace,  Major  recalled  his 
assertion.     But  the  controversy  was  kept  up  for  years. 

6.  The  Synergistic  Controversy  (1555-67)  was  about  the  cooperation 
of  the  human  will  in  conversion.  Luther,  in  his  controversy  with 
Erasmus,  in  accordance  with  the  first  edition  of  Melanchthon's  Loci, 
had  totally  denied  the  ability  of  human  nature  to  embrace  salvation 
by  its  own  power,  and  taught  the  absolute  and  exclusive  agency  of 
divine  grace  in  conversion.  In  later  editions  of  the  Loci  and  of  the 
Augsburg  Confession,  however,  Melanchthon  taught  a  certain  coopera- 
tion (synergism)  of  the  remains  of  free-will  in  man,  in  conversion  ; 
and  in  the  edition  of  1548,  he  defined  this  as  the  ability  of  man  to  em- 
brace proffered  salvation  of  his  own  accord  (facultas  se  applicandi  ad 
gratiam).  In  the  Leipsic  Interim,  also,  he  avoided  the  Lutheran 
shibboleth  sold  (by  faith  "alone"),  though  he  most  decidedly  denied 
all  merit  to  man  in  conversion      Luther  bore  Melanchthon's  change 


130      SECTION    III    — FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  H    A.  D.). 

of  opinion  with  noble  toleration,  with  a  charity  that  hopeth  all  things 
and  endureth  all  things,  only  he  reproached  him  for  smuggling  his 
views  into  the  confession  of  the  Church.     After  the  enactment  of  the 
Leipsic  Interim,  the  suspicion  and  dissatisfaction  of  the  rigid  Lutherans 
daily  increased,  and  it  burst  forth  in  a  most  violent  controversy,  when 
John  Pfeffinger,  superintendent  in  Leipsic,  who  had  participated  in  the 
odious  Interim,  issued  a  book  on  free-will  in  vindication  of  Melanch- 
thon's  synergism  (1555).     The  leaders  of  rigid  Lutheranism,  Nicholas 
v.  Amsdorf,  Matthias  Flacius  of  Illyria,  and  John  Wigand,  colleagues 
at  the  university  of  Jena,  felt  that  they  dare  no  longer  keep  silence. 
At  the  request  of  the  Duke  of  Weimar,  they  prepared  a  confutation, 
designed   to   be  the   standard  of  restored  Lutheranism  ;  and  Victoria 
Strigel,  a  professor  in  Jena,  who  was  appointed  to  assist  them,  had  to 
atone  for  his  sympathy  with  synergistic  views,  by  a  severe  imprison- 
ment.    But  the  duke  soon  became  more  favorably  disposed  towards 
Strigel ;  and  the  rigid  Lutherans,  who  persistently  opposed  the  duke's 
injunctions,  were  expelled,  and  the  university  chairs  were  filled  with 
Melanchthonians.     A  change  in  the   government,   however,   restored 
the  Lutheran  party  to  power  in  the  duchy  of  Saxony  (1567),  and  in 
electoral  Saxony,  also,  synergism  gradually  lost  its  supports  (Melanch- 
thon  died  in  1500).  —  In  a  colloquy  with   Strigel  at  Weimar  (1560), 
Flacius  allowed  himself  to  assert,  in  the  heat  of  controversy,   that 
original  sin  was  not  something  accidental,  in  man,  but  something  sub- 
stantial.     His   friends,   even,   urged    him    to   retract   this   manifestly 
Manichaean  statement,  which  sounded  worse  than  he  meant.     But  a 
man  of  Flacius'  character  could  not  easily  be  induced  to  do  this.     In 
1562  he  was  banished,  with  the  other  Lutherans,  and  in  1567  he  was 
not  recalled  with  them.     He  now  roamed  restlessly  about,  driven  from 
every  place,  and  only  a  short  time  before  his  death  (1575),  recalled  his 
hasty  expression. — Thus,  a  man  of  strong  character  and  astonishing 
erudition,  was  destroyed  by  unpropitious  circumstances,  for  which  he 
was  partly  innocent  and  partly  to  blame.     (Cf.  E.  Schmidt,  d.  Flacius 
Erbsiindenstreit ;  in  the  hist,  theol.  Ztschr.  1849.  I.  II.  —  A.  Ticesten, 
Matfch.  PI.     Illyr.,  Berl.,  1844.—  W.  Preger,  M.  Fl.  111.  u.  s.  Zeit.  Lpz. 
1859.     Bd.  I.) 

7.  In  the  Crypto- Calvinistic  Controversy  (1552-74),  the  doctrine  of 
the  Lord's  Supper  was  the  subject  of  dispute.  The  union  effected  with 
the  Zwinglian  cities  of  southern  Germany,  by  the  "Wittenberg  Concord 
(1536),  had  since  then  been  shaken  in  many  ways,  and  the  attacks  of 
the  Zurichers  compelled  Luther  (1544)  to  draw  up  a  final  "  Confession 
of  the  Holy  Sacrament,  against  the  fanatics.''  If  this  demonstrated  an 
incurable  rupture  with  the  Zwinglians,  it  also  showed  that  a  union  with 
the  incomparably  more  profound  doctrines  of  Calvin  was  possible.  It 
was  Mela7%chthon's  most  ardent  desire  to  effect  such  a  union.  He  be- 
came convinced,  not  indeed  that  the  Lutheran  doctrine  of  the  real 
presence  of  the  body  and  blood  in  the  bread  and  wine  was  erroneous, 


CONTROVERSIES    IN    LUTHERAN    CHURCH-      137 

but  that  Calvin's  doctrine  of  a  spiritual  participation  of  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ  (through  faith)  in  the  Supper,  did  violence  to  no  essen- 
tial religious  point;  therefore  he  sought  to  avoid  what  seemed  to  him 
an  unessential  difference  in  confession  and  doctrine.  But  the  rigid 
Lutherans  were  by  no  means  agreed  to  this  ;  and  tedious,  violent  con- 
troversies sprang  up  in  various  Lutheran  countries  (especially  in  lower 
Saxony,  in  the  Palatinate,  and  in  electoral  Saxony),  concerning  it.  The 
dispute  was  not  confined,  however,  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 
but  was  extended  to  its  deepest  basis.  Luther,  carrying  out  the  princi- 
ples of  the  third  and  fourth  General  Councils,  had  taught  that  the  per- 
sonal union  of  both  natures  in  Christ  rested  upon  a  communication  of 
the  attributes  of  the  one  to  the  other  (communicatio  idiomatum),  so  that 
Christ,  having  resumed,  since  his  ascension  to  heaven,  the  full  exercise 
of  his  divine  attributes,  as  God-man,  is  also  corporeally  omnipresent 
(ubiquitas  corporis  Christi),  and  he  could  not  be  shaken  in  his  opinion 
by  the  assertion  that  a  corporeal  omnipresence  was  incomprehensible 
by  the  natural  understanding.  In  this  way  he  answered  the  main 
objection  of  Zwingli  and  Calvin  to  Luther's  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  that  the  body  of  Christ  could  not  be  simultaneously  in  heaven 
at  the  right  hand  of  God,  and  in  the  bread  and  wine  on  earth.  But  the 
entire  spirit,  both  of  Calvin  and  Zwingli,  led  them  to  regard  the  doc- 
trine of  the  ubiquity  of  the  glorified  body  of  Christ  as  wholly  absurd, 
and,  by  an  openly  Nestorian  rejection  of  the  communicatio  idiomatum, 
to  teach  that  the  glorification  of  the  body  of  Christ  was  confined  to  its 
transfiguration,  and  that  in  heaven,  as  formerly  upon  earth,  it  could  be 
only  in  one  place.  A  necessary  consequence  of  this  view  was  the  rejec- 
tion of  the  corporeal  presence  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  and,  even  when 
high  ground  was  taken,  the  admission  that  a  communication  of  power 
from  the  exalted  body  of  Christ  was  granted  to  believers  through  the 
sacrament.  The  struggle  was  begun  by  Joachim  Westphal,  a  preacher 
in  Hamburg,  who  openly  assailed  Calvin's  doctrine,  and  its  secret  ac- 
ceptance by  many  Lutheran  theologians  (1552).  The  controversy  became 
most  violent  in  Bremen,  where  the  cathedral  preacher  Hardenberg  pub- 
licly assailed  the  article  in  the  Augsburg  Confession  concerning  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  in  Heidelberg,  where  Deacon  Klebitz  maintained 
Calvinistic  theses  concerning  the  Lord's  Supper.  In  both  cities  the 
struggle  ended  with  the  expulsion  of  Lutheranism  ($  24,  1,  2).  In 
Wittenberg,  also,  the  Philippists  G.  Major,  Paul  Eber,  Paul  Crell.  etc., 
aided  by  Caspar  Pevccr,  the  elector's  physician,  and  Melanchthon's 
son-in-law,  who  had  great  influence,  labored  from  1559  to  introduce 
Calvinism.  Melanchthon  himself  did  not  live  to  see  the  distractions 
resulting  from  this  movement,  the  Lord  having  mercifully  released  the 
deeply  humbled,  desponding  man,  who  had  long  prayed  to  be  delivered 
a  rabie  theologorvm.  He  died  April  19,  1560. —  Whilst  the  Elector 
Augustus  (1553-86)  still  considered  his  Wittenberg  the  chief  bulwark 
of  genuine  Lutheranism,  the  Philippists  carried  forward  their  plana 
55* 


138       SECTION    III. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  L>.). 

with  increasing  1  oldness,  and  endeavored  to  have  every  post  filled  by 
persons  of  their  own  views,  and  to  secure  the  field  by  anonymous  Cal- 
vinistic  honks.  At  length,  however,  the  elector  was  convinced  of*  the 
dangers  which  threatened  Lutheranism.  The  Philippists  were  all  ex- 
pelled, and  their  leaders  imprisoned  (Peucer  for  twelve  years).  The 
final  complete  victory  of  Lutheranism  was  celebrated  by  thanksgivings 
in  all  the  churches,  and  by  having  a  commemorative  medal  struck 
(1574).     (Cf.  the  literature  under  \  11.) 

8.  Of  far  less  importance  were:  (1.)  The  Karg  Controversy  (1563) 
about  the  imputation  of  the  active  obedience  of  Christ,  which  George 
Kurt/  (Parsimonius)  a  minister  of  Anspach,  controverted  for  a  season  ; 
afterwards  he  retracted,  having  been  convinced  of  his  error  by  the 
Wittenberg  theologians.  (2.)  The  controversy  with  John  JSpinus, 
minister  in  Hamburg,  who,  in  a  commentary  on  the  16th  Psalm, 
adopted  the  Reformed  view  of  Christ's  descent  into  hell,  that  it  belonged 
to  his  state  of  humiliation,  and  completed  the  passive  obedience  of 
Christ  by  his  endurance  of  hell-punishment,  whilst  the  current  Lutheran 
regarded  it  as  a  triumphant  proof  of  his  victory  over  hell  and  death, 
and  as  belonging  to  his  state  of  exaltation.  A  Wittenberg  opinion 
(1550)  on  the  subject  left  the  point  undecided,  and  the  Form  of  Con- 
cord, also,  rested  with  the  assertion  that  Christ,  in  his  entire  person, 
descended  into  hell,  to  deliver  man  from  death  and  from  the  power  of 
the  devil. 

9.  The  Form  of  Concord  (1577).  (Cf.  /.  N.  Anton,  Gesch.  d.  Concor- 
dienf.  Lpz.,  1779,  2  Bde. — /.  C.  G.  Johannsen,  Jac.  Andrea's  concor- 
dist.  Th'atigk. ;  in  d.  hist,  theol.  Ztschr.  1853,  III.  — 7/.  Heppe,  1.  c. 
Bd.  III.  IV.  Gesch.  d.  luth.  Concordienf.  u.  Concordie.  Marb.  1857-58. 
— A~.  F.  Goschel,  d.  C.  F.  nach  ihrer  Gesch.  Lehre,  u.  Bdtg.  Lpz.,  1858. 
—F.  II.  R.  Frank,  d.  Theol.  d.  C.  F.  Erlg.  1858.)— Jacob  Andrea,  the 
learned  chancellor  of  Tubingen,  had  been  laboring  indefatigably  for 
.some  time,  to  restore  peace  among  the  theologians  of  the  Lutheran 
Church.  In  connection  with  Martin  Chemnitz,  a  prudent  and  moderate 
admirer  of  Melanchthon.  and  after  consultation  with  many  other  theo- 
logians, Andrea  prepared  a,form  of  union  (157-!).  which  was  thoroughly 
revised  at  a  theological  convention  in  the  Wurtemberg  monastery  of 
Maulbronn.  This  Maulbronn  Form  was  submitted  to  the  judgment  of  a 
number  of  theologians,  after  which  a  second  convention  of  theologians 
was  held  at  Torgau  (1576),  which  took  into  consideration  the  opinions 
received,  and  prepared  the  Torgau  Book.  Upon  this  production,  also. 
the  evangelical  princes  solicited  numerous  opinions ;  and  then,  by  their 
direction,  Jacob  Andrea,  Chemnitz,  Selneelcer,  Chytrceus,  And.  Musculus, 
etc.,  met  in  the  monastery  of  Bergen,  near  Magdeburg,  to  prepare  a 
final  plan.  Thus  the  Berglr  Boot:,  or  Form  of  Concord,  originate:!. 
Besides  setting  forth  views  upon  previously  controverted  doctrines 
(especially  that  concerning  the  person    of  Christ,  as  the  basis  of  the 


CONTROVERSIES  IN  LUTHERAN  CHURCH.   139 

doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper),  the  decision  regarding  the  synergistic 
question,  rendered  it  necessary  to  refer  to  the  subject  of  i'redestina- 
tion,  in  the  Form  of  Concord,  although  there  had  not  been  any  actual 
dispute  about  it  in  the  Lutheran  Church.  Luther  at  first  spoke  in  favor 
of  a  particular  election,  but  gradually  receded  from  the  doctrine.  Me- 
lanchthon  had  done  the  same,  only  with  the  important  difference,  that 
whilst  Luther  denied  to  the  last  all  human  cooperation  in  conversion, 
Melanchthon  felt  constrained  to  admit  a  certain  measure  of  cooperation, 
and  even  Calvin's  reproof  could  not  dissuade  him  from  it.  The  Form 
of  Concord  most  decidedly  rejected  synergism,  and  affirmed  that  since 
the  Fall  man  had  not  a  spark  (ne  scintilla  quidem)  of  spiritual  power 
remaining,  to  embrace,  of  his  own  accord,  proffered  grace.  It  assumed, 
therefore,  in  opposition  to  Melanchthon,  the  same  ground  which  had 
forced  Calvin,  by  rigid  logical  consequences,  to  adopt  the  theory  of 
absolute  predestination,  and  it  could  not  avoid  explaining  its  relation 
to  that  theory.  It  escapes  Calvinistic  conclusions  by  admitting  that, 
although  man  has  no  power  in  himself  to  reach  after  or  coooperate 
with  divine  grace,  he  can  resist  and  reject  it.  In  accordance  with  this 
it  can  affirm  the  explicit  doctrine  of  the  Scriptures,  which  teaches  that 
it  is  the  will  of  Crod  that  all  men  be  saved,  and  regard  salvation  as  an 
absolute  work  of  grace,  but  man's  damnation  as  the.  consequence  of  his 
own  guilt.  It  considers  man's  salvation,  only,  as  an  object  of  divine 
predestination,  whilst  his  damnation  is  an  object  of  divine  prescience. — 
The  cliar-actcr  of  this  new  confession  was  not  so  much  popular  as,  in 
accordance  with  its  purpose  and  aim,  scientific  and  theological  ;  and 
its  wisdom,  moderation,  and  cautiousness,  as  well  as  its  precision, 
clearness,  and  depth,  are  really  great  and  admirable.  The  signa- 
tures of  9000  Church  teachers  testified  that  it  answered  its  pur- 
pose. Denmark,  Sweden,  Holstein,  Pomerania,  Hessen,  Anhalt,  and 
eight  -cities  (Magdeburg,  Nuremberg,  Strassburg,  etc.),  without  show- 
ing hostility  to  it,  refused  their  subscriptions  ;  but  it  was  subsequently 
recognized  in  many  of  those  countries  (Sweden,  Holstein,  Pomerania, 
etc.)  The  Elector  Augustus  of  Saxony  caused  a  collection  of  all  the 
Lutheran  Confessions  to  be  printed  with  the  Book  of  Concord,  and, 
signed  by  51  princes  and  35  cities,  to  be  promulgated  on  June  25,  1580, 
the  anniversary  of  the  Augsburg  Confession. 

10.  The  Articles  of  Visitation  of  Electoral  Saxony  (1592).  — The 
Calvinistic  efforts  of  the  Philippists  were  once  more  revived  under  the 
successor  of  Augustus,  Christian  I.  (from  1586),  who  was  gained  for 
this  object  through  his  relationship  with  the  princely  house  of  the 
Palatinate.  His  chancellor,  Nicholas  Crell,  filled  all  the  ecclesiastical 
offices  with  persons  holding  his  own  views,  abolished  exorcism  at  bap- 
tism, and  had  begun  to  publish  an  edition  of  the  Bible  with  Calvinistic 
notes,  when  Christian  died  (1591).  Altenburg,  the  regent  during  Duke 
Frederick  William's  minority,  immediately  restored  rigid  Lutheranism ; 
and  having  ordered  a  Church  visitation,  inserted  in  the  Articles  of 


140       SECTION   III. — FIRST   PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.  16   A.D.). 

Visitation  a  new  anti-Calvinistic  rule  of  faith,  -which  all  the  ecclesias- 
tical and  civil  officials  of  Saxony  had  thenceforth  to  swear  to  maintain 
(1592).  In  these  articles  the  doctrinal  diversities  concerning  the  Lord'a 
Supper,  the  person  of  Christ,  baptism,  and  election,  were  set  forth  in 
brief,  lucid,  and  exact  theses  and  anti-theses.  (In  regard  to  baptism, 
the  anti-Calvinistic  doctrine  is  affirmed,  that  regeneration  is  effected 
through  baptism,  and  that  therefore  all  who  are  baptized  are  regene- 
rated.) Crell,  who  had  violently  supplanted  the  nobility  during  his 
regency,  was  beheaded  for  high  treason  after  ten  years'  imprisonment. 
— JEgidius  Hunnius  had  taken  the  most  active  part  in  preparing  the 
Articles  of  Visitation.  From  1576-92,  he  had  been  professor  in  Mar- 
burg, and  opposed  with  all  his  might  the  attempt  to  make  Hesse 
Calvinistic,  and  had  shown  himself  a  most  .zealous  advocate  of  rigid 
Lutheranism,  by  his  defence  of  ubiquitarianism  ("  Bekenntniss  von  der 
Person  Christi,  1577;"  "  Libelli  IV.  de  persona  Christi  ejusque  ad 
dexteram  Dei  sedentis  divina  majestate,  1585").  From  Marburg  he 
was  called  to  Wittenberg.     (Ob.  1G03.) 

11.  The  Huber  Controversy  (1595).  —  Samuel  Euber,  a  Reformed 
preacher  in  the  canton  of  Berne,  became  involved  in  a  controversy  with 
Wolff/.  Musculus  about  election,  by  transcending  the  Lutheran  doctrine, 
and  affirming  that  all  men  are  predestinated  unto  salvation,  though, 
through  their  own  fault,  all  will  not  be  saved.  Banished  from  Berne, 
he  joined  the  Lutheran  Church,  and  was  appointed  a  preacher  in  Wur- 
temberg.  There  he  accused  Prof.  Gerlach  of  Crypto-Calvinism,  because 
he  taught  that  only  believers  were  predestinated  to  salvation.  The 
controversy  was  stopped  by  his  being  called  to  Wittenberg.  But  he 
thought  he  discovered  similar  Crypto-Calvinism  in  his  colleagues  there 
(Poh/c.  Lei/ser  and  JEgidius  Hunnius),  and  opposed  it.  All  the  dispu- 
tations and  conferences  upon  the  subject  failed  to  change  his  views  ; 
and  as  parties  arose  among  the  students,  he  was  dismissed  from  Wit- 
tenberg. He  continued  the  controversy  with  increasing  virulence,  and 
wandered  about  in  Germany  many  years,  endeavoring  to  propagate  his 
views,  but  without  success.     (Ob.  1624.) 

\  22.  CONSTITUTION,  CULTUS,  LIFE,  AND  LITERATURE  OF 
THE  LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 

In  regard  to  its  constitution,  the  Lutheran  Church  aimed  to 
maintain  its  character  as  a  mediator  between  extremes,  although, 
amidst  the  external  and  internal  agitations  which  disturbed  it,  it 
was  least  successful  in  securing  the  same  degree  of  stability  and 
completeness,  which  shone  forth  so  brilliantly  in  its  doctrinal 
system.  In  regard  to  Church  cultus,  it  was  more  fortunate.  The 
Reformation  finally  annulled  the  hierarchical  ban,  which  had  for 
centuries  excluded  congregational   singing  and  the    remacular 


CONSTITUTION;   ETC.    OF  LUTHERAN    CHURCH        141 

tongue  from  public  worship  ;  and  during  the  period  of  the  Re- 
formation, already  (but  only  in  the  Lutheran  Church),  German 
Church  hymnology  flourished  amazingly,  and  furnished  the  most 
brilliant  example  of  the  fullness,  strength,  and  fervor  of  the  lofty 
strain  and  freshness  of  the  religious  life  of  that  age.  Church 
hymns  are  the  Confession  of  the  Lutheran  laity,  and  have  done 
more  than  preaching  to  spread  and  inculcate  evangelical  truth. 
A  hymn  had  scarcely  gushed  from  the  heart  of  a  poet  before  it 
spread  everywhere  among  the  people,  penetrated  families  and 
churches,  was  sung  before  every  door,  in  workshops,  market- 
places, streets  and  fields,  and  with  a  single  stroke  won  whole 
cities  to  the  evangelical  faith.  "No  subsequent  period  was,  or 
ever  will  be,  able  to  produce  anything  equally  genuine,  effectual, 
popular,  original,  or  edifying  for  the  people."  The  religious  life 
of  the  people  in  the  Lutheran  Church  combined  deep,  earnest 
penitence,  and  a  joyful  assured  confidence  of  justification  by 
faith,  with  the  cheerful  integrity  and  cordiality  of  the  German 
citizen.  Pastoral  fidelity,  earnest  preaching,  and  the  zealous 
instruction  of  youth,  even  without  rigidly  practised  discipline, 
begat  in  the  people  a  hearty  fear  of  God,  sincere  attachment  to 
the  Church,  strict  family  discipline,  and  true  submission  to  civil 
authority.  Theological  learning  flourished  especially  at  the 
universities  of  Wittenberg,  Tubingen,  Strassburg,  Marburg,  and 
Jena.  But  there  were  also  many  who  cultivated  it,  among  those 
engaged  in  more  practical  spheres. 

1.  The  Constitution  of  the  Church.  (Cf.  L.  Bichtcr,  Gesch.  d.  ev. 
K.-verf.  in  Deutschl.  Lpz.  1851.)  —  Between  hierarchy  and  Caesar- 
ism,  between  the  absorption  of  the  State  by  the  Church,  and  of  the 
Church  by  the  State,  the  Lutheran  Church  occupied  a  medium  which 
was  in  the  main  correct,  although  somewhat  vacillating  in  theory  and 
practice.  It  decidedly  protested  both  against  every  admixture  and 
suppression  of  the  two  spheres.  In  the  exigency  of  the  Church,  the 
princes  and  magistrates  assumed  unavoidable  episcopal  power,  managed 
the  affairs  of  the  Church,  and  appointed  consistories  composed  of  lay- 
men and  clergy,  to  execute  their  orders  and  plans,  and  take  special 
charge  of  the  clergy,  Church  discipline,  and  matrimonial  questions. 
This  gradually  led  to  the  permanent  institution  of  the  episcopal  system 
(the  chief  civil  ruler  holding  the  position  of  summus  episcopus.  Cf. 
§  46,  3).  The  canon  law.  after  a  careful  modification  of  what  was  most 
indispensable,  became  the  basis  of  ecclesiastical  jurisprudence.  The 
restoration  of  the  biblical  idea  of  a  universal  priesthood  of  all  telievers, 
would  not  endure  the  opinion  of  an  essential  distinction  between  tha 


142        SECTION    III. — FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

clergy  and  laity.  The  clergy  were  the  regularly  called  servants 
(mitiistri,  ministerium)  of  the  Church,  of  the  Word,  of  the  altar,  enjoy- 
ing equal  rights  in  spiritual  things.  Lay-baptism  was  allowed  in  ex- 
treme cases.  Hierarchical  grades  among  the  clergy  were  considered 
antagonistic  to  the  spirit  of  Christianity,  although  offices  of  authority 
(such  as  superintendants,  provosts,  but  only  jure  humano),  were  thought 
allowable  and  advantageous.  The  property  of  the  Church  was  frequently 
seized  and  secularized  by  the  arbitrary  avarice  of  princes  and  nobles, 
though  the  greater  part  of  it,  especially  in  Germany,  either  remained 
in  the  Church,  or  was  used  in  founding  schools,  universities,  and  chari- 
table institutions.  The  monasteries  met  with  the  richly  merited  reward 
of  their  degeneracy.  Unhappily,  their  reorganization  upon  evangelical 
principles  was  not  thought  of  amidst  the  pressure  and  agitation  of  the 
times. 

2.  Public  Worship  and  Art.  (Cf.  Th.  Kliefoth,  d.  urspr.  Gottesdienst- 
ordnungen  in  d.  luth.  K.  Rost.  1847. — Ibid.  Liturg.  Abhandle.  Schwer. 
1854.  Bd.  1-3.— H.  Alt,  d.  chr.  Cultus.  2  A.  Berl.  1851.— A'.  Barthel, 
d.  Verh.  d.  Protstsm.  zur  Kunst;  in  d.  hist.  th.  Ztschr.  1840.  III.)  — 
Catholic  worship  appeals  only  to  the  imagination  and  feelings  ;  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Reformed  Church  satisfies  merely  the  understanding ;  but 
Lutheran  worship,  combining  both  these  elements,  appeals  to  the  heart. 
The  first  sensualizes  everything,  the  second  spiritualizes  everything, 
whilst  in  the  last  all  is  harmonized  in  a  well-balanced,  vital  manner. 
The  unity  of  the  Church  is  not  made  to  consist  in  identifying  forms 
of  worship,  but  in  oneness  of  faith  ;  hence  the  forms  of  Avorship  are 
nowhere  imposed  by  law.  Altars  ornamented  with  candles  and  cruci- 
fixes, as  well  as  images,  were  retained  in  the  churches,  not  for  adora- 
tion, but  to  excite  and  elevate  devotion.  Its  Liturgy  was  based  upon 
the  Roman  missal,  only  unevangelical  elements  being  excluded.  The 
preaching  of  the  word  was  the  centre  of  public  worship.  Luther's 
manner  of  preaching,  the  noble,  vigorous  popularity  of  which  was 
never  equalled  afterwards,  still  less  surpassed,  was  the  exemplar  and 
type  for  other  Lutheran  preachers,  among  whom  Ant.  Corvin,  Just. 
Jonas,  Ge.  Spalatin,  J.  Bugenhagen,  Jerome  Wetter,  J.  Brenz,  Veil 
Dietrich,  J.  Mathesius,  and  M.  Chemnitz,  were  most  noteworthy.  The 
essential  requisition  of  all  public  worship  was  the  personal  participa- 
tion of  the  congregation,  and,  as  indispensable  to  this,  the  exclusive  use 
of  the  native  language.  Festivals  were  limited  to  the  leading  facts  in 
the  history  of  redemption,  and  only  such  saints'  days  wen1  retained  as 
\v<M-e  authorized  by  the  Gospel  (Apostles'  days,  the  Annunciation, 
Michaelmas,  John  the  Baptist's  day,  etc.)  Luther  held  art  in  higb 
esteem,  especially  music.  Lucas  Cranach,  Hans  llt>lt><in,  and  Albert 
D'drcr,  employed  their  art  (painting)  in  the  service  of  the  Gospel,  and 
ornamented  Lutheran  churches  with  elegant  and  significant  paintings. 

3.  Hymnology.     (Cf.   /•:.   E.   Koth,  Gesch.  d.  K.  L.  u.  K.  Ges.  2.  A. 
Stuttg.'l853.  4Bde.— F.  A.  Cunz,  Gesch.  d.  K.  L.     Lpz.  1855.  2  Bdo. 


CONSTITUTION,    ETC.    OF    LUTHERAN    CHURCH.        143 

—  Ph.  Wackernagel,  d.    deutsche  K.-L.  von  Luther  bis  Hermann  u. 
Blaurer.     Stuttg.    1841.—/.  Miltzell,   Geistl.   Lieder  d.  ev.   K.  d.  16. 
Jahrh.     Berl.    1855.   3  Bde.)  — The   general   character   of  Lutheran 
hyinnology  in  the  16th  century  is  its  true  churchliness  and  popular 
style.     It  is  doctrinal,  devotional,  and  bears  the  impress  of  objective- 
ness.     The  poet  does  not  give  vent  to  his  own  frame  of  mind,  his  indi- 
vidual feelings,  but  the  Church  itself,  through  his  lips,  confesses,  be- 
lieves, comforts,  praises,  and  adores.     At  the  same  time  it  is  truly 
popular:  truthful,  natural,  cordial,   bold   and  fearless  in   expression, 
moving  with  rapid  steps ;  no  pausing,  no  retrospect,  no  minute  deli- 
neations or  extended  descriptions,  no  didactic  demonstrations.     In  its 
outward  form  it  followed  the  old  German  epos,  and  popular  narrative 
poetry,  and  aimed  above  all  at  being  not  only  read  but  sung,  and  sung 
by  the  congregation.     The  psalmody  of  the  Reformation  exhibits,  of 
course,  all  these  characteristics  in  their  fullest  original  vigor.     Luther 
ranks  first.    His  37  hymns  are  in  part  free  translations  of  Latin  hymns 
("Gelobet  seist  du  Jesu   Christ,"  "Der  du  bist  drei  in  Einigkeit," 
"Der  Tag  der  ist  so  freudenreich,"  "  Wir  glauben  all  an  einen  Gott'" 
"Herr  Gott,  dich  loben  wir,"  "Mitten  wir  im  Leben  sind,"  "  Komm 
Gott  Schopfer,  heiliger  Geist,"  etc.)  ;  partly  revisions  of  original  Ger- 
man hymns:    ("Christ  lag  in  Todesbandcn,"  "Nun  bitten  wir  den 
heilgen  Geist,"  "Gott  der  Vater  wohn  uns  bei,"  "Gott  sei  gelobet")  ; 
partly  versions  of  Psalms:    ("  Ach  Gott  vom  Himmel  sieh  darein," 
Ps.  12,  "  Eine  feste  Burg  ist  unser  Gott,"  Ps.  46,  "  Es  woll  uns  Gott 
gnadig  soin,"  Ps.  67,  "War  Gott  nicht  mit  uns  diese  Zeit,"  Ps.  124, 
"  Aus  tiefer  Noth  schrei  ich  zu  dir,"  Ps.  130,  etc.),  or  single  passages 
of  Scripture:    ("Dies  sind  die  heiligen  zehn  Gebot,"  "Jesaja  dem 
Propheten  das  geschah,"  Is.  6,  "Vom  Himmel  hoch,   da  komm   ich 
her,"  Luke  2,  "  Christ  unser  Herr  zum  Jordan  kam,"  etc.),  and  wholly 
original  hymns,  both  as  to  form  and  contents  ("Nun  freut  euch  liebe 
Christen    gemein,"    "Jesus    Christus    unser    Heiland   der  den   Tod," 
"  Erhalt  uns  Herr  bei  deinem  Wort,"  etc.)    Prominent  next  to  Luther, 
were:  Paul  Speratus,  reformer  in  Prussia  (ob.  1554),  author  of  the  in- 
comparable "  Es  ist  das  Heil  uns  kommen  her;"  —  Nicholas  Deems,  a 
monk  who   became   an   evangelical    preacher  in   Stettin,    about  1524. 
("  Allein  Gott  in  der  Hoh  sei  Ehr."  "0  Lamm  Gottes  unschuldig")  ; 
—  Paul  Eber,  professor  and   superintendent  in  Wittenberg,  ob.  1569 
(the  Michaelmas  hymn  "  Herr  Gott,  dich  loben  Alle  wir,"  "  Wenn  wir 
in   hochsten   Nothen   sein,"    "Herr  Jesu  Christ,  wahr'r  Mensch  und 
Gott,"  "In  Christi  Wunden  schlaf  ich  ein,"  etc. ) ; — Lazarus  Spengler, 
clerk  of  the  council  in  Nuremberg,  ob.  1534  ("Durch  Adams'  Fall  ist 
ganz  verderbt"):  —  Hans  Sachs,  a  shoemaker  in  Nuremberg,  ob.  1576 
("  Warum  betrlibst  du  dich,  mein  Herz,"  etc.) ;—  /.  Graumann  (Polian- 
der),  Eck's  amanuensis,  afterwards  an  evangelical  preacher  in  Konigs- 
berg,  oh.  1541  ("Nun  lob  meine  Seele  den  Herrn"): — J.  Schncesinq 
(Chiomusus),  minister  in  Gothachsen,  ob.  1567  ("Allein  zu  dir,  Herr 


144       SECTION    III.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16A.D.) 

Jesu  Christ") ;  Adam  Reussner,  a  lawyer  in  Frankfurt,  ob.  1574  ("Auf 
dich  hab  ich  gehoffet"); —  John  Mathesius,  rector  and  deacon  in  Joa- 
chimsthal  (who  also  preached  some  sermons  on  Luther's  life),  ob.  1565 
(the  morning-hymn,  "Aus  meines  Ilerzen's  Grunde,"  also  the  sweet 
evangelical  cradle-hymn,  "Nun  schlaf  mcin  liebes  Kindelein");  — 
Nicholas  Herrmann,  the  friend  of  Mathesius,  and  cantor  in  Joaohims- 
thal,  ob.  1561  ("Die  hello  Sonn  leucht  jetzt  herfur,"  "  Hinunter  ist 
der  Sonnenschein,"  "  Wenn  mein  Stiindlein  vorhanden  ist,"  etc.):  — 
Erasmus  Alberus,  superintendent  at  Brandenburg,  ob.  1553  ("Nun 
freut  euch,  Gotteskinder  all ").— To  these  must  be  added  Michael  Weisse, 
a  German  minister  in  Bohemia,  the  translator  and  author  of  the  hymns 
of  the  Bohemian  Hussites  (Cf.  \  42),  ob.  1540  ("Christ  ist  erstanden 
von  der  Marter  alle,"  "  Gottes  Sohn  ist  kommen,"  "Christus  der  uns 
selig  maeht"),  above  all,  that  precious  funeral  hymn,  "Nun  lasst  uns 
den  Leib  begraben,"  to  which  Luther  added  a  verse. 

In  the  next  succeeding  period,  however  (1560-1618),  many  without 
a  poet's  call   volunteered   worthless   religious   rhymes.     Even   those 
divinely  gifted  for  the  work  were  altogether  too  prolific,  but  still  they 
contributed   a  large  number  of  genuine  Church  hymns,  true  to  the 
character  of  higher  objectiveness,  childlike  simplicity,  and  true  fitness 
for  o-eneral  use.    We  may,  of  course,  observe  a  transition  to  the  subjec- 
tive style  of  the  following  period,  didactic  matter  is  occasionally  intro- 
duced, and  some  hymns  refer  to  special  personal  circumstances ;  but 
the  idea  of  an  objective  faith  still  predominates.     Among  the  sacred 
poets  of  this  period,  the  most  noted  are:   Barth.  Ringwalt,  a  preacher 
in  Mark  Brandenburg,  ob.  1597  ("  Es  ist  gewisslich  an  der  Zeit,"  etc.) ; 
Nich.  Sclnccker,  during  his  last  years  superintendent  in  Leipsic  {ob. 
1592).    As  a  pupil  of  Melauchthon  he  was  at  first  suspected  of  Crypto- 
Calvinism,  but  after  his  participation  in  drawing  up  the  Form  of  Con- 
cord he  became  an  object  of  bitter  hatred  and  continued  persecutions 
to  the  Crypto-Calvinists.     (He  composed:   "  Ach  bleib  bei  uns  Herr 
Jesu  Christ").     Ludwig  Eelmbold,  superintendent  in  Miihlhausen,  ob. 
1598  ("Von  Gott  will  ich  nicht  lassen")  ;— Martin  Schalling,  preacher 
in  Regensburg  and   Nuremberg,   ob.   1608   ("  Herzlicb   lieb  hab  ich 
dich");  —  Caspar  Bienemann  (Melissander)  superintendent  in  Alten- 
burg,  ob.  1591  ("Herr.  wie  du  wilt  so  schicks  mit  mir ") ;  —  Martin 
Moller,  preacher  in  Gbrlitz,  ob.  1606  ("  Nimm  von  uns,  Herr,  du  treuer 
Gott");— Martin  Bbhme  (B  shemb)  preacher  in  Lausitz,o6.  1621  ("Herr 
Jesu  Christ,  meins  Lebens  Licht") ; —  Valerius  Herberger,  preacher  in 
Fraustadt,  Poland,  ob.  1627  ("  Valet  will  ich  dirgeben,"  written  during 
a  plague  in  1613):  —Philip  Nicolai,  preacher  in  Eamburg  (ob.  1608), 
whose  soaring  poetry,  pervaded  by  a  spirit  of  profound  love,  affiliates 
it  with  the  Canticles  ("Wie  schon  leucht  uns  der  Morgenstern,"  "Wa- 
chct  auf,  ruft  uns  die  Stimme").     (Cf.  I  39,  3.) 

4.  Psalmody.     (Cf.  A.  J.  Rambach,   Luther's  Yerd.  urn  den  K.-ges. 
Ilamb.  1813.— P.  Mortimer   d.  Choralges.  zur  Zeit  d.  Ref.     Berl.  1820, 


CONSTITUTION,    ETC.    OF    LUTHERAN    CHURCH.        145 

4lo.— L.  Kraussold,  d.  altprot.  Choral.  Flirth,  1851.— E.  E.  Koch,  1.  c. 
/.  E.  Mauser,  Gesch.  d.  chr.  K.-ges.  Lpz.  1834.  —  C.  v.  Winter/eld, 
d.  ev.  K.-ges.  Lpz.  1843,  2  Bde.)  —  Congregational  singing,  as  incor- 
porated by  the  Reformation  in  the  worship  of  the  Church,  was  substan- 
tially a  revival  of  the  Ambrosian  psalmody,  in  a  purified  and  richer 
form.  It  was  distinguished,  at  the  start,  from  the  Gregorian  style,  by 
being  national  and  congregational,  and  not  performed  by  a  choir  of 
priests  (although  the  name  Ghoralgesang  was  retained,  and  even  be- 
came the  technical  designation  of  the  new  style  of  singing),  —  further 
by  substituting  for  solo  monotonous  singing,  in  uniform  loud  notes  of 
equal  value,  a  copious  rhythm  with  lively  modulations,  —  and,  finally, 
by  the  introduction  of  several  parts  instead  of  the  original  solo  unison. 
On  the  other  hand,  this  choral  music  restored  the  ancient  cantus  tirmus, 
by  abolishing  the  secular  keys,  the  counterpointing  and  other  artificial 
ornaments  with  which  music  had  been  garnished  during  the  middle 
ages.  The  cantus  firmus  (or  air)  was  sung  by  the  congregation,  and 
the  singers  in  the  choir  (not  the  organ,  which  was  used  during  the 
Reformation  period  only  to  support  and  accompany  the  choir)  accom- 
panied the  congregation  in  the  several  parts.  The  melody  was  set  to 
what  was  called  tenor,  because  it  led  the  parts.  The  tunes  for  the 
new  hymns  were  obtained  in  part  by  modifying  the  old  tunes  of 
Latin  hymns  and  sequences,  partly  by  employing  national  religious 
airs  of  the  middle  ages,  especially  such  as  were  preserved  among  the 
Bohemian  brethren,  but  mainly  by  appropriating  without  reserve  the 
rich  treasure  of  song-tunes  in  popular  use — many  hymns  being  them- 
selves parodies  of  secular  songs.  The  few  original  tunes  of  this  period 
were  composed  mostly  by  the  authors  of  the  hymns,  or  at  least  by  lay 
musicians,  and  were  the  utterance  of  the  same  inspiration  which  pro- 
duced the  hymns  ;  hence  they  are  rarely  equalled  by  subsequent  more 
artistic  compositions,  in  unction,  spirit,  and  power.  This  is  especially 
true  of  Luther's  melodies.  The  people  were  taught  these  tunes  by 
travelling  musicians,  singing  processions  of  school-boys,  and  city  cor- 
netters.  Those  who  arranged  the  music  differed  from  vocalists  or  the 
authors  of  the  tunes,  and,  as  the  proper  composers,  wrote  out  the  several 
parts  for  public  use,  according  to  the  laws  of  harmony.  Especially 
distinguished  among  these  were  the  two  intimate  friends  of  Luther, 
George  Rhaiv  (cantor  in  Leipsic,  afterwards  a  printer  in  Wittenberg)  and 
Hans  Walther  (conductor  of  the  elector's  band).  Next  to  these  we  must 
name :  Lewis  Senfl,  Martin  Agricola,  Sixt.  Dieterich,  John  Kugelmann, 
Nich.  Hermann,  Hans  Leo  Hassler,  and  near  the  close  of  the  century, 
the  four  Hamburg  organists,  Jacob  and  Jerome  Prdtorius  (father  and 
son),  David  Scheidemann,  and  Joachim  Decker,  who,  in  1G04,  issued  a 
volume  of  eighty-eight  new  and  admirably  harmonized  melodies. 
The  close  of  the  16th  century  was  the  most  flourishing  period  of  evan- 
gelical psalmody.  The  great  composer,  John  Eccart  (during  his  last 
years  organist  in  Berlin,  ob.  1011),  was  most  active  in  important 
56^ 


146        SECTION    III. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

improvements  in  it.  In  order  to  give  more  prominence  to  the  tune,  it 
was  transferred  from  the  tenor  to  the  treble.  The  other  parts  were 
idded  as  simple  chords  to  the  tune,  and  the  organ  (which  had  under- 
gone the  most  important  mechanical  improvements),  with  its  pure,  rich, 
copious  harmony,  was  more  generally  used  to  support  and  accompany 
the  congregational  singing.  The  distinction  between  singers  and  com- 
posers, also,  gradually  disappeared,  the  more  artistic  parts  of  the  sing- 
ing were  more  intimately  conformed  to  that,  of  the  congregation,  and 
the  inventive  talent,  which  produced  an  abundance  of  original  tunes, 
with  suitable  chords,  increased  from  year  to  year.  Next  to  Eccart,  the 
most  noted  masters  of  this  new  school  are  :  Joachim  v.  Burgk,  the  teacher 
and  friend  of  Eccart,  cantor  in  Miihlhausen  (06.  1596)  ;  Martin  Zeuner  ; 
Melch.  Vulpius,  cantor  in  Weimar  (ob.  1010)  ;  Michael  Prdtorius,  con- 
ductor of  the  elector's  band  (ob.  1621)  ;  John  Stobaus,  a  pupil  of  Eccart, 
leader  of  a  band  in  Kiini^-sberg,  who  chiefly  sang  tunes  to  the  hymns 
of  the  Konigsberg  poets  Thilo,  Weissel,  and  Dach  ;  and,  finally,  those 
who  led  in  the  tunes  of  their  own  hymns,  Kich.  SelnecJcer  and  Philip 
Nicolai.     (Cf.  \  39,  4.) 

5.  Theology.  (Cf.  G.  W.  Meyer,  Gesch.  d.  Schrifterkl.  Bd.  II.  Gottg. 
1803,  and  Ft:  Stdudlin,  Gesch".  d.  theol.  Wisch.  Gottg.  1810,  2  Bde.— 
W.  Gass,  Gesch.  d.  prot.  Dogm.  Bd.  I.  Berl.  1854.) — As  the  Reforma- 
tion proceeded  from  the  Word  of  God,  and  was  based  on  it  alone,  that 
Won!  claimed  the  chief  and  diligent  study  of  its  theology.  John  Forster 
(ob.  155G)  and  John  Avenarius  (ob.  1570),  both  of  Wittenberg,  published 
Hebrew  lexicons,  the  result  of  original  investigations  (not  borrowed 
from  the  Rabbins),  and  Matthew  Flacius,  in  his  Clavis  Scripturas  sacrce, 
furnished  a  most  valuable  aid,  for  that  period,  in  the  study  of  the  Bible. 
The  first  part  contains  an  explanation  of  Scripture  terms  and  phrases 
in  alphabetical  order;  the  second  an  excellent  outline  of  hermeneutics. 
There  were  numerous  exegetical  works;  among  these  Luther's  are  un- 
surpassed, and,  in  their  kind,  unsurpassable.  Next  to  him  the  most 
prominent  Lutheran  exegctes  of  that  period  are,  for  the  New  Testament, 
Melanchihon,  Victor  Strigel  (Hypomn.  in  omnes  LI.  N.  T.),  Flacius 
(Glossa  compendiaria  in  N.  T.),  Joachim  Camcrarins  (Notationes  in 
N.  T.),  Martin  Chemnitz  (Harmonia  IV.  Evangg.,  subsequently  con- 
tinued by  Polyc.  Leyser,  and  completed  by  Joint  Gerhard)  :  for  the  Old 
Testament,  John  Brenz,  whose  excellent  commentary  still  possesses 
great  merit.  Of  less  value  are  the  numerous  and  comprehensive  com- 
mentaries on  the  0.  and  N.  T.,  by  David  Chytraus  in  Rostock.  At  the 
head  of  the  list  of  Lutheran  theologians  stands  Melanchihon  (Loci  com- 
munes, 1521).  (Cf.  Schwarz,  Mel.'s  loci  nach  ihrer  weitern  Eutw.,  in 
the  Studd.  u.  Kritt.  1857,  II.)  Martin  Chemnitz,  in  his  Locis  theol., 
furnished  an  excellent  commentary  upon  it,  which  is  still  regarded  as 
one  of  the  principal  works  on  theology  in  the  Lutheran  Church;  and 
his  Examen  Concilii  Tridentini  (1562)  is  not  only  a  learned,  profound, 
and  thorough  refutation  of  Catholic  doctrines,  but  is  equally  discreet, 


CONSTITUTION,    ETC.    OF    LUTHERAN    CHURCH.         147 

kind,  and  moderate.  Vict.  Strigel  and  Nich.  Selnecker,  also,  wrote 
valuable  text-books  of  theology.  Controversy  was  actively  maintained, 
and  was  often  conducted  with  great  violence.  In  Church  history,  the 
Magdeburg  Centuries  were  produced  by  the  colossal  spirit  of  Matlh. 
Flacius.  He  had  previously  demonstrated,  by  his  Catalogus  testium 
Areritatis,  that  the  Church  of  Christ  never  lacked  intelligent,  pious,  and 
heroic  defenders  of  the  faith,  to  preserve  unbroken  the  chain  of  histo- 
rical connection  between  the  primitive  Apostolic  Church,  and  the  evan- 
gelical Church  of  the  16th  century.     (Cf.  I  38,  4.) 

6.  National  Literature  of  German]/. — The  Reformation  occurred  in  a 
period  of  the  deepest  decline  of  poetry  and  general  literature  in  Ger- 
many. But  it  awakened  new  creative  energies  in  the  secular  and  reli- 
gious life  of  the  nation.  Luther's  pioneer  example  opened  the  way  for 
the  introduction  of  "  a  new  all-conquering  prose,  as  a  form  of  utterance 
for  a  new  world-consciousness,"  which  impelled  Germans  to  think  and 
teach  in  German.  Especially  did  the  contact  of  spirits  caused  by  re- 
formatory movements  call  satire  into  being,  in  a  blooming,  vigorous, 
and  popular  form  and  degree  unknown  to  German  literature  before, 
and  not  equalled  since.  Countless  fugitive  productions,  of  the  most 
diversified  imagery  and  style,  in  verse  and  prose,  in  Latin  and  German, 
written  by  Catholics  and  Protestants  (those  of  the  latter  being  vastly 
more  rich,  vigorous,  and  witty),  assailed  or  vindicated  the  Reformation, 
with  satire,  ridicule,  and  contempt.  (Cf.  0.  Schade,  Satyren  u.  Pasquille 
aus  d.  Reformationszeit.  Bd.  I.  II.  Hannover,  185G,  etc.)  Most  promi- 
nent among  these  well-nigh  countless,  and  for  the  most  part  anonymous 
satirical  writers  of  the  16th  century,  are  the  Catholic  Thos.  Murner 
(§  5,  2),  the  Reformed  Nich.  Manuel  ($  10,  4),  and  the  Lutheran  John 
Fisciiakt,  who  far  excels  the  other  two,  and  is  unquestionably  the 
greatest  satirist  Germany  ever  produced.  Like  Seb.  Brant  and  Murner, 
he  was  a  native  of  Strassburg,  for  some  time  was  advocate  at  the  im- 
perial chamber,  and  died  in  1589.  His  satiric  vein  first  opened  with 
Church  matters:  "  Der  Nachtrabe  und  die  Nebelkriihe"  (against  one 
J.  Rabe,  who  turned  Catholic);  "Der  Barfusser  Secten-und  Kutten- 
streit,"  and  "Yon  St.  Dominici  und  St.  Francisci  artlichem  Leben" 
(a  satire  upon  the  Franciscans  and  Dominicans)  ;  "  Bienenkorb  des  h. 
romischen  Immenschwarms"  (the  best  known  of  his  productions); 
"Das  vierhbrnige  Jesuitenhlitlein"  (in  verse,  the  most  biting,  witty, 
and  striking  satire,  ever  written  against  the  Jesuits).  He  next  took  hold 
of  secular  subjects:  "Aller  Praktik  Grossmutter  ;"  "  Gargantua  oder 
affentheuerliche,  naupongeheuerliche  Geschichsklitterung  ;  "  "  Floh- 
hatz,  Weibertratz,"  etc.  His  Bee-hive  may  be  regarded  as  an  offset  to 
Murner's  Lutheran  fools,  in  spirit,  wit,  and  cheerful,  merry  ridicule, 
with  a  consciousness  of  triumph,  but  far  surpasses  that  rough  produc- 
tion, dealing  such  passionate  blows  as  to  endanger  itself.  (Cf.  Volmar, 
in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  Encycl.  I.  Bd.  51.)  — Among  the  secular  poets 
of  this  century,  Hans  Sachs  (ob.  1576),  a  Nuremberg  cobbler,  holds  the 


148       SECTION    III. FIRST    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.  1  6    A.  D.). 

first  place.  He  was  a  genuine  type  of  a  Lutheran  citizen,  and  although 
as  a  minstrel  scarcely  of  more  repute  than  his  associates  in  poetic  jovial 
tales,  legends,  and  stories,  he  excelled  by  waggish  simplicity,  honest 
cordiality,  freshness,  vivacity,  and  rapid  delineation.  He  produced  208 
comedies  and  tragedies,  1700  humorous  pieces,  and  4200  songs.  As 
early  as  1523,  he  gave  the  Reformation  a  joyful  greeting  in  his  poem: 
"  Die  Wittenbergisch  Nachtigall ; "  and  did  much  to  secure  a  welcome 
for  it  among  his  fellow-citizens. 

For  Missions  among  the  Heathen  little  was  done  during  this  period, 
and  for  obvious  reasons.  First  of  all,  the  Lutheran  Church  was  too 
much  occupied  with  internal  matters.  It  had  neither  the  same  call  to 
engage  in  the  work,  by  which  the  Catholic  Church  was  led  to  lay  hold 
of  it  through  the  political  and  commercial  relations  of  its  countries  with 
distant  pagan  lands,  nor  those  means  of  doing  so,  which  the  monastic 
orders  afforded,  etc.  And  yet  we  meet  with  beginnings  of  a  Lutheran 
mission  even  in  this  period ;  for  Gustavus  Vasa  of  Sweden  established 
one  (1559)  among  the  neglected  Laplanders.     (Cf.  g  39,  G.) 

I  23.  INTERNAL  CHARACTER  OF  THE  REFORMED 

CHURCH. 

Cf.  M.  Gbbel  u.  Jul.  Wiggcrs  11.  cc.  $  20.—/.  P.  Lange,  die  Eigenthlk. 
d.  ref.  K.  Zurich.  1841.  —  K.  R.  Hagenbach,  d.  ref.  K.  in  Bezieh.  auf 
Verf.  u.  Cult.  Schafh.  1842.  —  K.  Ullmann,  zur  Charaktrst.  d.  ref.  K., 
in  the  Studd.  u.  Kritt.  1843.  III. 

As  the  birth-place  of  the  Reforaied  Church  was  free  Switzerland, 
its  constitution  bears,  to  some  extent,  the  impress  of  a  democratic 
character ;  and  as  it  strove  to  imitate  the  theocratic  constitution 
of  the  Old  Testament,  it  felt  justified  in  claiming  for  the  Church 
a  decided  voice  in  purely  political  matters.  Instead  of  the  Lu- 
theran episcopacy  under  the  chief  civil  magistrate  (as  summus 
episcopus),  it  adopted  a  presbyterial  constitution,  with  its  eman- 
cipation of  individual  congregations  from  the  idea  of  a  united 
Church.  The  firm  consolidation  of  all  the  Lutheran  State  Churches 
under  one  confession,  is  lacking  in  the  Reformed  Church  ;  for 
the  Church  of  each  country  adopted  its  own  confession.  The 
ministers  of  the  Church  are  only  preachers,  even  the  name  pastor 
was  avoided.  Presbyteries  exercised  a  more  rigid  external  dis- 
cipline. Civil  and  domestic  life  assumed  a  strictly  legal,  often  a 
gloomy  rigorous  character  (especially  in  the  Scotch  Church  and 
among  the  English  Puritans)  ;  but,  along  with  this,  developed  a 
wonderful  degree  of  moral  energy,  which,  however,  too  often 
ran  into  extremes,  and  an  unjustifiable  application  of  Old  Tes- 


INTERNAL    CHARACTER    OF    REFORMED    CHURCH.     149 

tament  principles  and  examples.  In  regard  to  its  cultus,  the 
Reformed  Church  exhibits  the  extreme  reverse  of  that  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  with  its  abundant  sensuous  ceremonies.  Zwingli 
wished  to  abolish  the  ringing  of  bells  [during  thunder-storms, 
etc.,  for  superstitious  purposes— Tr.];  organ-playing,  and  sing- 
ing in  Churches  [by  priests,  as  was  then  the  exclusive  custom, 
in  the  Romish  Church  —  Tr.],  and  he  approved  of  the  removal 
of  altars  [as  used  for  crucifixes,  etc.,  and  for  the  sacrifice  of 
the  mass  —  Tr.],  and  the  destruction  of  images.  The  more 
prudent  Calvinists,  even,  would  not  tolerate  altars  [as  used  by 
Romanists  —  Tr.];  crucifixes,  images,  candles,  etc.,  in  the 
Churches,  because  they  were  thought  absolutely  incompatible 
with  the  prohibitions  of  the  decalogue.  The  Churches  were 
converted  into  naked  prayer-halls  and  auditories,  altars  into 
simple  communion-tables;  kneeling  was  discarded  as  an  outward 
ceremony,  in  the  Lord's  Supper  (at  which  the  symbolical  element 
predominated,  if  it  was  not  the  only  one)  ;  the  breaking  of  bread 
was  introduced  as  essential,  private  confession  was  rejected,  the 
baptism  of  dying  persons  prohibited,  and  the  liturgy  changed 
into  simple  spoken  (not  sung)  prayers.  In  France,  however, 
the  singing  of  Psalms  was  introduced,  and  their  use  spread  from 
France  to  other  countries  ;  there  were  no  proper  hymns.  The 
number  of  festivals  was  reduced  as  much  as  possible,  and  only 
the  principal  Christian  festivals  were  tolerated.  On  the  other 
hand,  Sunday  was  observed  with  well-nigh  Old  Testament  strict- 
ness. In  regard  to  the  exceptions  to  all  this,  in  the  theory  and 
practice  of  the  Anglican  Church,  cf.  §  19,  4. 

1.  The  adoption  of  psalmody  into  the  worship  of  the  Reformed  Church 
was  effected  especially  by  the  efforts  of  John  Zivick  (a  clergyman  in 
Constance,  ob.  1542).  In  1536,  he  published  a  small  hymn-book,  with 
versions  of  some  Psalms,  adapted  to  Lutheran  tunes.  At  Calvin's  re- 
quest, Clement  Marot  prepared  versions  of  most  of  the  Psalms,  in  the 
measure  of  popular  French  songs  and  tunes.  Th.  Beza  completed 
them,  and  Calvin  introduced  this  French  Psalter  into  the  Genevan 
Churches  (1555).  In  1562,  Claude  Goudimel  published  16  of  these 
Psalms,  with  music  for  four  parts.  (He  was  murdered  in  Lyons  (1572), 
in  connection  with  the  St.  Bartholomew's  massacre.)  Ambrose  Lob- 
wasser,  Prof,  of  Jurisprudence  in  Kimigsberg,  in  imitation  of  Marot, 
prepared  the  Psalter  in  German  (1573).  Notwithstanding  its  total  lack 
of  poetic  merit,  this  Psalter  was,  for  a  long  time,  exclusively  used  in 
the  German  churches.  The  few,  and  for  the  most  part,  unimportant 
authors  of  hymns  (the  chief  of  whom  were  Zwick  and  Ambr.  Blan  "er — 
56* 


150        SECTION    III. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.   16    A.  D.). 

who  subsequently  embraced  Zwinglianism),  foiled  to  have  them  adopted 
in  the  churches.  The  Reformed  Church  continued  to  denounce  the  use 
of  organs.     (Cf.  |  41,  1.) 

2.   Theological  Studies  flourished  in  the  Reformed  Church,  also,  espe- 
cially in  Basel  and  Geneva,  in  the  French  Church  at  the  theol.  semina- 
ries in  Montauban,  Sedan,  and  Montpellier.    Biblical  studies  were  pro- 
secuted with  special  interest.     Sebastian  Minister,  then  at  Heidelberg, 
afterwards  at  Basel,   published   a  Hebrew  lexicon  as  early  as  1523. 
Zurich  theologians  (Leo  Juda,  etc.),  published  Luther's  translation  of 
the  Bible,  in  the  Swiss  dialect,  revised,   however,   according  to  the 
original  text.     At  the  suggestion  of  the  Waldenses,  Robert  Olivefanus 
undertook  the  difficult  task  of  a  translation  of  the   Holy  Scriptures 
into  the   French   language,   and  with   the   assistance  of  eminent  co- 
workers completed  it  in  less  than  ten  years  (1535).    Th.  Beza  published 
improved  recension   of  the   New   Testament  text,  with   a  new  Latin 
version.     Seb.  Minister  edited  the  Old   Testament  text,  with  an   inde- 
pendent Latin  version.     Leo  Juda,  in  Zurich,  an  able  linguist,  also 
undertook  one.     Seb.  Castellio,  in  Geneva,  devoted  himself  to  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Prophets  and   Apostles'  writings  in  elegant  Ciceronian 
Latin.     The  ablest  was  the  Latin  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  made 
by  Imanvel    Tremellius   of    Heidelberg,    and    his    son-in-law    Francis 
Junius.     The  number  of  commentators,  also,  was  large.     Besides  Cal- 
vin, who  excelled  all  the  rest  (g  18,  5),  distinguished  exegetical  con- 
tributions were  furnished  by  Zwingli  [Annot.  in  Gen.,  Exod.,  Isaiam, 
Jerem.,  Evangg.     In  hist.  P/oni.  pass.,  Rom.,  Corinth.,  Philip.,  Colos., 
Thessal.,  Jac,  Hebr.  1  Joann. —  Tit.],  (Ecolampadius  [Conciones  XXI. 
in  Ep.  Joh.  I.,  1524;  Comment,  in   Proph.  Es.,  11.  V.,  Annot.  in  Ep. 
ad  Rom.,  1525. —  Tr.],  Com:  Pellicanus  [of  Zurich,  Comm.  on  the  0. 
T.,  in  which  special  use  was  made  of  the  Rabbins,  on  Paul's  Epp.,  and 
the  Cath.  Epp.— Tr.],  Th.  Beza  (Annot.  on  the  N.  T.,  1527.— Tr.], 
Francis  Junius  [prof,  of  theol.  in  Leyden.     Praelect.  in  tria  prima  cap. 
Gen.;  Exposit.  Dan.;  Analys.  Apocal. —  Tr.],  John  Mercerus,  and  the 
Frenchman  Marlaratus. —  As  a  theologian,  also,  Calvin  indisputably 
occupied  the  first   place   in  the  Reformed  Church.      In    speculative 
power,  and  a  masterly  use  of  his  material,  he  excelled  all  his  cotem- 
poraries.     Andrew  Hyperius,  of  Marburg,  held  an  honorable  position 
as  a  theologian,  in  the  Reformed  Church  of  Germany.     But  little  was 
dune,  during  this  period,  in  ecclesiastical  history,  by  Reformed  theo- 
logians.    Th.  Beza,  however,  wrote  an  excellent  history  of  the  French 
Church.     Cf.  I  40,  4. 

3.  The  Genevan  Church  engaged  in  a  Missionary  enterprise  as  early 
as  1557.  A  French  adventurer,  Villegagnon,  submitted  a  plan  to  Ad- 
miral Coligny  for  the  colonization  of  persecuted  Huguenots  in  Brazil, 
who  sh  »uld  found  a  mission  among  the  native  heathen.     Sustained  by 


CALVINISING    OF   GERMAN    LUTHERAN    CHURCHES.    151 

Coligny,  he  sailed  in  1555  with  a  number  of  Huguenot  mechanics,  and 
established  Fort  Coliguy  near  Rio  de  Janeiro.  At  his  request  Calvin 
sent  out  two  Genevan  clergymen  (1557).  The  intolerable  tyranny  exer- 
cised by  Villegagnon  over  the  defenceless  colonists,  their  failure  to  effect 
anything  amongst  the  natives,  together  with  their  destitution  and  va- 
rious sufferings,  compelled  them  to  return  in  1558,  on  a  very  frail  vessel. 
It  could  not  hold  all,  and  many  of  those  admitted  perished  of  hunger 
on  the  voyage.     (Cf.  §  41,  2.) 

g24.    CALVINISING   OF   GERMAN   LUTHERAN    STATE 

CHURCHES. 

The  crypto-Calvinistic  controversies  were  conducted  with  so 
much  violence,  that  they  frustrated  the  scheme  of  the  Philippists 
to  effect  an  imperceptible  transition  of  the  entire  Lutheran  Church 
to  Calvinism  (§  21,  1)  ;  but  they  could  not  prevent  several  na- 
tional Lutheran  Churches  in  Germany  from  adopting:,  or  being 
compelled  to  adopt,  the  Reformed  Confession.  The  Palatinate 
was  the  first  to  pass  over  ;  its  example  was  soon  followed  by 
Bremen,  Anhalt,  and,  at  the  commencement  of  the  following 
century,  Hesse- Cassel,  IAppe,  and  Electoral  Brandenburg. — 
(Cf.  §"34,  1-3.) 

1.  The  Palatinate  (1560).  (Cf.  D.  Seism,  Gesch.  d.  Ref.  in  Heidelb. 
Heidelb.  1846.— F.  Blaul,  d.  Ref.  Werk  in  d.  Pfalz.  Speier,  1846.)— 
Thiemann  Hesshus,  a  violent  advocate  of  pure  Lutheranism,  had  been 
driven  from  Goslar  and  from  Rostock,  as  a  disturber  of  the  peace.  At 
Melanchthon's  recommendation,  the  Elector  Otho  Henry  of  the  Palatinate 
appointed  him  professor  and  general  superintendent  at  Heidelberg 
(1558).  There  he  soon  disputed  with  his  deacon,  William  Klebitz, 
During  a  brief  absence  of  Hesshus,  Klebitz,  by  vindicating  Calvinistic 
views  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  secured  his  own  promotion  as  baccalaureus. 
Hesshus  disciplined  and  suspended  him.  But  Klebitz  would  not  leave. 
The  violence  of  both  exceeded  all  bounds ;  they  even  seized  each  other 
by  the  hair  at  the  altar.  The  new  elector,  Frederick  III.,  drove  off 
both  (1559),  obtained  Melanchthon's  opinion  on  the  subject,  and  joined 
the  Reformed  Church  (1560).  He  then  appointed  Calvinistic  teachers 
throughout  his  country,  and  directed  two  Heidelberg  professors,  Za- 
charias  Vrsinus  and  Caspar  Oleviamis  to  prepare  the  Heidelberg  Cate- 
chism, for  the  use  of  the  schools  of  the  Palatinate.  (In  popular  simpli- 
city, poAver,  and  depth,  it  is  far  inferior  to  Luther's  smaller  catechism  ; 
but  in  other  respects  it  is  distinguished  by  its  method  of  instruction, 
theological  skill,  Christian  fervor,  and  conciliatory  mildness,  and  richly 
merits  the  favor  with  which  it  has  ever  been  received,  not  only  by  the 
Reformed  of  Germany,  but  of  other  countries.     It  avoids  Calvin's  doc- 


152      SECTION    III. FIRST    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.  1  6    A.  D.). 

trine  of  predestination,  and  makes  the  nearest  possible  approach  to  the 
Lutheran  dogma  concerning  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  Catholic  mass  it 
denounces  as  an  accursed  idolatry.)  [Cf.  Sudhoff,  Olevianus  u.  Ursinus. 
Elberf.  1857. —  Van  Alpen,  Gesch.  etc.,  d.  Ileid.  Cat.  The  highest  com- 
mendation of  the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  as  a  systematic  exhibition  of 
evangelical  doctrines,  is  found  in  the  fact  that  it  was  at  once  cordially 
welcomed  by  all  but  Romanists  and  extreme  Lutherans ;  that  it  was 
speedily  translated  into  many  different  languages  ;  and  that  it  is,  vir- 
tually, the  doctrinal  platform  occupied  at  the  present  day,  by  the  largest 
portion  of  the  Protestant  Church,  especially  in  regard  to  its  moderate 
Calvinistic  and  sacramental  doctrines.  —  Tr.]  The  government  of 
Lewis  VI.  (1576-83),  a  zealous  friend  of  the  Form.  Concord.,  was  of 
too  short  duration  fully  to  check  the  transition  of  the  Palatinate  to 
Calvinism.  The  Elector  John  Casimir,  whilst  exercising  the  regency, 
banished  all  the  Lutheran  preachers,  and  had  his  ward,  Frederick  IV., 
educated  in  the  strictest  Calvinism. 

2.  Bremen  (1502).  (Cf.  II.  W.  Iiotcrmund,  Gesch.  d.  Domkirche 
zu  Bremen.  Brem.,  1829.) — In  Bremen,  Albert  Rizaus  v.  Hardenberg, 
cathedral  preacher,  publicly  assailed  the  10th  art.  of  the  Augsb.  Conf., 
and  became  involved  in  a  controversy  respecting  it  with  his  colleague, 
John  Timann.  All  the  clergy  sustained  Timann,  but  Hardenberg  was 
powerfully  supported  by  the  burgomaster  Biircn,  and  he  was  favored 
by  an  opinion  of  Melanchthon  (1557),  counselling  them  to  hush  up  the 
matter.  As  he  also  refused  to  take  oath  in  support  of  the  Angsb.  Conf., 
the  disturbance  daily  increased.  Timann  died  in  1559.  Hesshus,  who 
had  been  driven  from  Heidelberg,  was  called  to  take  his  place.  He  at 
once  put  Hardenberg  under  the  ban,  and  accused  him  before  the  League 
of  the  cities  of  lower  Saxony.  It  held  a  martial  diet  at  Brunswick 
(1561)  which  deposed  Hardenberg,  yet  without  depriving  him  of  his 
office.  He  went  to  Oldenberg,  and  became  preacher  at  Emden,  where 
he  died  in  1574.  Hesshus,  also,  soon  left  Bremen  ;  and  after  having 
been  expelled  from  eight  other  posts,  as  an  agitator,  became  prof,  in 
Ilelmst'adt,  where  he  died  in  1588.  His  successor  at  Bremen,  Simon 
Musdeus,  no  less  violent  than  himself,  insisted  upon  the  banishment 
of  all  Ilardenberg's  adherents,  and  the  council  had  actually  consented 
to  this,  when  affairs  took  a  sudden  change.  In  spite  of  all  opposition, 
Biiren  was  chosen  chief  burgomaster  in  1562.  Musaeus  and  13  other 
preachers  were  driven  off,  and  even  the  Lutheran  members  of  the 
council  had  to  leave  the  city.  Foreign  mediation  effected  a  compromise, 
however,  in  1568,  by  which  those  who  had  been  expelled  wore  allowed 
to  return  to  the  city,  but  not  to  resume  their  offices.  All  the  churches 
of  Bremen,  the  cathedral  excepted,  remained  Reformed. 

3.  Antolt  ( 1597).  (Cf.  G.  Schubring,  Gesch.  d.  Einfiihr.  d.  ref.  Conf. 
in  Ann.  Lpz.  1848.) — After  the  death  of  Prince  Joachim  Ernest,  his 
sons  founded  four  Anhalt  lines  (Dessau.  Bernburg,  Kothen,  Zerbst). 
John  George    founder  of  the  house  of  Anhalt-Dessau,  reigned  for  hia 


CHARACTER     OP     THE     DEFORMATION.  153 

minor  brothers  from  1587-1G03.  Subscription  to  the  Form  of  Concord 
had  been  previously  declined,  and  in  1589  Calvinism  began  to  be  in 
troduced  into  the  country,  by  the  abrogation  of  exorcism.  This  was 
followed  by  substituting  a  Reformed  for  the  old  Lutheran  directory.  Not 
long  afterwards,  Luther's  catechism  was  also  laid  aside,  and  in  1597  a 
copy  of  28  Calvinistic  articles  was  laid  before  the  clergy,  which  they 
were  required  to  subscribe  on  pain  of  banishment.  The  prime  movers 
in  this  were  Caspar  Peucer  ($  21,  7),  who  had  been  expelled  from  Wit- 
tenberg, and  Wolfg.  Amling,  the  superintendent  at  Zerbst.  In  1644, 
Anhalt-Zerbst  was  restored  to  the  old  confession  by  Prince  John,  who 
had  been  reared  by  his  mother  in  the  Lutheran  faith. 


II.   THE  DEFORMATION. 

I  25.  CHARACTER  OF  THE  DEFORMATION. 

Cf.  U.  W.  Erbkam,  Gesch.  d.  protestant,  Secten  in  Zeitalt.  d.  Ref. 
Hamb.,  1848. 

That  fanatics  and  ultraists  of  various  grades  would  endeavor 
to  produce  a  sensation  during  a  period  of  such  agitation  as  cha- 
racterized the  Reformation,  will  be  readily  conceived  ;  but  that 
the  Reformation  itself  is  not  chargeable  with  such  excrescences, 
is  proven  by  the  excluding  opposition  in  which  it  ever  stood  to 
those  deformities.  Both  have,  indeed,  the  same  starting-point, 
opposition  to  the  degenerate  churchism  of  that  period.  But  the 
Reformation  at  once  wholly  renounced  the  Deformation,  and 
often  even  joined  Catholicism  in  efforts  to  suppress  it;  whereas 
the  Deformation  vented  its  bitterest  hatred  upon  the  former. 
The  origin  of  the  Deformation  may  be  traced,  on  the  one  hand, 
to  the  tendency  of  human  nature,  when  once  aroused  to  opposi- 
tion, to  run  into  radicalism,  partly  in  the  form  of  rationalism, 
partly  that  of  mysticism.  If  the  Reformation  recognizes  the 
Bible  as  the  sole  norm  and  rule  of  religious  faith  and  practice, 
and  as  the  judge  of  tradition,  deformatory  rationalism  subjects 
the  Bible  to  the  authority  of  the  reason,  and  regulates  revealed 
truth  by  the  demands  of  logical  thinking.  If  the  former  opposes 
the  deification  of  the  Church,  the  latter  even  disputes  the  divinity 
of  Christ.  On  the  other  hand,  deformatory  Mysticism  carried 
the  evangelical  demand  for  inward  religious  experience  to  the 
extreme  opposite  of  the  externalizing  formalism  of  the  Romish 


154       SECTION    III. — FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

Church,  and  by  the  side  of  the  inspiration  of  the  Word  of  God 
set  up  an  assumed  illumination  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  as  a  higher 
revelation,  despised  the  sacraments,  and  aimed  at  forming  a  visi- 
ble communion   of  saints.     The  denial  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  became  the  shibboleth  of  the  former  (Anti-  Trinitarians, 
Unitarians),  the  rejection  of  infant  baptism,  that  of  the  latter 
(Anabaptists).     It  cannot  seem  surprising,  however,  that  both 
tendencies  often  commingled,  since  the  so-called  inner  light  is, 
after  all,  nothing  else  than   a  fanatical   excited  reason.     As  a 
third  deformatory  tendency,  the   liberalist,  revolutionary,  and 
antinomian  movements  of  this  period  might  be  named,  the  com- 
mon character  of  which  consists  in  the  transfer  of  the  Reforma- 
tory demand  for  the  freedom  of  the  Christian  from  the  spiritual 
thraldom  of  the  hierarchy,  to  political,  civil,  social,  and  moral 
spheres.     But  these  movements  partly  lacked  independency,  be- 
ing merely  offshoots  of  some  other  tendency,  or   they   were    so 
speedily  suppressed,  that  they  were  but  of  temporary  import- 
ance, and  have  already  been  noticed.     (Cf.  §  4,  2,  5  ;   §  18,  3.) 

As  to  the  way  in  -which  Protestantism  should  dispose  of  heretics, 
mediaeval  principles  still  so  far  prevailed,  that  a  Calvin  could  urge  the 
burning  of  a  man  who  denied  the  Trinity,  and  even  the  mild  Melanch- 
thon  approve  of  his  execution  ($  28,  2).  [Servetus  perished  at  the  stake, 
not  for  denying  the  Trinity,  but  for  the  scandalous  blasphemies  he 
uttered  against  the  Godhead  in  this  form,  and  for  political  machina- 
tions. See  Henry's  Life  of  Calvin,  and  Calvin  and  Servetus,  mainly 
from  the  French  of  M.  A.  Rilliet,  by  W.  K.  Tweedie,  Edinb.  1848.— Tr.*] 
But  in  both  theory  and  practice  the  view  prevailed  that  heretics  should 
not  be  forced,  or  punished  with  death,  though  they  might  be  impri- 
soned to  bring  them  to  reflection,  or  prevent  their  doing  harm,  or  be 
banished. 

\  26.  MYSTICISM. 

Cf.  M.  Carriere,  d.  philosoph.  Weltanschauung  d.  Reformationszeit. 
Stuttg.  1847. 

Beside  the  truly  evangelical  and  churehly  mysticism,  which,  as 
a  sincere  apprehension  of  the  Christian  life,  Luther  ever  highly 
esteemed,  and  which  the  Lutheran  Church  never  wholly  excluded, 
an  unevangelical  and  unchurchly  mysticism  early  manifested 
itself  in  various  forms.  To  the  intoxicated  fanaticism,  and 
tumultuous  revolutionary  agitations  of  the  Anabaptists  (§  27), 
SvhwenLj'cld's  mysticism  presents  a  favorable  contrast,  di-stin- 


MYSTICISM.  155 

guished  by  its  theological  moderation,  and  quiet  efforts  to  extend 
its  influence.  Agrippa  and  Paracelsus  advocated  a  mysticism 
constructed  upon  a  basis  of  natural  philosophy,  and  their  phan- 
tasies were  adopted  by  Val.  Weigel  in  his  theosophy.  Seb.  Frank 
derived  nourishment  for  his  pantheistic  mysticism  from  the  writ- 
ings of  Eccart  and  Tauler.  Jordanus  Bruno  was  rewarded  with 
the  stake  for  his  fanatical  bacchanalian  mysticism,  supported  by 
the  boldest  pantheism  ;  whilst  the  Familists  were  united  toge- 
ther as  members  of  a  family,  in  the  service  of  a  deified  love.  — 
(Cf.  §  36,  1  ;   39,  2.) 

1.  Among  the  mystics  of  the  age  of  the  Reformation  who  were  hos- 
tile to  the  Church,  Caspar  Sciiwenkfeld  of  Ossigk,  in  Silesia,  was 
distinguished  for  his  sincere  piety.  At  first  he  ardently  embraced  the 
Wittenberg  Reformation  ;  in  its  progress,  however,  it  wholly  failed  to 
satisfy  his  spirit,  which  was  exclusively  bent  upon  an  inward  mystical 
Christianity.  In  1525  he  personally  met  Luther  in  Wittenberg.  The 
friendly  relation  there  maintained  between  them,  notwithstanding 
fundamental  differences  in  the  tendency  of  their  views,  soon  yielded 
to  open  opposition  on  Schwenkfeld's  part.  In  his  dissatisfaction  with 
the  Wittenberg  Reformers,  he  even  declared  that  he  would  rather  join 
the  Papists'  than  the  Lutherans.  As  early  as  1528,  he  was  banished 
from  his  native  country,  and  commenced  laboring  in  Swabia  and  along 
the  Rhine,  in  the  face  of  constant  opposition,  against  both  the  German 
and  Swiss  Reformation,  seeking  quietly  to  carry  on  a  reformation  ac- 
cording to  his  own  views.  He  died  in  1501,  leaving  behind  a  small 
company  of  adherents.  The  party  has  perpetuated  itself  to  the  present 
day.  [A  colony  settled  in  Pennsylvania,  N.  A.,  in  1734.  They  have  5 
churches  and  about  800  members.  —  Tr.]  Schwenkfeld's  main  dislike 
of  the  Lutheran  Reformation  was  its  scriptural  churchly  objectiveness. 
He  called  Luther's  insisting  upon  the  unconditional  authority  of  the 
Word  of  God  a  bondage  to  the  letter,  and  exalted  the  inner  word  of  the 
Spirit  above  the  written  Word  of  the  Scriptures.  He  was  wholly  op- 
posed to  all  outward  church  forms.  He  confounded  justification  with 
sanctification,  similarly  with  Osiander,  and  declared  it  to  be  an  incar- 
nation of  Christ  in  the  believer.  Besides,  he  taught  (Eutichianistically) 
that  Christ  was  born  of  God  even  according  to  the  flesh,  and  that  his 
human  nature  was  absorbed  by  the  divine.  He  disapproved  of  infant 
baptism,  and  affirmed  that  a  regenerated  person  might  live  without 
sin.  In  the  Lord's  Supper  he  made  everything  rest  upon  the  inner 
operation  of  the  spirit ;  the  bread  was  merely  a  symbol  of  Christ  as  the 
food  of  the  soul  (he  considered  rovto  the  predicate:  My  body  is  this, 
bc.  the  bread  of  life).  His  "  Christlich  orthodoxischen  Biicher  u. 
Schriften,"  were  published  in  4  vols.  (1504),  by  Hans  Ossigk. 

2.  Agrippa  of  Ncttesheim  (ob.  1535),  a  man  of  extensive  learning 


15G        SECTION    III. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

and  an  ostentatious  dealer  in  mysteries,  led  a  most  unsettled,  adven 
fcurous  life,  was  a  politician  and  a  soldier,  taught  medicine,  theologyj 
and  law,  with  cutting  satires  flagellated  the  monks,  who  persecuted 
him  as  a  heretic,  and  developed  his  magniloquent  wisdom  in  his  de 
occulta  philosophia.     Of  the  same  cast  was  the  learned  Swiss  physician 
TkeopJirastus  Bombastus  Paracelsus  ab  Eohenheim  (ob.  1541),  a  man 
as  genial  and  profound  as  he  was  fantastic  and  conceited,  a  man  who 
solved  all  the  mysteries  of  the  Godhead,  as  well  as  of  things  natural 
and  supernatural,  and  who  affirmed  that  he  had  found  the  philosopher's 
stone.  (Cf.  H.  A.  Preu,  d.  Theol.  des  Th.  Parac.  Berl.  1839.)    They  both 
remained  in  the  Catholic  Church.      Valentine  Weigel  was  a  Lutheran 
preacher  in  Saxony,  universally  esteemed  for  his  piety  and  edifying 
labors  {ob.  1588).     His  mystic  theosophy,  which  led  him  to  reject  all 
external  Church  forms,  and  to  regard  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  as 
merely  an   allegorical   veil   of  deeper  knowledge,   first   became   fully 
known  by  the  publication  of  his  works  after  his  death.     He  had  many 
admirers  among  "the  quiet  in  the  laud"  until  the  present  century. 

3.  Sebastian  Frank  at  first  devoted  himself  zealously  to  the  cause  of 
the  Reformation,  but  afterwards  opposed  it,  denounced  and  ridiculed 
all  the  theological  views  of  his  times,  took  refuge  in  a  pantheistic, 
dualistic  mysticism,  demanded  unlimited  religious  liberty,  defended 
the  Anabaptists  against  the  intolerance  of  theologians,  and  died  in 
Ulm  (1543),  at  enmity  with  all  the  world.  He  deserves  great  praise, 
however,  as  the  author  of  the  first  history  of  the  world  in  the  German 
language.  (Cf.  H.  Bischof,  Seb.  Fr.  u.  d.  deutsche  Geschichtschreibung. 
Tlibg.  1857 .) —  Giordano  Bruno,  a  Dominican  of  Nola  near  Naples, 
was  a  man  of  much  more  vigorous  mind.  His  ridicule  of  the  monks 
and  of  ecclesiastical  doctrines  compelled  him  to  flee  to  Geneva.  Sub- 
sequently he  lived  and  taught  in  London,  Paris,  Wittenberg,  and 
Helmstadt,  then  returned  to  Italy,  and  was  burned  at  Rome  in  1600. 
He  never  left  the  Catholic  Church. 

4.  The  Familists  (familia  charitatis)  were  a  mystic  sect  founded  in 
England  under  Elizabeth,  by  Henry  Nicolai  of  Minister,  who  was 
previously  associated  with  David  Joris  (§  27,  1)  ;  the  queen  instituted 
an  investigation  against  them  (1580).  They  differed  from  the  Anabap- 
tists by  indifferently  allowing  infant  baptism.  Nicolai  professed  to  be 
an  apostle  of  love,  by  and  through  which  the  mystical  deification  of 
man  was  to  be  effected.  Although  an  illiterate  man,  he  wrote  several 
works,  and  in  one  of  them  claimed  to  be  "  deified  with  God  in  the  spirit 
of  his  love."  His  adherents  were  accused  of  mystical  licentiousness, 
and  he  was  said  to  teach  that  Christ  was  only  a  divine  "condition," 
which  was  communicated  to  all  the  pious.     In  a  confession  of  faith  and 

in  apology  (1575),  however,  they  acknowledge  the  three  oecumenical 
Bymbols,  and  sought  to  prove  their  affinity  to  the  evangelical  Church. 
Janus  I.  still  speaks  of  the  infamis  Anahaptistarum  secta,  qu»  familia 
amoris  vocatur.     After  that  they  disappear, 


AN  A  BAPTISM.  157 

I  27.  ANABAPTISM. 

Cf.  /.  A.  Stark,  Gesch.  d.  Taufe  u.  d.  Taufgesinnten.  Lps.  1789.— 
/.  Hast,  1.  c.  (g  24, 1) ;  Erblcam,  1. c.  (g  25).   /.  if.  Cram?'.  B»P-  Hist.  Phila. 

The  Anabaptist  movement,  the  operations  of  which,  so  far  as 
they  immediately  entered  into  the  history  of  the  Reformation, 
were  mentioned  in  §  4,  1,  3,  4,  5  ;  §  10,  5  ;  §  13,  16,  everywhere 
followed  upon  its  heels,  in  Germany,  Switzerland,  the  Nether- 
lands, England,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Livonia,  etc.  In  spite  of 
numerous  defeats,  it  pushed  itself  most  audaciously  forward, 
when  John  of  Leyden  established  his  splendid  kingdom  in 
Minister,  and  sent  out  his  apostles  into  all  the  world,  to  gather 
the  people  of  God  into  the  new  Zion.  But  the  unhappy  issue 
of  this  transient  glory  spoiled  all  its  high  hopes.  Its  scattered 
remnants  were  everywhere  imprisoned,  banished,  or  executed. 
Moreover,  it  was  rent  with  internal  factions.  Two  men,  of  a 
wholly  different  character,  labored  indefatigably,  from  1536,  to 
gather  and  reorganize  these  fragments  ;  they  were  David  Joris 
and  Menno  Simons.  The  latter,  by  adopting  prudent  measu-^s 
of  reform,  managed  to  perpetuate  his  party. 

1.  David  Joris,  a  glass-painter  of  Delft,  was  a  fanatic  of  the  worst 
stamp.  With  Anabaptist  revelations,  by  which  he  claimed  to  be  ths 
true  Christ  according  to  the  Spirit,  he  combined  sabellian,  anti-trini 
tarian,  and  antinomian  doctrines.  He  travelled  over  Germany,  disse- 
minating his  views  by  his  writings,  and  orally.  At  last  a  reward  was 
offered  for  his  apprehension.  Assuming  another  name,  he  went  to 
Basel,  and  remained  there  undisturbed  until  his  death  (1556).  When, 
subsequently,  his  true  name  was  discovered,  the  city  authorities  had 
his  body  dug  up  and  burned. 

2.  Menno  Simons,  a  Catholic  priest  in  Wittmarsum,  Holstein,  gave 
himself  to  the  diligent  study  of  the  Scriptures,  and  soon  was  troubled 
with  many  doubts  concerning  Catholic  doctrines.  The  martyr-like 
courage  of  an  Anabaptist  directed  his  attention  to  that  subject,  and  he 
Boon  was  induced  to  believe  in  the  correctness  of  the  views  of  the 
Anabaptists.  In  1536  he  resigned  his  priesthood,  and  was  baptized. 
With  indescribable  toils  and  untiring  patience,  he  labored  to  reorganize 
the  sect.  He  drew  up  a  distinct  form  of  doctrine,  related  to  that  of  the 
Reformed  Church,  differing  from  it  only  in  rejecting  infant  baptism, 
and  in  an  unqualified  spiritualization  of  the  idea  of  the  Church  as  a 
communion  of  such  only  as  were  true  saints.  He  also  forbade  military 
and  civil  service,  and  the  oath,  and  in  addition  to  baptism  and  the 
Lord's   Supper,   introduced  feet-washing  (John  13).     By  means  of  a 

51 


158   SECTION  III.  — FIRST  PERIOD  (CENT.  16  A.  D) 

rigid  ecclesiastical  discipline,  be  maintained  a  simple  mode  of  living 
and  strict  morality.  The  quiet,  pious  disposition  of  the  Mennonites, 
soon  secured  religious  toleratiou  for  them  in  Holland;  afterwards,  also, 
in  Germany  and  England.  Menno  died  in  1561.  Even  during  his  life 
his  sect  in  Holland  divided  into  two  parties,  thejine  and  the  coarse,  the 
latter  disregarding  Menno's  severe  discipline.     (Of.  \  42,  1.) 

I  28.  ANTI-TRINITARIANS  AND  UNITARIANS. 

Cf.  F.  Trechsel,  d.  prot.  Antitrin.  vor  Faust.  Socin.  Heidelb.  1839, 
44.  2  Bde. —  0.  Fock,  d.  Socinianism.     Kiel,  1847.  2  Bde. 

The  first  opponents  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  were  German 
Anabaptists  {John  Gampanus,  Lewis  Hetzer,  and  John  Denck). 
The  Spaniard,  Michael  Servelus,  reduced  his  TJnitarianism  to 
organic  connection  with  a  complete  pantheistic,  philosophical 
system.  But  Italy  was  the  proper  home  of  the  rationalistic  de- 
nial of  the  doctrine  ;  it  was  the  fruit  of  the  half  pagan  humanism 
which  flourished  there.  Its  advocates,  compelled  to  flee,  took 
refuge  in  Switzerland,  but  being  persecuted  there,  and  banished, 
they  went  to  Poland,  Hungary,  and  Transylvania,  where  princes 
or  nobles  protected  them.  The  several  scattered  Unitarians 
were  furnished  with  a  complete  doctrinal  system  by  the  two 
Sozinni  (uncle  and  nephew),  and  thus,  also,  secured  an  eccle- 
siastical organization. 

1.  Fanatical  Anabaptist  Anti-Trinitarians. — The   most  notable   of 
these  are:   (1.)  John  Bench,  of  the  Upper  Palatinate.     In  1524,  he  be- 
came rector  in  Nuremberg;  after  that  he  wandered  about  until  (Eco- 
lampadius  gave  him  shelter  in  Basel,  where  he  died  of  the  plague  in 
1528.     He  rejected  the  written  Word  and  infant  bastism,  resolved  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  into  a  pantheistic  speculation,  and  taught  an 
apocatastasis,  but  recanted  shortly  before  his  death.     (2.)  Lewis  Hetzer, 
of  Switzerland,  was  a  priest  in  Zurich,  and  at  first  a  zealous  adherent 
and  fellow-laborer  of  Zwingli.     Subsequently  he  was  converted  by 
Denck,  joined  the  Anabaptists,  published  (even  before  Luther)  a  Ger- 
man translation  of  the  Prophets,  and  by  means  of  hymns  spread  his 
monarchianistic  views,  until  he  was  beheaded  for  polygamy  at  Con- 
stance in  1529.     (Cf.  Kaim,  L.  Hetzer.     In  the  Jahrbb.  fur  deutsche 
Theol.,  by  Dorner  u.  Liebner,  I.  2.)     (3.)  John  Campanus  of  Jvilich. 
Driven  from  Cologne,  where  he  studied,  he  went  to  Wittenberg  (1528), 
accompanied  the  Reformers  to  Marburg,  where  be  endeavored  bo  har« 
monize  the  disputants  by  interpreting:   This   i-;  my  body,   to  mean: 
This  is  a  body  made  by  me.     Returning  to  Wittenberg,  lie  began  to 
circulate   Anabaptist  and  Arian  views,   and  to  vilify  the  Reformers  in 
his  preaching  and  writings  ("Wider  die  ganze  Welt  nach  den  Apo&- 


ANTI-TRINITARIANS    AND     INITARIANS.  159 

teln"  "Gottlicher  u.  heiliger  Schrift  Restitution  u.  Besserung"),  he 
was  expelled  from  Saxony  (1532).  Imprisoned  for  preaching  Chiliastic 
sermons,  he  died,  after  twenty  years'  confinement,  in  Cleve,  (1574). 

2.  Michael  Servetus,  of  Spain,  was  a  man  endowed  with  speculative 
talents,  but  of  restive  mind.  Driven  from  Spain,  he  wandered  about 
through  France  and  Switzerland.  Luckily  escaping  the  stake  in 
Yienne  (though  burnt  in  effigy),  he  was  imprisoned  in  Geneva  (1553), 
at  Calvin's  instigation,  and  having  refused  to  recant,  was  burnt  there 
as  a  disturber  of  the  peace  and  a  blasphemer.  [Cf.  \  25,  1. — Tr.]  His 
pantheistic  monarchianism  was  fully  developed  in  his  works :  de  trini- 
tatis  erroribus  LI.  VII.,  and  Dialogorum  de  trinitate  LI.  II.  He  taught 
that  the  Logos  was  an  emanation  of  the  divine  light,  which  became 
personal  at  the  incarnation.  The  grosser  materials  of  his  body  he 
received  from  his  mother,  the  substance  of  the  divine  light  taking  the 
place  of  the  male  seed.  By  both  he  is  God  6fxoov<sto{,  for  even  the 
earthly  matter  of  his  body  is  only  a  grosser  form  of  the  primal  light. 
The  Holy  Spirit,  from  which  the  Logos  differed  in  being  a  more  corpo- 
real manifestation  of  God,  was  the  soul  of  Christ.  Servetus  also  denied 
original  sin,  controverted  justification  by  faith,  disapproved  of  infant 
baptism,  advocated  a  spiritualistic  view  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  and 
cherished  Chiliastic  expectations.  (Cf.  L.  Mosheim,  Unparth.  Ketzer- 
gesch.  Bd.  II.  Helmst.  1750.  Trechsel,  1.  c.  Bd.  I.  Heberle,  Servet'a 
Trinit'atsl.  u.  Christol.,  in  the  Tlibg.  Ztschr.  1840.  II.) 

3.  Italian  Unitarians  before  Socinus. — The  most  noted  are:  (1.) 
Claudius  of  Savoy.  In  1534,  in  Berne,  he  contended  that  Christ  should 
be  called  God  only  because  the  fulness  of  the  divine  Spirit  was  com- 
municated to  him.  Driven  thence,  and  soon  afterwards  from  Basel 
also,  he  went  to  Wittenberg,  where  he  was  likewise  badly  received. 
In  1537  he  recanted  at  a  synod  in  Lausanne.  Then  he  went  to  Augs- 
burg, and  operated  as  a  popular  agitator.  In  1550  he  still  appeared 
as  a  prophet  in  Memmingen.  After  that,  we  lose  sight  of  him.  (2.) 
Valentine  Gentilis,  of  Calabria,  driven  from  Berne,  went  to  Poland 
(1552).  In  1556,  having  ventured  back  to  Berne,  he  was  beheaded. 
(3.)  George  Blandrata,  a  physician  of  Saluzzo,  in  Piedmont,  fled  from 
his  native  country  to  Switzerland,  and  thence  to  Poland.  In  1553  he 
was  appointed  private  physician  to  the  prince,  in  Transylvania.  There 
he  spread  anti-trinitarian  doctrines,  and  was  murdered  (1590)  by  his 
nephew,  whose  avarice  could  not  wait  for  his  death. 

To  the  Italian  infidelity  of  this  period  probably  belongs,  also,  the 
authorship  of  the  book  de  tribus  impostoribus  (Moses,  Jesus,  Moham- 
med), even  though  the  conception  is  mediajval  (Vol.  I.,  $  96,  8).  The 
work  is  first  mentioned  in  the  16th  cent.  (Editions  by  Genthe,  Lpz., 
1833  ;  Weller,  Lpz.  1846 ;  Rosenkranz,  d.  Zweifel  am  Glauben,  Kritik 
d.  Schrift  de  trib.  impost.  Halle,  1830).  Of  similar  tendency  is  the 
work  of  the  French  jurist  Jean  Bod  in  (ob.  1597) :  Heptaplomeres,  a 
dialogue  upon  Religion  between  seven  learned  free-thinkers  of  Venice, 


160      SECTION    III.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.j. 

in  which  all  positive  religions  are  set  forth  as  possessing  the  same 
merits  and  defects.  Ideal  deism  is  commended,  however,  as  the  true 
religion.  Edidit  L.  Noack.  Schwerin.  1857.  (Cf.  G.  E.  Guhrauer, 
d.  Heptapl.  v.  J.  Bodin.     Berl.  1814.) 

4.  Lcelius  Socinus,  sprung  from  a  celehrated  family  of  jurists  in 
Siena,  himself  a  jurist,  was  early  led  to  the  conviction  that  Romish 
theology  did  not  accord  with  the  Bihle.  To  acquire  more  certain  know- 
ledge of  the  matter,  he  learned  the  original  languages  of  the  Scriptures; 
on  a  journey  he  became  acquainted  with  the  most  prominent  theologians 
of  Switzerland,  Germany,  and  Poland  ;  and  constructed  a  complete, 
consistent  system  of  Unitarianism.  He  died  in  Zurich  (1562),  and  his 
nephew  Fauslus  Socinus,  whom  he  had  indoctrinated  into  his  own 
views,  set  himself  about  forming  a  Unitarian  society  from  the  anti- 
Trinitarians  of  Transylvania,  who  were  in  a  very  distracted  state.  His 
untiring  efforts  were  successful.  Rukop  became  the  chief  seat  of 
Socinians,  and  the  Rahooian  Catechism  (1002)  their  confession  of  faith. 
Faustus  died  (1004),  and  soon  after  his  death  the  Socinian  congrega- 
tions in  Poland  and  Transylvania  nourished  beyond  all  expectation. 
Learned  men,  like  John  Orel!-,  Schlichtiug,  Wolzogen,  Wissowatius,  etc., 
advocated  and  defended  Socinianism  in  numerous  works.  This  pros- 
perity lasted  a  half  century.  But  in  consequence  of  a  premeditated 
insult  offered  to  the  crucifix  by  some  Rakov  students,  their  church  in 
that  place  was  closed  (1638),  and  their  flourishing  school  broken  up; 
and  in  1658  they  wore  excluded,  in  Poland,  from  the  Religious  Peace, 
and  ordered  to  leave  the  country.  In  Transylvania,  however,  some 
Socinian  congregations  are  still  found  at  the  present  day. 

The  Socinian  System  is,  substantially,  the  following:  The  Bible  is 
the  sole  source  of  our  knowledge  of  the  plan  of  salvation,  but  it  con- 
tains nothing  contrary  to  reason.  The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  conflicts 
with  the  Bible  and  with  reason  ;  God  is  only  one  person.  Jesus  was  a 
mere  man,  who,  however,  was  endowed  with  divine  power  to  accom- 
plish man's  salvation,  and  was  rewarded  for  his  perfect  obedience  by 
being  exalted  to  divine  majesty,  and  invested  with  authority  to  judge 
the  quick  and  the  dead ;  hence  divine  honors  are  due  him.  The  Holy 
Spirit  is  only  a  power  of  God.  Man's  original  likeness  to  God  con- 
sisted in  his  dominion  over  all  creatures.  Man  was  mortal  by  nature, 
though  if  he  had  not  sinned,  God  might,  by  a  supernatural  operation, 
have  caused  him  to  pass  into  eternal  life  without  first  dying.  There  is 
no  original  sin,  but  original  evil,  and  a  hereditary  inclination  to  sin, 
which,  however,  involves  no  personal  culpability.  God's  foreknowledge 
of  human  actions  must  be  disclaimed,  because  it  would  lead  to  the  doc- 
trine of  absolute  predestination.  Redemption  consists  in  Christ's 
having,  bv  his  doctrine  and  life,  pointed  out  the  way  of  moral  improve- 
ment, God  bestows  upon  all  who  choose  this  way  the  pardon  of  sin  and 
eternal  life.  The  death  of  Christ  was  not  an  atonement,  but  simply 
eealed  his  doctrine,  and  opened  to  him  the  way  to  divine  nonors.    Con- 


RENOVATION  OF  THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH.     16] 

version  must  be  begun  by  personal  effort,  but  it  cannot  be  completed 
without  the  aid  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  sacraments  are  mere  ceremo- 
nies, which  might  be  dispensed  with,  though  it  is  better  to  retain  them 
as  ancient  and  beautiful  customs,  etc. 


III.   THE   COUNTER-REFORMATION. 

I  29.  EFFORTS  TO  STRENGTHEN  AND  RENOVATE  THE 
CATHOLIC  CHURCH.27 

The  exertions  of  the  Catholic  Church  to  confine  the  triumphs 
of  the  Reformation  to  the  narrowest  possible  limits,  and  to  con- 
quer as  much  as  possible  of  their  lost  territory,  are  so  promi- 
nent, so  absorbing-,  and  predominant,  that  we  may  exhibit,  its 
whole  history  during  this  period  under  the  aspect  of  a  counter- 
reformation.  These  efforts  aimed  partly  at  strengthening  and 
reviving  the  Church  inwardly,  partly  at  securing  its  outward 
extension  and  increase  —  and  this  both  by  missions  among  the 
heathen,  and  by  a  violent  suppression  of  Protestantism.  The 
Council  of  Trent  was  designed  to  inclose  mediaeval,  scholastic 
Catholicism  with  a  brazen  wall,  which  should  forever  secure  it 
against  reformatory  measures,  whilst,  at  the  same  time,  man} 
abuses  were  either  corrected  or  curtailed.  The  old  degenerate 
monastic  orders,  once  so  mighty  a  support  of  the  papacy,  were 
unable  to  resist  the  violence  of  the  Reformation.  A  new  order 
took  their  place,  the  Jesuits,  which  propped  up  the  tottering 
hierarchy  for  some  centuries,  and  sought  in  every  way  to  hinder 
the  spread  of  the  Reformation.  There  also  arose  a  number  of 
other  orders,  partly  new,  partly  reformed,  mostly  having  a  prac- 
tical Christian  tendency,  none  of  which  acquired  the  importance 
of  the  Jesuits,  or  even  of  many  earlier  orders,  but  which  labored 
all  the  more  beneficially  in  narrower  spheres.  Conflicts  and 
rivalry  with  Protestantism  likewise  excited  theological  science  to 
fresh  and  more  profitable  activity. 

1.  The  Council  and  the  Popes.  —  ( Cf.  /.  /.  Rambach,  Gesch.  d.  rom. 
Pp.  seit  d.  Ref.  Magd.  1779,  2  Bde.  4to.— L.  RanJce,  d.  rom.  P.,  ihre  K. 
u.  ihr  Staat,  3  A.  Berl.  1844.  —  Paolo  Sarpi  (Petro  Soave  Solano).. 
Istoria  del  cone.  Trident.,  ed.  M.  A.  de  Dominis.  Lond.  1619.  Fol. 
In  French,  by  P.  Fr.  le  Courayer,  with  valuable  notes.  Lond.  1736. 
2  vols.  fol.  German,  by  F.  E.  Rambach,  Halle,  1761,  6  vols.  Contra: 
57* 


1G2       SECTION    III. — FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.)  . 

Sforza  Pallavicino,  1st.  del  cone,  di  Trento.  Rom.  1656.  —  C.  A.  S-.ilig 
vollst.  Hist.  d.  trid.    Cone.  Hallo,  1741.  3  Bd.  4to.— J.  H.  o.  Wessenberg, 
d.  gr.  K.-verfass  d.  15.  u.  1G.  Jahrh.  Konst.  1844.  Bd.  III.  IV.  —  E. 
Kollner,  Symbolik.     Hamb.   1844.  Bd.  II.)  — Pope  Paul  III.,  at  the 
earnest  and  repeated  solicitations  of  princes  and  people,  opened  the 
general  Council  of  Trent  in  1537.     Its  continuance,  however,  in  a  Ger- 
man city,  seemed  to  him  unadvisable,  in  view  of  the  emperor's  power 
and  influence.     On  pretence  of  avoiding  the  plague,  therefore,  he  re- 
moved it  to  Bologne  in  1547,  and  in  1549  wholly  dissolved  it.     Julius 
III.  was  constrained  to  reopen  it  (1551)  in  Trent,  but  the  terror  which 
preceded  the  army  of  Maurice  scattered  it  so  early  as  1552.      (Cf.  §  14, 
1 ;  15,  10;  16.  4,  8;  17,  2.)     It  was  not  reopened  again  until  Pius  IV. 
(1559-G5)  convoked  it  in  January,  15G2,  at  Trent,  where  it  adjourned 
after   the    25th    solemn    plenary   session    in    December,   1563.     Some 
French   and    Spanish   bishops   plead  for  a  thorough  reformation,  but 
they  were  voted  down.     Of  255  persons  who  participated  in  its  busi- 
ness, more  than  two-thirds  were  Italians.     The  papal  legates  had  un- 
limited sway,  and  it  was  an    open   secret  that  the  Holy  Spirit   had 
been  brought  from  Rome  to  Trent  in  a  portmanteau.     In  the  doctrinal 
decrees,  mediaeval  dogmas  were  confirmed  (only  shunning  points  of 
diversity  between   the   Franciscans  and   Dominicans),   all   Protestant 
departures  therefrom  condemned.    The  decrees  touching  a  reformation 
ordered  various  improvements,  so  far  as  they  could  be  introduced  with- 
out infraction  upon  hierarchical  interests.     Pius  IV.  confirmed  all  the 
decrees,  but  strictly  forbade,  on  pain  of  the  ban,  all  explanations  and 
expositions  of  them,  as  all  such  belonged  solely  to  the  apostolic  chair. 
Gregory  XIII.  (1572-85)  completed  the  Reformed  Calendar  (1582)  or- 
dered by  the  Council  of  Trent.     The  Gregorian  Calendar,  which  obvi- 
ated the  diversity  between  the  civil  and  solar  year  by  suppressing  ten 
.lays  in  the  civil  calendar,  was  received  with  opposition  even  by  the 
Catholic  States.     The  Evangelical  States  of  Germany  did  not  accept  it 
until  1700,  and  it  was  not  introduced  into  England  until  1752.    Russia, 
and  the  entire  Greek  Church,  still  retains  the  old  .Julian  Calendar 
Among  the  succeeding  popes,  Sixtus  V.  (1585-90),  who  rose,  from  be- 
in--  a  shepherd's  boy  (Felix  Perettij,  through  all  the  grades  of  the 
hieraraehy  (Cardinal  Montalto)   to  the  papacy,  distinguished  himself 
by  his  vigorous  reign  and  far-reaching  plans.26 

Addend.  About  the  close  of  this  century  arose  the  celebrated  pro- 
phecy, ascribed  to  St.  Malachi,  archb.  of  Armagh  (oft.  1148),  which 
describes  the  popes,  111  in  all,  from  Coelestiu  II.  (1143)  to  Sixtus  V. 
(1590),  in  brief  sketches,  which,  though  spiritless,  are  very  accurate, 
and  mainly  derived  from  the  papal  coatsof  arms.  The  succeeding  popes, 
to  the  last' (who  is  represented  as  guarding  the  Church  amid  great  tri- 
bulations, and  as  surviving  the  downfall  of  the  city  of  seven  hills,  and 
the  coming  of  the  day  of  judgment),  are  characterized  by  similar  deli- 
neations, for  the  most  part,  however,  indefinite  and  inapposite,  though 


RENOVATION     OF     THE     C&.TIIOLIC     CHURCH.  163 

in  a  few  cases  remarkably  striking  (ex.  gr.  Pius  VI. :  peregrinus  apos- 
tolicus,  I  44,  8,  9  ;  Pius  IX. :  crux  de  cruce,  g  57,  1).  There  are  to  be 
still  eleven  popes. — The  real  author  of  this  prophecy  is  most  probably 
the  Benedictine  Wion,  in  whose  Lignum  vitas  (1595),  it  was  first  made 
known.  He  probably  ascribed  it  to  St.  Malachi,  because  St.  Barnard, 
Malachi's  friend  and  biographer,  praises  his  gift  of  prophecy,  or  be- 
cause he  bears  the  name  of  the  last  prophet  of  the  Old  Testament.  The 
aim  of  the  prophecy  was  apologetic,  by  showing,  in  opposition  to  Pro- 
testantism, that  the  Papacy  would  maintain  the  Church  to  the  coming 
of  Christ.  The  author  may  possibly,  also,  have  desired  to  influence 
the  choice  of  the  conclave  of  1590,  by  directing  special  attention  to 
that  cardinal,  as  divinely  indicated,  whom  he  wished  to  see  elected. 
(Cf.  H.  Weingarten,  in  the  theol.  Studd.  u.  Kritt,  1857.  III.) 

2.  The  Society  of  Jesus  (1540).  — (Cf.  Ribadaneira,  Vita  Ign.  Loy. 
Neap.  1572. — /.  G.  v.  Gumpack,  Ign.  Loy.  u.  s.  Gefahrten.  Darmst. 
1845. —  Hospiniani  hist.  Jesuitar.  Zurich,  1619,  fol.— J.  C.  LTarenberg, 
pragm.  Gesch.  d.  Ord.  d.  Jes.  Halle,  1760,  2  Bde.,  4to.  {Adelung)  Verf. 
e.  neuen  Gesch.  d.  Jesuitenord.  Berl.  1769,  2  Bde.  —  P.  P.  Wolf,  allg. 
Gesch.  d.  Jes.  2.  A.  Lpz.  1803,  4  Bde.— F.  Kortum,  d.  Entsth.-Gesch.  d. 
Jes.  Ord.  Mannheim,  1843. — 8.  Sugenheim,  Gesch.  d.  Jes.  in  Deutschl. 
Frkf.  1842,  2  Bde.—  G.  Julius,  d.  Jes.  Gesch.  d.  Griind.,  Ausbr.  u.  Entw. 
Lpz.  1845.  —  Catholic  authors:  J.  B.  Leu,  Beitr.  zur  Wurdigung  d. 
Jesuitenord.  nebst.  e.  Gesch.  d.  Ord.  v.  ./.  A.  Molder,  Luzern,  1840. — 
J.  Cretineaux-Joly,  Gesch.  d.  Gesellsch.  Jesu.  From  the  French.  Wien, 
1845,  etc.,  5  Bde.  —  F.  J.  Buss,  d.  Gesellsch.  Jesu.  Mainz  (1853.)  — 
Ignatius  of  Loyola,  descended  from  a  notable  family  of  Spanish 
knights,  was  severely  wounded  at  the  siege  of  Pampelona  by  the 
French.  During  his  long  and  painful  confinement  he  amused  himself 
by  reading  romances  of  knight-errantry,  and,  after  completing  those, 
saints'  legends.  The  latter  made  a  deep  impression  upon  him,  and 
kindled  in  his  breast  a  burning  desire  to  imitate  the  saints  in  their 
renunciation  of  and  victory  over  the  world.  Religious  ecstacies  and 
apparitions  of  the  queen  of  heaven,  invested  this  tendency  with  a  celes- 
tial sanction.  After  his  convalescence  he  gave  all  his  possessions  to 
the  poor,  and  assuming  the  garb  of  a  mendicant,  practised  the  severest 
asceticism.  At  the  age  of  33  years  he  joined  a  class  of  boys,  and 
studied  the  elements  of  Latin  (1524),  then  philosophy  at  Complu- 
tum,  and  theology  at  Paris.  With  an  iron  will  he  surmounted  all 
hindrances.  In  Paris,  six  men  of  like  mind  associated  themselves  with 
him :  Peter  Faber  (Le  Fevre)  of  Savoy,  (then  already  a  priest),  Francis 
Xavier,  of  a  family  of  Spanish  grandees,  James  Lainez,  a  Castilian, 
Simon  Rodriguez,  a  Portuguese,  Alfonso  Salmeron,  and  Alfonso  Boba- 
dilla,  both  Spaniards.  With  glowing  zeal  they  prepared  a  plan  for  a 
new  order,  bound  themselves  by  a  solemn  oath  to  entire  poverty  and 
chastity,  and  to  serve  the  Catholic  faith  in  accordance  with  the  pleasure 
of  the  pope  (1534).    They  completed  their  studies  under  the  most  rigid 


164        SECTION    III. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.   16    A.I).). 

asceticism,  ana  were  consecrated  priests.  Then  they  went  to  Rome, 
and  after  some  hesitation  Paul  III.  confirmed  their  association  as  the 
Order  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  (1540).  Ignatius  was  chosen  their  first 
general.  In  this  capacity,  also,  he  continued,  with  energetic  power  of 
will,  to  devote  himself  to  religious  discipline,  the  service  of  the  sick, 
and  the  care  of  souls.  It  was  not  until  after  his  death  (1556)  that  the 
Order  acquired  great  historical  importance,  under  his  successors,  the 
skillful  Lainez  and  vigorous  Francis  Borgia  (a  Spanish  grandee),  who 
far  surpassed  him  in  intellect,  sagacity,  and  their  far-reaching  mea- 
sures. The  popes,  also,  bestowed  a  number  of  privileges  upon  the 
Order,  and  it  rapidly  grew  in  power  and  energy. 

Subject  and  responsible  only  to  the  pope,  exempted  from  all  other 
jurisdiction,  the  Order  constituted  a  close  organization,  with  the  most 
perfect  unity  of  membership  ever  possessed  by  any  of  the  large  societies 
of  any  age.     The  circle  nearest  the  general,  who  resided  in  Rome,  con- 
sisted of  the  Professi,  the  choicest  members  of  the  Order.     The  chief 
officers  of  the  Order  (procurators,  superiors,  and  rectors),  were  selected 
from  their  number.     In  addition  to  the  three  usual  monastic  vows,  they 
took  a.  fourth,  by  which  they  bound  themselves  to  unconditional  obe- 
dience to  the  pope.     They  Avere  supported  in  their  houses  by  charity. 
The  coadjutors  formed  the  second  grade,  who  were  either  ecclesiastics, 
having  charge  of  the  course  of  studies,  of  instruction,  and  of  spiritual 
matters,  or  seculars,  who  attended  to  all  other  interests.     That  these 
might  follow  their  vocation  without  hindrance,  they  were  excused  from 
the  fourth  vow,  and  also  from  that  of  living  by  alms.     The  scholastics 
formed  the  third  class,  and  the  novices  the  fourth,  who  became  scholas- 
tics, as  soon  as  they  had  passed  through  their  studies  and  ascetic  exer- 
cises.    Only  such  as  enjoyed  good  bodily  health,  and  were  talented, 
were  admitted  to  the  novitiate.    The  general  had  monarchial  authority, 
but,  as  a  restraint  upon  violations  of  the  rules  of  the  Order,  he  was 
under  the  supervision  of  five  assistants.     Everything  otherwise  dear 
and  sacred  to  man  was  sacrificed  to  the  interests  of  the  Order,  and  un- 
conditional submission  to  its  superiors.     Country,  friends,  personal  in- 
clinations and  aversions,  even  private  opinions  and  the  conscience,  were 
to  be  as  nothing,  the  Order  everything.     No  government  ever  better 
understood  each  member's  talents,  or  where  to  place  him,  ami  how  to 
use  him  for  its  own  ends  ;  and  none  ever  devised  and  employed  so 
thorough   and   universal  a  system   of  mutual  espionage.     The  Order 
made  all  conceivable  means,  science,  learning,  art,  cultivation,  politics, 
even  commerce  and  trade,  subservient  to  its  purposes.     It  seized  the 
management  of  the  education  of  youth  of  the  higher  classes  ..f  sm-iety, 
and  thus  trained  devoted  and  powerful  friends;  by  preaching  and  pri- 
vate counsel,  it  operated  upon  the  people,  and  in  the  confessional  secured 
control  over  princes,  and  penetrated  into  all  the  relationships  of  life, 
and  obtained  possession  of  all  secrets.     Ami  all  these  thousands  of 
means,  these  eminent  powers  and  talents,  were  united  under  one  will. 


RENOVATION     OF     THE     CATHOLIC     CHU.1CH.         165 

served  one  purpose :  positively,  the  furtherance  of  Catholicism,  nega- 
tively, the  suppression  of  Protestantism.  Assuredly,  the  fact  that 
Protestantism  was  not  wholly  vanquished  by  this  stupendous  agency, 
proves  incontrovertibly,  that  it  was  animated  by  a  higher  than  human 
spirit. 

A  system  of  casuistry  threatening  all  morality  was  involved  in  the 
fundamental  principle  of  all  the  efforts  of  the  Order,  and  was  not 
merely  suggested  by  the  private  opinion  of  some  inconsiderate  moralists; 
and  this  does  not  require  us  to  deny  that  the  Order  had,  at  all  times, 
many  members  eminent  for  piety  and  strict  morality.  Primarily,  and 
in  a  general  way,  the  ethics  of  the  Order  showed  a  most  decided  ten- 
dency to  Pelagianism,  and  the  most  distinctly  avowed  opposition  to 
Augustinianism.  But  Jesuit  ethics  became  especially  notorious  for 
the  following  principles  :  (1.)  The  end  sanctifies  the  means.  (2.)  An 
action  is  justifiable,  or  at  least  excusable,  when  there  is  a  probability 
of  its  goodness,  or  when  approved  by  some  respectable  theologian  (pro- 
babilismus).  (3.)  Mental  reservations  are  allowable  in  making  oaths  or 
promises,  the  person  so  obligating  himself  being  bound  only  by  his 
intention.  (4.)  Philosophically,  every  violation  of  a  divine  command- 
ment is  a  sin  ;  theologically,  only  such  violations  as  are  perpetrated 
with  full  consciousness  of  the  wrong,  and  a  set  purpose  to  break  God's 
law.  The  most  celebrated  Jesuit  moralists  who  contended  for  these 
principles  were :  Francis  Toletus  (ob.  1590),  Gabriel  Vasquez  (ob.  1604), 
Thomas  Sanchez  (ob.  1610),  Francis  Squarez  (ob.  1617),  Herm.  Busen- 
baum  (ob.  1669).  In  politics,  the  Order  for  the  benefit  of  the  papacy 
maintained  the  principle  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  people.  Only  the 
pope  derives  his  authority  from  God  (Matth.  16  :  18,  etc.),  that  of 
princes  is  derived  from  the  people.  Hence,  if  a  king  becomes  a  tyrant 
or  a  heretic,  the  people  may  depose  him  ;  or,  if  he  refuses  to  submit  to 
this,  kill  him.  Thus  Bellarmine  (de  potestate  pontificis  in  temporali- 
bus),  and  still  more  openly  and  decidedly,  Mariana,  in  the  work  ascribed 
to  him,  de  rege  et  regis  institutione  LI.  III.  (Tolet.  1598,  4to.) — In  the 
nature  of  the  case,  the  operations  of  the  Order  in  their  heathen  mis- 
sions, were  of  a  less  exceptionable  character  ($  30).     (Cf.  \  44,  7.)27 

3.  New  Orders  for  Inner  Missions.  —  To  these  belong:  (1.)  The 
Theatines.  They  originated  in  an  association  of  pious  clergymen  of 
Thiene  or  Theate,  formed  by  Gcetano  da  Thiene,  with  the  advice  of 
Bishop  John  Peter  Carajfa  of  Theate  (afterwards  Pope  Paul  IV.)  In 
1524  they  were  confirmed  as  Clerici  regulares.  They  desired  to  depend 
for  support,  not  upon  begging,  but  upon  divine  providence  furnishing 
them  with  means  not  solicited  from  any  person,  and  acquired  import- 
ance as  a  nursery  for  the  higher  clergy.  Their  regulations  required 
them,  moreover,  to  operate  upon  the  people  by  frequent  preaching,  to 
give  temporal  and  spiritual  aid  to  the  sick,  to  labor  for  the  salvation 
of  criminals,  and  oppose  the  rise  of  heresies.  (2.)  The  Barnabites, 
likewise  an  association  of  regular  clergy,  founded  by  Antonio  Maria 


166         SECTION    III. FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

Zaccaria,  in  Milan,  confirmed  by  Clement  VII.  (1532).    They  obligated 
themselves  to  devote  their  whole  life  to  works  of  mercy,  the  care  of 
bouIs,  the  instruction  of  youth,   preaching,   confession,   and  missions. 
Their  great  patron  was  St.  Bom-omeo,  Archb.  of  Milan.    They  derived 
their  name  from  the  Church  of  St.  Barnabas,  which  was  assigned  to 
their  use.     The  Society  of  Angelicas,  founded  by  Louisa  Torelli,  Coun- 
tess Guastalla  (a  wealthy  lady,  who  had  been  twice  widowed  by  the 
25th  year  of  her  age),  was  attached  to  the  Barnabites,  and  confirmed 
by  Paul  III.  (1534).    At  first  they  accompanied  the  Barnabites  on  their 
missions,  and  labored  for  the  conversion  of  women.     But  subsequently 
they  were  required  to  remain  in  a  convent.     Each  member  adds  the 
name  of  the  Order,  Angelica,  to  her  own,  to  be  admonished  thereby  to 
be  pure  as  the  angels.     (3.)  Brothers  of  Mercy  (1550),  a  society  for  the 
care  of  the  sick,  irrespective  of  their  religion,  founded  by  the  friends 
of  a  poor,  but  excellent  Portuguese,  whom  his  bishop  honored  with  the 
name  John  de  Dio.     (4.)  The  Vrsulines,  founded  by  a  pious  young  wo- 
man, Angela  of  Brescia,  for  the  succor  of  all  classes  of  sufferers,  but 
especially  for  the  education  of  young  women  (1537).     (5.)  Priests  of 
the  Oratory,  or  Order  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  founded  by  *S/.  Philip  <!<■  Xeri 
of  Florence  (1548).    They  united  works  of  mercy  with  devotional  exer- 
cises and  biblical  studies,   attended  to   in   the   Oratory  of  a  hospital 
erected  by  them.     A  branch,  or  rather  imitation  of  this  society,  arose 
in  France  (1011),  under  the  name  of  Fathers  of  the  Oratory  of  Jesus. 
(Cf.  I  35,  2.) 

4.  Reformation  of  the  Old  Orders.  —  (1.)  An  independent  divis- 
ion of  the  Franciscans  was  affected  by  the  Capuchins,  whose  fouunder, 
Matthew  de  Bassi,  was  a  monk  in  the  monastery  of  the  Observantes  at 
Montefalco,  in  the  duchy  of  Urbino.  Having  incidentally  discovered  that 
St.  Francis  wore  a  cloak  with  along  pointed  cowl,  and,  soon  after,  having 
had  a  vision  of  the  saint  in  such  a  garb,  he  fled  from  his  monastery, 
went  to  Rome,  and  besought  the  pope  to  allow  him  to  restore  the  cowl 
(1525).  His  request  was  granted,  and  thus  he  formed  a  new  congrega- 
tion of  the  Hermits  of  the  Minorite  Brethren.  The  unusual  dress  at- 
tracted universal  attention.  AVhenever  one  of  the  brethren  appeared 
on  the  street,  boys  ran  after  him  crying:  Capucino.  They  adopted  the 
name  as  that  of  their  Order.  Their  self-denying  philanthropy  during  a 
plague  in  Italy  won  general  esteem  for  the  Order,  so  that  in  a  short 
time  it  spread  over  all  Italy.  The  conversion  of  its  third  vicar-general. 
Bernhard  Ochino,  to  the  Reformed  faith,  brought  it,  however,  into  bad 
repute  for  a  time.  The  members  were  characterized  by  a  total  want 
of  scientific  training,  which  often  sank  into  low  rudeness.  (2.)  Theresa, 
the  daughter  of  a  Spanish  grandee,  effected  a  reformation  of  the  Car- 
melites (15G2).  The  revived  Order  (monks  and  nuns)  assumed  the  name 
of  Barefooted.  Carmelites,  and  was  devoted  to  the  instruction  of  youth, 
and  to  works  of  mercy.  In  the  reorganization  of  the  male  Carmelites 
she  wp.a  assisted  by  the  acute  and  pious  mystic  John  of  the  Cross. 
('•>.)  A  reformation  of  the  Cistercians  was  finally  effected  by  Jean  de  la 


RENOVATION     OF     THE     CATHOLIC     CHURCH.  167 

Barrihre,  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Feuillans,  whence  the  congregation 
acquired  the  name  of  Fcuillantes  (Fuliensians).  The  manner  of  life 
he  introduced  was  so  rigid,  that  fourteen  members  died  under  it  in  the 
course  of  a  few  years  ;  this  led  to  a  moderation  of  their  rule  (1595). 
Henry  III.  called  its  founder  to  Paris  to  establish  a  monastery  there. 
He  remained  true  to  the  king,  even  after  he  had  renounced  the  league, 
and  thus  incurred  the  hatred  of  the  fanatically  Catholic  brethren  of 
his  Order,  so  that,  in  1592,  they  deposed  and  banished  him.  A  subse- 
quent committee  of  investigation  under  Cardinal  Baronius,  however, 
pronounced  him  innocent. 

5.  The  Struggle  against  Augustinianism. — The  Council  of  Trent  had 
prudently  guarded  against  giving  a  decision  in  the  old  dispute  between 
the  Thomists  and  Seotists,  concerning  grace.  The  Jesuits  now  joined 
the  Seotists.  Michael  Bains,  the  learned  and  pious  professor  at  Lou- 
vain,  and  his  colleague  John  Hessels,  defended  the  Augustinian  doc- 
trine ;  but  the  Franciscans  gathered  76  propositions  from  the  writings 
of  Baius,  which,  through  the  aid  of  the  Jesuits,  they  induced  Pius  V. 
to  condemn  (15G7).  Baius  had  to  abjure  them.  The  controversy  was 
renewed  in  1588,  when  the  Jesuit  Louis  Molina,  in  Portugal,  published 
some  semi-pelagian  views  upon  the  doctrine  in  question  (Liberi  arbitrii 
cum  gratiad  donis  concordia).  The  Dominicans,  with  the  learned  Do- 
mi  nicus  Banez  at  their  head,  made  a  violent  attack  upon  him,  but  the 
entire  Order  of  the  Jesuits,  to  a  man,  defended  Molina.  Such  was  the 
violence  of  the  controversy,  that  it  had  to  be  settled  by  a  papal  deci- 
sion. Clement  VIII.  appointed  a  special  congregation  (congregatio  de 
auxiliis)  to  examine  the  subject  of  dispute  (1597),  which  labored  in 
vain  for  ten  years  to  frame  a  formula  which  would  satisfy  both  the 
powerful  parties.  At  length  Paul  V.  dismissed  them  (1G07),  promised 
to  give  a  decision  at  a  convenient  time, and  forbade  all  controversy  upon 
the  subject.  The  prohibition  availed  but  little.  Soon  the  controversy 
broke  out  afresh,  in  a  very  threatening  form.     (Cf.  \  44,  6.) 

6.  Theology.  —  Various  measures  were  adopted  to  establish  the  doc- 
trines of  Trent.  Even  at  Trent  already,  Indices  librorum  prohibitoruni 
and  expurgandorum  were  instituted,  which  were  afterwards  con- 
tinued. The  Professio  fidei  tridentinse  (15G4)  and  the  catechismus 
romanus  (15GG)  were  prepared  as  authentic  exhibitions  of  the  doctrinal 
system  of  Trent ;  and  in  1588  a  permanent  congregation,  even,  was  ap- 
pointed to  interpret  its  meaning  upon  any  point  which  might  come  up. 
The  Breviarium  romanum  (15G8),  Missale  romanum  (1570),  and  Cle- 
mentine edition  of  the  Vulgate  (1592)  served  the  same  purposes.  Moan- 
while  Catholic  scholars,  in  spite  of  the  decree  of  Trent,  began  to  examine 
into  the  authenticity  of  the  Vulgate,  and  earnestly  to  study  the  original 
text  of  the  Scriptures.  The  Dominican  Sanies  Pagninus  of  Lucca  (o&. 
1541),  a  pupil  of  Savonarola,  published  a  Hebrew  lexicon  (1529), 
(closely  following  rabbinical  helps),  a  Hebrew  grammar  (1528),  a 
literal  faithful  translation  of  the  Old  and  Xew  Testament  from  the 
original,  at  which  he  labored  thirty  years,  an  isagogic  (with  extended 


L68       SECTION    I.I. — FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

explanations  of  Biblical  tropes),   and  wrote  commentaries  upon  the 
Pentateuch  and  the  Psalms.     He  regarded  the  literal  sense  as  palea, 
folium,  cortex;  the  mystical  as  triticum,  fructus,  nucleus  suavissimus 
The  Dominican  Sixtus  of  Siena  (ob.  1569),  laid  more  stress  upon  the 
historical  sense.    His  Bibliotheca  sancta,  in  8  vols.,  was  for  that  period 
an  important  introduction  to  the  Bible.     The  Jesuit  Cardinal  Robert 
Bellarniine  (ob.  1621),   in  his  LI.  IV.  de  verbo  Dei,  controverted  the 
Protestant  rule :  Scriptura  scripturae  interpres.   Jerome  Emser  violently 
abused  Luther's  version  of  the  Bible,  and  in  opposition  to  it  issued  a 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  (1527)  claimed  as  his  own,  but  which 
is  no  more  than  a  copy  of  Luther's,  with  some  unimportant  verbal 
alterations.    John  Deitenberger,  of  Mayence,  perpetrated  the  same  bare- 
faced deception  in  regard  to  the  Old  Testament.    Luther  and  Leo  Juda 
are  literally  copied  (1534).     John  Eck,  also,  of  Ingolstadt,  published  a 
translation  of  the  Bible  from  the  Vulgate,  into  the  most  wretched  Ger- 
man, without  any  reference  to  the  original  text  (1537).     The  learned 
Spaniard  Arias  Montanus,   aided   by  King  Philip  II.,  furnished   the 
Antwerp  Polyglott,  in  8  vols.,  with  a  large  number  of  learned  additions 
(1569,  etc.)     Towards  the  close  of  the  century,  the  number  of  exegetes 
who  began  to  give  decided  prominence  to  the  literal  sense,  greatly  in- 
creased.   The  most  notable  are  :   Arias  Montanus  (ob.  1598,  upon  nearly 
the  whole  Bible)  ;  the  Jesuit  John  Maldonatns  (ob.  1583,  upon  the  four 
Gospels)  ;  John  Mariana  (ob.  1G24,  Scholia  in  V.  et  N.  T.)  ;  Nick.  Serra- 
rius  (ob.  1609,  on  the  0.  and  N.  T.)  ;   and  William  Estius  of  Douay 
(ob.  1613,  on  the  Epistles).    In  the  sphere  of  dogmatics,  the  old  method 
of  commenting  upon  the  Lombards  was  continued.     But  as  early  as 
152X,  Berthold  Pirstinger,  Bishop  of  Chiemsee,  published  a  complete 
text-book  of  dogmatics,  in  the  upper  German  dialect,  entitled  "  Tewtsche 
Theologey,"  which  was  wholly  emancipated  from  the  scholastic  form 
(cf.  1 5,  3),  and  John  Eck  published  a  counterpart  to  Melanchthon's  locis 
(Enchiridion  locorum  communium),  which  passed  through  30  editions. 
Of  far  greater  importance  were  the   Loci   theologici  of  the  Spanish 
Dominican  Melchior  Canus  (ob.  1560),  which  appeared  in  Salamanca 
(1563).    The  work  is  not  so  much  a  system  of  dogmatics  as  a  thorough 
and  learned  introductory  investigation  of  the  sources,  principles,  me- 
thod, and  fundamental  idea  of  dogmatics.     He  controverts  the  absurdi- 
ties of  the  scholastic  method,  but  instead  of  wholly  discarding  it,  de- 
sires that  it  should  be  pruned,  and  rescued  from  its  errors.    The  Jesuit 
Peter  Canisius  acquired  a  high  reputation  in  the  Church  for  his  two 
Catechisms  (Cat.  major  1554,  and  Cat.  minor  1566),  which  for  two  cen- 
turies were  used   in   all  the  Catholic  schools  of  Germany,  and  are  still 
considered   unsurpassed.     Among  Catholic  controversialists,  Cardinal 
Bellarmine  holds  indisputably  the  first  place.     His  Disputationes  de 
controversiis  chr.  lidei  adv.  hujus  temp,  ha-retiens  (15X1-03)  have,  in 
many  respects,  not  been  surpassed  even  to  this  day.      Previously,    '17/- 
////<;  Lindanus,   Bishop  of  Ghent  (Panoplia  evangelica,  Colon.  1563), 
and  the -Jesuit  Francis  Cosier,  of  Mecheln  (Enchiridion  controversial 


TRANSMARINE     MISSIONS.  169 

rum  Col.  1585),  had  acquired  great  celebrity  among  Catholics,  as 
assailants  of  Protestantism.  The  merits  of  Cardinal  Baronms,  as  an 
eccl.  historian,  have  already  been  acknowledged  (Vol.  I.,  §  4,  2). 

7.  Music,  Art,  and  Poetry. — Musical  taste  had  been  completely  spoiled 
in  the  second  Netherland  school  (Vol.  I.,  $  113,  3),  and  Church  music, 
especially,  had  become  so  artificial,  fanciful,  and  secular,  that  some 
fathers  at  the  Council  of  Trent  earnestly  proposed  that  music  should 
be  wholly  excluded  from  Church  service  (at  the  mass).  Then  Pales- 
trina  (ob.  1594)  saved  and  improved  it.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Goudimel 
(I  23,  1),  and  by  direction  of  the  Council  composed  three  masses,  of 
which  the  Missa  Marcelli  is  the  most  celebrated,  in  a  grand,  churchly 
style ;  artistic  and  yet  not  artificial,  lofty  and  fervent,  but  not  secular 
or  sentimental,  they  mark  a  new  epoch  in  the  Romish  Church  music. 
In  poetry,  Torquato  Tasso  (ob.  1595)  celebrated  the  Christian  heroism 
of  niediseval  Catholicism  in  his  Gerusalemme  liberata. — Painting  still 
made  important  contributions  to  the  service  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
Besides,  and  after,  Correggio  and  Titian,  the  noble  masters  Caracci,  Do- 
menichino,  and  Guido  Beni,were  distinguished.  Michael  A g nolo  (not  An- 
gelo)  (ob.  1564,  in  his  90th  year)  developed  the  most  profound  Christian 
ideas  in  the  most  lofty  productions  of  painting  and  sculpture,  was  like- 
wise distinguished  as  an  architect,  and  ranks  among  the  greatest  poets 
of  Italy.  Not  only  as  painter  and  sculptor,  but  also  as  poet,  he  was 
far  from  doing  slavish  homage  to  the  worship  of  Mary  and  the  saints; 
he  rather  gave  utterance,  in  glowing  sonnets,  to  his  poignant  sense  of 
sin,  and  his  strong  faith  in  the  crucified  destroyer  of  sin.  (Cf.  \  37, 
2,3.) 

8.  The  new  efforts  which  Catholicism  was  driven  to  make  for  its  self- 
preservation,  by  the  progress  of  the  Reformation,  produced  some  happy 
results  in  the  practical  life  of  the  Church.  The  awakened  zeal  for 
inner  missions  furnishes  a  bright  proof  of  this,  and  the  Catholic  Church 
could  once  more  produce  saints  worthy  of  being  placed  beside  those  of 
the  middle  ages.  In  addition  to  those  already  named,  we  meet  with 
one  especially  distinguished  by  his  elevated  and  noble  character, 
Charles  Borromeo  (ob.  1587),  who,  as  a  nephew  of  the  pope,  and  a  high 
dignitary  of  the  Church  (Archb.  of  Milan),  exerted  considerable  influ 
ence  upon  the  Council  of  Trent  and  the  Curia,  and  succeeded  in  having 
many  abuses  corrected.  His  life  furnishes  a  perfect  ideal  of  a  Catholic 
pastor ;  and  to  this  day  his  lofty  form  looks  down  from  a  colossal  statue 
upon  the  streets  of  Milan,  as  the  revered  patron  of  the  land.28 

\  30.  TRANSMARINE  MISSIONS. 

Cf.  H.  Brown,  Hist,  of  the  propag.  of  Christianity  among  the  heathen 
since  the  Ref.  Lond.  1814,  2  vols.  —  P.  WiUmann,  d.  Herrlichk.  d.  K. 
in  ihr.  Miss,  seit  d.  Glaubensspalt.  Augsb.  1841,  2  Bde. — Baron  Hen- 
rion,  allg.  Gesch.  d.  kath.  Miss,  seit  d.  13.  Jahrh.  From  the  French. 
Schaffh.  1845,  etc.  3  Bde.  —  M.  Midlbaner,  Gesch.  d.  kath.  Miss,  in 
58 


170       SECTION    III.  —  PIE  ST   PERIOD    (CENT.  16   A.  D.). 

Ostind.  Freib.   1852.  —  IF.  Hoffmann,  d.  Epochen  d.  K.  G.  Indiens. 
BerL  1855.     Gesch.  d.  kath.  Miss,  ia  China.     Wicn,  1845,  2  Bde. 

The  extensive  geographical  discoveries  which  immediately 
preceded  the  Reformation  period,  and  the  serious  losses  of  eccle- 
siastical territory  in  Europe,  resuscitated  the  missionary  zeal  of 
the  Catholic  Church.  Opportunity  and  incitement  to  transma- 
rine missions  were  afforded  by  the  commerce  and  conquests  which 
were  still  almost  exclusively  carried  forward  by  the  Catholic  na- 
tions; and  abundant  means  were  famished,  to  sustain  them  by 
the  numerous  old  and  new  monastic  Orders.  The  missionary 
efforts  of  the  Jesuits  were  especially  brilliant.  But  the  mutual 
jealousies  and  animosities  of  some  of  the  Orders  soon  caused 
many  interruptions.      (Cf.  §  35,  3.) 

1.  East  India  and  Japan.  —  The  Portuguese  had  established  bishop- 
rics in  their  possessions  in  East  India  as  early  as  1510,  though  there  were 
no  churches  there.  Then  Francis  JTavicr,  Loyola's  companion,  the 
Apostle  of  I/alia,  fired  with  glowing  zeal  for  the  salvation  of  men,  im- 
bued with  apostolic  simplicity,  and  filled  with  love  and  a  spirit  of  self- 
denial,  entered  that  field  in  1542,  and  baptized  many  thousands,  mostly 
belonging  to  the  despised  caste  of  Pariahs  ;  but  he  progressed  so  rapidly 
that  he  nowhere  took  time  to  secure  an  inward  basis  for  this  external 
success.  His  unrestrained  missionary  zeal  impelled  him  still  onward. 
From  East  India  he  went  to  Japan,  and  only  his  death  prevented  his 
entering  China  [ob.  1552). — An  inquisition  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
Catholic  faith  was  instituted  in  East  India  in  1500,  which  destroyed 
the  remnants  of  the  ancient  Thomas  Christians.  Among  the  Brahmins 
the  Jesuit  Nbbili  labored  with  some  success,  by  accommodating  him- 
self to  their  prejudices,  and  avoiding  all  intercourse  with  the  Pariahs. 
In  Japan  the  Jesuits  carried  forward  Xavier's  work  with  brilliant  suc- 
cess ;  even  some  princes  embraced  Christianity.  But  in  1587  a  violent 
persecution  broke  out,  and  the  Jesuits  held  their  position  in  the  country 
with  great  difficulty.  The  envious  devices  of  the  Franciscans  against 
the  Jesuits,  and  the  political  rivalries  which  arose  between  the  Hol- 
landers and  Portuguese,  increased  the  trouble;  persecutions  were  re- 
newed, and  resulted  in  the  utter  extermination  of  the  Church  (1637). 

2.  China. — -Commerce  also  opened  the  way  for  missions  to  China, 
where  a  proud  contempt  of  all  foreigners  was  the  chief  obstacle.  But 
the  Jesuits,  with  Matthew  Ricci  at  their  head,  contrived  (1582)  to  gain 
entrance  to  the  imperial  court,  by  their  mathematical,  mechanical,  and 
architectural  knowledge.  Bicci  first  nationalized  himself,  and  then 
began  to  preach  Christianity.  He  died  in  1010,  but  his  work  was  car- 
ried on  by  his  Order,  and  hundreds  of  churches  had  spread  like  a  net- 
work over  a  large  portion  of  the  country. 

3.  America.  -Zeal  for  the  spread  Of  the  kingdom  of  Christ  was  not 
jne  of  the  least  impulses  which  influenced  Christopher  Columbus  in  his 


CATHOLIC     RESTORATION     EFFORTS.  171 

eeal  for  geographical  discoveries.  But  the  avarice,  cruelty,  and  immo- 
rality of  the  Spanish  invaders,  who  were  less  concerned  to  make  tho 
natives  Christians  than  slaves,  proved  a  mighty  hindrance  to  the  suc- 
cessful Christianization  of  the  country.  The  missionaries,  especially 
the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans,  earnestly,  hut  unavailingly,  vindi- 
cated the  human  rights  of  the  abused  Indians.  The  noble  Spanish 
Bishop  Bartholomew  de  las  Casus,  devoting  his  whole  life  ( 1474-1566) 
to  the  sacred  work,  labored  untiringly  not  only  for  the  conversion  of 
the  Indians,  but  also  for  their  deliverance  from  the  hands  of  his  avari- 
cious and  blood-thirsty  countrymen.  He  visited  Spain  six  times,  to 
intercede  personally  with  the  highest  authorities  for  the  amelioration 
of  the  lot  of  the  poor  natives,  and  he  had  to  go  the  seventh  time  to 
defend  himself  against  the  complaints  of  his  bitter  foes.  As  early  as 
1517,  Charles  V.,  at  his  entreaty,  had  granted  the  Indians  personal 
liberty,  but  simultaneously  allowed  the  colonists  to  introduce  Negro 
slavery  for  the  severe  labors  of  the  mines  and  plantations,  and  Las 
Casas  was  compelled  to  assent.  But  Indian  slavery  was  still  continued, 
and  not  until  1547  were  earnest  measures  adopted  for  its  abolition, 
after  many  millions  of  Indians  had  been  sacrificed.  Christianity  had 
then  already  spread  as  far  as  Spanish  rule  reached,  and  was  placed 
under  the  care  of  the  Inquisition.  In  South  America  the  Portuguese 
held  dominion  over  Brazil,  a  rich  but  little  known  country.  In  1549 
King  John  III.  sent  a  Jesuit  mission  thither,  with  Emanuel  Nobrei/a  at 
its  head.  Amid  indescribable  toils  they  prevailed  upon  the  native 
cannibals  to  embrace  Christianity  and  civilization. 

4.  Abyssinia  and  Egypt. — The  revived  missionary  zeal  also  directed 
its  efforts  towards  the  schismatic  Churches  of  the  East.  Early  in  the 
16th  century  it  was  ascertained  through  Portuguese  merchants  that  an 
independent  Jacobite  Christian  empire  still  existed  in  Abjrssinia.  The 
Abyssinian  sultan,  David,  willingly  received  a  Catholic  patriarch  (Ber- 
mudez),  upon  assurances  of  Portuguese  aid  against  the  encroachments 
of  neighboring  Mahommedan  States.  But  his  successor  Claudius  drove 
the  patriarch  off.  From  1546  Jesuit  missionaries  went  thither,  but 
Claudius  denounced  them  as  Arians,  and  the  people  refused  to  listen  to 
them.  Paul  V.,  at  the  commencement  of  the  17th  century,  encouraged 
by  a  friendly  letter  of  the  Coptic  patriarch,  sent  the  Jesuit  Christopher 
Rodriguez  to  Egypt.  The  patriarch  took  the  rich  presents  he  brought 
along,  and  then  let  him  return  home  without  having  effected  anything. 

I  31.  CATHOLIC  RESTORATION  EFFORTS. 

Cf.   L.  Ranke,  d.  rom.   P'apste.  Bd.   II. — H.  Heppe,   d.  Restaur,  d. 

Katholicism.  in  Fulda,  auf  d.  Eichsfelde  u.  in  W'urzb.  Marb.  1850. 

Ch.  A.  Resrheck,  Gesch.  d.  Gegenref.  in  Bbhmen.     Lpz.  1844.  2  Bde. 

No  sooner  had  the  Catholic  Church  settled  and  secured  matters 
at  home,  by  the  happy  termination  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  than 


172       SECTION    III. — FIRST    PERI     D    (CENT.  16    A.  D.). 

it  put  forth  all  its  strength  to  recover  as  much  as  possible  of  the 
territory  it  had  lost.  It  can,  at  least,  not  be  denied,  that  the 
efforts  made  for  this  purpose  were  extensive,  persevering,  bold, 
and  successful.  Two  things  favored  the  scheme,  one  was  the 
territorial  system  (§  17,  5),  legalized  by  the  enactments  of  the 
empire,  which  was  originally  devised  for  the  rescue  of  Protest- 
antism (§  6,  7),  but  now  operated  to  its  destruction  ;  the  other 
was  the  policy  of  the  Jesuits,  who  spread  over  Europe,  and,  ac- 
cording to  circumstances,  openly  or  under  close  concealment, 
combined  with,  or  intrigued  against  State  authorities,  for  the 
overthrow  of  Protestantism,  wherever  it  had  taken  root.  Their 
craftiness,  boldness,  skill,  their  diplomatic  arts,  machinations, 
and  practice  in  controversy,  succeeded  in  one  place  in  fanning 
the  scarcely  glimmering  spark  of  Catholicism  into  a  bright  flame; 
in  another,  either  in  exterminating  Protestantism  root  and  branch, 
or  reducing  it  to  the  limits  of  a  scarcely  tolerated  sect.  Above 
all,  they  aimed  to  secure  the  management  of  the  seminaries  and 
schools,  in  order  to  plant  hatred  of  Protestantism  in  the  breasts 
of  the  rising  generation.  The  other  monastic  Orders,  also,  were 
not  idle  ;  but  in  extensive  plans,  thorough  system,  and  strict 
unity,  they  fell  far  short  of  the  vast  and  comprehensive  energy 
of  the  Jesuits.  The  efforts  at  restoration,  however,  were  most 
stupendous,  comprehensive,  and  general,  during  their  first  epoch, 
which  were  begun,  reached  their  climax,  and  achieved  their  last 
renowned  feat,  for  the  time,  in  the  sixty  years  intervening  be- 
tween the  death  of  Maximilian  II.  (1570),  and  the  restoration 
edict  (1629)  of  Ferdinand  II.     (Cf.  §  33,  1.) 

1.  The  Views  of  the  German  Emperors.  —  Ferdinand  I.  (1556-64), 
more  patient  than  his  brother  even  as  archduke  and  Roman  king,  and 
often  the  mediator  between  Charles  and  the  Evangelicals,  displayed  a 
still  more  conciliatory  and  gentle  disposition  towards  Protestantism 
during  the  last  years  of  his  own  government.  He  was  greatly  dissatis- 
fied with  the  Council  of  Trent.  Indeed,  he  tried  anew  the  old  ineffectual 
plan  of  a  union  by  mutual  concessions,  and  had  union  schemes  pre- 
pared (1564)  by  the  theologians  near  him,  George  Cassander,  Fred. 
Staphylus,  and  Geo.  Wizel  (the  last  two  had  been  Protestants).  Cas- 
sander's  opinion,  the  only  one  entertained,  proposed  the  abandonment, 
for  the  sake  of  peace,  of  all  doctrines  ar  1  customs  not  founded  upon 
the  Scriptures.  But  he  supposed  many  things  supported  by  the  Scrip- 
tures which  Protestants  could  not  find  there,  and  the  Catholics  would 
not  admit  the  principle.  Hence  the  negotiations  failed  (cf.  $  33,  5). 
Ferdinand's  son  Maximilian  II.  (1564—76)  had  been  educated  well-nigh 


CATHOLIC     RESTORATION     EFFORTS.  173 

in  an  evangelical  spirit  by  his  instructor  Wolfg.  Severius.  He  gave  full 
liberty  to  the  Protestants  in  his  country,  conferred  many  high  and  in- 
ferior State  offices  upon  them,  had  little  to  do  with  the  Jesuits,  and  was 
kept  from  embracing  Protestantism  only  by  political  considerations 
regarding  Spain  and  his  Catholic  princes.  But  these  considerations 
crippled  his  good  intentions,  and  his  half-way  measures  caused  compli- 
cations which  subsequently  led  to  the  30  years'  war.  His  son,  Rudolf 
II.,  educated  by  Jesuits  at  the  Spanish  court,  gave  them  free  scope  for 
their  operations  everywhere,  inflicted  injuries  on  Protestantism,  and 
was  restrained  from  attempting  totally  to  suppress  it,  only  by  his  inde- 
cision and  timidity. 

2.  Restoration  Attempts  in  Germany.  —  After  the  treaty  of  Passau, 
political  disorders  and  the  exhaustion  of  the  princes  operated  very 
favorably  for  Protestantism.  It  had  spread  mightily  in  the  Catholic 
States ;  the  States,  and  especially  the  nobility,  did  not  conceal  their 
sympathy  for  it,  and  demanded  a  religious  concession  of  the  prince  for 
every  grant  made.  Many  spiritual  princes  had  almost  more  Protestant 
than  Catholic  councillors ;  at  their  courts  the  Protestant  nobility  had 
unrestrained  intercourse  ;  Protestant  cities  were  partly  their  residences, 
and  the  benefices  were  often  held  by  evangelical  canons.  But  for  the 
Jesuits  all  Germany  would,  in  a  few  years,  have  come  under  the  Evan- 
gelical Church,  in  spite  of  territorial  authority  and  ecclesiastical  reser- 
vations. The  first  Jesuits,  thirteen  in  number,  came  as  Spanish  priests 
to  Vienna  in  1551,  at  the  call  of  Ferdinand.  Several  years  later  they 
nestled  themselves  in  Cologne  and  Tngolstadt  (1566).  From  these  cities 
they  spread  in  a  few  years  over  the  whole  of  Catholic  Germany,  and 
the  hereditary  States  of  Austria.  Then  the  work  of  restoration  began. 
First  in  Bavaria  (1564),  Duke  Albert  V.,  converted  into  a  zealous  Ca- 
tholic by  the  opposition  of  his  Protestant  States,  excluded  Protestant 
nobles  from  the  Bavarian  diet;  banished  all  the  evangelical  preachers; 
compelled  all  his  evangelical  subjects,  who  refused  to  embrace  Catho- 
licism, to  leave  the  country ;  and  required  all  professors  and  persons 
holding  office,  to  subscribe  under  oath  the  Trent  Confession  of  Faith. 
For  this  the  Jesuits  commended  him  as  a  second  Josiah  and  Theodo- 
sius,  called  Munich  a  second  Rome,  and  the  pope  conferred  on  him  the 
prerogatives  of  a  summus  Episcopus  in  his  domain.  When  he  obtained 
Haag  as  a  hereditary  earldom,  and  when  Baden-Baden  came  under  his 
rule  as  guardian,  he  extirpated  Protestantism  from  those  countries  also. 
The  Electors  of  Treves  and  Mayence  followed  the  example  of  Bavaria, 
;hough  with  a  measure  of  moderation.  The  latter  [Daniel  Brendel) 
restored  Catholicism  (1574)  in  Eichsfelde,  which  had  become  wholly 
evangelical.  Balthasar  von  Dernbach,  Abbot  of  Fulda,  who  was  almost 
the  only  Catholic  in  his  district,  pursued  the  same  course  (1575).  But 
he  fell  out  with  the  chapter,  which,  with  the  knights,  drove  him  off.  The 
Bishop  of  Wilrzburg,  Julius  Echter,  who  had  aided  them,  assumed  the 
government  of  the  institution  (1576).  But  early  in  1577  the  abbot  was 
58* 


174       SECTION    III.  —  FIRST    PERIOD    (CENT.  16  A.  D.) 

restored  by  imperial  authority,  and  the  last  trace  of  Protestantism  w£.5 
then  obliterated.  Julius  of  Wiirzburg,  who  was  placed  in  great  peril, 
would  probably  have  followed  the  example  of  Gebhard  of  Cologne  (g  17, 
G),  if  the  result  had  been  different;  but,  as  it  was,  he  justified  himself 
in  exterminating  Protestantism  from  his  almost  wholly  Protestant  dis- 
trict ( from  1584).  His  example  was  followed  by  the  bishops  of  Bamberg, 
Salzburg,  Hildesheim,  Munsier,  Paderbom,  etc.  The  Jesuits  were  every- 
where at  work,  openly  and  secretly.  Then  Ferdinand  II.  of  Steiermark 
(emperor  from  1619)  and  Maximilian  I.  of  Bavaria,  both  great  pupils 
of  the  Jesuits,  and  educated  at  Ingolstadt,  appeared  on  the  stage.  "When 
Ferdinand  celebrated  Easter  (1596)  in  Gratz,  he  was  the  only  one  who 
communed  according  to  the  Catholic  mode.  Two  years  afterwards  he 
began  the  counter-reformation,  and  carried  it  to  a  glorious  completion, 
in  the  spirit  of  the  Jesuits.  His  relative,  Emperor  Rudolf  II.,  encou- 
raged by  this,  followed  his  example  (cf.  §  19,  9).  In  Switzerland,  also, 
the  Jesuits  and  papal  nuncios  made  successful  efforts  to  restore  Catho- 
licism fully,  in  the  Catholic  and  mixed  cantons.     (Cf.  §  33,  1.) 

3.  But  the  restoration  was  not  limited  to  Germany.  It  embraced  all 
Em-ope.  Everywhere  the  Jesuits  urged  their  way,  and  contrived  to 
effect  something  even  where  there  seemed  to  be  no  prospect  of  success. 
(Cf.  |  10.)  In  France  the  sanguinary  civil  wars  broke  out  in  15G2; 
in  the  Netherlands  the  Duke  of  Alba  aroae  in  1507.  The  Jesuits  pene 
trated  Poland  in  1569,  and  thence  worked  their  way  into  Livonia.  In 
1578  the  cunning  Jesuit  Possevin  appeared  in  Sweden,  and  converted 
the  king.  Even  in  England,  where  Elizabeth  threatened  (1582)  every 
Jesuit  with  death,  scores  of  them  toiled  in  secret,  and  kept  alive 
the  glimmering  spark  of  Catholicism  with  promises  of  better  times 
(cf.  §33,3). 

4.  Russia  and  the  United  Greeks.  —  The  attempts  made  from  time  to 
time,  after  the  Council  of  Florence,  to  win  over  the  Russian  Church, 
had  been  abortive.  Then  the  unhappy  war  between  loan  II.  Wassilje- 
vitsch  and  Stephen  Bathori  of  Poland,  broke  out,  and  afforded  the  pope 
the  desired  opportunity  of  offering  himself  as  a  mediator.  To  this  end 
Gregory  XIII.  sent  the  subtle  Jesuit  Anthony  Possevin  to  Poland  and 
Russia  (1581).  The  czar  received  him  with  great  distinction,  granted 
him,  also,  a  religious  conference,  but  he  neither  could  be  induced  to  at- 
tach liimscir  to  Home  nor  to  banish  the  Lutherans.  On  the  other  hand, 
Rome  triurnnhed  in  having  effected  a  union  of  the  Greeks  in  the  pro- 
vinces of  Western  Russia,  which  had  revolted  to  Poland,  partly  by 
violence,  partly  by  deception  ;  the  union  having  been  ratified  by  the 
Church  at  the  Synod  of  Brest  (1594).  The  united  Greeks  were  required 
to  submit  t  i  the  supremacy  of  Rome  and  'ts  doctrine,  but  were  allowed 
to  retain  their  old  ecclesiastical  customs.      (Cf.  \  42,  5  :  45.) 


SECOND   PERIOD 

OF 

CHURCH    HISTORY 

IN  ITS  MODERN   GERMANIC  FORM  OE  DEVELOPMENT. 

SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 

1  RECIPROCAL  RELATIONS  OE  THE  CHURCHES  TO  EACH  OTHER. 

I  32.  THE  ORIENTAL  CHURCHES  AND  THE  WEST. 

Cf.  K.  R.  Hagenbach,  Vorless.  u.  Wesen  u.  Gesch.  d.  Ref.  Bd.  IV. 

2  A.  Lpz.  1854.' 

The  Eastern  Church  opened  new  prospects  of  conquest  to 
Popery  ;  but  either  no  actual  results  were  secured,  or  they  soon 
again  disappeared.  Still  more  illusory  were  the  hopes  awakened 
in  London  and  Geneva,  that  a  Calvinistic  regeneration  of  the 
Greek  Church  might  be  effected. 

1.  Expectations  of  the  Catholics. — Rome  sent  successive  missions, 
mostly  Jesuits,  into  Turkish  countries,  to  operate  both  among  the  or- 
thodox and  schismatic  Greek  Churches,  and  at  the  same  time  to  oppose 
Protestant  interests  there.  They  succeeded,  however,  only  in  the  matter 
last  mentioned.  The  Jesuit  mission  in  Abyssinia,  which  we  left  ($  30,  4) 
in  a  rather  hopeless  condition,  was  now  reaping  a  glorious  harvest. 
The  Jesuit  Peter  Paez  acquired  influence  over  the  Sultan  Segued,  and 
induced  him  to  renounce  the  Jacobite  heresy  by  promises  of  Spanish 
support.  Urban  VIII.  appointed  the  Jesuit  Alfonso  Mendez  Catholic 
patriarch  of  Abyssinia  (1025).  But  the  clergy  and  people  several 
times  rose  up  against  the  sultan  and  his  patriarch.  They  were  con- 
quered in  a  bloody  civil  war,  but  Segued  thought  it  prudent  to  abate 
his  coercive  measures,  notwithstanding  the  dissatisfaction  of  the  Je- 
suits with  his  course.  His  successor  SagJied  expelled  the  entire  Jesuit 
mission,  and  almost  every  trace  of  Catholicism  disappeared  (1642).— 
New  prospects  of  gaining  Russia  opened  under  the  pseudo  Demetrius 
(1005),  who  attached  himself  to  the  Catholic  interests  of  Poland;  but 

(175) 


l76       SECTION    III. SECOND    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.   17    A.  D.)  . 

just  this  convinced  the  Russians  that  Demetrius  could  be  no  genuine 
son  of  the  Czars.  When  his  Catholic  bride,  a  Pole,  entered  Moscow 
with  200  of  her  countrymen,  an  insurrection  occurred  which  cost  him 
his  life. 

2.  Expectations  of  the  Calvinists. —  Cyrillus  Lucaris,  of  Candia  (pa- 
triarch of  Alexandria  from  1602-1621,  then  patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople), had  imbibed  a  decided  partiality  for  Calvinism  during  his  visits 
to  Geneva,  and  after  his  return  earnestly  thought  of  effecting  a  union. 
By  means  of  letters  and  messengers  he  maintained  a  constant  corre- 
spondence with  Reformed  theologians  in  England,  Holland,  and  Swit- 
zerland, and  in  1G26  sent  a  well-nigh  Calvinistic  confession  of  faith  to 
Geneva.  But  the  other  Greek  bishops  persistently  opposed  his  plans 
of  union,  and  influential  Jesuits  in  Constantinople  excited  political 
suspicions  against  him.  On  this  account  the  sultan  several  times  de- 
posed him,  and  he  was  finally  (1638)  seized  and  strangled  for  high 
treason.  (Cf.  Ilefele,  in  d.  tiibg.  Quartalscher.  1843.  IV.— A.  Twesten, 
in  d.  deutsch.  Ztschr.  v.  Schneider,  1840.  Nr.  39.) 

3.  Orthodoxy  Confirmed.  —  The  Russian  orthodox  Church,  after  its 
emancipation  from  Constantinople,  and  the  establishment  of  an  inde- 
pendent patriarchate  at  Moscow  (1589),  had  become  decidedly  more 
prominent  than  that  of  Greek  countries,  and  the  Russian  Czar  had 
assumed  the  position  of  the  former  Roman  Emperor  of  the  East,  as 
protector  of  the  entire  orthodox  Church.  The  various  perils  which  for 
some  time  threatened  the  orthodox  faith,  by  a  Catholic  and  Protestant 
union,  led  the  learned  metropolitan  Petrus  MoyiJa  of  Kiev  to  prepare  a 
new  confession  of  faith,  which  was  formally  approved  (1043),  at  a 
svnod  in  Constantinople,  by  all  the  orthodox  patriarchs  (of  Constanti- 
nople, Alexandria,  Antioch,  Jerusalem,  Moscow),  as  6()>o6o5oj  tjxoxoyia, 

I  33.  CATHOLICISM  AND  PROTESTANTISM. 

The  Jesuit  counter-reformation  progressed  with  unabated 
vio-or,  and  during  the  first  quarter  of  this  century  achieved  the 
most  brilliant  results  in  Bohemia.  The  Peace  of  Westphalia  set 
bounds  to  its  violent  measures,  but  not  to  its  secret  machinations 
and  open  arts  of  deception.  Next  to  the  conversion  of  the 
Bohemians,  the  restoration  accomplished  most  in  France  by  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  The  Catholic  cause  gloried 
also  in  the  return  of  many  Protestant  princes,  who  were  converted 
mostly  by  the  zeal  of  the  Jesuits.  The  most  remarkable  exam- 
ples of  this  kind  were  the  capricious  conversion  of  Christina 
of  Sweden,  and  that  of  the  dynasty  of  Electoral  Saxony.  Re- 
peated union  efforts  were  also  started,  but  they  proved  as  abor- 
tive as  earlier  attempts. 


CA1H0LICISM     AND     PROTESTANTISM.  177 

1.  The  Restoration  in  Germany  and  the  neighboring  Territories.  (Cf. 
Pescheck,  1.  c.  \  31.) — In  1609  the  Emperor  Rudolf  II.  had  guaranteed 
the  existence  and  freedom  of  Protestantism  in  Bohemia,  by  a  letter  of 
majesty.  But  the  Emperor  Matthias,  by  preventing  the  erection  of  a 
church-edifice,  practically  violated  the  promises  of  the  letter  of  majesty. 
The  excited  Bohemians  cast  the  imperial  councillors  out  of  the  window, 
chased  off  the  Jesuits,  and  chose  the  Elector  Frederick  V.  of  the  Pala- 
tinate as  their  king  (1618).  But  Ferdinand  II.  conquered,  tore  up  the 
letter  of  majesty,  led  back  the  Jesuits,  expelled  the  Protestant  clergy, 
etc.  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark,  with  some  other  princes,  attempted  to 
rescue  Protestantism,  but  they,  also,  were  defeated.  Ferdinand  II., 
drunken  with  victory,  issued  an  edict  of  restoration  (1629),  as  an  autho- 
ritative declaration  of  religious  peace,  by  which  the  Protestants  were 
to  deliver  up  all  the  monasteries  confiscated  after  the  treaty  of  Passau. 
Calvinists  were  excluded  from  the  Peace,  and  the  Catholic  States  were 
granted  unconditional  liberty  to  suppress  Protestantism  in  their  here- 
ditary countries.  Then  Gustavus  Adolphus  (ob.  1632)  of  Sweden,  im- 
pelled no  less  by  religious  than  political  motives,  stood  forth  as  the 
deliverer  of  Protestantism.  The  unhappy  war  was  finally  terminated 
by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  at  Minister  and  Osnabrlick.  Germany  lost 
many  excellent  provinces,  but  liberty  of  thought  and  religion  was  se- 
cured. The  Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg  was  confirmed  by  a  Swedish 
and  French  guaranty,  and  extended  to  the  Reformed,  also,  as  related 
to  the  Augsburg  Confession.  Jan.  1,  1624,  was  fixed  as  the  date  when 
possession  should  be  taken  of  the  Church  property.  Thus  the  political 
balance  of  the  Protestant  and  Catholic  States  in  Germany  was  estab- 
lished. But  the  pope  persistently  refused  to  recognize  the  Peace  ;  and 
by  means  of  Jesuitic  manoeuvring  and  political  measures,  considerable 
limitations  were  imposed  upon  the  Protestant  Church.  It  was  wholly 
exterminated  in  Bohemia,  and  in  the  other  Austrian  hereditary  States 
the  oppressions  increased  until  the  reign  of  Joseph  II.  In  Silesia 
more  than  1000  churches  were  taken  from  the  Evangelicals  after  the 
edict  of  restoration.  A  restitution  was  not  thought  of;  the  persecution 
and  oppression  continued  during  the  entire  century  ($  44,  4),  and  com- 
pelled thousands  to  emigrate  (mostly  to  upper  Lusatia).  In  Hungary 
the  number  of  Protestants  was  reduced  one-half,  by  various  intrigues 
and  enticements.  Transylvania,  however,  continued  a  place  of  refuge 
for  the  dissenters.  In  Livonia,  also,  which  was  under  Polish  dominion 
from  1561,  the  Jesuits  had  effected  an  entrance,  and  began  their  work 
of  restoration  ;  but  Swedish  rule,  under  Gustavus  Adolphits  (from  1621), 
put  an  end  to  their  machinations.  The  Valteline  massacre  (1620)  was 
a  Swiss  Bartholomew's  eve  on  a  small  scale,  but  with  equal  madness 
and  cruelty.  All  the  Protestants  were  murdered  in  one  day.  The 
conspirators,  at  the  ringing  of  the  storm-bell  at  the  earliest  dawn,  broke 
into  the  houses  of  the  heretics,  and  murdered  all  they  met  with,  to  the 
babe  at  the  breast.    From  four  to  five  hundred  were  killed.     The  Pala~ 


178       SECTION    III. SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.  17    A.  D.). 

tinatti,  into  which  the  Reformed  faith  had  been  forcibly  introduced, 
came  (1G85)  under  the  dominion  of  the  Catholic  house  of  Neuburg, 
and  then  the  Reformed  Church  suffered  most  from  the  oppressive  mea- 
sures adopted.  In  Juliers-Cleve-Berg  the  Reformation  had  from  the 
first  progressed  successfully,  but  was  stopped  and  thrown  back  by  the 
victory  of  Charles  V.  (£  15,  8)  and  the  fall  of  Archb.  Hermann  (§  16,  2). 
From  the  middle  of  the  16th  century,  however,  a  number  of  Walloon 
zealous  Reformed  fugitives  from  Belgium  settled  in  those  districts,  and 
powerfully  strengthened  the  Protestant  element.  From  that  time  the 
Reformed  Church  had  a  decided  preponderance  over  the  Lutheran  ;  and 
the  Lutherans,  whilst  strictly  adhering  to  the  doctrine  of  their  Church, 
adopted  many  Reformed  peculiarities  in  Church  government  and  wor- 
ship. By  the  treaty  concerning  inheritance  of  Juliers-Cleve  (1666), 
Cleve,  Mark,  and  Ravensberg  passed  over  to  the  Reformed  house  of 
Brandenburg,  but  Juliers  and  Berg  to  the  Catholic  Palatinate,  whilst 
each  government  pledged  protection  to  subjects  of  a  different  faith  from 
its  own.  and  also  conceded  to  them  the  jus  retortionis,  if  their  complaints 
did  not  secure  reparation. 

2.  Protestants  in  France,  and  Waldenses  in  Piedmont.  (Cf.  /.  Chr. 
K.  Hoffmann,  Gesch.  d.  Aufruhrs  in  d.  Seveunen.  Nordl.  1838.  —  G.  v. 
Polcnz,  d.  Camisarden  u.  d.  Kirehen  d.  W'uste  ;  in  the  ev.  K.  Z.  1846, 
Nr.  64,  etc.,  74,  etc. ;  1848,  Nr.  18,  etc.)— -Henry  IV.  (1588-1610)  faith- 
fully adhered  to  the  pi-oraises  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  But  under  Lonis 
XIII.  (1610-43)  oppressions  of  the  Huguenots  were  revived,  and  excited 
them  to  new  insurrections.  Richelieu  annulled  their  political  claims, 
though  in  the  Peace  of  Nismes  (1629)  their  religious  rights  were  re- 
tained. Louis  XIV.  (1643-1715)  allowed  his  confessors  to  persuade 
him  to  atone  for  his  excesses  by  purging  his  dominions  of  all  heretics. 
Money  and  court-influence  having  done  their  part,  the  terrible  dragon- 
mules  commenced  the  work  of  converting  the  Protestants  (1681).  In 
1685  the  formal  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  was  issued,  and  the 
work  of  conversion  was  carried  forward  more  furiously  than  ever. 
Thousands  of  churches  were  demolished,  confessors  past  numbering 
were  executed  or  doomed  to  the  galleys,  and  violently  robbed  of  their 
children,  etc.  In  spite  of  fearful  penalties  against  emigration,  and 
the  most  careful  guarding  of  the  borders,  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
refugees  escaped,  and  were  received  with  open  arms  in  Brandenburg, 
Holland,  England,  and  Switzerland.  Many  fled  to  the  Cevennes,  where 
(called  Camisards),  with  incredible  courage,  and  under  various  fanati- 
cal, prophetic  manifestations,  they  maintained  themselves  against  the 
converting  and  persecuting  efforts  of  the  Catholics,  during  a  struggle 
of  20  years,  and  finally  secured  tolerable  conditions  of  peace  (1704). 
France  hist  a  half  million  of  its  most  pious,  industrious,  and  thrifty 
inhabitants,  and  still  two  millions  of  Reformed  remained  in  the  country, 
though  deprived  of  almost  every  right. — The  oppressions  of  the  WaU 
denses  in  Piedmont  were  intimately  connected  with  the  persecutions  of 


CATHOLICISM    AND    PROTESTANTISM.  179 

the  Huguenots  in  France.  Although  the  Duke  of  Savoy  confirmed  to 
them  their  privileges  in  1G54,  a  fearfully  bloody  persecution  broke  out 
against  them  in  1G55,  professedly  for  the  purpose  of  purging  their 
abodes  for  the  Papists  banished  during  the  Irish  massacre  under  Crom- 
well (see  3,  below).  The  cruelties  of  the  troops  despatched  for  this 
purpose  drove  the  Waldenses  to  a  desperate  resistance.  Through  the 
mediation  of  the  Protestant  cantons  of  Switzerland  a  miserable  toleration 
was  again  secured  ;  and  by  large  contributions  of  money  from  abroad, 
their  temporal  losses  were  measurably  repaired.  But  in  1G85  the  per- 
secution and  civil  war  were  revived  at  the  instigation  of  Louis  XIV. 
The  soldiers  forced  their  way  through  the  valleys  and  compelled  the 
inhabitants  to  flee.  A  portion  found  refuge  in  Wiirtemberg,  others  in 
Switzerland.  The  latter,  supported  by  Swiss  troops,  invaded  Piedmont 
in  1G89,  and  reconquered  their  homes.  Thenceforth  they  maintained 
their  rights  in  spite  of  all  conceivable  oppressions. 

3.  The  Catholics  in  England.— -When  James  I.  (1G03-25),  the  son  of 
Mary  Stuart,  ascended  the  throne  of  England,  the  Catholics  expected 
nothing  less  of  him  than  the  complete  restoration  of  Catholicism.  But 
however  strongly  he  was  inclined  to  Catholicism,  his  predilection  for  a 
cesareo-papistic  form  of  government  was  still  stronger.  Hence  James 
persecuted  the  Jesuits  with  reckless  severity,  because  they  opposed 
royal  supremacy  over  the  Church.  This  enraged  the  Catholics  to  the 
highest  degree.  They  formed  a  conspiracy  (the  Gunpowder-plot,  1605), 
by  which  they  intended  to  destroy  the  king  and  his  family,  as  well  as 
the  members  of  the  parliament,  at  its  next  opening.  The  plot  was 
discovered  shortly  before  its  execution,  and  the  conspirators,  with  two 
Jesuit  abettors,  were  executed.  Thenceforth  still  more  rigid  measures 
were  used  against  Catholicism  and  its  adherents,  not  only  in  England, 
but  in  Ireland  also,  the  mass  of  the  people  there  adhering  firmly  to  the 
Papacy.  The  endless  sufferings  and  oppressions  inflicted  upon  them, 
led  to  a  most  sanguinary  catastrophe  there,  the  Irish  massacre  of  1641. 
In  October,  1641,  a  conspiracy,  spread  among  all  the  Catholics  of  the 
country,  broke  out.  It  aimed  at  the  annihilation  of  all  the  Protestants 
in  Ireland.  The  conspirators  forced  the  houses  of  Protestants,  and 
murdered  the  occupants,  or  drove  them  naked  and  helpless  from  their 
homes.  Thousands  died  of  hunger  and  cold  upon  the  highways.  Others 
were  driven  in  crowds  into  rivers,  where  they  were  drowned,  or  into 
empty  houses,  which  were  then  fired.  The  number  of  those  who  perished 
is  said  by  some  to  have  reached  400,000.  This  event,  of  which  Charles  I. 
is  accused  of  having  been  previously  aware,  or  even  the  instigator,  was 
his  first  step  to  the  scaffold  (1649).  In  opposition  to  the  Catholic  sym- 
pathies of  Charles  II.  (16G0-85),  the  Parliament  ordained  the  Test-act 
(1673),  by  which  every  public  officer,  in  the  civil  or  military  service, 
was  required  to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy,  to  condemn  transubstan- 
tiation  and  the  worship  of  saints,  and  partake  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in 
the  Anglican  Episcopal  Church.     The  declaration  of  a  certain   Titus 


180         SECTION    III. — SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.  17    A.  D.)  . 

Oates,  that  the  Jesuits  had  formed  a  conspiracy  to  murder  the  king, 
and  restore  Popery  (1678),  caused  a  terrible  excitement  throughout  the 
kingdom,  and  led  to  numerous  executions.  The  assertion  of  Oates,  how- 
ever, was  to  all  appearances  unfounded,  and  was  the  result  of  an  in- 
trigue, designed  to  secure  the  exclusion  of  the  king's  Catholic  brother 
James  II.  from  the  succession.  When  James  II.  assumed  the  crown 
(1685-88),  he  at  once  opened  negotiations  with  Rome,  and  appointed 
scarcely  any  but  Catholics  to  the  various  civil  offices.  At  the  invitation 
of  the  Protectants,  William  III.  of  Orange,  the  king's  son-in-law,  landed 
in  England  (1G88),  and  after  the  flight  of  James  was  proclaimed  King 
of  England  by  the  Parliament  (1689). 

4.  Converted  Princes. — (Cf.  Gallerie  d.  denkw.  Personen,  welche  im 
16.  17.  18.  Jahrh.  zur  katli.  K.  ubera;etr.  sind.  Herausw";.  v.  F.  W.  Ph. 
Ainmon.  Erlg.  1833.) — The  first  reigning  prince  who  returned  to  Ca- 
tholicism was  the  Margrave  Jacob  III.  of  Baden,  in  1590.  But  incom- 
parably greater  surprise  was  occasioned  by  the  conversion  of  Queen 
Christina  of  Sweden,  the  daughter  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  a  highly 
gifted  and  intelligent,  but  also  a  vain  and  perverse  princess.  Her 
chief  motive  was  to  do  something  extraordinary,  for  in  reality  she 
esteemed  the  new  religion  as  little  as  she  did  the  old.  As  she  pre- 
viously abdicated  the  throne  (1654),  the  Catholic  Church  gained  no- 
thing by  her  conversion  but  the  vain  glory  of  it,  and  Pope  Alexander 
VII.  had  to  grant  his  spiritual  daughter  a  pension  of  10,000  scudi,  to 
keep  her  from  starving.  Of  greater  account  was  the  apostacy  of  the 
Elector  Frederic  Augustus  of  Saxony  (1697),  the  Mighty,  mighty  in 
herculean  strength,  still  more  mighty  in  unbounded  profligacy.  (Cf 
Bar.  v.  Pollnitz,  d.  galante  Sachsen.  Offb.  1735).  He  was  tempted  to 
this  by  the  crown  of  Poland.  The  people  and  States,  however,  main- 
tained their  ecclesiastical  rights.  He  himself  died  trusting  in  the 
mercy  of  God  in  Christ  to  penitent  sinners.  But  Saxony,  the  father- 
land of  the  Reformation,  is  still  ruled  by  a  Catholic  prince. 

5.  Union  Efforts. — (Cf.  C.  W.  Bering,  Gesch.  d.  kirchl.  Unionsvers. 
seit  d.  Ref.  Lpz.  183G-38.  2  Bde.)— (l.j  King  Wladislas  IV.  of  Poland 
thought  it  possible  to  effect  an  understanding  and  reconciliation  be- 
tween the  Catholics  and  Protestants  of  his  kingdom;  and  to  this  end 
appointed  a  Religious  colloquy  at  Thorn  (1045).  Prussia  and  Branden- 
burg were  also  invited  to  participate.  The  elector  sent  his  court- 
preacher,  John  Berg,  and  requested  the  Puke  of  Brunswick  to  send  the 
Belmsfadt  theologian  George  Calixtus.  The  principal  Lutheran  speakers 
were  Abr.  Calov  of  Dantzig  and  John  Hillsemann  ofWittenberg.  That 
Calixtus,  a  Lutheran,  supported  the  Reformed,  embittered  the  Lu- 
therans at  the  outset,  beyond  measure.  The  result  was  an  aggravation 
of  the  schisms  on  all  sides  (?  44,  4).  The  Reformed  set  forth  their 
views  in  the  Declaratio  Thoruniensis,  which  acquired  symbolical  signi- 
ficance in  Brandenburg.  (2.)  Jacques  Benigne  Bossuet  {ob.  1704), 
Bishop  of  Meaux,  employed  his  extraordinary  eloquence  (from  1671) 


LUTHERANISM,     CALVINISM,     ANGLICANISM.         181 

in  efforts  to  open  the  way  for  the  return  of  the  Protestants  to  the  only 
true  Church.     In  several  works  (Exposition  de  la  doctrine  de  l'eglise 
cath.  sur  les  matieres  de  controverse,   1671,  and  Hist,  des  variations 
des  6glises  prot.  1688),  he  set  forth  the  Catholic  faith  in  an  ideal  form, 
concealed  those  points  in  it  specially  objectionable  to  Protestants,  and 
endeavored,  acutely  but  sophistically,  to  show  that  the  doctrines  of 
Protestants  were  untenable  and  contradictory.    Simultaneously  a  union 
project  was  started  again  at  the  imperial  court,  at  the  instigation  of 
the  Spaniard  Spinola,  Bishop  of  Neustadt  near  Vienna,  who  had  come 
into  the  country  as  confessor  of  the  queen.     The  controverted  points 
were  to  be  decided  by  a  free  council,  but  the  primacy  of  the  pope,  and 
the  hierarchical  orders,  were  to  be  antecedently  admitted,  as  established 
jure  humano.     In  order  to  awaken  interest  in  this  plan,  Spinola,  by 
order  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  I.,  travelled  through  almost  the  whole 
of  Germany.     He  was  most  favorably  received,  from  regard  for  the 
emperor,    in   Hanover,   where   Molanus,  the   Abbot  of  Loccum,    very 
earnestly  furthered  the  union  effort ;  Bossuet  on  the  side  of  the  Catho- 
lics, and  the  great  philosopher  Leibnitz  on  the  side  of  the  Protestants, 
taking  part  in    the   measure.     But   notAvithstanding  some   reciprocal 
approximation,  his  exertions  were  fruitless.     Some  have  supposed  that 
Leibnitz  had  secretly  embraced  Catholicism,  from  a  MS.  discovered 
after  his  death,  inscribed  by  a  strange  hand:    Systema  theologicum 
Leibnitii  (transl.  into  German  by  R'ass  u.  Weis.  3ded.  Mayence,  1825). 
It  contains  a  Latin  treatise  in  vindication  of  the  doctrines  and  usages 
of  the  Romish  Church.     Fully  as  Leibnitz  may  have  been  inclined  and 
qualified  to  fathom   and  acknowledge  what  is  profound  and  true   in 
Catholicism,  his  aim  in  this  treatise,  most  probably,  was  to  see  whether 
and  how  far  Catholicism  might  be  vindicated  from  its  own  stand-point. 
That  the  work  does  not  set  forth  his  own  doctrinal  views,  is  manifest 
from  many  other  declarations,  in  which  he  affirms  most  distinctly  the 
irreconcilable  opposition  between  his  Protestant  views  and  Catholic 
doctrines.     (Cf.  Tholuck,  verm.  Schr.  I.  318,  etc.) 

I  34.  LUTHERANISM,  CALVINISM,  ANGLICANISM. 

The  transition  of  LTesse-Cassel  (1604),  of  the  earldom  of 
Lippe  (1602,  etc.),  and  of  the  reigning  house  of  Brandenburg 
(1613),  gave  new  strength  to  the  Reformed  Church  in  the  heart 
of  Lutheran  Germany.  Renewed  attempts  to  unite  the  two 
Churches  were  as  abortive  as  the  efforts  to  effect  a  union  between 
the  Catholic  and  Protestant  Churches.  In  England  and  Scot- 
land, the  Act  of  Toleration  (1689),  was  gained  by  the  Dissenters 
after  protracted  struggles. 

1.   The  Calvinising  of  LTesse-Cassel  (1604). — (Cf.  W.  Mimsclier,  Vers. 
e.  Gesch.  d.  hess.  ref.  K.  Cass.  1850. — H.  Heppe,  Gesch.  d.  hess.  Gene- 
59 


182       SECTION    III.— SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.  17    A.  D.). 

ralsyn.  v.  1568-82.  Cass.  1847,  2  Bcle.,  together  with  the  Erlanger 
Ztschr.  fur  Prot.  u.  K.  1855.  I. :  d.  Bekenntnissstand  d.  s.  g.  ref.  K.  in 
Kurhessen.)  —Even  the  Landgrave  Philip  regarded  the  difference  be- 
tween the  Lutherans  and  Reformed  as  non-essential,  and  without  hesi- 
tation appointed  the  Ref.  theol.  Andrew  Hyperiua  to  a  chair  at  Mar- 
burg. His  son  William,  IV.,  who  inherited  Hesse-Cassel  (1567-92), 
declined  accepting  the  Form  of  Concord,  and  by  the  proceedings  of 
four  general  synods  prepared  the  way  for  the  adoption  of  ^alvinism  in 
the  land;  his  son  3[ttnri<:e  completed  the  work.  Maurice  embraced 
Calvinism  in  1604,  prohibited  the  Lutheran  Catechism,  introduced  the 
Reformed  worship,  and  expelled  resisting  preachers.  In  1604  Hesse- 
Marburg  came  under  his  rule.  He  promised,  indeed,  not  to  disturb 
the  existing  religion,  but  broke  his  word.  The  Lutheran  professors  fied 
to  Giessen,  where  the  zealous  Lutheran  Leivis  V.  of  Hesse-Darmstadt 
founded  a  Lutheran  university.  A  violent  popular  tumult  broke  out  in 
Marburg;  Maurice  suppressed  it,  and  by  force  executed  a  total  change 
in  Church  matters.  His  cousin  Lewis  accused  him  before  the  emperor, 
and  the  imperial  chamber  transferred  Marburg  to  Hesse-Darmstadt. 
But  during  the  disorders  of  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  William  V.,  son  of 
Maurice,  reclaimed  it.  Meanwhile  the  brief  Lutheran  interregnum 
had  strengthened  Lutheranism  there,  so  that  it  existed  in  Upper  Hesse, 
beside  Calvinism,  whilst  all  Lower  Hesse  remained  Reformed. 

2.  The  Calvinising  of  the  Earldom  of  Lippe  (1602,  etc.). — Simon  VI. 
of  Lippe,  was  brought,  by  his  stirring  life,  into  frequent  contact  with 
the  Reformed  Netherlands,  and  into  special  intimacy  with  Maurice  of 
Hesse.  His  earldom  was  soundly  Lutheran,  but  from  1602  Calvinism 
glided  imperceptibly  into  it,  by  the  decided  favor  of  the  prince.  The 
chief  agent  of  this  innovation  was  Henry  Dreckmeyer,  appointed  gene- 
ral superintendent  in  Detmold  (1599).  During  a  visitation  in  1602, 
the  festivals  of  Mary  and  the  Apostles,  exorcism,  signing  with  the 
cross,  the  host,  burning  candles,  and  Luther's  catechism,  were  abolished. 
The  clergy  who  resisted  were  deposed,  and  Calvinists  were  appointed 
in  their  stead.  The  city  of  Lemyo  withstood  the  longest,  and  by  a 
struggle  of  eleven  years  with  the  prince  (1606-17),  saved  its  Lutheran 
faith.  After  the  death  of  Simon  VI.,  his  successor  Simon  VII.  finally 
allowed  the  city  the  free  exercise  of  its  Lutheran  form  of  religion. 

3.  The  Transition  of  the  Electoral  House  of  Brand*  ninny  was  of 

greater  importance,  at  least  in  its  consequences,  than  all  earlier  con- 
quests of  Calvinism.  John Sigismitnd (1608-19)  had  by  oath  promised 
his  father  Joachim  Frederick,  that  he  would  adhere  to  the  Lutheran 
Church,  and  was  thrice  required  to  give  a  bond  to  this  effect.  But  his 
own  inclination,  which  was  fostered  by  his  connection  with  the  Palati- 
nate court,  together  with  his  expectation  of  inheriting  Juliers-Cleves, 
and  securing  an  advantageous  alliance  with  the  Netherlands,  prevailed 
over  his  vow.  His  Calvinistic  court-preacher,  Sol.  Fink,  no  doubtf 
also,  contributed  to  this  result.     At  any  rite,  on  Christmas  (1613),  he 


LUTHERANISM,     CALVINISM,     ANGLICANISM.         183 

entered  the  Reformed  Church,  claiming  that  in  divine  matters  no  bond 
could  obligate  against  the  conscience.  The  Augsburg  Confession  (of 
course  the  Variata) — the  condition  of  admittance  to  the  Religious 
Peace  of  Augsburg  —  he  retained.  But  he  introduced  a  Calvinistic 
symbol  of  his  own  (Conf.  Sigismundi  or  Marchica  (1614),  omitting 
the  doctrine  of  predestination.  He  could  not,  however,  compel  his 
people  to  follow  his  example  ;  even  his  wife,  Anna  of  Prussia,  refused. 
No  efforts  were  spared.  His  court-preacher,  John  Gerike,  had  to  flee, 
likewise  Martin  Willich,  another  preacher,  from  Berlin.  But  when 
they  began  to  remove  the  altars,  pictures,  and  baptismal  fonts  from 
the  Berlin  churches,  a  mighty  popular  insurrection  was  excited,  which 
was  not  quelled  without  bloodshed  (1615).  The  following  year  the 
elector  forbade  the  teaching  of  the  communicatio  idiomatum  and  ubiqui- 
tas  corporis,  at  the  university  of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  till  then  Lu- 
theran ;  and  when  the  Wittenbergers  [Leonard  Hutter)  issued  a  violent 
•issault  upon  him  (Calvinista  aulico-politicus,  d.  i.  chr.  u.  nothwend. 
Bericht  von  den  vornehmst.  polit.  Hauptgrunden,  durch  welche  man 
die  Calvinisterei  in  die  hochlobl.  Kur-u.  Mark  Br.  einzuflihren,  sich 
eben  stark  bemiiht,  1616), he  forbade  all  his  subjects  visiting  the  univer- 
sity of  Wittenberg,  and  commanded  that  the  Form  of  Concord,  which 
he  and  the  whole  country  had  previously  subscribed,  should  be  stricken 
from  the  collection  of  the  symbolical  books  of  the  Lutheran  Church  of 
his  land. 

4.  Union  Efforts.  (Cf.  Rudelbach,  1.  c.  $  13,  8.)  — Amidst  the  trou- 
bles of  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  the  princes  of  the  electorates  of  Saxony 
and  Brandenburg,  and  of  Hesse-Cassel,  appointed  a  Religious  Colloquy 
at  Leipsic  (1631),  to  heal,  if  possible,  the  old  schisms.  The  Reformed 
were  much  inclined  to  yield ;  they  were  even  willing  to  acknowledge 
the  invariata.  The  Lutherans  (the  Dresden  court-preacher  Hoe  of 
Hoenegg,  and  the  Leipsic  professors,  Pohjc.  Leyser  and  Henry  Hopfner), 
accepted  this,  but  remonstrated  against  explaining  the  10th  art.  in  the 
sense  of  a  spiritual  participation.  They  parted  amicably,  but  the 
matter  ended  with  that.  On  the  contrary,  the  Religious  Colloquy  of 
Tliorn  (1645)  only  aggravated  the  schism  ($  33,  5).  That  of  Cassel 
(1661),  between  some  Marburg  and  Helmstadt  theologians,  was  well 
meant ;  but  at  a  time  when  the  syncretistic  controversy  was  raging, 
reciprocal  concessions  could  only  make  the  parties  more  bitter.  The 
great  elector  Frederick  William  of  Brandenburg  (1640-88)  labored 
zealously  to  restore  religious  unity  among  his  Lutheran  and  Reformed 
subjects,  though,  indeed,  in  a  spirit  of  indifference  to  the  points  of 
diversity  between  them.  The  Lutherans  could  not  be  content  with 
this.  Confessors,  also,  were  not  wanting  among  them.  The  noblest 
of  these  was  the  admirable  composer  of  hymns,  Paul  Gerhardt.  (Cf. 
G.  Langbecker,  Leben.  u.  Leid.  v.  P.  G.  Berl.  1841. — C.  A.  Wildenhahn, 
P.  G.,  ein  kirchengesch.  Lebensbild,  Lpz.  1845,  2  Bde.)  As  preacher 
at  the  church  of  St.  Nicholas  he  was  the  life  of  the  Lutheran  opposition. 


184       SECTION    III.  —  SECOND   PERIOD    (CENT.  17   A.  D.). 

As  he  steadfastly  refused  to  sign  a  pledge  wholly  to  abstain  from  at- 
tacking the  Reformed  doctrines,  he  -was  deposed  in  1666,  but  restored 
a"-ain  in  1667  (mainly  at  the  earnest  request  of  the  noble  consort  of 
the  elector,  Louisa  Henrietta,  Princess  of  Orange,  and  therefore  Re- 
formed, cf.  \  41,  1),  in  the  expectation  that  he  would  conform  to  the 
wish  of  the  elector,  even  without  giving  a  written  pledge.  But  his 
conscience  troubled  him,  and  he  made  a  public  declaration  which  led 
to  his  being  again  deposed.  Soon  afterwards  he  was  called  as  preacher 
to  Llibbenri.rLausatia.     {Ob.  1670.)     (Cf.  \  48,  2.) 

5.  The  English  Non- Conformists.  (Cf.  /.  H.  Merle  d'Aubigne,  the 
Protector,  or  the  Engl.  Republic  under  Cromwell.) — James  I.  (1603-25), 
the  son  of  Mary  Stuart,  was  hated  by  the  Papists,  whose  expectations 
of  him  were  disappointed,  no  less  than  by  the  Calvinistic  Dissenters, 
who  accused  him  of  being  openly  inclined  to  popery,  on  account  of  his 
hierarchical  views.  His  son  Charles  I.  inherited  this  animosity  (1625- 
49).  The  Scotch  made  a  covenant  for  the  maintenance  of  Calvinism  ; 
the  English  were  afraid  that  Catholicism  would  be  again  introduced ; 
the  Irish  massacre  (1641,  cf.  \  33,  3)  was  charged  upon  the  king;  and 
the  political  religious  fanaticism  of  the  Independents  under  Oliver 
Cromwell,  brought  Charles  to  the  scaffold  (1649).  Under  Cromwell's 
government  the  adherents  of  the  Episcopal  Church  were  oppressed, 
whilst  Dissenters  were  greatly  favored.  When  Charles  II.  ascended 
the  throne  (1660),  this  was  reversed.  The  Test  Act  (1673,  cf.  \  33,  3), 
though  primarily  aimed  against  the  Catholics,  also  struck  Dissenters, 
and  excluded  them  from  all  civil  and  military  offices.  But  William  of 
Orange  (from  1689),  by  the  Act  of  1689,  secured  toleration  to  Dis- 
senters also ;  only  Socinians  and  Catholics  were  excluded  from  its 
privileges. 


II.   THE   ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

§35.    THE    PAPACY,    MONASTICISM,    AND    HEATHEN 

MISSIONS. 

The  theocratic  system  of  Hildebrand  had  perished  beyond  re- 
demption. Even  Catholic  princes  refused  to  be  any  longer  ruled 
in  political  affairs  by  the  vicegerent  of  Christ.  The  ban  had  -lost 
its  power,  but  the  popes  still  strove  to  rescue  the  idea,  even 
where  they  had  to  yield  the  fact,  and  never  ceased  to  enter  im- 
potent protests  against  measures  of  which  they  disapproved. 
Politically  the  pope  was  only  a  prince  among  princes.  Among 
existing  monastic  order*,  the  Jesuits  enjoyed  by  far  the  most 
power  and   influence.     They  extended    the   pope's   infallibility 


PAPACY,     MONASTICISM,     HEATHEN     MISSIONS.       185 

even  to  matters  of  fact.  The  other  Orders  were  envious  and 
jealous,  and  vigilantly  seized  every  opportunity  of  assailing  the 
Jesuits,  especially  the  Disciples  of  St.  Thomas,  who  were  also 
their  doctrinal  antipodes.  During  this  period  also,  Catholic 
missions  among  the  heathen  were  prosecuted  with  vigorous  acti- 
vity. The  Jesuits  were  still  most  energetic ;  next  to  them  the 
Dominicans  and  Franciscans. 

1.  The  Papacy. — PaulY.  (1605-21),  equally  energetic  in  politics  and 
the  interests  of  the  hierarchy,  had  nevertheless  to  experience  the  impo- 
tence of  the  papal  ban  and  interdict,  in  a  controversy  with  the  Republic 
of  Venice.  The  pious  and  learned  Servite,  Paul  Sarpi  (historian  of 
the  Council  of  Trent),  a  man  who  deeply  deplored  the  errors  of  his 
Church,  and  who  was  familiar  with  the" St yluni  Curiae,"  but  did  not  fear 
it,  boldly  defended  the  liberty  of  the  Church  and  the  State,  and  the 
pope  had  to  yield.  His  successor  Gregory  XV.  (1621-23)  wrote  a  secret 
scrutiny  for  the  election  of  a  pope,  canonized  Loyola,  and  enriched  the 
Vatican  library  with  the  valuable  treasures  of  the  Heidelberg  library, 
given  him  by  Maximilian  I.  after  the  conquest  of  the  Palatinate. 
Urban  VIII.  (Card.  Barberini,  1623-24)  gave  the  bull  Coena  Domini 
its  present  form,  but  in  other  respects  did  more  for  the  martial  than 
religious  prosperity  of  the  Church  State.  Innocent  X.  (1644-55)  was 
derided  as  another  Johanna  Papissa,  on  account  of  his  shameful  subjec- 
tion to  a  woman  (Donna  Olyinpia).  His  fourth  successor  Innocent  XI. 
(1676-89),  an  energetic  pope,  and  one  who  sincerely  labored  for  the 
good  of  the  Church,  became  involved  in  a  dangerous  controversy  with 
France.  Louis  XIV.  (1643-1715)  exercised  the  established  right  of 
appropriating  the  revenues  of  vacant  benefices,  in  the  widest  sense, 
and  had  the  celebrated  principles  of  the  Gallican  Church  (propositiones 
cleri  Gallicani)  adopted  by  an  assembly  of  the  Paris  clergy.  (1.)  The 
power  of  the  pope  extends  only  to  spiritual,  not  to  temporal  matters. 
(2.)  The  spiritual  power  of  the  pope,  according  to  the  decision  of  the 
Council  of  Constance,  is  subject  to  the  supreme  authority  of  general 
councils.  (3.)  In  France  his  power  is  further  limited  by  the  old  eccle- 
siastical laws  of  France.  (4.)  The  decisions  of  the  pope  in  matters  of 
faith  are  only  infallible  by  their  agreement  with  the  entire  Church. 
The  pope  energetically  opposed  these  claims,  refused  to  confirm  French 
bishops;  and  his  successor  Innocent  XII.  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing 
the  king  and  clergy  humbly  yielding  their  demands  (1691).  Never- 
theless, the  idea  of  the  liberty  of  the  Gallican  Church,  once  awakened, 
was  not  abandoned  ;  and  the  celebrated  Bishop  Bosseut  of  Meaux  wrote 
a  learned  and  extended  vindication  of  it  (Defensio  declarationis  cele- 
berrima?,  quam  de  potestate  ecclest.  sanxit  Clerus  gallicanus,  2  vols. 
4to.)     (Cf.  I  44,  l.)» 

2.  New  Congregations  and  Orders. — (1.)  The  Benedictine  Congrega- 

59* 


186       SECTION    III. SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.  17    A.  D.). 

:  of  St.  Vanne,  at  Verdun,  founded  by  Didler  de  la  Cour,  stands 
foremost  am  »ng  the  creations  of  this  century.  Elected  Abbot  of  St. 
Vanne,  ia  1590,  Didier  devoted  all  his  energies  to  the  reformation  of 
that  monastery,  which  had  utterly  degenerated.  A  papal  bull  of  1604 
granted  certain  rich  privileges  to  all  monasteries  which  would  unite  in 
a  congregation  with  St.  Vanne.  By  degrees  all  the  Benedictine  monas- 
teries in  Lorraine  and  Elsace  also  joined  that  congregation.  Didier's 
reform  aimed  mainly  at  morals  and  asceticism.  But  learning  and 
education  (Calviet,  Ceillicr,  etc.)  were  also  diligently  promoted  by  the 
new  congregation.  (2.)  The  Fathers  of  the  Orator;/  of  Jesus,  an  imita- 
tion of  Philip  de  Neri's  priests  of  the  oratory  (g  29,  3).  It  was  founded 
by  Peter  of  Berylle,  son  of  a  Parliamentary  counsellor,  by  the  establish- 
ment of  an  oratory  in  Paris.  Peter  was  more  given  to  mysticism  than 
learning,  but  his  Order  took  another  course.  It  produced  many  stars 
of  Catholic,  and  at  the  same  time  very  liberal,  erudition  (Malcbranche, 
Morinus,  Thomassinus,  Rich.  Simon,  Houbigant,  etc.)  (3.)  The  Matirinea 
in  France  (1618).  Taking  their  name  from  St.  Maurus,  the  pupil  of 
St.  Benedict,  they  aimed  at  a  revival  of  the  fallen  Order  of  Benedic- 
tines, and  were  distinguished  for  producing  many  really  learned  men. 
Patristics  and  Church  History  owe  much  to  their  untiring  diligence. 
To  this  Order  belong  such  brilliant  names  as  those  of  Mabillon,  Mont- 
faucon,  Ruinart,  Martene,  D'Achery,  Le  Nourry,  etc.  (Cf.  J.  G.  Ilcrhst, 
d.  Verdienste  d.  Maur.  um  d.  Wissch.,  in  the  tlibg.  Quartalschr.  1833, 
I.  II.)  (4.)  The  Piarists,  founded  (1600)  by  the  Spaniard  Joseph  Cala- 
sanze,  in  Rome,  for  the  instruction  of  youth  ;  in  this  sphere  they  were 
the  hated  rivals  of  the  Jesuits.  (5.)  The  Order  of  the  Visitation  of  our 
beloved  Jjadies,  or  Salesians.  It  owed  its  origin  (1618)  to  that  superior 
mystic  Count  Francis  of  Sales  (|  36,  1),  a  zealous  proselyter  of  Pro- 
testants, and  the  Baroness  Francisca  of  Chantal,  who  stood  in  intimate 
spiritual  fellowship  with  him.  The  care  of  the  sick  and  training  of 
children  was  its  object  (cf.  B.  Reusing,  Leb.  d.  h.  Fr.  v.  Sales.  Paderb. 
1848).  (6.)  The  Priests  of  the  Missions,  and  (7.)  Sisters  of  Mercy,  were 
both  founded  by  Vincent  of  Paula.  Born  of  poor  parents,  after  com- 
pleting his  studies,  he  was  captured  by  pirates,  and  succeeded,  as  a 
slave,  in  converting  his  master,  a  renegade  Christian.  Afterwards  he 
was  settled  at  Chatillon,  as  priest,  and  with  the  aid  of  the  family  of 
Count  Gondy,  awakened,  though  with  the  most  unassuming  humility, 
a  really  wonderful  and  efficient  measure  of  zeal  for  home  missions.  In 
1618  he  established  the  Order  of  Sisters  of  Mercy,  who  devoted  them- 
selves faithfully  to  the  care  of  the  sick,  throughout  France;  and  in 
1627  the  Order  of  Priests  of  the  Missions  (also  called  Lazarists),  who 
travelled  over  the  country  ministering  to  the  souls  and  bodies  of  men. 
After  the  death  of  the  Countess  of  Gondy,  he  appointed  Louise  le  Gras, 
a  widow  distinguished  alike  for  intelligence  and  piety,  superior  of  the 
Order.  Vincent  died  in  1660,  and  was  subsequently  canonized  (cf.  L. 
V.  Slolberg,  Leb.  d.  h.  Vine.  v.  Paula.  Wien,  1819,  and  R.  E.  Schmieder 


PAPACY,     MONASTICISM,     HEATHEN     MISSIONS.       187 

V.  v.  P.,  in  d.  evang.  K.  Z.  1832,  Nr.  77,  etc.)  (8.)  The  Trappists, 
founded  by  Jean  le  Bouthillicr  de  Ranee  (ob.  1700),  a  distinguished 
canon,  who  was  led  to  renounce  his  worldly  life  by  an  alarming  event, 
and  ran  into  the  opposite  extreme  of  over-wrought  asceticism  (1664). 
The  Order  took  its  name  from  the  Cistercian  Abbey  la  Trappe,  in  Nor- 
mandy, whose  commendatory  abbot  was  Ranee.  After  many  difficulties 
he  succeeded  in  persuading  the  worldly  voluptuous  monks  to  adopt  a 
life  of  unexampled  austerity.  His  rule  imposed  unbroken  silence, 
excepting  in  prayer  and  singing,  and  the  occasional  admonition: 
memento  mori,  when  they  met  each  other.  Their  bed  was  a  hard  board, 
with  a  little  straw,  their  only  food  bread  and  water,  roots,  herbs,  some 
fruit  and  vegetables,  but  without  butter,  fat,  or  oil.  All  literary  pur- 
suits were  forbidden  ;  farming  their  recreation.  Their  dress  consisted 
of  a  dark-brown  cowl,  and  wooden  shoes.  Such  austerities  kept  most 
other  monasteries  from  adopting  the  rule  (cf.  $  57,  2,  and  E.  L.  Ritsert, 
d.  Ord.  d.  Trappisten.  Darmst.  1833. — Chateaubriand,  Leb.  d.  Paters 
South,  de  Ranee.  In  German,  Ulm,  1844).  (9.)  The  Christian  School 
Brethren,  founded  in  1680,  by  the  Rheims  canon  Jean  Bapt.  de  la  Salle, 
for  the  training  and  instruction  of  children  of  the  laboring  classes. 
The  members  assume  the  vow  of  poverty,  chastity,  obedience,  and  con- 
tinuance in  the  institution,  but  they  dare  not  be  priests,  nor  strive  to 
become  priests.  In  the  course  of  time  the  institution  spread  mightily 
(over  France,  Belgium,  and  N.  America),  and  was  allowed  to  have  a 
superior-general  with  eight  assistants,  at  Paris.  (10.)  The  English 
Ladies,  founded  by  Mary  Ward,  the  daughter  of  an  English  nobleman 
who  adhered  to  Catholicism.  Fleeing  with  her  family,  she  founded  a 
society  of  English  young  ladies,  fugitives  like  herself,  at  St.  Omer  in 
France,  for  the  education  of  young  girls.  The  institution  was  soon 
enlarged  by  admitting  persons  from  other  countries.  Houses  were 
also  established  in  Germany  (Cologne,  Munich,  Vienna,  etc.),  Italy,  and 
the  Netherlands.  It  never  obtained  papal  confirmation  ;  indeed  Urban 
VIII.,  listening  to  the  complaints  of  their  enemies,  who  charged  them 
with  heresy,  formally  abolished  the  society.  All  their  houses  and 
schools  were  closed  (excepting  that  in  Munich,  at  .Maximilian's  especial 
request).  Mary  herself  was  imprisoned  and  handed  over  to  the  Inqui- 
sition in  Rome.  But  Urban  was  soon  convinced  of  her  innocence,  and 
released  her.  The  scattered  young  women  soon  assembled  again,  but 
the  society  was  not  formally  confirmed  until  1703,  by  Clement  XL,  58 
years  after  the  death  of  the  founder.  Its  object  is  the  care  of  the  sick 
and  education  of  youth.  The  members  are  divided  into  three  classes: 
ladies  (nobles),  young  women  (civilians),  and  waiting  sisters.  All 
assume  the  three  vows  of  chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience,  annually, 
or  triennially  renewed,  and  binding  only  for  that  period.  They  may, 
therefore,  leave  the  society  and  marry.  They  still  have  many  houses 
in  Germany,  France,  Belgium,  England,  and  Italy. 

3.  Heathen  Missions.     (Cf.  §  30.) — From  1622,  the  missionary  opera- 


188      SECTION   III  — SECOND   PERIOD    (CENT.  1  7  A.  D.) 

tions  of  the  Catholic  Church  acquired  unity,  strength,  and  permanence, 
through  the  grand  institution  of  Gregory  XV.,  the  Congregatio  de  pro- 
paganda  fide  (cf.  0.  Mejer,  d.  Propag.,  ihre  Provinzen  u.  ihr  Recht.  2 
Bde.  Gottg.  1852,  etc.)  With  its  seminary  for  the  education  of  mis- 
sionaries it  became  the  heart  of  Catholic  missions,  celebrating  the 
Epiphany  in  Rome  by  having  the  praises  of  the  Lord  sung  in  all  tho 
languages  of  the  world.  The  astonishing  success  of  Catholic  missions 
is  owing  partly,  no  doubt,  to  the  zeal,  perseverance,  and  self-denial  of 
the  missionaries,  but,  also,  to  the  readiness  with  which  they  accommo- 
date themselves  to  the  habits  and  views  of  different  nations,  if  the 
people  will  only  outwardly  embrace  Christianity,  without  antecedent 
knowledge  or  conversion.  Bicci's  death  in  1010  did  not  interrupt  the 
labors  of  the  Jesuits  in  the  Chinese  Mission.  In  1628,  Adam  Scliall,  a 
German  Jesuit,  arrived,  and  by  his  skill  in  mathematics  won  great 
respect  at  the  Chinese  court.  Everything  progressed  admirably.  The 
mission  flourished  gloriously  in  its  way.  But  in  103 1  the  Dominicans 
also  entered  China.  They  found  a  half  million  nominal  Christians, 
and  innumerable  Churches,  but  objected  earnestly  to  the  accommoda- 
tion measures  of  the  Jesuits,  and  the  mixture  of  heathen  and  Christian 
elements.  Rome  dismissed  their  complaints,  and  the  Jesuits  went 
boldly  forward.  Louis  XIV.  then  founded  a  missionary  college  in 
Paris,  designed  mainly  for  China,  which  sent  Jesuits,  thoroughly  edu- 
cated in  mathematics,  into  the  central  empire.  Soon,  however,  the  old 
complaints  of  the  Dominicans  were  revived,  and  with  increased  vigor. 
In  1701  the  pope  sent  a  legate,  Tliomas  of  Tournon,  to  Asia ;  but  the 
Jesuits  put  him  out  of  the  way  (he  died  (1710)  in  prison  at  Macao), 
and  continued  their  operations,  despite  papal  injunctions  and  their  own 
fourth  vow.  Their  doings  in  Paraguay,  S.  America  (from  1G08),  were 
most  renowned.  There  they  converted  the  savages,  taught  them  Euro- 
pean customs,  trades,  and  arts,  and  organized  a  complete  independent 
government,  in  which  the  natives,  under  the  mild  patriarchal  rule 
of  the  Jesuits,  whom  they  obeyed  like  children,  long  dwelt  in  pros- 
perity;  the  Order,  meanwhile,  grew  very  rich.     (Cf.  I  44,  3.) 

§  36.  MYSTICISM,  QUIETISM,  AND  JANSENISM. 

The  Reformation  drove  back  the  Romish  Church,  which  had 
become  wholly  externalized  in  life  and  doctrine,  to  a  revival  of 
mediaeval  mysticism.  The  preceding  period,  already,  exhibits 
evidences  of  this  tendency  (St.  Theresa,  John  of  the  Cross,  etc.), 
but  in  the  present  epoch  it  manifested  itself  more  energetically. 
The  powerful  Jesuits,  however,  who,  in  the  mechanical  character 
of  all  their  religious  practices,  hated,  as  much  as  they  did  Au- 
gustinism,  every  species  of  mysticism  which  held  outward  religious 
forms  iiv  little  esteem,  and  was,  indeed,  not  wholly  free  from  fana- 


MYSTICISM,     QUIETISM,     AND     JANSENISM.       180 

tical  enthusiasm.  They  branded  it  with  tne  heretical  name  of 
Quietism  ;  and  did  all  in  their  power,  by  violent  persecutions,  to 
harass  those  who  devoted  themselves  to  quiet  communion  with 
God,  and  to  prevent  the  successful  propagation  of  their  views. 
The  reaction  in  favor  of  Augustinism,  thus  far  confined  to  the 
Dominicans,  and  only  a  matter  of  theological  parties,  now  found 
a  citadel  in  French  Jansenism.  Combined  with  deep  moral 
earnestness,  it  spread  out,  pervading  and  purifying  Christian  life 
as  well  as  theological  science. 

1.  Mysticism  and  Quietism. — The  noblest,  tenderest,  and  most  devout 
mystic  of  the  Catholic  Church,  after  the  Reformation,  was  Francis  of 
Sales  (|  35,  2),  B.  of  Geneva  (i.  e.  in  partibus,  then  at  Annecy,  ob. 
1622).  His  overflowing  love,  and  conciliatory  manners,  led  crowds  of 
Protestants  back  to  the  Romish  Church.  His  "  Philothea,  "  gives 
directions  to  the  people  of  the  world,  for  maintaining  a  devout  life,  and 
enjoying  a  sense  of  the  love  of  God,  amidst  all  the  distractions  of  their 
business.  Next  to  the  "Imitation  of  Christ,"  it  is  the  most  popular 
and  common  devotional  book  in  the  Catholic  Church.  In  his  "  Thoo- 
time"  the  reader  is  led  further  into  the  faintings  and  longings,  the 
pains  and  pangs,  the  joy  and  felicity  of  a  life  hid  in  God. — John  Schejfler 
(Angelus  Silesius)  flourished  in  Germany;  he  was  a  friend  of  Jacob 
Bbhm,  previously  a  Protestant,  then  a  convert,  physician  to  the  em- 
peror, Catholic  priest,  and  a  zealous  controversialist  (ob.  1G77).  Whilst 
a  Protestant  he  composed  several  very  sweet,  devout  hymns.  After- 
wards he  produced  "  der  cherubinische  Wandersman,"  a  collection  of 
poetical  sayings,  in  which,  with  childlike  simplicity  and  ardent  love, 
he  buries  himself  in  the  depths  of  the  universal  Godhead,  and  pro- 
pounds the  boldest  pantheistic  theses.  (Cf.  C.  F.  Gaupp,  d.  rom.  K. 
beleuchtet  in  einem  ihrer  Proselyten.  Dresd.  18-40. — A.  KahleH,  Aug. 
Sil.  Bresl.  1853. — P.  Wittmann  (Cath.),  Aug.  Sil.  als  Convert.,  Dichter 
u.  Polem.  Augsb.  1S42.  Adv.  W.  Schrader,  Aug.  Sil.  u.  s.  Mystik. 
Halle,  1853,  who  endeavors  to  show  that  Aug.  Sil.  and  Sc/ieffter  are 
two  different  persons;  cf.  G.  Schuster,  Aug.  Sil.  in  the  hist,  theol. 
Ztschr.  1857,  III.)  —  Similar  causes  produced  a  mystical  tendency  in 
Spain,  the  friends  of  which  were  called  Alombrados  (illuminati). 
Michael  Molinos  of  Saragossa  imparted  to  this  movement  a  more  sub- 
stantial character.  From  1669,  as  priest  in  Rome,  he  became  the 
spiritual  guide  of  many  earnest  souls,  and  taught  them  how  to  find 
the  highest  enjoyment  of  piety,  in  sincere  prayer,  in  pure  love  to  God, 
and  in  a  calm,  peaceful,  immediate  contemplation  of  God.  He  was 
unmolested  until  the  jealousy  of  the  Jesuits,  and  especially  the  machi- 
nations of  the  confessor  of  Louis  XIV.,  La  Chaise,  incited  the  Inquisi- 
tion against  him.  He  was  put  in  confinement,  compelled  to  abjure  68 
statements  selected  from  his  books  (the  principal  one  was  his  Guida 


190       SECTION    III. SECOND    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.   17    A.  D.)  . 

spirituale,  published  in  Latin  by  A.  H.  Franeke;  Manuductio  spiritua- 
lis,  Lpz.  1G87,  in  German  by  G.  Arnold;  Geistl.  Wegw.  Frkf.  1699)  as 
heretical  and  blasphemous  (1G87),  and  was  then  condemned  to  perpetual 
confinement  in  a  monastery,  and  rigid  spiritual  oversight  (ob.  1696) 
His  adherents  were  branded  as  Quietists  (cf.  C.  E.  Scharling,  Mich,  do 
Mol.,  in  the  hist,  theol.  Ztschr.  1854,  III.  IV.,  1855,  I.)  But  the  mys- 
tical tendency  was  not  thus  suppressed.  In  France,  especially,  it  found 
many  warm  friends  and  supporters.  Antoinette  Bourignon  (ob.  1680) 
spread  her  theosophic  and  fanatical  mysticism  in  the  Netherlands,  and 
adjacent  parts  of  Germany.  Peter  Poiret,  court-preacher  of  the  palatine 
Deux-Ponts  (once  a  Cartesian  philosopher,  then  an  ardent  admirer  of 
Mad.  Bourignon  and  Guyon)  published  her  works  in  25  vols.  Amst 
etc.  Concerning  her  doctrines,  cf.  W.  Klose  in  the  hist,  theol.  Ztschr. 
1851,  p.  497. — The  mystical  love  of  Johanna  Maria  de  la  Motke  Guyon 
(ob.  1717)  was  much  richer  and  purer.  Early  left  a  widow,  after  a 
vain  course  of  life,  she  devoted  herself  to  a  glowing  love  of  God.  That 
man  should  die  to  himself  and  to  all  self-will,  so  that  Christ  alone 
might  live  in  him,  and  that  man  should  love  God  without  regard  to 
reward  or  punishment,  yea,  even  though  it  should  please  God  to  damn 
him  for  ever,  were  the  thoughts  which  underlay  her  life  and  labors, 
and  which  she  cherished  with  most  ardent,  sincere,  and  tender  love. 
She  travelled  many  years  with  her  confessor,  La  Combe,  who  shared 
her  views,  through  France  and  Switzerland  ;  and  by  means  of  numerous 
writings,  and  oral  instruction,  kindled  a  like  burning  love  to  God  in 
the  hearts  of  countless  disciples,  male  and  female.  No  tribulations, 
persecutions,  imprisonments,  could  divert  her  from  her  purpose.  She 
found  powerful  protectors  at  the  court;  Mad.  Maintenon  secured  her 
Liberation  from  prison.  Above  all,  one  of  the  noblest  men  who  ever 
lived,  defended  her  against  her  enemies'  accusations  of  heresy.  This 
was  Francis  de  Salignac  de  la  Mothe  Fdnelon,  formerly  tutor  of  the 
king's  nephews,  from  1695  Archbishop  of  Cambray  (ob.  1715).  By  his 
advice  she  begged  the  king  for  an  examination  of  her  writings.  A 
commission,  headed  by  Bossvet,  objected  to  her  Amour  desinteresse. 
Fene'lon  then  defended  the  doctrine,  and  Bossuet,  incited  by  passion 
and  jealousy,  answered  in  several  writings.  Feue'lon  sent  his  own 
writings  to  Rome.  In  the  mean  time  he  had  lost  the  king's  favor.  It 
was  the  more  easy,  therefore,  for  his  adversaries  to  induce  the  pope  to 
condemn  his  views.  Fenilon  (who  adhered  most  cordially  to  the  Ca- 
tholic Church,  and  had  ever  labored  zealously  for  the  conversion  of 
Protestants),  with  admirable  self-denial  and  humility,  read  the  brief 
of  his  own  condemnation  from  the  pulpit,  and,  putting  all  the  blame 
upon  his  own  imperfect  and  erroneous  productions,  admonished  his 
people  to  obedience  (1699).  Among  the  works  of  Mad.  Gin/on,  the 
most  important  is:  La  Bible  do  Mad.  Guyon  avce  des  explications  et 
reflexions,  qui  regardent  la  vie  interieure,  ed.  by  P.  Poiret.  Col.  1715, 
etc  ,  in  20  vols. ;  a  German  transl.,  Regensb.,  J 835,  etc.    (Cf.  La  vie  de 


MYSTICISM,     QUIETISM,     AND     JANSENISM.       191 

Marl,  de  Guyon  ecrite  par  elle-meme.  Col.  1721. — C.  Hermes,  Ztige  aus 
d.  Leben  d.  Fr.  v.  Guyon.  Magd.  1845.  —  Ramsay,  Hist,  de  la  vie  de 
Fenelon  ;  A  la  Haye,  1723.— L.  v.  Bausset,  Lebensgesch.  Fenel.,  from 
the  French,  3  Bde.  Wurzb.  1811 ;  Fenelon's  works,  in  German,  by  M. 
Claudius,  3  Bde.  Hamb.  1823.  —  Herzog's  Theol.  and  Eccl.  Encycl., 
Philad.  II.,  1860. —  Ruckgaber,  d.  Quietism,  in  Frankr.,  in  the  tiibg. 
Quartschr.  1853.  II.) 

2.  Jansenism  in  its  First  Stage.  —  (Cf.   Melch.  Let/decker,  de  hist. 
Jansen.  LI.  YI.  Traj.  ad  Rh.  1695.  (G.  Gerberon)  Hist,  gener.  du  Jan- 
sen.   Amst.  1711.  3  vols.— H.  Reuchlin,  Gesch.  v.  Port-royal,  1839,  1844. 
2  Bde. — A.  Sainte-Beuve,  Port-royal,  1840,  2  Bde. —  Grtgoire,  Les  mines 
de  Port-royal.  Par.  1809.— Reuchlin,  Pascal's  Leb.  Stuttg.  1840.     [Pas- 
cal's Provincial  Letters,  transl.  by  M' Crie,  N.York,  1850]). — Bishop 
Cornelius  Jansen  of  Ypern  (ob.  1638)  had  devoted  his  whole  life  to  the 
most  careful  study  of  the  works  of  St.  Augustine.     The  result  of  these 
studies  was  a  learned  work  entitled  Augustinus,  first  published  (1640) 
after  Jansen's  death,  in  3  vols.  fol.     As  the  great  Church  father's  doc- 
trine of  sin  and  grace  were  here  exhibited  in  their  whole  truth  and 
bluntness,  the  Jesuits  violently  assailed  the  work,  and  secured  a  pro- 
hibition of  it  from  the  pope  (1642).     But  there  were  in  France  many 
friends  of  Augustine's  doctrine,  who  were  distinguished  for  talent  and 
learning.    Among  them  was  the  excellent  Jean  Duvergier  de  Hauranne, 
abbot  of  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  St.  Cyran  (ob.  1643),  and  the 
equally  able  teacher  at  the  Sorbonne,  Anthony  Arnold.    The  latter,  by 
his  works  (De  la  frequente  communion,  against  the  Opus  operatum  in 
the  sacrament ;  La  theologie  morale  des  Jesuites ;  La  morale  practi- 
que  des  Jes.)  soon  became  involved  in  an  open  controversy  with  the 
Jesuits.    These  persuaded  Innocent  X.  to  condemn  five  Jansenist  theses 
as  heretical  (1653).     The  adherents  of  Augustine's  doctrine  did  not 
assail  the  papal  decision;  but  affirmed,  however,  that  the  views  con- 
demned were  not  found  in  Jansen's  Augustinus  in  that  sense.     At  the 
instigation  of  the  Jesuits  Arnold  was  ejected  from  the  Sorbonne.     He 
took  refuge  with  his  sister,  Angelica  Arnold,  abbess  of  the  Cistercian 
nunnery  of  Port-royal   near   Paris,   a  woman  of  deep,  earnest  piety. 
Through  her  Port-royal  became  a  centre  of  religious  life  and  zeal  in 
France.    Much  in  the  manner  of  the  ancient  anchorets,  a  large  number 
of  the  most  talented  and  pious  men  of  France,  at  once  admirers  of 
Augustine    and    hostile    to    the    destructive    morality  of  the   Jesuits, 
gathered  around  this  monastery.     The  profound  and  talented  Blaise 
Pascal  (author  of  the  Pens6es  sur  la  religion)  was  of  the  same  spirit 
with  these  men.     Under  the  name  of  Louis  de  Montalte  he  published 
(1656)  his  celebrated  Lettres  provinciales,  in  which  he  exposed,  in  all 
their  hatefulness,  the  pernicious  moral  principles  of  many  Jesuits,  with 
authentic  proofs,  and  with  equal  earnestness  and  wit.     The  book  pro- 
duced a  wonderful  sensation  ;  but  the  Jesuits  avenged  themselves  by 
means  of  a  papal  bull  (1656),  which  declared  that  Jansen  taught  the 


192       SECTION    III. SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.  17    A.  D.). 

five  points  in  question  in  the  very  sense  in  which  they  were  condemned 
The  Jansenists  affirmed  that  the  pope  was  not  competent  to  decide  upon 
a  question  du  fait ;  but  the  king  and  pope  demanded  that  all  French 
ecclesiastics,  monks  and  nuns,  should  take  oath  in  acknowledgment  of 
the  bull,  and  in  condemnation  of  the  Jansenist  heresy  (1G65).     Those 
who  refused  were  banished,  and  fled  into  the  Netherlands.     Subse- 
quently subscription   to  a  milder  declaration  was  allowed.     But  the 
hatred  of  the  Jesuits  still'  rested  on  Port-royal.    In  1709  the  institution 
was  abolished  and  destroyed.     Although  the  Jansenists  agreed  with 
the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  predestination,  and  though  their  fundamen- 
tal tendency  was  truly  Protestant,  they  were,  it  would  seem  because 
of  these  points  of  similarity,  zealously  opposed  to  the  Protestants. 
(Cf.  I  44,  6.) 

I  37.  SCIENCE  AND  ART  IN  THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

Catholic  theology  flourished  more  during  the  17th  century  than 
it  had  done  from  the  12th  and  1 3th  down  to  the  present  time.  And 
an  active  liberal  scientific  life  bloomed  in  the  Gallican  Church, 
"  above  all  the  Catholic  Churches  of  other  countries.  The  Sor- 
bonne  of  Paris,  aud  still  more  the  Orders  of  the  Jesuits,  Maurines, 
and  Oratorians,  rivalled  each  other  in  the  most  praiseworthy 
manner,  in  theological,  but  especially  in  patristic  literature,  and 
Church  history ;  and  the  cotemporaneous  bloom  of  theological 
learning  in  the  Reformed  Church  of  France  was  a  powerful  in- 
centive to  such  rivalry.  The  flourishing  period  of  the  plastic 
arts,  especially  painting,  had  passed.  But  Church  music  was 
enriched,  though  also  enervated  and  secularized.  Religious  poetry 
was  cultivated  to  any  notable  extent,  only  in  Spain  and  Germany. 

1.  Theology.  —  The  parliamentary  advocate,  Mich.  1e  Jay,  at  his  own 
cost,  had  the  Paris  PolygloU  published,  in  8  vols.  fol.  (1029-45),  which, 
besides  complete  Syriac  and  Arabic  versions,  included  the  Samaritan. 
Morinus  was  the  chief  editor.  Sixtus  V.  had  caused  a  new  edition  of 
the  Vulgate  to  be  published  (1590),  and  in  spite  of  its  many  (but  partly 
covered  or  erased)  errors,  pronounced  it  authentic  (Editio  Sixtina). 
Nevertheless  Clement  VIII.  published  a  recension  which  varied  from 
it  in  many  points  (Ed.  Clementina,  1592),  and  strictly  forbid  any  de- 
parture from  it:  but  in  1593  he  himself  caused  another  edition  to  be 
issued,  in  which  many  variations  occur.  Caspar  TJlenberg  (once  a 
Lutheran)  of  Lippe  issued  a  new  German  version  (1G30),  in  which  free 
use  was  made  of  Luther's.  The  learned  Oratorian  /.  Morinus  (ob.  1659) 
edited  the  Septuagint  and  Samaritan  version,  both  which  he  pronounced 
infinitely  better  than  the  masoretic  text  corrupted  by  the  Jews.  An- 
other Oratorian,  the  renowned  Richard  Simon  {ob.  1712),  wrote  a  criti- 


SCIENCE    AND    ART    IN    THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH.       193 

eism  of  the  Scriptures  (Histoire  critique  du  Vieux  Test,  and  du  Nouv. 
Test.),  which  surpassed  in  boldness  anything  before  heard  of.     He  was 
assailed,  indeed,  by  Catholic  reviewers,  but  as  his  criticisms  served  to 
sap  the  basis  of  the  Protestant  theory,  the  Curia  allowed  his  boldness 
to  go  unpunished.     (Cf.  K.  H.  Graff,  Rich.  Sim. ;  in  the  Strassb.  Beitr. 
zu.  d.  theol.  Wsch.  I.,  158,  etc.)     The  most  notable  exegetes  are  the  Je- 
suits James  Bonfrere  (ob.  1G43,  a  diffuse  comm.  on  the  Pentat.)  ;    Cor- 
nelius a  Lapide  (ob.  1637,  exposition  of  the  Bible  in  its  fourfold  sense) ; 
Stephen  Menochius  of*  Milan  (ob.  1655)  and  James  Tirinus  of  Antwerp 
(ob.  1636).     In  systematic  theology,  the  old  scholastic  method  still  had 
full  sway.    Among  controversialists,  the  Brabant  Jesuit  Martin  Becanus 
(ob.  1624)  was  distinguished  as  author  of  the  Manuale  controversiarum, 
Bishop  Bossuet  ($  33,  5),  and  the  Jansenists  Peter  Nicole  and  Anthony 
Arnauld,  who,  to  purge  themselves  from  the  charge  of  Calvinism,  both 
endeavored  to  prove  that  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
was  taught  by  the  Apostles,  and  ever  held  by  the  Church,  (La  perpe- 
tuite  de  la  foi  cath.  touchant  l'eucharistie.   Par.  1664),  and  exchanged 
a  number  of  controversial  papers  upon  this  subject,  with  the  Reformed 
Claude  and  Jurien.     Here  we  must  also  mention  the  writings  of  the 
apostate  Lutherans  Casper  TJlenberg  (Causae  graves  et  justae,  in  Ger- 
man, by  Kcrz,  Mayence  (1836),  and  Uirich  Hunnius,   son  of  the  cele- 
brated JEgid.  H.  (Invicta  prorsus  et  indissolubilia  argumenta,  etc.)  in 
defence   of  their  course.     Apologetics  received  valuable  contributions 
from  Blaise  Pascal  (in  his  Pensies,  cf.  §  36,  2),  the  Oratorians  Le  Vassor 
(De  la  veritable  religion.  Subsequently  he  entered  the  Anglican  Church), 
Bernh.  I /amy  (Preuves  evidentes,  etc.)  and  the  French  bishop,  Peter  Dan. 
Huetius,  the  ed.  of  Origen  (ob.  1721),  who,  in  his  principal  work,  De- 
monstrate evangelica,  attempts  to  show  that  all  the  myths  and  fables 
of  heathenism  are  distortions  of  Biblical  histories ;  he  also  defended 
the  Pentateuch  against  Spinoza's  attacks.    In  his  Qucestiones  Alnetanos 
(written  in  the  monastery  of  D'Annay),  he  controverts  the  Cartesian 
philosophy.    The  learned  Jesuit  Dionysius  Petavius  (Jesuitarum  aquila, 
ob.  1652),  in  addition  to  his  herciJean  chronological  labors,  wrote  a 
profoundly  learned  history  of  doctrines,  or  rather  a  work  exhibiting 
the  doctrines  of  the  fathers  (Dogmata  theologica),  which,  however,  was 
not  completed  (it  embraces,  in  3  fol.  vols.,  only  the  first  five  loci).    The 
Oratorian  Louis   Thomassinus  followed   his   example  (Dogm.  theol.  3 
vols.  fol.  Par.  1680).     But  his  archaeological  work  is  of  more  import- 
ance :  Vetus  et  nova  ecclesise  disciplina  circa  beneficia  et  beneficiarios, 
3  vols.  fol.     In  the  department  of  Church  History,  Catholic  theology, 
especially  in  France,  acquired  a  superior  reputation.     It  was  incited  to 
this  by  rivalry  with  Protestantism,  and  controversies  with  the  learned 
Reformed  theologians  of  France.     This  was  allowed  by  the  freedom  of 
the  Gallican  Church  (cf.  \  35,  1).     Besides  excellent  works  on  general 
Church  History  by  Godeau,  Nat.  Alexander,  Fleury,  Bossuet,  Tillemont, 
t")  whom  we  must  add  Ant.  Pagi  (Critica  hist.-chronol.  etc.)  the  keen 
60 


194       SECTION    III.  —  SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.  17    A.D.) 

ed.  of  Baronius,  the  study  of  ecclesiastical  sources  was  promoted  by 
excellent  editions  of  the  Church  fathers,  with  must  learned  critical  and 
historical  apparatus,  by  editions  and  collections  of  mediaeval  works, 
archives,  etc.  [Sirmond,  Mabillon,  D'Achery,  Martene,  Baluzius),  the 
acts  of  Councils  (Labb6  and  Cossart;  especially  of  the  French,  by/. 
Sirmond,  of  the  Spanish  by  Aguirre),  of  the  acts  of  Martyrs  (Ruinart), 
monastic  rules  (Luc.  Holstenius),  etc.  Charles  du  Fresne  du  Cange,  by 
his  wonderful  Glossarium  media?  et  infinite  latinitatis,  and  his  Gloss 
med.  et  inf.  grajcitatis,  greatly  advanced  the  full  understanding  of  the 
sources  in  regard  to  language  and  contents.  John  Mabillon  was  doubt- 
less the  brightest  star  in  the  constellation  of  learning  (ob.  1707,  author 
of:  Acta  Sanctorum  Ordinis  s.  Benedicti ;  Annales  Ordinis  s.  Bened. ; 
Vetera  Analecta ;  de  re  diplomatiea,  etc.)  Peter  de  Marca,  finally 
Archli.  of  Paris  (ob.  1GG2),  wrote  the  celebrated  work  De  concordia 
sacerdotii  et  imperii  s.  de  libertatibus  eccl.  Gallicanoo ;  the  Jansenist 
doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  Elijah  du  Pin  (ob.  1719),  the  Nouvelle  biblio- 
theque  des  auteurs  ecclest.  in  47  vols. ;  the  Antwerp  Jesuits  Bolland, 
Henschen,  and  Papebroch,  began  (1G43)  the  herculean  Acta  Sanctorum, 
arranged  according  to  the  Roman  calendar,  and  learned  members  of 
their  Order  (the  Bollandists)  in  Belgium  continued  it,  until  the  French 
invasion  of  1794  interrupted  the  work,  when  it  had  reached  the  53d 
fol.  vol.,  ending  with  Oct.  15.  Recently  Belgic  Jesuits  have  resumed 
the  work,  but  not  with  the  critical  care  or  the  liberality  of  their  pre- 
decessors. In  Venice,  Paolo  Sarpi  (ob.  1623)  wrote  a  history  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  which  is  one  of  the  most  brilliant  historical  contri- 
butions ever  composed.  Leo  Allatius,  a  Greek  convert  in  Rome  (ob. 
1GG9)  wrote  his  celebrated  work  De  eccl.  Occidentalis  et  Orientalis 
perpetua  consensione.  Cardinal  Bona,  Cistercian  general,  was  a  bril- 
liant liturgical  author  (De  divina  psalmodia ;  Reruin  liturgicarum  LI. 
II.)  But  distinguished  names  in  the  department  of  Church  History 
are  too  numerous  to  allow  us  to  name  them  all.  Pulpit  eloquence,  also, 
flourished  in  France  to  a  degree  not  since  attained  (F/echier,  Bossuet, 
Bourdaloue,  Bridaine,  Fen6lon,  and  Massillon).  In  Vienna,  Vlrich 
Megerle  (Abraham  de  St.  Clara)  zealously  denounced  the  corruption  of 
the  times,  in  odd,  witty,  and  yet  thoughtful  addresses.  Though  he 
assumed  the  manners  of  a  clown,  he  often  gave  utterance  to  most  solemn 
and  pungent  truths.     (Cf.  g  44,  11.) 

2.  Church  Music.  —  The  Italian  Gre,/.  Allegri  (ob.  1652)  was  the 
greatest  master  of  the  school  founded  by  Palestrina.  His  Miserere  was 
annually  performed  on  Wednesday  afternoon  of  Holy  Week  in  the 
Sixtine  Chapel,  Rome,  with  powerful  effect.  The  application  of  the 
operatic  style  to  the  lofty  music  of  this  school  gave  rise  to  the  oratories, 
or  musical  dramas,  composed  of  Biblical  material,  designed  to  be  pro- 
duced only  with  music,  not  theatrically.  They  were  mainly  practised 
in  the  school  for  music  established  by  Philip  de  Keri,  in  his  oratory; 
licncc  their  name.     This   new  style,   which   required  that  the  music 


SCIENCE    AND    ART    IN    THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH.       195 

should  be  closely  suited  to  the  word  and  to  musical  declamation,  soon 
excluded  the  Canto  fermo  with  its  counterpoint  combination  of  voices, 
and  for  it  substituted  a  religious  concert.  Thus  solo  and  recitative  sing- 
ing became  very  common,  and  attained  great  perfection.  The  chromatic 
scale  was  to  furnish  the  means  of  producing  feelings  in  the  hearer  cor- 
responding with  the  sentiments  of  the  words  sung;  the  general  bass, 
as  the  foundation  of  the  piece,  which,  by  the  accompanying  signatures, 
should  indicate  its  entire  harmony,  was  also  to  leave  room  for  the  freest 
action,  and  independent  production  of  the  several  voices ;  and  finally, 
by  combining  instrumental  music  with  the  singing,  it  was  intended  to 
call  forth  the  most  lively  variety  and  fulness.  This  new  style  of  Church 
music,  meanwhile,  became  more  secular  and  effeminate,  and  gradually 
sank  into  an  operatic  performance,  from  which  it  has  not  thus  far  been 
raised  up. 

3.  Christian  Poetry. — The  Spanish  poet  Calderon  (ob.  1681)  composed 
128  dramas,  95  autos  sacramentales,  and  200  preludes.  The  focus  of 
his  mostly  allegorical  compositions  was  religion.  In  fertility,  variety, 
as  well  as  in  poetical  geniality  and  religious  depth,  Calderon  was  ex- 
celled by  his  countryman  Lope  de  Vega  (ob.  1635,  author  of  1500  come- 
dies and  320  autos).  The  noble  German  Jesuit  Fred.  v.  Spee  (ob.  1635) 
merits  special  prominence.  His  religious  poems  glow  with  sincere  love 
to  the  Redeemer,  combined  with  a  child-like  spirit,  and  a  deep,  thought- 
ful naturalness,  and  seem  to  be  related  both  to  the  medigeval  minstrel 
songs,  and  the  cotemporaneous  evangelical  hymns.  They  appeared 
after  his  death  under  the  title  of  "  Trutz-Naclitigall,"  but  were  unno- 
ticed even  by  the  Romish  Church,  until  the  German  novelists  of  the 
10th  century  drew  them  forth  again  from  the  dust.  Spee  was  one  of 
the  first  but  unavailing  opponents  of  the  insane  process  for  detecting 
witches.  Vexation  in  regard  to  it  early  turned  his  hair  gray.  The 
Jesuit  Jacob  Balde  of  Munich  (ob.  1688)  was  another  eminent  poetic 
genius  of  this  period.  His  lyric  compositions  were  the  most  brilliant. 
His  few  German  poems  are  far  inferior  to  those  in  Latin.  A  deep  reli- 
gious longing,  which  turns  with  fervor  and  spirit  to  the  Queen  of  heaven, 
as  the  only  deliverer  from  earthly  troubles,  pervades  all  his  poems.  He 
too  was  long  forgotten,  until  Herder  rescued  him  from  oblivion.  Alb. 
Knapp  gives  an  excellent  description  of  the  noble  poet  in  his  Chri^to- 
terpe   1848. 


196       SECTION    III. — SECOND    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.  1  7    A.D.). 


III.   THE   LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 

I  38.  LUTHERAN  ORTHODOXY  AND  ITS  STRUGGLES. 

Cf.  J.  G.  Walch,  die  Religionsstreitigk,  in  d.  lath.  K.  Jena,  1733,  5 
Bde. —  G.  J.  Planck,  Gesch.  d.  prot.  Theol.  v.  d.  Concordienf.  bis  Mitte 
d.  18.  Jahvh.  Giittg.  1831.—  W.  Gas.i,  Gesch.  d.  prot.  Dogmatik.  Bd.  I. 
Berl.  1854.  —  A.  Tholuck,  d.  Geist.  d.  luth.  Theol.  Wittb.  im  Verlaufe 
d.  17.  Jahrh.  Hamb.  1852.— Die  Theologie  d.  17.  Jahrh.  In  d.  Zeitschr. 
fur  Protestantism,  u.  K.  185G,  II.  I.,  VII. 

The  precision,  clearness,  and  carefulness  of  the  Form  of  Con- 
cord, gradually  overcame  all  opposition  to  it.  The  result  proved 
that,  in  spite  of  the  ridicule  of  antagonists  (cf.  Hospiniari's  Con- 
cordia discors),  it  had  really  restored  harmony.  It  now  exercised 
authority  not  by  means  of  the  imperative  power  of  princes,  but 
through  the  free  moral  power  of  science,  and  introduced  a  flourish- 
ing period  of  Lutheran  theology  of  more  than  a  century,  during 
which  the  teachers  of  the  Church  adhered  as  one  man  firmly  and 
unitedly  to  its  doctrine.  Theology  was  most  fully  developed,  and 
reared  like  a  mighty  Gothic  dome  with  astonishing  acuteness, 
harmonious  in  its  minutest  parts,  and  firmly  knit  together  as  a 
whole.  But  the  tendency  towards  an  extremely  subtile  develop- 
ment and  precise  definition  of  doctrines,  which  sprang  from  the 
controversies  of  the  preceding  century,  became  continually  more 
one-sided.  Hence  it  called  into  existence  a  dialectic  scholasti- 
cism, which  was  in  no  way  inferior  to  that  of  the  most  flourishing 
period  of  the  middle  ages,  either  in  the  greatness  or  minute- 
ness of  the  careful  and  acute  development  of  its  scientific  form, 
or  in  the  full  and  accurate  exhibition  of  its  religious  contents. 
But,  like  mediaeval  scholasticism,  in  its  concern  for  logic  it  al- 
most lost  vitality.  Orthodoxy  degenerated  into  orthodoxism  ; 
externally,  not  only  discerning  essential  diversities,  but  disre- 
garding the  broad  basis  of  a  common  faith,  and  running  into 
odious  and  unrestrained  controversy ;  internally,  holding  to  the 
form  of  pure  doctrine,  but  neglecting  cordially  to  embrace  it, 
and  to  live  consistently  with  it.  Nevertheless,  this  scholastic 
orthodoxy,  with  all  its  one-sidedness,  imparted  to  Lutheran 
theology  a  fulness  and  wealth,  an  acuteness  and  consistency  of 
structure,  the  grandeur  of  which  even  a  Lessing  was  compelled 
to  acknowledge.  And  it  cannot  be  denied  that  this  period,  so 
commonly  reviled  as  that  of  "dead  orthodoxy,"  possessed  more 


LUTHERAN  ORTHODOXY  AND  ITS  STRUGGLES.   197 

true  piety  and  spiritual  life,  than  the  period  (18th  century)  which 
most  decried  it.  At  the  same  time  the  one-sidedness  and  dege- 
neracy of  that  orthodoxy  is  not  to  be  denied,  nor  the  propriety, 
necessity,  and  beneficial  influence  of  the  opposition  to  it  which 
sprang  from  the  bosom  of  the  Church  ;  though  it  cannot  be  dis- 
puted that  this  opposition  was  marked  by  a  one-sidedness  of 
another  sort.  The  opposition  was  of  a  two-fold  character :  in  the 
syncretistic  controversy  it  was  confined  exclusively  to  the  sphere 
of  theology  ;  in  the  pietistic  controversy,  it  more  largely  concerned 
the  Christian  life. 

1.  Orthodoxy  in  Conflict  with  itself.  —  This  includes  the  controversy 
between  the  theologians  of  Tubingen  and  Giessen  concerning  the  state 
of  humiliation.  The  Giessen  theologians,  with  Balih.  Mentzer  at  their 
head,  referred  the  humiliation  of  Christ  solely  to  his  human  nature, 
and  pronounced  it  an  actual  xtvuais,  that  is,  a  complete,  though  free 
surrender  of  the  omnipresence  and  omnipotence  immanent  in  his  divi- 
nity (xT-jytHj  but  without  £pj-jai{),  yet  so  that  he  might  at  any  moment 
(as  in  working  miracles)  exercise  them.  The  Tubingen  theologians,  on 
the  contrary,  with  Luc.  Osiander  at  their  head,  referred  his  humilia- 
tion to  both  natures,  and  taught  that  during  it  he  was  omnipresent 
even  secundum  earn  em,  and  governed  heaven  and  earth,  though  in  a 
manner  concealed  from  us.  They  said  the  humiliation  was  no  kevwglc, 
but  only  a  xpv^H-  A  commission  from  electoral  Saxony  (Hoe  v.  Hoe- 
negg,  iEgid.  Strauch,  etc.)  decided  in  favor  of  the  Giessen  party  (1624). 
The  matter  was  attended  with  no  further  results. 

2.  The  Syncretistic  Controversy.  (E.  ffenJce,  Helmst.  im.  16.  Jahrh. 
Halle,  1838;  id.  G.  Calixt's  Briefwechsel,  Halle,  1833  ;  id.  G.  Calixt  u. 
s.  Zeit.  Halle,  1853,  56.  2Bde.— H.  Schmid,  Gesch.  d.  synkr.  Streitigkk. 
Erlg.  1846.—  W.  Gass,  G.  Calixt  u.  d.  Synkr.  Brsl.  1847.)— The  univer- 
sity of  Helmstadt  followed  a  prevailingly  humanistic  tendency,  and 
allowed,  even  in  theology,  larger  liberty  of  views  than  was  granted  by 
the  Form  of  Concord,  which  the  city  had  not  accepted.  This  school 
produced,  and  for  43  years  (from  1613)  employed,  George  Calixtus,  a 
man  of  superior  scientific  and  social  accomplishments.  A  thorough 
study  of  Church  History,  and  intercourse  with  distinguished  theolo- 
gians of  all  Churches,  enjoyed  during  his  extensive  travels  in  Europe, 
had  begotten  in  him  not  only  an  irenical  turn  of  mind,  but  a  more 
liberal  judgment  of  foreign  Churches,  than  was  commonly  indulged. 
He  did,  indeed,  not  desire  a  formal  union  of  the  various  Churches,  but 
that  they  should  recognize,  tolerate,  and  love  each  other.  To  this  end 
he  proposed,  as  a  secondary  principle  of  Christian  theology  (next  to 
the  Holy  Scriptures  as  its  primary  principle),  the  concurrence  of  the 
first  five  centuries  (Consensus  quinquesecularis),  as  a  common  basis 
for  all  the  Churches,  and  sought  to  show  that  subsequent  diversities 

60* 


198         SECTION    III. — SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.  17    A.  D.)  . 

were  either  non-essential,  or  less  essential.  But  rigid  Lutheran  theolo- 
gians, who  were  mistrustful  of  all  irenical  measures,  ever  since  the 
trouble  with  crypto-Calvinism,  pronounced  this  a  religious  medley 
[syncretism),  ami  crypto-Catholicism.  As  early  as  1639,  Statins  lluscher, 
a  Hanoverian  clergyman,  denounced  him,  on  this  account,  as  a  secret 
papist.  His  efforts  were  more  generally  assailed,  after  he  attended  the 
Colloquy  of  Thorn  ($  33,  5),  as  the  assistant  of  the  Reformed  theolo- 
gians of  Brandenburg  (1645).  A  most  furious  controversy  arose,  which 
divided  the  entire  Lutheran  Church  into  two  parties.  On  the  one  side 
were  the  universities  of  Helmstadt  and  Konigsberg,  on  the  other  espe- 
cially the  theologians  of  electoral  Saxony,  with  Joltn  H'dlsemann,  in 
Leipsic,  Jacob  Wetter,  in  Dresden,  and  above  all,  Abr.  Calov,  in  Wit- 
tenberg, at  their  head  ;  Calov  alone  Avrote  2(3  controversial  tracts.  Jena 
sought  in  vain  to  mediate  between  the  parties.  The  Wittenbergers 
hoped  to  fortify  the  Lutheran  Church  by  a  new  symbol  (which,  how- 
ever, was  never  legally  ratified) :  Theologoruin  Saxonicorum  Consensus 
repetitus  fidei  vere  Lutheranse  (1655),  in  which,  among  other  things, 
they  rejected,  as  syncretistic  errors,  the  assertions,  that  the  Apostles' 
creed  taught  everything  necessary  to  salvation  ;  that  the  Catholic  and 
Reformed  Churches  had  not  disturbed  the  real  basis  of  the  doctrines 
of  grace;  that  original  sin  is  only  of  a  privative  nature,  that  God  is  in- 
directe,  improprie  et  par  accidens  the  cause  of  sin;  that  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity  was  first  clearly  revealed  in  the  New  Testament,  etc. 
Calixtus  died  in  the  midst  of  the  passionate  contentions.  But  his  son 
Vlrich,  who  possessed  neither  his  father's  spirit  nor  moderation,  took 
his  place.  The  strife  was  finally  swallowed  up  by  a  suit  for  damages 
(between  Ulr.  Calixtus  and  his  violent  antagonist  Strauch  in  Witten- 
berg), without  anything  important  having  been  gained  for  the  theology 
or  science  of  that  period.  Weary  of  this  barren  controversy,  the  atten- 
tion of  theologians  was  turned  to  the  pietistic  movement  which  now 
commenced  its  career. 

3.  TJie  Pietistic  Controversy  in  its  First  Stage.  (Cf.  C.H.v.  Canstcin, 
Muster  e.  rechtsch.  Lehrers  in  d.  Leb.  Spener's.  Halle,  1740. —  W. 
Hossbach,  Ph.  J.  Spener  u.  s.  Zeit.  2  A.  v.  Ch.  Schweder.  Berl.  1853.— 
C.  A.  Wildenhahn,  Leb.  Spener's;  in  d.  Sonntagsbibl.  4.  5.  Bielef 
1845.— H.  E.  F.  Guericke,  A.  H.  Francke.  Halle,~1827.— C.  F.  lllgen, 
Hist,  collegii  philobiblici  Lipsiensis.  4  Pp.  Lps.  1836-41. — Ph.  Spener, 
wahrhaft.  Erz'ahl.  (less.,  was  wegen  d.  s.  g.  Pietismi  in.  Deutsch.  vorgeg. 
Frkf.  K'i07. — Fr.  Buddeus,  wahrh.  u.  grlindl.  Erz'ahl.  alles  dess.  Avas 
zwischen  d.  s.  g.  Pietisten  gesch.  Jena,  1719.)  —  Philip  Jacob  Spener, 
of  Rappoltsweiler,  Elsace,  on  account  of  his  distinguished  talents  and 
rare  learning  (which  was  profound,  thorough,  and  comprehensive,  ex- 
tending even  beyond  the  sphere  of  theology  to  that  of  heraldry,  his- 
tory,  geography,  and  philosophy),  and  his  religious  zeal,  was  ehosen 
senior  of  the  eceles.  ministerium  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  in  his  31st 
year  (16G6),  then  chief  court-preacher  at  Dresden  (1686),  and,  having 


LUTHERAN  ORTHODOXY  AND  ITS  STRUGGLES.   199 

been  forced  to  leave  Dresden,  on  account  of  his  great  zeal  for  vital 
oiety,  finally  provost  in  Berlin  (1691),  where  he  died  in  1705.    He  was 
most  heartily  attached  to  the  Lutheran  Church,  but  believed  that  in 
adhering  to   its  then  prevalent  orthodoxy,  it  had  departed  from  the 
earnest  lively  gospel  of  the  Reformers,  and  was  in  danger  of  burying 
its  talent  in  a  sterile  theology  of  words,  and  dead  orthodoxy  ;  and  that 
it  therefore  greatly  needed  to  be  reformed  again.     As  he  discovered  in 
it  an  exuberance  of  pure  doctrine  and  the  most  vigorous  susceptibility 
to  exhibit  genuine  Christian  piety  above  all  other  Churches,  it  was  far 
from  his  thought  to  seek  the  powers  of  the  necessary  resuscitation  any- 
where else  than  in  that  Church  itself,  (i.e.,  in  unionistic  or  syncretistic 
schemes).     A  return  from  scholastic  theology  to  the  Holy  Scriptures 
as  the  living  source  of  all  saving  knowledge,  a  conversion  of  the  out- 
ward orthodox  confession  into  an  inner  living  theology  of  the  heart, 
and  a  demonstration  thereof  in  true  piety  of  life — these  were  the  ways 
and  means  by  which  he  proposed  to  effect  the  desired  reform.     In  his 
child-like,  pious  humility,  he  did  not  deem  himself  called  to  commence 
this  reform,  but  simply  regarded  it  as  his  duty  to  point  out  the  need 
of  it,  and  some  means  of  effecting  it.     This  was  done,  especially,  in 
his  (1078)  "  Pia  desideria  oder  herzliches  Yerlangen  nach  gottgefalli- 
ger  Besserung  d.  wahren  evangelischen  Kirche; "  and  as  his  chief 
concern  was  to  have  every  Christian  become  experimentally  acquainted 
with  practical  Christianity,  as  taught  in  the  Bible,  he  revived  the  well- 
nigh  forgotten  doctrine  of  "the  spiritual  priesthood"  of  all  Christians, 
in  a  special  work,  and  in  1G80  published  his  "Allgemeine  Gottesge- 
lahrtheit  aller  glaubigen  Christen   und   rechtschaffenen   Theologen." 
At  the  same  time  he  himself  engaged  in  the  work  by  holding  religious 
meetings  in  his  house   ( Collegia  jyietatis)  for  the  revival  of  genuine 
piety  in  the  congregation  ;  similar  meetings  were  soon  started  in  other 
places. 

Spener's  position  in  Dresden  gave  him  more  decided  and  extensive 
influence  over  the  Lutheran  Church.  Animated  by  his  spirit,  Avg. 
Herm.  Francke,  Paul  Anton,  and  John  Casp.  Schade,  three  young  ma- 
gisters  in  Leipsic,  began  in  1686  to  hold  Collegia  philobiblica,  exclu- 
sively for  mutual  edification  by  a  practical  exposition  of  the  Scriptures, 
in  German  (a  thing  unheard  of  at  the  universities).  But  the  theologi- 
cal faculty  of  Leipsic,  with  John  Bened.  Carpzov  at  their  head,  accused 
them  of  contempt  of  regular  public  worship  and  theological  science, 
and  of  promoting  separatism.  The  Collegia  philobiblica  were  prohibited, 
and  the  three  friends,  whose  movement  was  designated  Pietism  (an  effort 
to  make  display  of  extravagant  piety),  had  to  leave  Leipsic  (1690) ;  thus 
the  tedious  pietistic  controversies  began.  Soon  after  this,  Spener  was 
compelled  to  leave  Dresden  (1691),  but  in  his  new  position  in  Berlin  he 
acquired  decided  influence  in  the  appointment  of  professors  of  theology 
in  the  new  university,  which  the  pacific  Elector  Frederick  III.  of  Bran, 
denburg  founded  in  Halle,  in  opposition  to  the  contentious  institutions 


2U0        SECTION    III. SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.  17    A.  D.). 

at  Wittenberg  and  Leipsic,  and  the  organization  of  which  he  entrusted 
(1694)  to  the  jurist  Christian  Thomasius,  who  also  had  been  driven 
from  Leipsic  (on  account  of  his  indifferentism),  and  who  hud  in  Leipsic, 
already,  been  the  advocate  of  the  pietists.  In  connection  with  others 
of  like  sentiments  (Anton,  Breithaupt)  Francke  was  appointed  a  mem- 
ber of  the  theol.  faculty.  Halle  now,  for  a  time,  acquired  almost  the 
importance  which  Wittenberg  and  Geneva  possessed  in  the  period  of  the 
Reformation,  and  the  pietistic  controversy  entered  upon  its  second  more 
general  and  violent  stage  (cf.  \  46,  1). 

4.  Theological  Literature. — Solomon  Glassius  (prof,  in  Jena,  general- 
sup,  in  Gotha,  ob.  1656)  contributed  to  Biblical  philology,  his  Philolo- 
gia  sacra  (1623),  which  had,  for  nearly  two  centuries,  almost  classic 
authority.  Planned  upon  a  large  scale,  the  German,  Hebrew,  and 
Greek  concordance  of  the  Bible,  by  /.  Lankish  (of  which  only  the  first, 
German,  part  was  publ.  1677,  and  often)  was  an  invaluable  aid  in  the 
study  of  the  Bible.  From  about  1675-1700  a  lively  controversy  con- 
cerning the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament  was  kept  up,  in  which  the 
Lutherans  and  (chiefly)  the  Reformed  participated.  The  Purists  vio- 
lently contended  for  the  classical  purity  of  the  N.  T.  idiom,  because 
they  thought  the  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures  was  imperilled  by  the 
opposite  view.  Michael  Walther,  general-sup.  in  Celle,  issued  the  first 
hist,  critical  introduction  to  the  Bible  (officina  biblica,  Lps.  1636). 
Aug.  Pfeiffer,  of  Leipsic  (ob.  1698),  rendered  good  service  to  Bibl.  crit. 
and  Hermeneut.  by  his  critica  sacra  (1680),  and  his  Hermeneut.  s. 
(1684).  In  spite  of  its  servile  adherence  to  the  interpretation  of  dog- 
matic proof-texts,  traditionally  fixed,  and  its  mechanical  thejry  of  in- 
spiration, the  exegesis  was  valuable.  The  most  distinguished  exegetes 
were:  Erasmus  Schmidt  of  Wittenberg  [ob.  1637,  Opus  posthumum,  a 
Lat.  trans,  of  the  N.  T.  with  excellent  notes).  He  also  contributed  a 
very  useful  concordance  of  the  Greek  N.  T.,  entitled  Tapulov  (revised 
by  K.  H.  Bruder,  Lpz.  1841);  Theod.  Halcspan  of  Altdorf  [ob.  1659. 
Notoe  philol.  theol.  in  difficiliora  Scr.  s.  loca.  3  Pp.  1664)  ;  Martin  Geier, 
of  Leipsic  [ob.  1680,  an  excellent  comm.  on  Daniel  and  the  poet,  books 
of  the  0.  T.,  even  still  worthy  of  notice)  :  Seb.  Schmidt,  of  Strassburg 
(ob.  1696,  comm.  on  Joshua,  the  Judges,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  several 
of  Paul's  epp.)  ;  Aug.  Pfeiffer  (Dubia  vexata),  and  Abraham  Calov,  of 
Wittenberg  (ob.  1686,  Biblia  illustrata,  in  4  vols,  fob,  which  took  up 
and  improved  the  comm.  of  Grotius,  a  work  of  stupendous  labor,  bril- 
liant Biblical  knowledge,  and  profound  learning,  but  throughout  too 
subservient  to  dogmatics). — The  orthodox  school  gave  still  greater  dili- 
gence to  the  study  of  dogmatics,  the  Lutheran  fulness  and  depth  of 
which  was  developed  with  amazing  acuteness  and  brilliant  learning, 
in  a  strictly  scholastic  form.  Its  greatest  masters  are :  Leonard  Butter 
of  Wittenberg  (ob.  1616,  Loci  communes  theologici,  and  for  the  use  of 
schools,  Compendium  loc.  theol.)  ;  John  Gerhard,  prof,  at  Jena  (ob. 
1637,  Loci  theol.  in  9  vols.  fol.  1600,  etc.     The  best  ed.  with  notes  by 


LUTHERAN    ORTHODOXY    AND    ITS    STRUGGLES.       2lll 

i.  F.  Cotta,  Tiibg.  1762,  etc.,  22  vols.  4to.  It  is  the  opus  palmare  of 
Luth.  theology)  ;  and  /.  Andr.  Quenstedt  of  Wittenberg  (ob.  1G88, 
Theol.  didactico-polemica,  the  completion  of  Lutheran  scholasticism, 
in  its  lights  and  shadows).  Next  to  these  were:  Brochmand,  prof,  in 
Copenhagen  (ob.  1652,  Universse  theol.  systema)  ;  Conrad  Dannhauer, 
in  Strassburg  (ob.  1666,  Hodosophia  Christiana)  ;  Abr.  Calov  (Systema 
loc  theol.)  ;  Konig  in  Rostock  (ob.  1664,  Theol.  positiva  acroamatica)  ; 
Scherzer  in  Leipsic  (ob.  1683,  Systema  theol.)  ;  John  Mvsaus  in  Jena 
(ob.  1681)  ;  and  Raier  in  Halle  (ob.  1695).  The  most  prominent  theo- 
logian of  the  Calixtine  school  is  Conr.  Horneius  (Comp.  theol.)  Calix- 
tus  himself  did  not  publish  a  theol.  work,  but  his  lectures  were  printed. 
Ho,  also,  originated  the  division  subsequently  made  between  morala 
and  theology  (Epitome  th.  moralis).  John  Gerhard's  Confessio  Catho- 
lica  was  a  complete  refutation  of  Catholicism.  But  the  most  untiring 
controversialist  was  Abr.  Calov  (Hist,  syncretistica ;  Mataelogia  papis- 
tica ;  Socinianismus  profligatus ;  Consideratt.  Arminianismi ;  Theses 
de  Labadismo  ;  Anti-Boebmius  ;  Discussio  controversiarum  inter  eccle- 
sias  orthod.  et  reformatas,  etc.)  Nicholas  Hunnius,  son  of  iEgid.  H. 
(|  21,  10),  prof,  in  Wittenberg,  and  from  1623  superintdt.  in  Liibeck 
(ob.  1643),  was  also  distinguished  as  an  able  opponent  of  papism  (Dernon- 
stratio  ministerii  Lutherani ;  and  when  Lancelot,  an  Augustinian  of 
Mechlen,  fulminated  a  Capistrum  Hunni  against  him,  he  retorted  in 
his  Capistrum  Hunnio  paratum,  Lanceloto  injectum),  of  Socinianism 
(Examen  errorum  Photinianorum),  and  of  the  enthusiasts  (Christl. 
Betracht.  d.  neuen  Paracelsischen  u.  Weigilianischen  Theol.)  Of  chief 
importance  is  his  Aidaxstys  de  fundamentali  dissensu  doctrinee  Luth.  et 
Calvin,  s.  Reform.  His  Epitome  credendorum  or  Inhalt  d.  Christl, 
Lehre  reached  19  editions.  The  syncretistic  controversies  led  him,  in 
his  "  Consultatio,  oder  wohlmeinendes  Bedenken,"  to  devise  the  plan 
of  a  Collegium  irenicum  s.  pacificatorium  (Collegium  Hunnianum),  as 
a  permanent  theol.  senate  for  the  adjustment  of  all  theological  dis- 
putes. (Cf.  L.  Heller,  Nik.  Hunnius,  s.  Leben  u.  Wirken.  Liibeck, 
1843.)  Little  was  done,  in  the  nature  of  the  circumstances,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Church  History.  Nevertheless,  Rechenberg,  Kortholt,  Itlig, 
Sagittarius,  Veit  Ludw.  v.  Seckendorf,  deserve  to  be  named  for  their 
contributions  to  the  history  of  the  Reformation.  Calixtus,  however 
awakened  new  zeal  and  spirit  for  the  study  of  Church  History,  ana 
Gottfried  Arnold  of  Ciessen  (ob.  1714),  a  thoroughly  learned  investi- 
gator, but  so  violently  opposed  to  every  form  of  orthodoxy,  that  he 
could  not  find  true  Christianity,  since  the  4th  century,  anywhere  but 
among  sects,  separatists,  and  heretics,  threw  the  entire  theol.  world 
into  an  uproar,  b  7  his  Impartial  History  of  Churches  and  Heretics. 
(T,H,  2.)     (Cf.  ft  46,  2.) 


202       SECTION    III. —  SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.  17  A.  D.) 

I  39.  RELIGIOUS  LIFE  IN  THE  LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 

The  great  importance  which  the  Lutheran  Church  of  this  period 
attached  to  pure  doctrine  and  a  genuine  confession,  exposed  it 
to  the  danger  of  a  one-sided  over-estimation  and  externalization 
of  the  same  to  a  mere  dead  orthodoxy,  an  evil,  indeed,  which 
showed  itself  in  various  ways.  But  a  great  number  of  the  most 
excellent  and  learned  theologians,  who  recognized  the  influence 
of  pure  doctrine  upon  personal  piety,  as  well  as  the  necessity  of 
possessing  a  theology  of  the  heart,  and  of  maintaining  practical 
Christianity,  opposed  this  evil  tendency  in  a  conciliatory  but 
decided  manner  by  their  writings,  preaching,  and  pastoral  labors. 
During  this  whole  century,  but  especially  during  its  first  half, 
there  were  many  influential  advocates  of  a  noble  Lutheran  mys- 
ticism, which  harmonized  with  orthodoxy  both  in  faith  and 
knowledge,  and  only  opposed  its  threatening  or  actually  existing 
externalization  of  Christianity.  But  by  the  side  of  this  mysti- 
cism, we  find  that  separatism,  an  unchurchly  mysticism,  and  iheo- 
sophy,  broke  forth  as  excrescences,  or  caricatures  of  the  truth. 
Church  hymnology  acquired  a  new  life,  during  the  tribulations 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  but  after  that  gradually  lost  its  sublime 
objective  churchly  character,  for  which  the  fluent  rhyme,  the 
easy  style,  and  more  elegant  form,  were  only  a  feeble,  and  in 
part  questionable  substitute.  Church  music  was  correspondingly 
developed. 

1.  Mysticism  mid  Asceticism. — John  Arndt,  "  the  Fenelon  of  Luther- 
anism,"  stands  at  the  head  of  those  vigilant  and  faithful  servants  of  the 
Church,  who  strove  to  vindicate  the  inalienable  right,  and  urgent  duty 
of  the  Lutheran  Church  to  maintain  a  hearty  sincere  mysticism  over 
against  formal  orthodoxy,  which  had  allowed  justifying  faith  and  a 
correct  belief  to  degenerate  into  a  new  opus  operatum.  His  "  Sechs 
Bucher  vom  wahren  Christenthum,"  and  his  "  Paradiesgartlein,"  which 
have  been  translated  into  almost  every  living  tongue,  conferred  incal- 
culable blessings  both  upon  his  own  and  subsequent  generations  ;  upon 
himself,  however,  they  brought  great  reproach  and  hostility,  from  the 
advocates  of  a  malevolent  or  dead  orthodoxy.  He  died  in  1621,  whilst 
General-superintendent  in  Cede,  after  he  had  been  driven  from  Anhalt, 
as  a  confessor  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy,  for  refusing  to  denounce  exor- 
cism as  an  ungodly  superstition,  and  then  openly  accused  by  his  col- 
league Denecke  and  other  Lutheran  zealots  of  papism,  Calvinism, 
Osiandrianism,  Flacianism,  Schwenkfellianism,  Paracelscism,  Alchymy, 
etc.    (Cf.  F.  Arndt,  J.  Arndt.  Berl.  1838.— if.  L.  Pertz,  de  Job.  Arndtio 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE    IN    THE    LUTHERAN    CHURCH.       203 

Bjusque  libris  de  vero  Christ.  Hann.  1852,  4to.  Also,  the  lively  descrip 
iions  of  the  historically  faithful  romance  of  A.  Wildenhahn,  J.  A.  ein 
Zeitbild  aus  Braunschweigs  K.  u.  Stadtgesch.  Lpz.  1847,  2  Bde.)  Other 
successful  advocates  of  a  living  Christianity  are  met  with  in  the  great 
theologian  John  Gerhard,  of  Jena  (ob.  1637,  Meditationes  sacra?,  and 
Schola  pietatis  d.  i.  Christl.  u.  heils.  Untericht  v.  d.  Uebung  d.  wahren 
Gottseligk.)  ;  Stephen  Pratorius  of  Salzwedel  (ob.  1610,  Geistl.  Schatz- 
kammer)  ;  Herm.  Rathmann  of  Dantzig  (ob.  1628,  Jesu  Christi  Gnaden- 
reich,  cf.  J.  G.  V.  Engelhardt,  iib.  d.  Rahtmannschen  Streit,  in  the  hist, 
theol.  Ztschr.  1854,  1)  ;  Valerius  Herberger  of  Fraustadt  (ob.  1627,  Ev. 
Herzpostille  ;  Geistlich.  Trauerbinden  ;  Magnalia  Dei,  etc.)  ;  Heinrich 
Mailer  of  Rostock  (ob.  1675,  Ilimmlischer  Liebeskuss ;  Geistl.  Er- 
quickstunden,  etc.);  Christian  Scriver  (Geistl.  Seenlenschatz  ;  Siech- 
und  Siegesbette;  Gottholds  zufallige  Andachten),  Ahasverus  Fritsch, 
privy  councillor  and  chancellor  in  Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt  (ob.  1701, 
Christenthums  fragen),  Ph.  Jalc.  Snener  and  others.  Johann  Valentin 
Andrea  of  Wiirtemberg  (ob.  1654),  grandson  of  one  of  the  authors  of 
the  Form  of  Concord,  opposed  the  corruption  of  his  time,  by  writings 
mostly  satirical  and  allegorical,  in  an  entirely  original  and  genial 
manner,  which,  however,  on  account  of  its  originality,  was  often  mis- 
understood. Especially  was  his  allegory  of  the  union  of  the  cross  and 
the  rose  (as  symbols  of  Christianity  and  science)  in  the  society  of  the 
Rosicrucians,  grossly  misunderstood,  as  though  such  a  society  pos- 
sessed the  science  of  magical  arts, —  an  assumption  of  which  fanatics 
and  impostors  took  great  advantage  (Fama  fraternitas  Rosacea?  Crucis 
or  Briiderschaft  d.  hochlobl.  Ordens  d.  Rosenkr.  an  die  H'aupter,  St'ande 
u.  Gelehrten  Europas,  1614;  Confess,  u.  Bekenntniss  d.  Brudersch.  d. 
R.  Cr. ;  Menippus,  s.  dialogorum  satyric.  Centuria ;  Mythologia  christ. 
s.  de  virtut.  et  vitiis  hum.  vita? ;  Turris  Babel,  s.  Ros.  Crucis  chaos  ; 
Reipubliese  Christiana  politanse  descriptio  ;  Vera?  unionis  in  Chr.  J. 
specimen,  etc. ;  cf.  W.  Hossbach,  Val.  Andr.  u.  s.  Zeitalt.  Berl  1819  ) 
(Cf.  I  46,  6.) 

2.  Mysticism  and  Tlieosophy.  (Cf.  Fr.  Delitsch,  d.  Naturphilos. 
Mysticism,  innerh.  d.  luth.  K.  ;  in  the  Ztschr.  f.  Luth.  Theol.  1841,  III. 
—  Fr.  v.  Fuque,  Jac.  Bohme.  Greiz,  1821.—  W.  L.  Wullen,  J.  B.'s  Leben! 
u.  Lehre.     Stuttg.  1836.— A.  E.  Umbreit,  J.  B.  Heidelb.   1835.— Jul. 

Hambergcr,  d.  Lehre  d.  deutsch.  Philos.  J.  B.  Munich,  1844. H.  A. 

Fechner,  Jac.  B.  s.  Leben  u.  s.  Schriften.  Gorlitz,  1857.) — A  mystical 
tlieosophy,  though  much  despised,  partly  remained  within  the  limits 
of  outward  Church  union,  and  was  preserved  by  ecclesiastical  restraints 
from  grosser  theoretical  and  practical  errors,  and  partly  also  tore  loose 
from  the  Church  as  a  degenerate  Babel  (I  42,  1).  This  movement  re- 
ceived impetus  and  strength  from  the  works  of  Agrippa  and  Paracelsus 
upon  natural  philosophy  and  alchemy,  from  the  devotional,  mystical, 
and  theosophic  posthumous  works  of  Val.  Weigel,  and  above  all  from 
the  profornd  revelations  of  the  mighty  cobbler  of  Gorlitz,  Jacob  Bohme 


204       SECTION    III. SECOND    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.   17    A.  D.). 

(philosophus  teutonicus),  the  greatest,  most  profound,  and  most  inge- 
nious of  all  theosophists  who  ever  lived  —  a  man  who,  with  all  his  un- 
ehurchly  speculations,  nevertheless  in  his  life  sincerely  maintained 
true  piety,  and  faithfully  adhered  to  the  Lutheran  Church.  As  a  tra- 
velling journeyman,  already,  he  experienced  blessed  peace  for  seven 
days,  from  being  encompassed  by  a  divine  light.  But  he  dates  his 
fuller  theosophic  illumination  from  a  certain  moment  when,  as  a  young 
master,  just  married,  he  was  thrown  into  an  ecstacy  by  the  reflection 
of  the  sun  from  a  brightly  polished  pewter  plate,  and  beheld  the  mys- 
teries of  Deity,  even  to  the  last  principles  of  all  things,  so  as  to  discern 
their  inmost  quality.  His  theosophy,  like  ancient  Gnosticism,  starts 
with  the  question  concerning  the  origin  of  evil.  He  solves  it  by  as- 
suming an  emanation  of  all  things  from  God,  who  completely  attempers 
and  harmonizes  in  himself  fire  and  light,  the  quality  of  bitterness  and 
sweetness,  which  become  separated  in  the  creatures  emanating  from 
him,  but  are  reconciled  and  united  again,  to  godlike  harmony,  by  re- 
generation in  Christ.  In  speculative  power,  and  poetic  wealth,  exhi- 
bited with  epic  and  dramatic  effect,  his  system  surpasses  everything 
of  the  kind  ever  written.  His  works  (Aurora,  oder  die  Morgeurothe 
im  Aufgang ;  Mysterium  magnum,  a  sort  of  comm.  on  Genesis ;  Psy- 
chologia  vera ;  Der  Weg  zu  Christo ;  Yon  der  Gnadenwahl ;  Yon  d. 
heil.  Taufe  u.  d.  Abendmahl,  etc.)  were  published  by  Gichtel,  Amst. 
1G82,  2  Bde.  4to. ;  and  recently  by  K.  W.  ScMebler,  Lpz.  1831,  etc.,  6 
Bde.  The  blustering  fanaticism  of  Gregorius  Richter,  preacher  in 
Gbrlitz,  caused  Bohme  much  trouble,  for  at  his  instigation  B.  was 
banished  from  the  city,  after  the  publication  of  the  Aurora.  Subse- 
quently he  was  allowed  to  return,  on  giving  a  pledge  not  to  write  any 
more  books.  But  as  he  could  not  keep  this  promise,  the  angry  zeal  of 
his  ecclesiastical  superior  vented  itself  in  increased  seventy.  Abr. 
Culov,  also,  entered  the  lists  as  a  watchman  of  Zion,  against  the  fana- 
ticism of  the  GiJrlitz  cobbler  ( Anti-Boehmius,  etc.),  whilst  in  the  Dres- 
den consistorium  he  found  a  favorable  judgment  and  forbearing  tolera- 
tion. Bohme  died  in  the  arms  of  his  family  in  Gbrlitz,  after  having 
long  banished  himself  from  his  native  place  (1G24).  Gottfr.  Arnold 
(oh.  1714),  for  a  time  prof,  at  Giessen,  sustained  an  intimate  relation 
to  the  Bbhmists,  separatists,  and  pietists,  and  yet  fell  out  with  all  of 
them.  In  several  writings  he  described  in  a  fanciful  way,  martyrdom, 
marriage,  and  the  entire  life  of  the  first  Christians,  wrote  and  sung 
about  the  mysteries  of  the  divine  Sophia  (when  Adam,  originally  a 
man-woman,  fell,  his  female  nature,  the  heavenly  Sophia,  was  taken 
from  him,  and  instead  of  it  a  carnal  woman  was  formed  out  of  his  rib), 
reviled  tin-  orthodoxy  of  all  ages  and  churches,  and  canonized  all 
heretics.  But  notwithstanding  all  this,  he  remained  externally  in  the 
Lutheran  communion,  and  even  entered  the  ministry  in  that  Church. 
(Cf.  I  42,  4.) 

3.   Church  Hymns. — The  first  period  of  its  development  in  this  cen- 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE    OF    THE    LUTHERAN    CHURCH.       205 

lary,  embraces  that  of  the  Thirty  Years'  war  (1618-48).  David's 
Psalms  become  the  model  and  type  of  the  poets,  and  the  most  earnest 
hymns  of  comfort  in  trouble,  of  imperishable  value,  spring  from  the 
trials  of  the  times.  This,  of  course,  caused  prominence  to  be  given  to  the 
personal  element.  The  influence  of  Opitz  is  also  seen  in  Church  hymns, 
inasmuch  as  more  care  is  given  to  precision  and  purity  of  language,  as 
well  as  to  a  fluent  and  pleasing  measure.  Instead  of  the  expressive 
brevity,  and  vigorous  terseness  of  earlier  times,  we  meet  with  a  certain 
cordial  expansion  and  enlargement  of  the  thought.  As  deserving  spe- 
cial prominence,  we  name:  the  pious  sufferer  John  Heerman,  pastor  in 
the  principality  of  Glogau  (ob.  1647),  who  composed  400  hymns,  in- 
cluding: "  Herzliebster  Jesu,  was  hast  du  verbrochen;"  "  Frlih  Mor- 
gens,  da  die  Sonn  aufsteht;"  "  So  wahr  ich  lebe,  spricht  dein  Gott;" 
"  Wo  soil  ich  fliehen  hin  ; "  "0  Gott,  du  frommer  Gott ;  "  "  Zion  klagt 
mit  Angst,  u.  Schmerzen  ; "  "  Gottlob,  die  Stund  ist  kommen  ; "  etc. — 
Heinr.  Held,  a  Silesian  lawyer  (ob.  1643),  "Gott  sey  dank  durch  alle 
Welt;"  —  Paul  F lemming,  in  Voigtland,  a  physician  (ob.  1640),  "In 
alien  meinen  Thaten,"  written  on  a  journey  to  Persia  ; — Matth.  Meyffart, 
prof,  and  pastor  in  Erfurt  (ob.  1642),  "Jerusalem,  du  hochgebaute 
Stadt;" — Martin  Rinkart,  pastor  at  Eilenberg  in  Saxony  (ob.  1648), 
"Nun  danket  alle  Gott;" — Apelles  v.  Lbwenstern  (ob.  1648),  "  Christe, 
du  Beistand  deiner  Kreuzgemeine  ; " — Joshua  Stegmann,  superintendent 
in  Rinteln  (ob.  1632),  "Ach  bleib  mit  deiner  Gnade;" — Joshua  Wege- 
lin,  minister  in  Augsburg  and  Presburg,  "Auf  Christi  Himmelfahrt ; " 
— David  Denicke,  consistorial  councillor  in  Hanover  (ob.  1680),  "  Wir 
Menschen  sind  zu  dem,  O  Gott;" — Just.  Gesenius,  superint.  in  Hanover 
(ob.  1673),  "  Wen n  meine  Slind  mich  krilnken;" — Tob.  Clausnitzer, 
pastor  in  the  Palatinate  (ob.  1648),  "  Liebster  Jesu  wir  sind  hier,  dich 
und  dein."  —  The  poets  just  named  belong  mostly  to  the  first  Silesian 
school,  which  gathered  around  Opitz.  Joint  Hist  (preacher  in  Holstein 
ob.  1667)  occupies  an  independent  position,  though  he  too  was  some- 
what influenced  by  Opitz.  He  wrote  658  spiritual  songs,  many  of  which 
are  remarkable  for  vivacity,  solemnity,  and  elevated  thought ;  "Auf, 
auf,  ihr  Reiehsgenossen,"  "  Ermuntre  dich,  mein  schwacher  Geist," 
"Jesu,  der  du  meine  Seele,"  "  Du  Lebensflirst,  Herr  Jesu  Christ," 
"O  Trauerigkeit,  O  Ilerzeleid,"  "  Werde  munter,  mein  Gemlithe." 
"0  Ewigkeit,  du  Donnerwort,"  etc.  —  At  the  head  of  the  cotempora- 
neous  Kbnigsburg  school  stood :  Simon  Dach,  prof,  of  poetry  in  Konigsb. 
(ob.  1658),  who  composed  150  religious  poems,  including:  "O  wie 
selig  seid  ihr  doch,  ihr  Frommen,"  etc.  Distinguished  among  his  co- 
temporaries  were :  Henry  Alberti,  organist  in  Konigsburg  (ob.  1668), 
"Gott  des  Ilimmels  und  der  Erde,"  etc. —  Val.  Thilo,  prof,  of  elocution 
in  Konigsb.  (ob.  1662),  "  Mit  Ernst,  ihr  Menschenkinder ;" — George 
Weissel,  minister  in  Konigsb.  (ob.  1655),  "  Macht  hoch  die  Thlir," 
«'  Such  wei  da  will." 

From  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  hymns  assumed  more  and 
61 


206       SECTION    111   —SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.  17   A.  D.). 

more  of  a  subjective  character,  which  gave  rise  to  a  great  diversity  of 
style  and  classes.     The  Church  no  longer  sings  in  the  words  of  the 
poet,  but  the  poet  makes  his  own  feelings  and  state  of  mind  predomi- 
nate.    Confessional  hymns  became  more  rare,  and  those  of  a  purely 
edifying  character,  having  reference  to  various  events  in  life,  death, 
suffering,  consolation,  the  family,  became  more  numerous.     Thus,  as 
the  objective  feature  is  given  up,  one  characteristic  of  true  Church 
hymns  disappears  from  the  religious  poetry  of  this  period.     And  yet 
some  essential  marks  still  remain,  such  as  a  popular  form  and  matter, 
freshness,  vivacity,  and  a  naive  style,  the  reality  of  personal  experience, 
and  full  assurance  of  faith,  etc.     Even  subjective  individual  feelings 
and  frames  still  spring  from  the  soil  of  a  churchly  faith,  and  are  firmly 
and  immovably  rooted  therein.     Thus  then   the  best  hymns  of  this 
period  are  still  Church-hymns,  and  bear  upon  their  brow  the  impress 
of  immortality.     The  poets  of  this  period  form  three  classes:   (1.)  The 
transition  group  from  objectivity  to  subjectivity.     The  great  master  of 
this  class,  and   next   to    Luther   the   greatest   religious   poet  of  the 
evangelical  church  in  general,  is  Paul  Gerharilt,  the  faithful  confes- 
sor of  Luther  in  suffering  and  persecution  ($  34,  4).     In  him  the  new 
subjective  tendency  exhibits   itself  in  its  noblest,   purest,  and  most 
vigorous  form.     And  by  its  side  we  also  discover  the  old  objective  ten- 
dency, with  its  direct  Church-consciousness  and  immovable  faith,  with 
its  noble,  vigorous  popular  character,  in   all   the  fullness  and  vigor 
of  Luther,  and,  as  to  form,  even  more  perfect.     His  120  hymns,  if  not 
all   Church-hymns   in   the   narrower    sense,  are   nevertheless   choice 
hymns  of  the  finest  gold   (ex  gr.   "  Wie  soil  ich  dich  empfangen," 
"Frohlich  soil  mein  Herze  springen,"  "  Wir  singen  dir  Immanuel," 
"  Nun  lasst  uns  gehen  und  treten,"  "  Ein  L'ammlein  geht  und  tr'agt," 
."  0  Haupt  voll  Blut  und  Wunden,"  "  0  Welt,  sieh  hier  dein  Leben," 
"Sei   frohlich  alles  weit  und  breit,"   "Ich  singe  dir  mit  Herz  und 
Mund,"   "  Befiehl  du  deine  Wege,"   "  Gieb  dich   zufrieden,"    "  Nun 
ruhen  alle  Walder,"  "  Geh  aus,  mein  Herz,  und  suche  Freud,"  etc.) 
To  this  class  belong,  furthermore,  William  II.,  Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar 
lob.  1662,  "Herr  Jesu  Christ,  dich  zu  uns  wend") ;—  Geo.  Neumarh, 
Librarian    in  Weimar    {ob.  1681,    "  Wer   nur   den   lieben  Gott  lasst 
walten"); —  Christian  Keymann,  rector  in  Zittau  {ob.  1663,  "Meinen 
Jesum  lass  ich  nicht") ; — John  Franc];,  burgomaster  of  Guben,  Lausa- 
tia  {ob.  1677),  next  to  Paul  Gerhardt  the  greatest  poet  of  this  period, 
composer  of  110  hymns,  less  popular  and  cordial,   but  more  soaring 
than  Gerhardt.     ("Heut  ist  uns  dor  Tag  erschienen,"  "Jesu  meine 
Freude,"  "  Schmucke  dich,  O  Hebe  Seele,"  "Unsre  mliden  Augenli- 
der,"  etc.); —  Christopher  Hamburg,  actuary  in  Naumburg  {ob.  1681, 
"Jesu,  meines  Lebens  Leben") ;—  Geo.  Albinus,  pastor  in  Naumburg 
(ob.  1679,  "  Straff  mich  nicht  in  deinem  Zorn,"  "Alle  Menschen  niussen 
sterben") ;— Mich.  Schirmer,  conrector  in  Berlin  {ob.  1673,  "0  heilger 
Geist,  kehi  bci  uns  ein").  — (2.)   The  next  class  of  hymns  is  rather 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE    OF    THE    LUTHERAN    CHURCH.        207 

moulded  after  the  Canticles  than  the  Psalms.  The  chief  theme  is  the 
spousal  relation  of  the  soul  to  Christ.  Feeling  and  fancy  become  pre- 
dominant, and  sometimes  degenerate  into  sentimentalism  and  puerility. 
This  tendency  received  a  new  impulse  by  a  conjunction  of  the  n^stical 
contemplative  element  with  it.  To  it  belong  :  Sigm.  v.  Birchen  (Betu- 
lius,  ob.  1668,  "  Lasset  uns  mit  Jesu  ziehen")  ; —  Christopher  Weglei- 
ter,  prof,  and  preacher  in  Altdorf  (ob.  1706,  "  Beschwertes  Herz,  leg  ab 
die  Sorgen")  ; — Mich.  Franck,  chief  baker,  then  preceptor  in  Coburg 
(ob.  1667,  "  Gen  Himmel  aufgefahren  ist")  ; — Angelas  Silesius  (\  36,  1), 
the  chief  poet  of  this  class,  who  wrote,  as  Protestant,  many  admirably 
sweet  hymns  ("Mir  nach  spricht  Christus,  unser  Held,"  "  Der  am 
Kreuz  ist  meine  Liebe,"  "  Ich  will  dich  lieben,  meine  Starke,"  "Liebe, 
die  du  mich  zum  Bilde,"  etc.) ; — next  to  these,  Christian  Knorrv.  Rosen- 
roth,  died  in  Sulzbach  (1689)  ("  Morgenglanz  der  Ewigkeit")  ; — • 
Ludamilie  Elizabeth,  Countess  of  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  (ob.  1672, 
composer  of  215  precious  hymns  to  Jesus  :  "  Zeuch  uns  nach  dir  ")  etc. ; 
—  Caspar  Neumann,  prof,  and  pastor  at  Breslau  (ob.  1715,  "  Gottes  und 
Mariens  Sohn").  —  (3.)  The  cotemporaries  and  congenial  friends  of 
Spener,  men  who  longed  for  a  resuscitation  of  practical  piety  in  the 
Church.  Their  hymns  are  pervaded  by  a  healthy  and  sincere  piety. 
Spener's  effusions  are  of  small  importance.  /.  Jac.  Schiilz,  Spener'a 
friend,  a  counsellor-at-law  in  Frankfurt  (ob.  1690),  composed  only  one, 
but  an  important  hymn  ("  Sei  Lob  und  Ehr"); — Ad.  Drese,  chapel- 
master  in  Weimar  (ob.  1718,  three  hymns,  "  Seelenbr'autigam,"  etc.)  ;— 
Sam.  Eodigast,  rector  in  Berlin  (ob.  1708,  "  Was  Gott  thut,  das  ist 
wrohlgethan") ;  —  Laurentius  Laurentii,  director  of  music  in  Bremen 
(ob.  1722,  "  Wach  auf  mein  Herz,  die  Nacht  ist  hin"); —  Cyriacus 
Gilnther,  gymnasial  teacher  in  Gotha  (ob.  1704,  "  Halt  im  Ged'achtuiss 
Jesum  Christ"); — Gottfr.  Arnold  (ob.  1714,  "O  Durchbrecher  aller 
Bande").     (Cf.  §46,  4.) 

4.  Music.  —  Simultaneously  with  the  change  effected,  through  the 
influence  of  Opitz,  in  the  style  and  character  of  Church  hymns,  a  cor- 
responding change  took  place  in  Church  music,  through  the  influence 
of  the  new  Italian  school.  Here  also,  as  in  the  case  of  hymnology, 
we  may  discover  a  transition  period,  which  retained  the  essential  ex- 
cellencies of  the  old  style,  but  was  ready,  also,  to  adopt  the  more 
elegant  and  polished  form,  as  well  as  the  subjective  emotionalism  of 
the  new  style,  impressing  it  with  the  fervor  and  energy  of  the  German 
evangelical  spirit.  The  first  prominent  master  of  this  transition-stage 
is  John  Herm.  Schein,  cantor  at  the  St.  Thomas  school  in  Leipsic  (ob. 
1630).  Still  more  prominent  than  he  was  John  Criiger,  cantor  at  the 
Church  of  St.  Nicholas,  Berlin  (ob.  1662).  He  did  for  music  what  Paul 
Gerhardt  did  for  hymnology.  He  composed  71  new  tunes,  full  of  the 
energy  of  faith,  and  tender  fervor,  adapted  to  Gerhardt's,  Heerman's, 
J.  Frmck's,  Dach's,  Rinkart's,  etc.,  hymns,  and  his  tunes  held  their 
place  in  the  Church  until  the  period  of  illumination.     Next  to  him  we 


208   SECTION  III.  —  SECOND  PERIOD  (CENT.  17  A.  D.). 

must  name:  Jarob  Eintze  in  Berlin  (06.  1G95)  ;  John Ebelinj,  Criiger's 
successor  as  cantor,  who  composed  tunes  for  Gerhardt's  120  hymns  , 
John  Schop,  leader  of  a  hand  in  Hamburg  (ob.  1GG0),  who  composed 
lively  popular  tunes  to  the  host  of  Rist's  hymns;  and  Thorn.  Selle, 
town  cantor  in  Hamburg  (ob.  1663),  also  an  excellent  singer  of  Rist's 
hymns. 

In  the  second  half  of  the  17th  century,  the  modern  style  gained  a 
decided  preponderance  over  the  antique  method.    Musical  declamation, 
and  expression  suited  to  the  words,  prevail ;  rythmical  irregularities 
and  the  old  churchly  tunes  disappear  before  a  regular  measure,  and 
modern  softer  tunes  ;  so  that  psalmody  becomes  wholly  alienated  from 
its  original  vital  element,  as  popular  singing.    Religious  concert  music, 
which  contained  no  reminiscent  traces  even  of  the  old  Church  melodies, 
and  despised  the  form  of  hymns  and  strophes,  was  more  constantly 
cultivated.     Thus  the  congregation  wholly  ceased  taking  part  in  the 
singing.     Among  the  masters  of  this  concert  style,  in  Italian  fashion, 
Eeinrich  Schiitz,  master  of  the  chapel  of  electoral  Saxony  (ob.  1G72)  was 
distinguished.     lie  was  the  first  to  transplant  to  Germany  the  new 
artificial  form,  by  elaborating  single  passages  from  the  Psalms,  Canti- 
cles, and  the  Prophets,  into  religious  harmony  ("  Symphomiae  sacrae," 
1629)  ;  and  in  these  he  entirely  set  aside  the  old  popular  Church  tunes. 
But  some  time  elapsed  (forming  the  transition  stage  already  spoken  of), 
before  so  radical  a  reform  could  naturalize  itself.     This  was  effected  by 
John  Rosenmuller,  leader  of  a  band  in  Wolfenb'uttel  (06.  1G8G),  who 
published  "  Kernsprliche  aus  heiliger  Schrift  Alten  u.  Neuen  Testa- 
ments," in  concert  style.  A  reaction  against  the  exclusive  predominance 
of  the  Italian  fashion,  and  the  unchurching  influence  of  artificial  reli- 
gious music,  was   introduced   by  Andr.  Hammerschmidt,  organist  in 
Zittau  (1G75),  one  of  the  noblest  and  most  pious  composers  of  the 
German  nation.     By  interweaving  old  Church  melodies  with  religious 
symphony, the  old  style  of  psalmody  was  combined  with  the  new  artifi- 
cial style,  somewhat  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue.     The  origin  of  arias  is 
closely  connected  with  this  last  movement,  since,  instead  of  the  inter- 
woven old  Church  melodies,  suitable  and  stirring  artificial  tunes,  ac- 
cording to  the  new  taste,  were  invented  for  the  hymns  of  cotemporaneous 
poets.     The  excellent  composer  Rud.  Aide,  organist  and  burgomaster 
in  Miihlhauscn  (ob.  1G73),  must  be  regarded  as  the  proper  author  of 
the  aria  style.    He  introduced  his  own  agreeable  arias  into  the  regular 
Lord's  day    and   festival    services.    By  being  frequently  repeated,  the 
pleasant  ornate  sounds  impressed  themselves  upon  the  memory  of  all 
that  heard  them,  so  that  they  were  soon  adopted  in  the  congregational 
singing.     His  religious  arias,  besides  appropriating  all  the  ornaments 
of  the  modern  stylo,  are  distinguished  by  their  youthful  freshness  and 
vigor,  breathe  a  holy  earnestness,  and  are  still  free  of  the  secularization 
and  playful  trivialities  into  which  the  aria  style  soon  fel  .     Next  to 
Able,  mention  must  be  made  of  Peter  Sohr,  schoolmaster  in  Elbing, 


UEFORMED     THEOLOGY     AND     IIS     CONFLICTS.         209 

many  of  whos  arial  tunes  passed  into  Church  use.  As  the  massive, 
grand  fnrms  o  the  old  melodies  by  this  time  already  appeared  too  hard 
and  irregular.  Wolfg.  Charles  Briegel,  cantor  at  Gotha,  undertook  to 
modify  them  (1G87),  so  as  to  suit  the  altered  taste  of  the  times.  John 
Pachelbel,  organist  in  Nuremberg  (ob.  1706),  the  greatest  performer  or 
his  day,  belongs  to  this  tendency  as  a  composer.     (Of.  \  46,  5.) 

5.  Christian  Life.  —  Notwithstanding  numerous  orthodoxistic  and 
separatists  excrescences,  the  religious  poetry  of  this  period  furnishes 
brilliant  testimony  concerning  the  fulness,  depth,  and  fervor  of  the 
religious  life  of  the  period.  And  an  abundance  of  excellent  devotional 
books,  of  imperishable  value,  as  well  as  popular  expositions  (especially 
that  of  Ernesti,  Nuremb.  1G41)  of  the  Bible,  afford  proof  of  pastoral 
fidelity  and  zeal,  as  well  as  of  the  favor  with  which  these  attentions 
were  received  by  the  Lutheran  people.  Ernest  the  Pious,  of  Saxe-Gotha, 
appears  almost  an  ideal  of  a  Christian  prince  (ob.  1675,  cf.  /.  Gelbke, 
Herzog  E.  d.  Fr.  1810,  3  Bde.)     (Cf.  §  46,  6.) 

6.  Missions.  —  The  missionary  efforts  of  the  Lutheran  Church  are 
still  limited  to  their  relatively  low  level.  Gustavtis  Adolphus,  of  Swe- 
den, however,  prosecuted  the  Lapland  mission  with  increased  zeal,  and 
Denmark,  also,  cheerfully  aided"  in  the  work.  A  Norwegian  clergy- 
man, Thomas  von  Westen  (ob.  1727),  may.  on  account  of  his  efficient 
zeal,  be  called  the  apostle  of  this  mission  (completed  more  recently  by 
Stoclcjleth.—Qf.  A.  G.  Rudetbach,  d.  finnisch-lappische  Mission  u.  Thorn, 
v.  Westen,  in  A.  Knapp's  Christoterpe,  1833).  Peter  Heyling,  a  German 
of  Liibeck,  went  as  a  missionary  to  Abyssinia  (1635),  and  several  of 
his  friends  went  to  other  countries  of  the  East,  at  the  same  time,  and 
for  a  similar  purpose.  Of  the  latter  nothing  was  ever  heard.  But  an 
Abyssinian  abbot  who  visited  Europe,  brought  tidings  of  Heyling. 
At  first  he  was  opposed  by  the  machinations  of  the  Jesuits.  As  soon, 
however,  as  they  were  driven  off,  he  gained  access  to  the  court,  became 
minister  to  the  king,  one  of  whose  relatives  he  married.  The  ultimate 
fate  of  him  and  his  mission  is  unknown. 


IV.  THE  REFORMED  CHURCH. 
§  40.  REFORMED   THEOLOGY   AND  ITS   CONFLICTS. 

Theological  science  flourished  in  the  Reformed  Church  during 
the  17th  century,  to  an  unexampled  degree.  The  contributions 
to  Biblical  philology,  to  antiquarian  and  historical  researches, 
were  especially  remarkable.  The  Reformed  theologians  of  France 
sought  to  out-rival  the  Maurines  and  Oratorians  of  that  country, 
and  those  of  the  Netherlands,  England,  and  Switzerland,  sought 
61* 


210     SECTION    III. —  SECOND    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.  17   A.  D.). 

to  keep  up  with  the  reputation  for  learning  acquired  by  their 
French    brethren.     But   a   union  of  the    Reformed    Churches 
of   different  countries,  in   faith  and  confession,  and   by  means 
of  general  synods,  failed  at  the  first   attempt  to  affect  it,  in 
Dort.     Opposition  to  Calvin's  rugged  doctrine  of  predestination 
started  a  Pelagianizing  current  in  the  Reformed  Chinch,  which 
carried  with  it  others  besides  ex  professo  Arminians.     In  Eng- 
land this  opposition  found  its  expression  in  latitudiriarianism, 
and,  still  worse,  in  deism  (§  43,  2).     In   France  it  took  a  more 
moderate  course,  and    led,  in  several  respects,  to  an  approxima- 
tion to  the  Lutheran  doctrine.      In  general,  however,  all  these 
movements  are  to  be  regarded  as  a  reaction  of  Zwinglianism, 
which,  though  repelled,  had  not  been  overcome  by  Calvinism. 
The  intrusion   of  the   Cartesian  philosophy  into  the  Reformed 
Church,  was  successfully  resisted  by  Voetius-;  but  then  a  scholas- 
ticism obtained  the  ascendancy,  in  comparison  with  which  that 
of  Quenstedt  is  only  child's  play.     In  opposition  to  it  the  federal 
theology  of  Cocceius  forced  its  way  back  to  the  Scriptural  life- 
source,  and   to   a  certain  extent  corresponds  with  the   pietislic 
movement. 

1.  The  Arm  in  inn  Controversy.  (Cf.  /.  Regenboog,  Hist.  d.  Remon- 
stranten.  From  the  Dutch,  Lemgo,  1781,  2  Bde. — M.  Graf,  Betr.  zur 
Gesch.  d.  Syn.  v.  Dordr.  Bas.  1S25.  [Herzog's  Encycl.  Philad.  1860, 
articles  Arminius,  Dort]). — Calvin's  dogma  of  absolute  predestination 
(which  even  the  German  Reformed  Church  evaded,  or  softened  down), 
produced  in  the  Netherlands  a  passionate  controversy,  which  ended  in 
the  split  of  the  Netherland  Reformed  Church.  In  the  16th  century, 
already,  the  milder  view  of  the  infralapsarians,  who  held  that  the  act 
of  predestination  followed  the  fall,  was  set  up  in  opposition  to  that  of 
the  stricter  Calvinists,  who  maintained  that  God  had  passed  that  act, 
before  the  fall,  and  who  were  therefore  called  supralapsarians.  Drawn 
into  this  controversy,  James  Arminius,  prof,  in  Leyden  since  1603,  be- 
came more  and  more  convinced,  that  the  dogma  of  an  absolute  predes- 
tination was  anti-scriptural,  but  then  wandered  into  Pelagian  paths. 
His  colleague,  Francis  Gomarus,  violently  opposed  him.  The  conflict 
soon  became  so  bitter  and  general,  that  the  Holland  States  supposed 
they  would  have  to  interfere.  A  religious  colloquy  proved  the  more 
fruitless,  as  Arminius  died  during  its  progress  (1609).  The  States, 
favoring  the  Arminians.  declared  the  differences  non-essential,  and 
enjoined  peace.  Simon  Episcopius,  from  161]  prof,  in  Leyden,  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  Arminian  party.  But  as  the  Arminians 
were  continually  reproached  and  assailed  by  the  Gomarists  as  Pela- 
gians, they  laid  a  Remonstrance  before  the  States  (1610),  which,  in  live 


REFORMED     THEOLOGY     AND     ITS     CONFLICTS.        211 

articles,  set  forth  a  carefully  restricted  semipelagianism.  Thenceforth 
they  were  called  Remonstrants,  their  opponents  Contra- Remonstrants. 
There  were  influential  men  on  the  side  of  the  Arminians,  including 
the  syndic  Oldenbarneveld,  and  Hugo  G rot  i  us,30  distinguished  as  a  jurist, 
humanist,  and  theologian,  —  heads  of  the  liberal,  republican  party. 
The  Stadtholter  Maurice  of  Orange,  on  the  other  hand,  took  part  with 
the  Gomarists,  in  order  by  their  influence  to  pave  his  way  to  the  throne. 
By  a  master-stroke  he  succeeded  in  overpowering  the  leaders  of  the 
opposing  party.  It  was  ordered  that  the  religious  controversy  should 
be  decided  by  a  general  Synod  at  Dort  (1618-19).  An  invitation  to 
attend  was  extended  to  theologians  of  all  Reformed  countries,  and  28 
foreigners  were  present.  The  synod  held  154  sessions.  The  result 
could  be  foreseen.  The  doctrine  of  the  Remonstrants  was  rejected, 
absolute  predestination  was  established  anew  as  a  doctrine  of  the 
Church,  but  the  infralapsarian  view  was  allowed.  Remonstrant  con- 
gregations were  not  tolerated  in  Holland  until  1630  (after  the  death  of 
Maurice).  Their  original  semipelagianism,  however,  gradually  dege- 
nerated into  decided  Pelagianism.  Concerning  the  Collegiants,  see 
I  42,  1. 

2.  Effects  of  the  Arminian  Controversy.  —  The  canons  of  Dort  were 
by  no  naeans  received  by  all  the  Reformed  Churches.  In  Germany, 
Brandenburg,  Hesse,  and  Bremen,  expressly  and  decidedly  refused 
assent  to  them.  The  tempered  Calvinism  of  the  Heidelberg  Catechism, 
and  the  Confessio  Marchica,  continued  to  prevail  there,  with  more  or 
less  sympathy  for  Arminianism.  In  England  and  Scotland  spirited 
efforts  were  made  by  the  Presbyterians  to  secure  the  ascendancy  of 
Dort,  whilst  the  Episcopal  Church  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  it, 
and,  from  its  aversion  to  exclusive  Calvinism,  gave  place  to  latitudina- 
rian  tendencies,  which  allowed  the  distinction  of  essential  and  non- 
essential articles  of  faith,  and  thus  largely  fell  into  a  state  of  lukewarm- 
ness  and  indifferentism.  The  most  distinguished  latitudinarians  of  this 
period  are:  William  Chillingworth  (ob.  1644),  who  became  disgusted 
with  the  theological  collisions  of  his  Church,  and  took  refuge  in  Catho- 
licism, but  soon  discovered  his  mistake,  retraced  his  steps,  and  sought 
and  found  true  peace  in  the  Word  of  God  alone.  (Cf.  A.  Neander, 
Erinn.  an  Wil.  Ch.  Berlin,  1832.—  [The  works  of  Ch.,  etc.,  Phikd., 
1841]);  the  renowned  pulpit  orator,  John  Tillotson,  Archb.  of  Cant. 
(ob.  1694);  Gilb.  Burnet  (ob.  1715),  author  of  a  Hist,  of  the  Ref.  etc., 
and  others.  —  The  French  reformed  Church  remained,  in  general,  true 
to  strict  Calvinistic  orthodoxy,  although  several  of  its  esteemed  theolo- 
gians strove  to  soften  down  the  sharp  points  of  the  predestinarian 
system.  Thus  Moses  Amyraulf,  prof,  at  the  Ref.  acad.  of  Saumur  (ob. 
1664),  who  proposed  the  doctrine  of  a  universalismus  hypotheticus, 
which  taught  that  God  had  determined  by  a  Decretum  universale  et 
hypotheticum  to  save  all  men  (even  the  heathen  on  the  ground  of  a 
fides  implicita)  through  Jesus  Christ,  on  condition  of  faith,  to  effect 


212      SECTION   III SECOND   PERIOD   (CENT.  17   A.D.). 

which  gratia  resistibilis  is  given  to  all,  whilst,  in  consequence  of  a 
decretum  absolutum  et  speciale,  only  the  elect  receive  gratia  irresisti- 
bilis.  (Traite  de  la  predestination,  1634).  Two  French  synods,  at 
Alencon  (1637)  and  Charenton  (1644),  pronounced  this  doctrine  to  be 
admissible,  and  many  highly  respected  theologians  {Dav.  Blondel,  Jean 
DailU,  and  /.  Claude)  defended  it.  Others,  however,  [Pet.  du  Moulin 
in  Sedan,  Andr.  Rivet,  and  Fr.  Spanheim  in  Lcyden,  Sam.  Maresius 
in  Groningen),  assailed  it  most  violently  (cf.  A.  Schwcizer,  Mos.  Amy- 
raldus,  in  the  Tub.  Jahrbb.  1852,  I.)  Amyrald's  colleague,  Joshua 
de  la,  Place  (Placasus,  ob.  1655)  went  still  further,  and  denied  the  un- 
conditional imputation  of  Adam's  sin,  and  regarded  original  sin  only 
as  an  evil  which  does  not  involve  guilt  until  actual  sin  has  been  com- 
mitted. The  synods  above  named  condemned  this  doctrine.  Some 
time  afterwards,  Claude  Pagon,  at  Saumur  (ob.  1685),  excited  a  lively 
controversy  by  a  declaration  which  pointed  to  universal  grace,  affirm- 
ing that  all  the  operations  of  Divine  providence  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
were  designed  to  eifect  man's  conversion,  the  former  by  the  events  of 
life,  the  latter  by  means  of  the  Word  of  God.  A  number  of  French 
synods  condemned  this  doctrine,  and  affirmed  an  immediate,  as  well 
as  a  mediate  operation  of  the  Holy  Spirit  and  of  providence  (cf.  Al. 
Schweizer,  d.  Pajonismus,  in  the  tiibg.  Jahrbb.  1853,  I.)  —  In  Switzer- 
land, genuine  Calvinism  was  most  rigidly  adhered  to.  In  its  defence, 
the  Zurich  theologian  /.  H.  Heidegger,  aided  by  Prof.  Fr.  Turretin  of 
Geneva,  drew  up  a  new  symbol,  the  Formula  consensus  helvetici,  which 
was  recognized  by  most  of  the  cantons  in  1675.  Besides  setting  forth 
a  rigid  predestinarian  doctrine,  this  consensus  also  laid  it  down  as  a 
doctrine  of  the  Church,  that  the  Hebrew  vowel  points  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment were  inspired,  a  view  for  which  the  two  Basel  professors,  John 
Buxtorf,  father  [ob.  1629)  and  son  {ob.  1664),  contended,  and  which 
Louis  Capellus  of  Saumur  {ob.  1658)  opposed. 

3.  The  Cartesian  and  Cocceian  Controversies. — Even  after  the  subsi- 
dence of  the  Arminian  controversy,  the  Netherlands  were  the  scene 
of  violent  theological  disputes.  The  philosophy  of  the  French  Catholic 
Ren6  Descartes  (g  43,  1)  found  great  favor  among  the  Reformed  of 
Holland.  It  sustained,  indeed,  in  itself,  no  immediate  relation  to 
Christianity,  or  the  Church,  and  its  theological  adherents  desired  to 
have  it  used  only  as  a  means  of  formal  cultivation.  But  its  funda- 
mental principle,  that  all  real  knowledge  proceeds  from  doubt,  was 
regarded  by  the  leading  representatives  of  a  strict  orthodoxy  as  most 
perilous  to  the  Church.  The  most  respected,  talented,  and  violent  of 
these  opponents,  was  Gisbert  Voetius,  prof,  of  theol.  at  Utrecht  (1634- 
76).  lie  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  the  States'  General  a  prohibition 
(1656)  of  the  Cartesian  philosophy.  The  system  did,  indeed,  produce 
very  suspicious  fruits.  One  of  its  chief  advocates,  Alex.  Roll,  a  Ger- 
man, and  prof,  at  Utrecht  {ob.  17 IX),  not  only  taught  that  the  divinity 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures  must  be  demonstrated  by  reason,  inasmuch  as 


REFORMED     THEOLOGY     AND     ITS     CONFLICTS.        213 

the  testimonium  Spir.  s.  internum  was  limited  to  believers,  but  be  also 
disputed  the  imputation  of  original  sin,  the  doctrine  that  the  death  of 
saints  is  a  penalty  of  sin,  and  the  eternal  g°neration  of  the  Son.     An- 
other zealous  Cartesian,  Balih.  Bckker  (preacher  at  Amsterdam,  de- 
posed 1692,  ob.  1698),  in  his  "  De  betooverde  "Weereld,"  denied  the 
agency  of  the  devil  and  of  demons  in  general.    Such  evil  fruits  justified 
the  cry  of  heresy  raised  by  the  orthodox   party,  and  brought  Carte- 
sianism  into  very  bad  credit.     But  the  theological  scholasticism  which 
Voetius  and  his  school  so  fully  elaborated,  called  forth  a  more  powerful 
reaction  from  another  side,  which  successfully  contended  against  it,  as 
barren,  and  producing  an  ossification  both  of  science  and  religious  life. 
John   Coccehis  (Koch),  prof,  of  theol.   at   Franeker  and   Leyden  (ob. 
1669),  stood  at  the  head  of  this  reaction.    The  great  aim  of  his  life  was 
to  lead  theology  back  to  the  Bible,  as  its  only  living  source,  and  to 
supply  it  with  a  vital  foundation,  gathered  from  the  Bible  itself.     He 
believed  that  he  had  found  such  a  basis  in  the  idea  of  a  two-fold  cove- 
nant of  God  with  man  (the  fcedus  naturse  before,  and  the  fcedus  gratise 
after  the  fall).  Thus  he  became  the  author  of  the  federal  theology,  which 
made  the  historical  development  of  Revelation  the  ruling  principle  of 
theological  inquiry,  and  of  theology  as  a  system,  and  thus  became  the 
founder  of  a  purely  biblical  theology  (as  a  history  of  Redemption). 
He  adhered  as  closely  as  possible  to  predestinarian  orthodoxy,  but  it 
was  only  a  mechanical  adhesion.     It  is  not  the  idea  of  an  election  of 
grace,  but  of  a  guidance  of  grace,  which  predominates  in  his  whole 
system.     In  exegesis  he  set  up  the  rule:   Id  significant  verba,  quod 
significare  possunt  in  integra  oratione  sic  ut  omnino  inter  se  conveniant. 
But  Christ  is  the  centre  of  the  history  of  Redemption,  the  Church,  and 
the  world ;  hence  everything  found  in  the  Bible,  history,  doctrine,  pro- 
phecy, stands  in  immediate  and  necessary  relation  to  Christ.     The  Old 
Testament  furnishes,  everywhere,  prophecies  and  types  pointing  to  the 
coming  of  Christ  in  the  flesh,  and  as  all  histories  written   after  his 
coming,  point  to  his  second  advent,  both  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
foretell  and  foreshadow  the  history  of  the  Church  and  the  world  to  the 
end  of  time.     Thus  Typology  becomes  the  essence  and  guide  of  Coc- 
ceian  theology;  but  it  also  often  wanders  into  innumerable  arbitrary 
allegories,  and  an  almost  puerile  trifling  with  external,  incidental,  and 
forced  resemblances.     Common  opposition  to  scholasticism  brought  the 
Cartesians  and   Cocceians  into   a  somewhat  close  relationship.     The 
former  took  up  with  the  favorite  ideas  of  the  Cocceians,  and  these 
prized  the  Cartesian  philosophy  as  a  formal  means  of  culture.     This, 
however,  excited  the  scholastics  to  a  violent  assault  upon  both.     They 
especially    charged    Cocceian    theology    with    Judaism,    Pelagianism, 
Chiliasm,  and  all  conceivable  heresies,  whilst  Cocceius  and  his  adhe- 
rents blamed  orthodoxy  a  la  mode  with  the  radical  ruin  of  the  Reformed 
Church.     Politics  was  mixed  up  with  this  controversy,  also,  as  with 
the  Arminian.    The  Orange  party  sought  support  among  the  Voetians ; 


214      SECTION   III. —  SECOND   PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.  1  7   A.  D.)  . 

the  liberal  republican  party  looked  to  the  Cocceians.  A  formal  schism, 
as  in  the  former  case,  was  prevented  only  by  the  urgent  entreaties  and 
admonitions  of  foreign  (German  Reformed)  synods.  Cocceian  theology 
secured  toleration  and  even  admission  to  theological  chairs,  and  soon 
acquired  a  decided  preponderance  over  scholastic  theology.  (Cf.  Melch. 
Leydeckcr,  Synopsis  coutroversiarum  de  feed,  et  testamentis  Dei.  quae 
hodie  in  Belgio  moventur,  Traj.  1690.) 

4.  Theological  Literature.  —  Biblical  oriental  philology  nourished 
mightily  in  the  Reformed  Church  of  this  period,  especially  through  the 
labors  of  John  Drusius  of  Franeker  (ob.  1616),  the  greatest  Old  Testa- 
ment exegete  of  his  day ;  then  through  the  two  Buxiorfs  in  Basel 
(father,  ob.  1629  ;  and  son,  ob.  1664),  who  were  the  greatest  rabbinical 
scholars  in  the  Christian  Church.  The  former  wrote  Chaldaic  and 
Syriac  grammars,  and  a  Hebrew-Chaldee  lexicon,  Tiberias  s.  Commen- 
tarius  Masorethicus  (inspiration  of  the  vowel  points),  etc.  His  two 
greatest  works:  Concordantiae  Bibl.  hebr.  and  Lexicon  Chald.  Talmud, 
et  Rabinicum,  proofs  of  his  gigantic  industry,  were  first  completed  by 
his  no  less  laborious  son,  who  also  contributed  a  number  of  his  own 
works  to  this  department  of  learning.  Both  were  rivalled  by  J.  Henry 
Hottinger  of  Zurich  (ob.  1GG7),  who  made  himself  master  of  oriental 
literature  and  languages,  so  far  as  they  were  then  accessible,  and  made 
them  subservient  to  Biblical  philology  in  a  great  number  of  learned 
works,  and  found  time,  besides,  to  write  a  comprehensive  and  learned 
Church  history.  Cocceius,  also,  holds  an  important  place  among  He- 
brew lexicographers.  In  England,  Brian  Walton  (ob.  1661),  in  con- 
nection with  a  number  of  English  scholars,  undertook  to  issue  the 
London  Polyglott,  which  far  surpassed  all  previous  similar  publications 
in  the  completeness  of  its  material  and  apparatus.  Edm.  Castellus, 
prof,  at  Cambridge,  contributed  his  renowned  Lexicon  heptaglotton,  as 
the  7th  volume  of  this  great  work.  The  Elzevir  printing-offices  in  Am- 
sterdam and  Leyden  effected  the  issue  of  a  textus  receptus  of  the  New 
Testament  (1624).  J.Pearson  collected  the  most  valuable  exegetical 
contributions  of  earlier  times,  and  published  them  in  his  great  work: 
Critici  Sacri,  Lond.  1660,  9  vols.  fol. ;  and  Matthew  Pole  did  the  same 
in  his  Synopsis  criticorum,  Lond.  1669,  5  vols.  fol.  The  most  distin- 
guished exegetes  of  this  period  were :  in  France,  the  brothers  Jan,!, 
Ciin  II us,  in  Sedan  (ob.  1624),  and  Louis  Capcllns  in  Saumur  (ob.  1658), 
for  their  thorough  knowledge  of  languages,  and  liberal  criticisms  ;  in 
England,  Edto.  Pococke  in  Oxford  (ob.  1691,  Ilosea,  Joel,  Micah,  Mala- 
chi),  and  John  LigMfoot  in  Cambridge  (ob.  1G95,  Horse  hebraicas  et 
talmudicse,  in  elucidation  of  the  New  Testament)  ;  in  the  Netherlands, 
John  Cocceius,  who  wrote  comm.  on  almost  the  whole  Bible,  srivinsr. 
Inside  the  typological  significations,  a  thorough  grammatical  historical 
interpretation,  —  and  his  pupil  Campegius  Vitringa  in  Franeker  (ob. 
17 16),  the  distinguished  expositor  of  Isaiah  and  the  Apocalypse. 
Am  mg  the  Arminian  exegetes  we  name  the  learned  statesman  and 


REFORMED  THEOLOGY  AND  ITS  CONFLICTS.    215 

jurist  Hugo  Grotius  (ob.  1645),  and  John  Clericus  in  Amsterdam  (bort 
1657,  ob.  1736),  the  two  greatest  masters  of  historico-grammatioal  expo- 
sition, of  this  and  the  succeeding  century,  and  who  also  levied  upon 
classical  literature  aud  philology  for  illustrations  of  the  Scriptures. 
Specially  deserving  of  notice  is  John  Andr.  Eisenmenger,  prof,  of  the 
oriental  languages  in  Heidelberg  [ob.  1704),  author  of  the  renowned 
work:  "  Entdecktes  Judenthum,"  2  Bde.  4to.,  in  which  he  collected 
from  countless  Jewish  works,  with  stupendous  industry,  enormous 
learning,  and  fanatical  partiality,  the  absurdities  and  blasphemies  of 
the  Rabbinical  theology,  having  been  prompted  to  the  undertaking  by 
the  assumptions  and  arrogance  of  the  Jews  of  that  day.  The  book 
was  published  in  Frankfurt  (2000  copies),  and  Eisenmenger  devoted 
his  entire  property  to  it.  The  Jews  offered  him  12,000  guilders  to 
suppress  it,  but  he  demanded  30,000.  They  then  procured  an  order 
from  the  court  of  Vienna,  for  the  confiscation  of  the  entire  edition,  be- 
fore a  single  copy  could  be  sojd.  Eisenmenger  died  soon  after  this 
(1704),  and  his  heirs  endeavored  in  vain  to  secure  the  release  of  the 
book.  Even  the  urgent  intervention  of  King  Frederick  of  Prussia  was 
unavailing.  The  king  finally  (1711)  resolved  to  have  another  edition 
printed  at  his  own  cost,  in  Ivonigsberg,  from  a  copy  which  had  been 
presented  before  the  book  was  confiscated.  After  this  was  done  the 
Frankfurt  edition  was  likewise  released.  The  Reformed  Church  of  this 
period  made  truly  brilliant  contributions  to  the  departments  of  Biblical 
Archceology  and  History,  including  those  of  the  Englishmen  /.  Seidell 
(de  synedriis  vett.  Hebr. ;  De  Diis  Syris. ;  Uxor  hebr. ;  De  jure  naturali 
et  gentium  juxta  discipl.  Hebr.),  Thomas  Goodwill  (Moses  and  Aaron), 
James  Vsiier  (Usserius,  Annales  V.  et  N.  T.),  J.  Marsham  (Canon 
chronicus),  John  Spencer  (ob.  1693,  de  legibus  Hebr.  ritual.,  with  an 
arbitrary  reference  of  them  to  Egyptian  "ustoms,  on  the  ground  of  a 
divine  accommodation)  ;  of  the  Frenchman  Sam.  Bochart  (Hierozoicon, 
a  nat.  hist,  of  the  Bible;  Phaleg,  or  bibl.  geography  as  a  comm.  on 
Genesis,  c.  10 ;  both  works  almost  inexhaustible  treasures  of  the  most 
exquisite  learning) ;  in  the  Netherlands,  Pet.  Cunceus  (de  republ. 
Hebr.)  /.  Br  ami  (de  vestitu  pontif.  hebr.),  C.  Vitringa  (de  Synagoga 
vett.),  etc. 

Dogmatic,  theology  throve  most  on  Netherland  soil.  A  Pole,  John 
Makowsky  (Maccopius,  ob.  1644),  as  teacher  of  theol.  at  Franeker,  in- 
troduced the  scholastic  method  into  Reformed  dogmatics  (Loci  com- 
munes theoL)  The  synod  of  Dort  acquitted  him,  indeed,  of  the  charge 
of  heresy,  but  disapproved  of  his  scholastic  method.  Nevertheless  it 
soon  became  predominant.  Its  most  distinguished  advocates  are  Samuel 
Maresius  of  Groningen  (ob.  1673),  Gisbert  Voetius  of  Utrecht  (ob.  1676, 
Selectoe  dispute,  theol.),  John  Hoornbeck  of  Leyden  (ob.  1666)  ;  and 
among  the  Germans,  Fred.  Wendelin,  Rector  in  Zerbst  (ob.  1652).  The 
most  distinguished  federal  theologians,  next  to  Coccems  (Summa  doc- 
trine de  foedere  et  testamentis  Die  1648),  are:  Francis  Momma,  A.br. 


216        SECTION    III. SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.  17    A.  D.). 

Heidanus,  Casp.  Wittig,  Sol.  v.  Till,  and  Henry  Hiilsius,  of  Leyden  j 
John  Braun  of  Groningen ;  Herman  Witsius  of  Franeker;  Francis 
Burmann  and  Melch.  Ley 'decker  of  Utrecht. — The  Frenchman,  Is.  Peyre- 
rius,  attracted  great  attention  by  his  declaration,  based  on  Rom.  5  :  12, 
etc.,  that  Adam  was  primogenitor  of  the  Jews  only,  and  that  the  Gen- 
tiles were  of  pre-Adamite  origin,  and  that  the  flood  was  not  universal 
(Syst.  theol.  ex  Prasadamitarum  hypothesi,  1G55).  He  escaped  impri- 
sonment by  entering  the  Catholic  Church  ;  he  recanted,  but  still  adhered 
to  his  views  (ob.  1676). — Morality,  which  had  been  largely  limited  to 
an  exposition  of  the  decalogue,  was  raised  by  Moses  Amyrauli  to  an 
independent  science  (La  morale  chretienne,  6  vols.)  Casuistry  was 
treated  of  by  W.  Perkins  of  Cambridge,  and  W.  Amcsius  of  Rotterdam. 
General  polemics  were  prosecuted  by  Hoornbeck,  Francis  Turretin,  of 
Geneva,  Fred.  Spanheim  of  Leyden,  etc.  The  most  extensive  contro- 
versial work  was  produced  by  Dan.  Chamier  of  Montauban  [ob.  1021) 
against  the  Catholics  (Panstratia  catholica,  4  vols,  fol.)  The  historical 
studies  of  the  Reformed  Church  were,  likewise,  almost  exclusively  pur- 
sued for  the  purposes  of  controversy  against  the  Catholics,  and  were 
prosecuted  with  a  thoroughness  and  zeal  which  contributed  largely  to 
the  elucidation  of  the  science.  General  Church  history  was  studied 
by/.  H.  Hottinger  of  Zurich,  Fred.  Spanheim  of  Leyden,  Jacob  Basnage 
of  Ziitphen,  ob.  1691  (adv.  Baronius).  Among  the  numerous  historical 
monographs,  we  must  specially  name  the  works  of  Dav.  Blonde],  James 
Haille  (Dallaeus),  Claude  Salmasius,  J.  Usher,  Dodwell,  Spanheim, 
Heidegger,  etc.     (Cf.  I  48,  3.) 

\  41.  PIETY  IN  THE  REFORMED  CHURCH. 

The  piety  of  the  Reformed  Church  is  characterized  by  an 
austere  legality,  a  rigoristic  renunciation  of  the  world,  and  a 
resolute  earnestness  which  disregarded  consequences,  coupled 
with  a  decision  and  energy  of  will,  which  nothing  in  the  world 
could  break  or  bend.  It  was  the  spirit  of  Calvin  which  impressed 
this  character  upon  it,  and  his  doctrine  which  supported  it. 
Only  by  countries  where  Calvin's  spirit  was  enervated  or  re- 
pressed, as  in  the  Lutheranizing  German  Reformed,  or  Catholi- 
cising Anglican  Churches,  was  this  tendency  resisted.  But  it 
manifests  itself  in  an  enhanced  degree,  often  to  extreme  harsh- 
ness, among  the  English  and  Scotch  Puritans,  as  well  as  among 
the  French  Huguenots,  nourished,  as  it  was,  by  persecution  and 
oppression.  Hemmed  in  by  the  narrowest  legal  limits,  the  reli- 
gious life  of  the  Reformed  could  not  move  so  freely,  and  could 
not  exhibit  itself  in  such  rich  and  various  forms,  as  are  expressed 
ii    the   hymns    and    singing    of   the    German   Lutheran    Church. 


PIETY     IN     THE     REFORMED     CHURCH.  217 

Nevertheless  the  Reformed  Church  furnished  the  pattern  of  a 
princely  saint,  in  the  person  of  the  noble  Electress  Louisa  Hen- 
rietta, who  may  be  favorably  compared  with  the  pious  Duke 
Ernest  (§  39,  5).  She,  likewise,  composed  several  hymns  of 
great  merit,  but  they,  and  similar  productions,  breathe  not  a 
Romanic  Calvinistic,  but  rather  a  German  spirit,  formed  partly 
by  Lutheran  influences. — But  the  highest  glory  of  the  Romanic 
Reformed  Church  of  this  period,  a  glory  which  renders  it  honor- 
able in  all  ages,  is  its  incomparable  martyr-spirit,  which  it  dis- 
played most  brilliantly  in  France. 

1.  In  its  public  singing,  the  Reformed  Church  still  continued  to  use, 
mainly,  Marot's  and  Lobwasser's  metrical  versions  of  the  Psalms 
(I  23,  1).  Maurice  of  Hesse  issued  a  new  edition  (1612)  of  the  latter, 
with  some  new  austere  melodies,  for  the  use  of  the  Church  in  his  coun- 
try. But  Lutheran  psalmody  gradually  passed  over  into  the  Reformed 
Church,  whilst  the  latter  furnished  a  couple  of  religious  poets  during 
this  period,  whose  hymns,  as  true  Church  hymns,  were  adopted  by 
Lutheran  hymn-books.  They  are:  Louisa  Henrietta,  Princess  of 
Orange,  wife  of  the  great  Elector  (ob.  1GG7).  She  furnished  four  hymns 
for  a  hymn-book  provided  by  her  for  Reformed  congregations  (including 
"Jesus  meine  Zuversicht,"  and  "  Ich  will  von  meiner  Missethat"), 
and  Joachim  Neander,  preacher  in  Bremen  (ob.  1G80.  "  Lobe  den  Herrn, 
den  machtigen  Konig").  Among  ascetic  writers,  Richard  Baxter  occu- 
pies the  first  rank.  He  was  a  moderate  Puritan,  and  a  chaplain  in 
Cromwell's  army  (ob.  1691.  "Saints'  Rest,"  "Call  to  the  Uncon- 
verted," "The  Reformed  Pastor,"  etc.)  The  Puritans  can  also  boast 
of  a  most  distinguished  poet  in  John  Milton  (Paradise  Lost,  Paradise 
Regained),  who,  however,  also  handled  a  severe  controversial  pen,  and 
vindicated  the  execution  of  Charles  I. 

2.  The  Reformed  Church  had  two  opportunities  of  proving  the  ardor 
of  its  Christian  love  in  the  work  of  missions  among  the  heathen,  one  by 
the  cession  of  the  Portuguese  East  India  colonies  to  the  Netherlands, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  another  by  the  colonies  which 
went  from  England  to  North  America,  during  that  entire  century. 
The  Netherland  government,  in  its  missionary  operations,  followed 
in  the  footsteps  of  its  Portuguese  predecessor.  It  demanded  of  all  the 
natives  who  sought  any  official  position,  that  they  should  be  baptized 
and  subscribe  the  Belgic  confession.  Many  thousands  outwardly  com- 
plied with  these  terms,  who,  morally,  remained  what  they  were  before. 
On  the  other  hand  the  English  Puritans,  who  had  emigrated  to  Ame- 
rica on  account  of  their  faith,  displayed  a  zeal  in  their  efforts  to  con- 
vert the  Indians,  which  was  worthy  of  the  Protestant  name.  One  of 
their  number,  John  Eliot,  was  called  the  apostle  of  the  Indians.  For 
tifty  years  he  labored  among  them  with  untiring  and  self-denying  zeal, 

62 


218     SECTION    III. —  SECOND    PERIOD    (CE  N  T.  17  A.  D.). 

translated  the  Bible  into  their  own  language,  and  estalished  17  mis- 
sion stations  among  them,  10  of  which,  however,  were  broken  up  during 
his  lifetime  by  a  bloody  war.  He  died  in  1690.  Eliot's  work  was  con- 
tinued for  five  generations  by  the  Mayhem  family.  English  Puritans 
in  London  established  a  society  for  the  propagation  of  the  Gospel  in 
1647. 


V.  ANTI-  AND  EXTRA-ECCLESIASTICAL  MATTERS. 
I  42.  SECTS  AND  FANATICS. 

All  the  four  principal  Churches  contribute  a  share  to  the 
history  of  sectarianism  and  fanaticism,  not  excluding  the  Catho- 
lic (§  36,  1)  or  even  the  Greek.  The  Baptist*  in  England,  like 
the  Anabaptists  of  the  continent,  rejected  infant  baptism  ;  whilst 
the  Quakers,  carrying  this  tendency  to  its  furthest  extreme, 
wholly  rejected  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  adopted  the  old 
theory  of  an  inner  light,  and  made  it  the  basis  of  their  organi- 
zation. A  number  of  other  fanatics  and  separatists  did  not  get 
so  far  as  to  form  a  permanent  organization.  The  chief  rendezvous 
of  these  was  in  the  Netherlands,  where  a  free  government  afforded 
a  refuge  for  all  who  were  banished  on  account  of  their  faith. 
There  alone,  also,  did  the  press  enjoy  sufficient  liberty  to  aid  in 
the  propagation  of  mystical  and  theosophic  works,  without  hin- 
drance. The  sects  of  Russia,  finally,  which  have  been  but  little 
inquired  after,  possess  very  special  interest,  and  claim  our  notice. 
(Of.  §  49.) 

1.  Nstherland  Anabaptists.  (Cf.  §27,  2).  —  Even  during  Menno'a 
life,  the  Mennonites  had  divided  into  the  moderate  or  Waterlandians, 
and  rigid  or  Flemingians.  The  former,  who  departed  in  many  respects 
from  the  original  strictness  of  the  sect,  in  regard  to  morals  and  disci- 
pline, and  constituted  a  preponderant  majority,  soon  separated,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  Arminian  controversy,  into  a  remonstrant  and  a  pre- 
destinarian  party.  The  former  were  designated  Galenists,  after  their 
leader  Galenus  de  Haen,  and  Lammists,  because  their  church  adopted 
the  symbol  of  the  Lamb.  The  others  were  called  Apostoolians,  from 
their  leader  Samuel  Apostool,  or  Sunnists,  because  the  sign  of  the  sun 
was  placed  on  the  front  of  their  churches.  The  Lammists,  who  rejected 
all  confessions  of  faith,  gradually  gained  a  decided  ascendency  ;  but  in 
1800  the  two  parties  united,  ami  the  Sunnists  adopted  the  principles 
and  doctrines  of  the  Lammists.    The  llemonstraut  Anabaptists  received 


SECTS    AND    FANATICS.  219 

a  large  accession  from  the  Arminian  Collegiants.  During  the  time  that 
the  Arminians  were  noi  tolerated  by  the  State,  and  when  their  teachers 
were  banished,  the  lack  of  clergymen  among  them  induced  the  three 
brothers  Van  der  Codde  to  found  another  sect,  called  Collegiants,  who 
abolished  the  office  of  the  ministry,  allowed  laymen  to  preach  and 
administer  the  sacraments,  and  admitted  only  adults  to  baptism,  by 
immersion.  Their  place  of  immersion  was  the  village  of  Rhynsburg 
on  the  Rhine;  hence  they  were  also  called  Rhynsbargers.  They  were 
called  Collegiants  from  their  assemblies,  which  were  designated  Col- 
legia. 

2.  The  English  Baptists. — About  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  the 
Baptist  party  sprang  from  the  English  Independents.  They  differed 
from  the  latter  in  the  rejection  of  infant  baptism,  from  the  Anabaptists 
of  the  Continent,  by  retaining  the  independent  or  congregationalist 
constitution.  They  baptized  by  immersion.  They  also  rejected  ordi- 
nation. Through  the  influence  of  Arminianism,  they  split  (1791)  into 
Particular  Baptists,  who  hold  to  Calvinistic  predestination  (gratia 
particularis)  and  General  Baptists,  who  reject  that  doctrine.  The 
former  were  by  far  the  more  numerous.  Another  sect,  the  Seventh-day 
Baptists,  was  started  toward  the  close  of  the  17th  century  by  Francis 
Bampjield.  They  derive  their  name  from  their  observance  of  the  seventh 
instead  of  the  first  day  of  the  week,  as  their  Sabbath.  From  England 
the  Baptists  soon  went  to  North  America,  Avhich  thenceforth  became 
their  chief  seat.  There  the  original  English  form  of  the  sect  was  diver- 
sified with  a  great  variety  of  shades.  All  the  American  Baptists  re- 
tained the  Congregational  constitution.     (Cf.  $  49,  6.) 

3.  The  Quakers.  (Cf.  William  Penn,  a  summary  of  the  hist,  discipl. 
and  doctrine  of  Friends.  Lond.  1692. —  G.  W.  Albcrti,  aufr.  Nachricht 
von  d.  Rel.,  Gottesdienst  Sitt.  u.  Gebr.  d.  Qu.  Hann.  1750. — H.  Take, 
Principles  of  Rel.  as  professed  by  the  Quakers.  [Neat's  Hist,  of  the 
Puritans. — Seidell's  and  Rutty' s  Hist,  of  the  Quakers]). —  Geoige  Fox 
(ob.  1091),  a  shoemaker  in  the  county  of  Leicester,  arose  (1647)  as  a 
preacher  of  repentance  and  a  reformer,  during  the  disturbances  which 
then  distracted  Church  and  State  in  England.  Rejecting  all  external 
Churchism,  he  desired  to  base  Christianity  wholly  upon  the  inner  light 
of  the  Spirit  in  man,  as  a  continuous  divine  revelation.  He  gained 
many  adherents,  and  in  1049  founded  a  distinct  religious  communion, 
which  assumed  the  name  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  but  their  opponents, 
in  ridicule,  called  them  Quakers  (tremblers,  probably,  from  Philip. 
2  :  12.)  The  doctrinal  views  of  the  Friends  were  reduced  to  a  system, 
during  Fox's  life,  by  George  Keith  (who,  however,  subsequently  re- 
turned to  the  Anglican  Church,  and  assailed  Quakerism),  and  especially 
by  Robert  Barclay  (ob.  1090.  Theologias  vere  Christ,  apologia,  and  a 
Catechism  or  Confession  of  Faith,  pronounced  good  by  the  general 
assembly  of  the  patriarchs,  prophets,  and  apostles).  Their  refusal  to 
serve  in  war,  to  take  the  oath,  or  to  pay  tithes,  subjected  them  to  severe 


220       SECTION    III. SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.  17    A.  D.). 

persecutions,  imprisonment,  etc.      William  Penn  (ob.  1718),  son  of  the 
English  admiral,  then  appeared  as  their  deliverer  and  second  founder. 
In  payment  of  a  debt  due  his  father,  the  Government  conveyed  to  him 
a  large  tract  of  laud  along  the  Delaware,  in  North  America,  which  he 
converted  into  an  asylum  for  all  the  persecuted  and  oppressed,  and  not 
only  from  among  Quakers.     He  founded,  there,  the  colony  of  Pennsyl- 
vania (1682),  under  the  English  Government.     Its  chief  city  was  Phi- 
ladelphia, and  the  fundamental  principle  of  its  charter  complete  liberty 
of  religion  and  conscience.     In  England,  also,  the  Quakers  soon  ob- 
tained toleration,  and  were  granted  the  same  rights  with  other  dissent- 
ers, all  possible  forbearance  being  exercised  towards  their  views  con- 
cerning the  oath,  war,  etc.     The  Quakers  acknowledge  the  Bible  as 
the  word  of  God,  but  regard  the  inner  word  of  God  in  men  as  of  supe- 
rior force,  the  former  being  considered  merely  as  the  starting-point  of 
the  latter,  and  a  means  of  exciting  it.    They  wholly  reject  the  ministry 
and  theological  learning.     Their  communion  consists  only  of  such  as 
are  enlightened.     In  their  meetings,  whoever  is  moved  by  the  Spirit, 
man  or  woman,  may  speak,  pray,  or  exhort.     If  none  is  thus  moved, 
they  continue  sitting  for  a  while  in  silent  contemplation,  and  then  as 
quietly  separate.     They  have  no  singing  or  music.     Baptism  and  the 
Lord's  Supper  are  not  observed  by  them.     In  social  life,  the  Quakers 
are  distinguished  by  strict  honesty,  earnestness,  an  extremely  simple 
mode  of  living,  a  contempt  of  all  luxury,  change  of  fashion,  or  conven- 
tional rules  of  society,  etc.     They  conscientiously  forbade  taking  the 
oath,  and  all  military  and  civil  service.    Subsequently,  however,  many 
of  them  abated  their  rigorous  severity  in  life  and  manners;  such  were 
called  the  wet,  whilst  those  who  adhered  to  their  original  rigor  were 
called  the  dry,  Quakers.    During  the  present  century  a  new  party  arose 
among  the  American  Quakers,  under  Elias  Hicks,  who  wholly  tore 
loose  from  historical  Christianity,  by  denying  the  divinity  of  Christ, 
and  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.    This  movement  compelled 
the  opposing  party,  called  Evangelical  Friends,  to  attach  themselves 
more  closely  to  the  authority  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.     (Cf.  \  49,  7. 
[Also,  Gumey,  on  the  peculiarities  of  Friends,  and  Is.  Crewdson,  Bea- 
con to  the  Friends,  1835]). 

4.  Many  other  fanatics  arose  during  this  period,  who  failed,  however, 
to  found  permanent  sects.  Jean  de  Labadie,  of  France,  whom  the  Je- 
suits educated,  joined  the  Reformed  Church,  and  by  the  aid  of  his 
talented  and  learned  adherent,  Anna  Maria  von  Sclmrmann,  founded 
the  sect  of  Labadists  in  the  Netherlands,  who  insisted  upon  an  inner 
Christianity,  in  true  mystic  sectarian  style.  —  Pder  Poiret,  court- 
preacher  at  Deux-Ponts  in  tnc  Palatinate,  previously  a  Cartesian  phi- 
losopher, was  a  warm  admirer  of  Bourignon  and  Guyon,  whose  writings 
he  published,  and  whose  genuine  Catholic  mysticism  he  caricatured  by 
protestani/.ing  it  (L'economie  divine.  Amsterd.  1687,  7  Bde.). — Jane 
Leade,  of  the  county  of  Norfolk,  a  great  admirer  of  Bohme's  writings, 


SECTS    AND    FANATICS.  221 

had  spasms  and  visions,  in  which  divine  wisdom  appeared  to  her  in 
the  form  of  a  virgin.  She  spread  her  Gnostic  revelations  by  means  of 
numerous  tracts,  founded  the  Philadelphia  Society,  and  died  in  1704, 
aged  81  years.  The  chief  of  her  adherents  was  John  Pordage,  a  phy- 
sician, whose  writings  furnish  the  most  insane  specimen  of  the  mystical 
gibberish. — From  the  Lutheran  Church  sprang  Fred.  B redding,  a  Hol- 
stein  preacher,  who  was  called  to  account  for  his  slanders  against  the 
Lutheran  Church  and  its  ministers,  and  fled  to  Holland.  There  he 
preached  for  some  time  at  Zwoll,  but  was  then  deposed  for  his  Chiliasm. 
After  that  he  lived  privately,  and  wrote  a  number  of  unimportant 
mystical  works  (ob.  1711). —  Quirinus  Kuhlmann  of  Breslau,  who  tra- 
velled through  all  Europe  and  part  of  Asia,  advocating  insane  schemes 
jf  a  reformation  and  union  of  all  religions  and  sciences,  and  finally 
perished  at  the  stake  in  Moscow  (1689). — Of  greater  importance  was 
John  Gichtel  (ob.  1710),  previously  procurator  of  the  imperial  chamber 
at  Spires,  an  eccentric  admirer  of  Bohme.  lie  desired  to  tear  himself 
loose  from  all  natural  bonds,  and  descend  into  the  depths  of  the  God- 
head. He  had  revelations  and  visions,  and  zealously  opposed  the  doc- 
trine of  justification.  His  adherents,  Gichtelians,  called  themselves 
Angelic  Brethren  (Matt.  22  :  30),  and  strove,  in  the  spirit  of  their 
master,  to  attain  to  an  angelic  sinlessness,  by  tearing  loose  from  all 
carnal  desires,  cares,  and  toils,  and  to  a  priesthood  after  the  order  of 
Melchisedec,  to  appease  the  wrath  of  God.     (Cf.  \  49.) 

5.  Russian  Sects.  (Cf.  A.  v.  Harthausen,  Studien  liber  d.  innern 
Zustand  Russlands.  Hann.  1847,  I.  337,  etc.) — A  great  number  of  sects 
arose  in  the  Russian  empire,  designated  by  the  general  name  of 
Raskolniki  (apostates).  Their  origin  and  history  is  involved  in  much 
obscurity.  According  to  their  fundamental  character,  they  form  two 
diametrically  opposite  leading  classes:  I.  The  Starowerzi,  or  those 
holding  the  ancient  faith.  Their  origin  was  occasioned  by  the  litur- 
gical reformation  of  the  learned  and  powerful  patriarch  Nikon,  who 
(1652)  attempted  to  effect  a  thorough  improvement  of  the  liturgical 
books,  which  had  been  greatly  perverted  by  previous  ignorance.  But 
his  movement  was  strongly  opposed  by  the  people,  who  adhered  to 
their  old  forms.  This  opposition  was  by  no  means  overcome,  but  led 
to  a  separation  of  many  (farmers)  from  the  parent  Church.  They 
combine  with  their  stiff  adherence  to  the  old  liturgical  forms,  a  con- 
tracted aversion  to  all  new  customs,  and  articles  of  luxury,  introduced 
into  society  (ex.  gr.  think  it  a  sin  to  shave  the  beard,  to  smoke  tobacco, 
to  drink  tea  or  coffee,  etc.)  This  sect,  which  is  still  very  numerous,  is 
in  general  distinguished  by  a  simple,  moral,  and  temperate  manner 
of  life.  There  are  three  kir?ds  of  Starowerzi:  (1.)  The  Jedinoxverzi 
(holding  the  same  faith),  who  approach  nearest  to  the  orthodox  Church, 
recognize  its  priesthood,  and  differ  from  it  only  in  their  religious  cere- 
monies and  social  manners.  (2.)  The  Sfarovbradzi  (adherents  to  the 
old  customs),  who  differ  from  the  last  named  only  by  their  refusal  to 
62* 


222       SECTION    III. SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.   17   A.D.). 

recognize  the  priests  of  the  orthodox  Church.  (3.)  The  Bespopowtschini 
(the  priestless),  who  have  no  priests,  but  only  elders.  They  are  split 
up  into  numerous  smaller  sects,  some  of  which  have  adopted  decidedly 
Gnostic  elements. — II.  Extremely  opposite  to  the  Starowerzi  we  find  a 
number  of  sects  of  a  fundamentally  Gnostic,  mystic,  and  fanatical  ten- 
dency, rejecting  all  external  churchism,  with  its  ceremonies  and  sacra- 
ments, or  utterly  diluting  them.  Many  of  these  sects,  whose  Gnosticism 
is  embraced  in  fanatical  forms,  probably  perpetuated  themselves  from  the 
Middle  Ages,  by  means  of  secret  traditions,  that  period  having  been  ex- 
ceedingly fertile  in  Gnostic  and  Manichajan  productions.  To  this  sect 
belong  the  Morelschiki  (the  self-sacrificing),  who  submit  from  time  to 
time  to  a  "  baptism  by  fire,"  by  burning  themselves ;  the  Skopsi 
(eunuchs)  who  mutilate  themselves  ;  the  Cldistoictschini  (flagellants), 
who  are  also  accused  of  practising  immoral  orgies  ;  the  Dumb,  whom  no 
torture  can  constrain  to  utter  an  audible  sound,  etc.  Other  sorts  of 
spiritualistic  Gnostic  fanatics  arose  in  the  18th  century,  through  occi' 
dental  influences.     (Cf.  \  45,  1.) 

\  43.  PHILOSOPHERS  AND  FREE-THINKERS. 

The  scholastic  philosophy  of  the  middle  ages  had  outlived 
itself  even  during  the  pre-Reforraation  period.  But  a  long  time 
elapsed  before  the  philosophical  impulse  of  the  new  era  created 
for  itself  independent  and  appropriate  forms  and  methods.  The 
Italian  Dominican,  Thomas  Campanella,  may  be  regarded  as  an 
echo  of  the  philosophical  movement  of  the  16th  century,  and 
Bacon  of  Verulam,  England,  as  the  forerunner  of  modern  philo- 
sophy, whilst  Descartes  of  France  must  be  acknowledged  as  its 
proper  founder.  After  him  we  find  the  pinnacles  of  philosophi- 
cal development  occupied  by  Spinoza,  Locke,  and  Leibnitz.  By 
the  side  of  philosophy,  we  see  a  number  of  free-thinkers  starting 
up,  and  borrowing  from  its  armory  weapons  of  attack  upon 
theology  and  the  Church.  They  were  the  heralds  of  the  univer- 
sal predominance,  in  the  following  century,  of  that  infidelity 
which  declared  the  Bible  and  Revelation  as  only  imaginary  and 
deceptive  sources  of  religious  knowledge,  and  nature  and  reason 
to  be  alone  reliable. 

1.  Philosophy.  (Cf.  H.  Bitter,  Gesch.  d.  clir.  Philos.  Bd.  G,  7.— J.  E. 
Erdmann,  Vera.  e.  Wsch.  Darstell.  d.  <!csch.  neueren  Philos.,  Lpz., 
L836,  etc.)  —  Thomas  Campanella,  of  Stilo  in  Calabria,  entered  the 
Dominical]  Order,  but  soon  lost  all  taste  for  Aristotelian  philosophy 
and  scholastic  theology,  and  turned  to  Plato,  the  Cabala,  Astrology, 
magic,  etc     Suspected  of  holding  republican  sentiments,  he  was  placed 


PHILOSOPHERS    AND    FREE-THINKERS.  223 

in  custody  by  the  Spanish  government  (1599).  Seven  times  he  endured 
the  rack  for  24  hours  without  confessing,  and  then  pined  for  27  years 
in  a  hard  imprisonment.  Pope  Urban  VIII.  at  length  (162G)  effected 
his  transfer  to  the  prison  of  the  papal  Inquisition  In  1629  the  Inqui- 
sition acquitted  him,  and  a  pension  -was  bestowed  on  him.  But  the 
Spaniards  laid  new  snares  for  him,  and  he  was  compelled  to  nee  to 
France,  to  his  patron  Richelieu.  He  died  in  1639.  His  most  complete 
philosophical  work  is  the  Philosophia  rationalis.  In  his  Atheismus 
triumphatus  he  defended  the  Christian  Religion,  in  the  Romish  form, 
but  so  unsatisfactorily  that  many  thought  Atheismus  triumphans 
would  have  been  a  more  appropriate  title.  His  Monarchia  Messise, 
also,  seemed  even  to  Catholics,  an  unfortunate  apology  for  popery.  In 
his  Civitas  solis,  an  imitation  of  Plato's  Republic,  he  advanced  com- 
munistic views.  Herder,  in  his  Adrastea,  revived  his  memory  as  a 
poet.  —  Francis  Bacon  of  Vernlam  (for  a  time  Lord  High-Chancellor 
of  England),  the  great  successor  of  Roger  Bacon  (I.  §  104,  3),  was  the 
first  prominent  and  successful  reformer  of  the  scholastic  mode.  With 
a  most  comprehensive  mind,  and  as  a  prophet  of  science,  he  organized 
its  entire  sphere,  and  prognosticated  its  future  development.  ("De 
augmentis  scientiarum,"  and  "Novum  organum  scientiarum.")  He 
strictly  distinguished  between  sphere  of  knowledge  (philosophy  and 
nature),  which  can  only  be  acquired  by  experience,  and  that  of  faith 
(theology  and  the  Church),  of  which  revelation  is  the  only  source  of 
knowledge.  But  in  spite  of  this  distinction  he  uttered  the  sentiment: 
Philosophia  obiter  libata  a  Deo  abducit,  pleniter  hausta  ad  Deum 
reducit.  He  earnestly  insisted  upon  the  close  observance  of  nature, 
as  the  only  way  of  perfecting  knowledge,  and  rendering  it  available ; 
thus  he  became  the  author  of  empiricism  in  philosophy,  and  the  patri- 
arch of  the  utilitarianism  of  modern  times. — The  honor  of  being  the 
founder  of  modern  philosophy  (in  the  proper  sense),  really  belongs  to 
Rene  Descartes  of  France  (Renatus  Cartesius,  ob.  1650).  The  corner- 
stone of  his  system  is  the  proposition :  Cogito,  ergo  sum.  The  think- 
ing essence  is  the  soul.  Philosophy  starts  with  doubting,  and  by 
means  of  definite  cogitation  arrives  at  a  knowledge  of  what  is  true 
and  certain  in  surrounding  objects.  The  consciousness  of  imperfection 
to  which  the  soul  thus  attains,  leads  to  the  idea  of  a  most  perfect  being, 
to  whose  perfection  existence  is  also  necessary  (the  ontological  proof). 
His  philosophy,  which,  however,  did  not  pretend  to  sustain  any  rela- 
tion to  Christianity  or  the  Church,  gained  many  adherents  among  the 
French  Jansenists  and  Oratorians,  and  even  penetrated  into  the  Re- 
formed theology  of  Holland,  where  it  provoked  a  passionate  contro- 
versy, in  which  Catholic  (Huetius,  etc.)  as  well  as  Reformed  (Voetius, 
etc.)  theologians  participated. — Benedict  Spinoza,  a  Jewish  convert  in 
Holland  (ob.  1677),  acquired  but  little  influence  over  the  philosophical 
studies  of  his  day,  by  the  profound  but  obviously  pantheistic  philoso- 
phy exhibited  in  his  "  Ethica."     It  was  reserved  for  modern  times  to 


224       SECTION    III.  —  SECOND    PERIOD    (CENT.   17    A.  D.). 

be  carried  away  by  it.     But  his  "  Tractatus  theologico-politicus,"  in 
which  he  critically  assailed  the  Christian  idea  of  Revelation,  and  the 
authenticity  of  the  Old  Testament  books,  especially  the  Pentateuch, 
and  vindicated  absolute  free-thinking,  called  forth  the  theologians  of 
his  day  in  opposition  to  his  views,  and  in  defence  of  Christianity.   (Cf. 
Schliiter,  die  Lehre  d.  Sp.  M'unst.  1836. —  Sit/wart,  d.  Spinozismus  hist. 
u.  philos.  erl'autert,  Tub.  1839. —  C.  v.  Orelli,  Spinoza's  Leben  u.  Lehre. 
Aarau,  1843  ;  Spinoza's  Works,  in  German,  by  Auerbach,  Stuttg.  1841.) 
—  In  the  sensualism  of  John  Locke  (ob.  1704)  we  have  a  middle  term 
between   Bacon's  empiricism   and  Descartes'  rationalism  on  the  one 
hand,  and  English  deism  and  French  materialism  on  the  other.     His 
"  Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding"  denies  all  innate  ideas,  and  strives 
to  prove  that  all  our  ideas  are  the  products  of  outward  or  inward  ex- 
perience (sensation  or  reflection).     Even  in  this  work,  and  still  more 
in  his  "  Reasonableness  of  Christianity,"  which   professes  to  be  an 
apology  for  Christianity,  and,  indeed,  admits  the  truth  of  the  bibli- 
cal history,  of  miracles,  and  of  the  Messiaship  of  Christ,  we  find  con- 
cealed a  lurking  pelagianism,  as  the  basis  of  his  religious  contemplation, 
which  discards  the  ideas  of  sin  and  an  atonement,  and  openly  reduces 
Christianity  to  the  low  level  of  a  sound  human  understanding. —  Gott- 
fried With.  Leibnitz  (a  Hanoverian  statesman,  ob.  1716),  opened  the 
first   period  of  German   philosophy.     The   philosophy  of  Leibnitz   is 
equally  opposed  to  the  Paracelsian  theosophy  of  Bbhme,  the  empiricism 
of  Bacon  and  Locke,  the  pantheism  of  Spinoza,  and  the  skepticism  and 
manichosism  of  Bayle,  and  is,  indeed,  a  Christian  philosophy,  though, 
alas!  it  did  not  attain  to  its  full,  legitimate  development.     But  as  it 
took  up,  improved,  and  carried  out  the  philosophical  rationalism  of 
Descartes,  it  furnished  a  starting-point  for  subsequent  theological  ra- 
tionalism.   The  foundation  of  his  system  (which  is  most  fully  exhibited 
in  his  works:   "  Essai  de  Theodieee"  against  Bayle,  "  Nouveau  essai 
sur  l'entendement  humain"  against  Locke,  and  "  Principia  philosophic 
ad  principem  Eugenium")  is  the  doctrine  of  monads.     In  opposition  to 
the  atom  theory  of  materialism,  he  regarded  all  terrestrial  phenomena 
as  concentrations  of  the  so-called  monads  (*'.  e.  most  simple,  indivisible 
substances),  each  one  of  which,  according  to  its  particular  place  and 
design,  was  an  imane  or  reflection  of  the  entire  universe.     Of  these 
monads,  emanating  from  God  as  the  Monas  monadum,  the  world  was 
made  a  harmony,  permanently  arranged  by  God  (harmonia  praestabi- 
lita).    This  world  must  be  the  best  that  could  be  made,  or  it  would  not 
exist  at  all  (optimism).    In  opposition  to  Bayle,  who  had  argued  against 
the  wisdom,  goodness,  and  justice  of  God,  in  Manichsean  style,  because 
of  the  existence  of  evil  and  sin,  Leibnitz  endeavored  to  show  that  the 
presence  of  evil  in  the  world  did  not  conflict  with  the  idea  of  a  best 
possible  world,  nor  with  the  goodness,  wisdom,  etc.  of  God,  since  the 
very  idea  of  a  creature  necessarily  involved  finiteness  and  imperfection, 
or,  in  other  words,  metaphysical  evil,  and  that  this  rendered  moral  and 


PHILOSOPHERS     AND     FREE-THINKERS.  225 

physical  evil  an  unavoidable  consequence,  but  not  a  consequence  which 
disturbed  the  harmonia  praestabilita.  Against  Locke  he  vindicated  the 
existence  of  innate  ideas  as  eternal  truths  ;  he  assailed  indeterminism 
against  Clarke  ;  affirmed  the  agreement  of  philosophy  with  Revelation, 
which  might  be  above  reason,  but  not  against  it;  and  he  hoped  that  he 
could  demonstrate  the  truth  of  his  system  Avith  the  same  measure  of 
evidence  employed  in  mathematics.  (Cf.  Ludovici,  Entw.  e.  hist.  d. 
Leibnitzischen  Phil.  Lpz.  1737,  2  Bde.—  G.  E.  Guhrauer,  G.  W.  v.  Leib- 
nitz, e.  Biogr.  Bresl.  1842,  2  Thle.)     (Cf.  g  50,  7.) 

2.  Free-thinkers.  (Cf.  /.  A.  Trinius,  Freidenkerlexic.  Lpz.  1759.— 
U.  G.  Tliorschmidt,  author  of  a  complete  English  Free-thinker  library. 
Halle,  1765,  fob,  4  vols. — Leland,  Abr.  d.  vornchmst.  deist.  Schr.  aus 
d.  Engl.  v.  H.  G.  Schmidt.  Hann.  1755.  3  Bde.—  G.  V.  Lechler,  Gesch. 
d.  engl.  Deism.  Stuttg.  1841. — L.  Noacle,  die  Freidenker  in  d.  Bel. 
Bd.  1.  Die  englischen  Deistcn.  Bern,  1853.)  —  The  pressure  of  the 
spirit  of  the  times  and  of  worldliness,  towards  emancipation  from  all 
positive  Christianity,  first  appeared  amidst  the  political  freedom  and 
ecclesiastical  ruptures  of  England.  The  tendency  was  called  Na- 
turalism, because  it  would  acknowledge  only  a  natural  instead  of  re- 
vealed religion  —  and  Deism,  because  it  acknowledged  only  a  general 
providence  of  the  one  God,  instead  of  the  triune  God  of  redemption. 
The  impossibility  of  revelation,  inspiration,  prophecies  and  miracles, 
was  affirmed  on  philosophical  grounds  ;  their  actual  existence  in  the 
Bible  and  history  was  denied  on  critical  grounds.  The  simple  system 
of  deism  was :  God,  providence,  freedom  of  the  will,  virtue  and  con- 
tinuation of  the  soul  after  death.  The  Christian  doctrines  of  the 
Trinity,  original  sin,  satisfaction,  justification,  resurrection,  etc.,  ap- 
peared absurd  and  irrational.  Deism  in  England,  however,  only  met 
with  sympathy  among  educated  and  prominent  worldlings ;  the  people 
and  the  entire  clergy  adhered  to  positive  religion.  The  theological  re- 
futations of  the  system  were  numerous,  but  their  polemical  power  was 
broken  by  a  latitudinarian  spirit.  The  most  important  English  Deists 
of  this  century  were:  (1.)  Edward  Herbert  of  Cherbury,  knight  and 
honorable  statesman  (ob.  1648).  lie  reduced  religion  to  five  points: 
belief  in  God  ;  obligation  to  honor  him  by  an  upright  life  ;  expiation  of 
sin  by  sincere  repentance  ;  retribution  in  eternal  life.  (Writings:  De 
veritate,  De  religione  gentilium).  (2.)  Thomas Hobbes  (ob.  1679),  an  acute 
and  productive  philosophico-political  author,  who  regarded  Christianity 
as  an  oriental  phantom,  only  of  importance  as  a  support  of  absolute 
royalty  and  as  an  antidote  against  revolution.  The  state  of  nature 
is  a  helium  omnium  contra  omnes ;  religion  is  the  means  by  which 
civilization  and  order  is  restored.  It  belongs  to  the  State  to  determine 
the  religion  which  shall  be  established.  Every  one,  indeed,  may  be- 
lieve what  he  chooses,  but,  in  reference  to  worship  and  churchdom,  he 
must  submit  entirely  to  the  regulations  of  the  State,  whose  representa- 
tive is  the  king.     (Chief  work :  Leviathan,  or  the  matter,  form,  and 


226        SECTION    III. —  SECOND   PERIOD    (CENT.  17    A.  D.). 

power  of  a  commonwealth,  ecclesiastical  and  civil,  1651).  (3.)  Charles 
Blount  (ob.  1693,  by  suicide),  a  rabid  opponent  of  all  miracles  as  pure 
priestly  frauds.  (Oracles  of  Reason,  Religio  Laici,  Great  is  the  Diana 
of  the  Ephesians,  Translation  of  the  life  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana,  by 
Philostratus).  (4.)  Thomas  Brown,  a  physician  (ob.  1682,  Religio 
Medici). — The  most  celebrated  of  the  opponents  of  deism  of  this  period 
are:  Richard  Baxter  (g  41,  1),  Ralph  Cudworth  (ob.  1688),  a  latitudi- 
narian  theologian  and  platonizing  philosopher,  who  attempted  to  prove 
the  chief  doctrines  of  Christianity  by  means  of  the  theory  of  innate 
ideas  (his  principal  treatise,  Systema  intellectuale,  was  published  by 
Lor  v.  Mosheim,  in  a  Lat.  translation,  with  remarks),  and  Samuel 
Clarke  (ob.  1729),  who  himself  was  charged  with  holding  Arian  views 
of  the  Trinity).  The  pious  Irishman,  Robert  Boyle,  in  London  founded 
(1691)  an  annual  stipend  of  £40  sterling  for  combating  deistic  and 
atheistic  unbelief,  in  eight  annual  sermons.     (Cf.  \.  50,  1.) 

The  same  hostility  to  positive  religion  which  inspired  the  English 
deists,  manifested  itself  also  at  the  same  time  in  other  countries,  al- 
though in  more  separate  and  transient  forms.  In  Germany,  since  1672, 
Mathias  Knutzen  ("  Hans  Friederich  von  der  vernunft").  a  travelling 
candidate  of  Holstein,  endeavored,  by  scattering  numberless  tracts,  to 
establish  a  sect  of  free-thinkers,  under  the  name  of  the  "  conscientious  " 
(conscientiarii).  The  Christian  "Koran"  was  said  to  contain  only  lies 
and  frauds ;  reason  and  conscience  were  the  true  Bible  ;  neither  a  God, 
nor  a  hell,  nor  a  heaven  existed;  priests  and  magistrates  ought  to  bo 
driven  out  of  the  world,  etc.  As  he  asserted  that  in  Jena  and  the 
neighborhood  there  existed  already  more  than  700  believers  in  his  doc- 
trines, the  academic  senate  authorized  the  most  careful  and  anxious 
investigation  ;  the  result  proved  his  statement  to  be  empty  bragging. 
(Cf.  H.  -Rossel,  in  the  th.  studd.  u.  Kritt.  1844.  IV.)  —  In  France,  the 
path  of  a  frivolous  unbelief  was  opened  by  the  talented  but  flippant 
sceptic  Peter  Bayle  (ob.  1706).  The  Jesuits  gained  him,  the  son  of  a 
Reformed  preacher,  for  their  church  ;  but  within  a  year  and  a  half 
afterwards  he  apostatized.  He  applied  himself  now  to  the  study  of 
Cartesian  philosophy,  defended  Protestantism  in  several  polemic  trea- 
tises, and  wrote  his  celebrated  Dictionnaire  historique  et  critique,  in 
which,  it  is  true,  he  avoids  any  open  hostility  to,  or  ridicule  of,  the 
facts  of  revelation,  but  nevertheless  invites  thereto  by  his  frivolous 
treatment  of  them.     (Cf  $.  44,  10.) 


THIRD   PERIOD 


OF 

-       CHURCH    HISTORY 

IN  ITS  MODERN   GERMANIC  FORM  OF  DEVELOPMENT 

EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

Cf.  J.  A.  C.  Einem,  vers.  e.  vollet.  K.  G.  18.  Jahrb.  Lpz.  1782.  3  Bde. 
—J.  It.  Schlegel,  K.  G.  d.  18.  Jahrb.  Heilbr.  1784.  2  Bde.— J.  v.  Hutk, 
vers.  e.  K.  G.  d.  18.  Iahrb.  Augsb.  1807.  2  Bde.— F.  C.  Schlosser,  Gesch. 
d.  18.  Jahrb.  4.  A.  Heidelb.  1853.  ff.  4  Bde.— K.  R.  Hagenbach,  K.  G. 
d.  18.  19.  Jahrb.  2  A.  Lpz.  1856.  2  Bde.—/.  C.  L.  Gieseler,  K.  G.  d.  18. 
Jahrb.  Ilerausg.  v.  C.  B.  Bedepenning.  Bonn,  1857.  —  The  Weimar 
Acta  hist,  ecclest.  or  gesamm.  Nachr.  v.  d.  neuest.  K.  G.  Weim.  1734- 
58.  20  Bde. ;  Nova  acta,  1758-74.  12  Bde.  ;  acta  nostri  temp.  1774-90. 
13  Bde.—/7?-.  Walch,  Neueste  Bel.  Gesch.  Lemgo,  1771,  ff.  9  Bde.—  G. 
J.  Planck,  Neueste  Rel.  Gesch.  Lemgo,  1787,  ff.  3  Bde.  —  M.  Gregoire, 
Hist,  des  sectes  religieuses  depuis  le  commenc.  du  siecle  dernier.  Par, 
1828.  5  vols. 

I.  THE  PROVINCE  OF  THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

I  44.  THE  BOMAN  CATHOLIC  CHUBCH. 

Even  during  the  first  half  of  this  century,  many  slights  and 
defeats,  that  were  hard  to  bear,  were  inflicted  upon  the  papal 
hierarchy  by  the  Roman  Catholic  courts.  In  the  second  half, 
however,  dangers,  which  threatened  even  its  existence,  encom- 
passed it  on  every  side.  Portugal  and  the  Bourbon  court  in 
France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  did  not  rest  until  the  papacy  pro- 
nounced the  sentence  of  death  upon  the  Jesuits,  who  had  become 
its  strong  support,  but  also  its  master.  Soon  thereupon  the  Ger- 
man archbishops  threatened  to  emancipate  themselves  and  the 
German  Church  from  Rome,  and  what  they  were  not  able  to 
achieve  in  the  way  of  ecclesiastical  progress,  that  a  German 

(227) 


228   SECTION  III. —  THIRD  PERIOD  (CENT.  18  A.  D.)  . 

emperor  undertook  in  the  way  of  civil  reforms.  This  danger  was 
scarcely  avoided,  before  the  horrors  of  the  French  Revolution 
began,  which  attempted  to  exterminate  Christianity  as  well  as 
the  papacy.  Nevertheless,  Catholicism  celebrated,  especially 
during  the  first  decennia  of  this  century,  many  victories  after  its 
fashion,  through  contra-reformation  and  conversion.  Its  heathen 
missions,  however,  which  had  been  so  gloriously  begun,  came  to 
a  sad  end,  and  home  missions  were  also  crippled  everywhere. 
The  Jansenist  controversy  entered  upon  a  new  stage  at  the  be- 
ginning of  this  century,  which  drove  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
into  open  semipelagiauism,  and  the  Jansenists  into  extreme 
fanaticism.  Ecclesiastical  theology  sank  gradually  into  complete 
impotency,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  world  contributed  a  quota 
to  illumination,  in  comparison  with  which  that  of  the  Protestant 
world  was  only  a  dim  twilight. 

1.  The  Popes  of  the  first  half  of  the  Century. — Clement  XL  (1700- 
21)  protested  in  vain  against  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  placing  a 
royal  crown  upon  his  head.  He  fell  into  a  controversy  with  the  Em- 
peror Joseph.  I.  about  the  Jus  primarum  precum  (the  right  of  proposal 
to  vacant  benefices,  which  Joseph  treated  as  the  right  of  nomination), 
and  about  Parma,  which  the  pope  declared  to  be  a  papal,  the  emperor 
an  imperial  fief.  Clement  even  took  up  arms,  but  came  off  the  loser. 
The  sovereign  power  of  the  Sicilian  crown  in  ecclesiastical  matters  he 
attempted  to  break  by  ban  and  interdict,  but  was  compelled  instead  to 
support  3000  exiled  priests.  Benedict  XIII.  (1721-30)  lived  to  see 
John  V.  of  Portugal,  who  already  under  Clement  XL  obtained  by  defi- 
ance a  patriarch  of  Lisbon,  suspend  all  intercourse  with  Rome,  because 
the  pope  would  not  appoint  the  nuncio,  recalled  from  Portugal,  cardinal. 
He  canonized  Gregory  VII.  in  the  vain  hope  thereby  also  to  canonize 
his  system,  but  almost  all  courts  forbade  the  acknowledgment  of  the 
new  saint.  His  second  successor,  Benedict  XIV.  (1740-58),  on  the  other 
hand,  desired,  from  free  conviction,  to  liberate  the  papistic  theocratic 
principles  from  their  mediaeval  character,  and  give  them  a  proportion 
more  adapted  to  the  present  circumstances  ;  he  also  insisted  upon  the 
scientific  culture  of  the  clergy,  and  undertook  to  lessen  the  number  of 
festival  days,  but  abandoned  the  latter  on  account  of  violent  opposition. 

2.  Old  and  New  Orders.  —  The  Mechitarist- Congregation  traces  its 
origin  to  the  Armenian  Mekhitar,  who  (1701)  organized  at  Constantino- 
ple an  association  for  the  promotion  of  religious  and  scientifio  culture 
among  his  countrymen  ;  but,  being  opposed  by  the  Armenian  bishop, 
he  fled  to  Morca  (then  under  Venetian  rule)  and  connected  himself 
with  the  united  Armenians.  The  pope  confirmed  the  congregation 
(1712),  which,  during  the  war  with  the  Turks,  emigrated  to  Venice, 


THE    ROMAN     CATHOLIC     CHURCH.  229 

and  settled  upon  the  island  of  St.  Lazaro.  Its  members,  mostly  Arme- 
nians by  birth,  united  in  themselves,  since  then,  Armenian  and  Euro- 
pean learning,  transplanted  Roman  Catholic  literature  to  Armenia, 
and  transmitted  the  knowledge  of  Armenian  literature  to  the  Occident. 
In  modern  times  a  celebrated  Mechitarist  college  has  been  founded  at 
Vienna,  which  has  done  great  service  in  educating  the  youth  and  people 
by  publishing  and  selling  books.  The  order  of  Liguorians  or  Redemp- 
tionists  was  founded  (1732)  by  Alphonsus  Maria  de  Liguori  (formerly 
attorney  at  Naples),  to  aid  the  poorest  and  most  abandoned  among  the 
people  by  pastoral  care  and  instructing  the  young.  The  chief  vehicles 
of  its  efficiency  were  the  adoration  of  the  most  holy  sacrament  of  the 
altar  and  the  worship  of  the  most  blessed  virgin.  The  founder  died  in 
1782,  and  was  canonized  in  1839.  His  numerous  devotional  writings 
found  great  favor  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  have  been  trans- 
lated into  all  the  languages  of  Europe  His  Order,  meanwhile,  only 
attained  to  great  importance  after  receiving  into  its  bosom  crowds  of 
Jesuits,  who  had  been  scattered  by  the  abolition  of  their  Order  (1773). 
The  Jesuits  especially  were  active  in  promoting  the  silly  worship  of  the 
heart  of  Jesus  by  establishing  brotherhoods  and  sisterhoods  among  the 
people  ;  but  they  met  with  much  opposition,  especially  from  the  Domi- 
nicans, who  dragged  the  anatomy  of  the  heart  into  their  mocking 
polemics.  Rome  also  hesitated  long  in  acknowledging  it,  until  finally 
the  friend  of  the  Jesuits,  Clement  XIII.,  to  please  his  proteges,  intro- 
duced (17G5)  the  Festival  of  the  Heart  of  Jesus  (Feb.  6).  With  regard 
to  the  old  Orders,  the  fate  of  Clugny  is  worthy  of  special  mention. 
After  the  13th  century,  luxuriancy  and  worldliness  spread  without  re- 
sistance, on  account  of  the  prevailing  love  of  pomp  and  enormous 
wealth  of  this  congregation.  All  attempts  at  reformation  were  fruit- 
less. In  order  to  escape  the  rapacity  of  the  neighboring  lords,  Clugny 
placed  itself  under  royal  protection,  and  became  now  a  royal  com- 
niandry.  At  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  its  abbots  were,  for  the 
most  part,  from  the  house  of  the  Guises.  But  their  attempts  at  reform 
were  also  without  permanent  results  ;  they  rather  caused  endless  divi- 
sions and  collisions.  The  plan  to  unite  the  party  of  the  Reformers  with 
the  Maurinians,  which  Cardinal  Richelieu  carried  out  (1G27),  as  also 
the  later  attempts  of  Cardinal  Mazarin,  to  support  them  by  a  union 
■with  the  congregation  of  St.  Vanne,  failed  on  account  of  the  opposition 
of  the  Cluniacensians.  The  abbots  scpuandered  the  revenues  at  the 
court,  and  allowed  everything  to  go  topsy-turvy  in  the  monasteries. 
When  (1790)  all  the  monasteries  in  France  were  closed,  the  town  of 
Clugny  purchased  the  monastery  and  its  church  for  100,000  fr.,  and 
levelled  them  to  the  ground. 

3.  Heathen  Missions.     (Cf.  §35,3).  —  The  accommodation   contro- 
versy extended  from  the  previous  century  also  into  the  present.    Finally 
the  Dominicans  were  victorious.     In  1742,  all  the  Jesuit  missionaries 
in  China  were  compelled  to  swear  that  they  would  more  strictly  reject 
63 


230         SECTION    III. —  THIRD    PERIOD    (CENT.  18   A.  D.). 

all  heathen  customs  and  usages.  But  the  rejection  of  native  customs 
provoked,  instead  of  the  toleration  hitherto  existing,  a  long  persecu- 
tion, from  which  only  some  ruins  of  the  church  were  saved.  In  East 
India  labored  at  the  beginning  of  this  century  the  Italian  Jesuit  BescJii, 
a  great  linguist,  who  toiled  zealously,  and  with  incredible  success,  to 
secure  the  native  literature  for  missionary  purposes,  and  to  substitute 
for  it  a  Christian  one.  Besides,  the  Capuchins  opposed  the  Jesuits 
also  here  with  the  same  arguments,  with  the  same  result  as  in  China. 
Violent  persecutions  were  provoked  by  the  enjoined  renunciation  of 
the  accommodation  system,  and  ruined  the  mission.  The  idyllic  Jesuit 
state  in  Paraguay  was  also  finally  (1750)  destroyed  by  a  treaty  between 
Portugal  and  Spain. 

4.  Contra-Beformation.  —  In  Poland,  the  Protestants  lost  (1717)  the 
right  to  build  new  churches,  and  were  even  declared  (1733)  incapable 
of  holding  civil  offices,  and  of  participating  in  the  diets.  In  the  Pro- 
testant city  of  Thorn,  the  Jesuits  avenged  a  popular  riot  directed  against 
their  college  there,  by  a  fearful  official  massacre  (1724).  In  Salzburg 
the  Archbishop  Count  Firmian  attempted  forcibly  to  convert  the  evan- 
gelicals, who  had  been  tolerated  up  to  this  time  as  quiet  and  industrious 
subjects  (1729).  But  their  elders  swore  upon  the  host  and  consecrated 
salt  (2  Chron.  13  :  5)  to  remain  true  to  their  faith.  This  "salt  cove- 
nant" was  interpreted  as  rebellion,  and  in  spite  of  the  intervention  of 
Protestant  princes,  all  the  evangelicals  were  banished  from  house  and 
home  in  the  bitter  winter  of  1731.  About  20,000  were  gladly  welcomed 
in  Prussian  Litthauen,  others  emigrated  to  America.  The  pope  highly 
praised  the  "glorious"  Archbishop  (cf.  J.  J.  Moser,  Actenmasziger 
Bericht,  etc.,  Erl.  1732,  2  Bde.— K.  Pause,  Gesch.  d.  ausw.  d.  ev.  Salzb. 
Lpz.  1827).—  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  who,  being  at  war  with  August. 
II.  of  Poland,  had  taken  military  possession  of  Silesia  and  Saxony, 
compelled  the  Emperor  Joseph  I.  in  the  Old-Ranstadt  treaty  (1707) 
a<min  solemnly  to  confirm  to  the  Protestants  in  Silesia  the  concessions 
of  the  Westphalian  peace,  and  to  restore  to  them  a  part  of  the  churches 
taken  from  them  by  force. 

In  France,  the  persecutions  continued  against  the  Huguenots.  Their 
pastors  (the  pasteurs  du  desert)  could  perform  spiritual  offices  only  in 
constant  danger  of  death  ;  and  though  many  of  them  received  the 
martyr's  crown  at  the  hands  of  the  hangman,  there  were  not  wanting 
heroic  men,  who  filled  the  gaps,  and  those  committed  to  their  care  re- 
warded them  by  faithfulness  and  steadfastness  in  faith  (cf.  C.  H.  Co- 
querel,  Hist,  des  eglises  du  desert.  Par.  1841,  2  vols.— Peyrat,  Hist, 
des  pasteurs  du  desert.  Par.  1842,  2  vols.— G.  Schilling,  die  verfolg. 
d.  prot.  K.  in  Frkr.  nach  Coquerel.  Stuttg.  1846).— A  terrible  exam- 
ple of  the  fanaticism  of  Rom.  Cath.  Franco  is  presented  in  the  judicial 
murder  of  Jean  Calas  at  Toulouse  (1762).  One  of  his  sons  hung  him- 
self in  an  attack  of  melancholy.  The  report  spread  that  it  was  done 
by  his  father,  to  anticipate  the  contemplated  conversion  of  the  son. 


THE    ROMAN    CATHOLIC    CnUXCH.  231 

The  Dominicans  canonized  the  suicide  as  a  martyr  of  the  Roman  Ca- 
tholic faith  ;  the  excited  mob  cried  for  vengeance,  and  the  parliament 
permitted  the  unfortunate  father  to  be  broken  upon  the  wheel.  The 
remaining  sons  were  compelled  to  renounce  their  faith,  and  the  daugh- 
ters were  placed  in  a  nunnery.  Two  years  later  Voltaire  brought  this 
dreadful  crime  again  to  notice  in  his  Treatise  sur  la  tolerance,  and,  by 
agitating  public  opinion,  he  brought  to  pass  a  revision  of  the  trial, 
which  placed  the  entire  innocence  of  the  abused  family  in  the  clearest 
light.  Louis  XV.  gave  them  a  sum  of  30,000  livres.  The  fanatical 
accusers,  the  false  witnesses,  and  the  judicial  murderers,  were  not 
punished.  Still  this  event  contributed  towards  improving  in  a  measure 
the  condition  of  the  Protestants,  and  in  1787  Louis  XVI.  issued  the 
edict  of  Versailles,  by  which  a  legal  civil  existence  was  guaranteed  to 
them.  Only  the  French  Revolution  brought  them  (already  1789,  by  a 
decree  of  the  National  Convention)  religious  freedom,  and  Napoleon's 
organic  law  (1802)  also  renewed  and  confirmed  to  them  this  con- 
cession. 

5.  Conversions.  —  Pecuniary  embarrassment  and  the  prospect  of 
marrying  a  rich  heiress,  influenced  Duke  Charles  Alexander  von  WUr~ 
tembercj,  who  was  then  in  the  military  service  of  Austria,  to  permit 
himself  to  be  converted  by  the  Jesuits  in  1712.  But  when  he  ascended 
the  throne,  he  was  bound  in  the  most  solemn  manner  to  permit  the  old 
state  of  things  to  exist,  and  to  allow  no  Roman  Catholic  worship  in  the 
land,  outside  of  his  court-chapel.  The  most  important  of  the  other 
converts  of  this  century  are  Winckelmann  and  Stolberg.  In  the  case 
of  both,  although  in  directly  opposite  ways,  Protestant  illumination 
was  blamed  with  their  apostacy  from  Protestantism.  Whilst  Winck- 
elmann, the  greatest  art  critic  of  all  times,  was  not  led  by  religious, 
but  by  artistic  ultra-montanism,  into  the  bosom  of  the  only  saving 
church  (1754),  the  warm  heart  of  a  Leop.  v.  Stolberg  was  not  able 
longer  to  hold  out  beneath  the  air-pump  of  Protestant  rationalism,  and 
escaped  to  the  perfumed  atmosphere  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
(1800). 

6.  Jansenism  in  its  Second  Stage.  (Cf.  \  36,  2.)  —  A  new  measure 
of  violence,  proceeding  from  the  papal  court,  which  was  controlled  by 
French  influence,  renewed  the  Jansenist  controversy  in  a  much  more 
threatening  form.  A  priest  of  the  Oratorium,  who  had  been  driven 
from  Paris,  Paschasius  Quesnel  (ob.  1719),  published  in  1-693  an  edition 
of  the  New  Testament,  with  excellent  edifying  remarks  of  an  evange- 
lical character.  Many  bishops  used  and  recommended  this  book, 
among  them  also  the  Archbishop  of  Paris,  Cardinal  Noailles,  who  had 
it  previously  examined  by  Bossuet.  The  Jesuits,  who  hated  the  ener 
getic  and  honest  archbishop  as  greatly  as  the  "Jansenist"  book,  re- 
commended by  him,  obtained,  through  the  artful  confessor  of  the  king 
the  Jesuit  Le  Tellier,  a  papal  bull  (1713)  from  Clement  XL,  the  so- 
called  Constitution  "  Unigenitus,"  in  which  101  sentences,  taken  from 


232        SECTION   III. —  THIRD   PERIOD    (CENT.  18  A.  D.)  . 

Quesnol's  New  Testament,  were  condemned  as  heretical.  This  act  oi 
papal  indiscretion,  by  which  the  most  palpable  semipclagianism  was 
stamped  as  Roman  Catholic  doctrine,  and  Augustine  practically  made 
a  heretic,  divided  the  French  Church  into  the  two  parties,  viz.,  the 
Constitutionalists  or  Acceptants,  who  accepted  the  constitution,  and 
the  Appellants,  at  the  head  of  whom  was  Noailles,  who  formally  and 
solemnly  protested  against  it.  The  death  of  Louis  XIV.  (1715),  and 
the  regency  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  afforded  the  appellants  free  scope 
for  a  time  ;  even  the  thunderbolt  of  excommunication  hurled  at  them 
in  1718,  had  no  effect.  But  Dubois,  the  favorite  of  the  duke,  strove 
after  the  cardinal's  hat,  and  took  sides  against  the  appellants;  and 
Louis  XV.,  led  by  his  former  teacher,  Cardinal  Fleury,  oppressed  them 
in  every  way.  Noailles  was  compelled  (1728)  to  submit,  and  (1730) 
the  constitution  was  formally  registered  as  the  law  of  the  empire.  A 
fanatical  ascetic  spirit  now  took  possession  of  the  extremely  oppressed 
Jansenists.  A  young  Jansenist  clergyman,  Francis  v.  Paris,  died  with 
an  appellation  document  in  his  hand  (1727).  His  followers  honored 
him  as  a  saint,  and  numerous  reports  of  miracles,  that  occurred  at  his 
grave  in  the  grave-yard  of  Medardus  in  Paris,  made  the  same  a  daily 
place  of  pilgrimage  for  thousands  of  fanatics.  The  wild  fanaticism, 
which  manifested  itself  in  convulsions  and  prophecies  concerning  the 
destruction  of  the  State  and  Church,  spread  wider  and  wider,  and 
seized  also,  with  contagious  power,  many  who  were  altogether  frivolous 
and  hitherto  unbelieving  men.  The  government  had  the  church-yard 
walled  up  (1732),  but  portions  of  the  earth  from  the  grave  of  the  saint 
also  produced  convulsions  and  worked  miracles.  Thousands  of  con- 
vulsionaires  were  now  cast  into  prison,  and  the  Archbishop  Beaumont 
of  Paris,  in  connection  with  many  bishops,  resolved  (1752)  to  refuse 
the  dying  sacraments  to  all  those  who  produced  no  evidence  that  they 
accepted  the  constitution.  The  grave  of  "  St.  Francis"  became,  mean- 
while, the  grave  of  Jansenism,  for  every  fanaticism  carries  in  itself  the 
germ  of  death,  and  communicates  it  to  every  phenomenon,  which  it 
brings  under  its  power.  Nevertheless,  remnants  of  Jansenists  existed 
in  France  even  to  the  Revolution,  which  they  had  prophesied  ;  and  in 
the  Netherlands  a  Jansenist  Roman  Catholic  Church,  embracing  5000 
souls  in  25  congregations,  independent  of  the  pope,  under  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Utrecht  and  the  Bishops  of  Harlem  and  Daintry,  has  con- 
tinued to  the  present  time.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  Netherlands 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  abolished  by  the  Reformation,  except 
in  Utrecht,  where  there  remained  a  chapter  and  an  archbishop  in  par- 
tibus.  In  1704  the  occupant  of  this  position,  Peter  Codde,  was  charged 
by  the  Jesuits  with  being  a  Jansenist,  and  was  deposed  by  the  pope. 
Tin;  chapter,  however,  would  not  acknowledge  his  Jesuit  successor. 
All  later  attempts  at  reconciliation  were  frustrated  by  the  refusal  of 
the  citizens  of  Utrecht  to  receive  the  constitution  unigenitus.  (Cf. 
Tit.  Fliedner,  Collectenreise  nach  Ilollaud  und  England.  Essen, 1831. )30 


THE  ROMAN  CATHOL.C  CHURCH.        283 

7.  The  Abolition  of  the  Order  of  the  Jesuits  (1773).  (Cf.  G  v.  Murr, 
Gesch.  d.  Jes.  in  Portug.  Niirinb.  1787,  2  Bde.  [le  Bret.]  Slnunl.  d. 
merkw.  Schr.  d.  Aufh.  d.  Jes.  betr.  Frkf.  1773,  4  Bde.  A.— At.  v.  St. 
Priest,  Gesch  d.  Sturzes  d.  Jes.  deutsch  v.  L.  v.  Moseler,  Ilainin.  1845. 
—  Carra'cioli,  vie  de  Clem.  XIV.,  Par.  1775. — Aug.  Theiner,  Gesch.  d. 
Pontificats  Clem.  XIY.  nach  unedist.  Staatsschr.  Lpz.,  1853,  2  Bde.) — 
The  Jesuits  strove  continually  with  increasing  zeal  and  success  towards 
a  dominion  of  the  world,  and  in  addition  to  or  instead  of  the  original 
absolute  subjection  to  the  interests  of  the  papacy,  the  founding  of  an 
independent  politico-hierarchical  power  seemed  more  and  more  to  be- 
come the  chief  object  in  view.  Their  aspiration  after  sovereignty  lost, 
it  is  true,  its  first  support  by  the  destruction  of  the  Jesuit-state  in 
Paraguay,  but  for  that  they  obtained  a  part  of  the  commerce  of  the 
world,  and  endeavored  to  control  the  politics  of  Europe.  The  Jansenist 
controversy  also  increased  the  hatred  of  the  people  towards  them  ; 
Pascal  exposed  them  before  the  whole  educated  world,  the  other  orders 
of  monks  were  from  the  beginning  hostile  to  them  :  their  participation 
in  commerce  excited  the  jealousy  of  traders,  and  their  interference 
with  politics  finally  overthrew  them  entirely.  The  government  of  Por- 
tugal took  the  first  decided  step.  A  rebellion  in  Paraguay,  and  an 
attempt  upon  the  life  of  the  king  (Joseph  Emanuel),  were  generally 
attributed  to  them;  and  the  minister  Pombal,  whose  plans  of  reform 
they  opposed  everywhere,  accomplished  their  entire  banishment  from 
Portugal  in  1759,  together  with  the  confiscation  of  their  property. 
Pope  Clement  XIII.  (1758-G9),  who  was  elected  and  ruled  by  the  Je- 
suits, took  them  into  his  protection  by  a  bull ;  but  Portugal  prohibited 
the  bull,  conveyed  the  papal  nuncio  beyond  the  frontiers,  suspended 
all  intercourse  with  Rome,  and  sent  whole  ship-loads  of  Jesuits  to  the 
pope.  France  followed  the  example  of  Portugal,  when  the  General, 
Lor.  Ricci,  answered  the  demands  of  the  king  for  a  reformation  of  his 
order  with  the  laconic  words :  Sint  ut  sunt,  aut  non  sint.  The  whole 
order  was  held  responsible  for  the  great  bankruptcy  of  the  Jesuit  La 
Valette,  and  it  was  at  length  (1764)  banished  from  France  as  being 
dangerous  to  the  State.  Spain  also,  and  Naples,  and  Parma,  soon 
thereupon  had  all  Jesuits  arrested  and  carried  beyond  the  frontiers. 
The  new  election  for  pope,  after  the  death  of  Clement  XIII.,  was  a 
vital  question  for  the  Order,  but  the  influence  of  the  courts  triumphed, 
and  the  liberal  Minorite  Ganganelli  was  elected  as  Clement  XIV. 
(1769-74).  Urged  by  the  Bourbon  courts,  he  finally,  after  long  waver- 
ing and  hesitation,  pronounced,  by  the  bull  Dominus  ac  Redemtor 
noster  (1773),  the  abolition  of  the  Order  (which  now  numbered  22,600 
members),  as  an  act  of  present  necessity,  but  added  thereto,  sighing: 
Questa  suppressionc  mi  dara  la  morte.  And  it  so  happened,  for  in  the 
next  year  he  died,  with  all  the  signs  of  having  been  poisoned.  All  the 
Roman  Catholic  courts  carried  out  the  abolition,  even  Austria,  after 
that  the  Spanish  court  had  sent  to  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa  a  copy 
63* 


234        SECTION    III THIRD    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.   18    A.  D.). 

of  their  general  confession  from  the  confiscated  papers  of  the  Jesuits 
The  heretic  Frederick  II.,  however,  still  tolerated  the  Order  for  a  time 
in  Silesia,  and  Catharine  II.  in  her  Polish  provinces.     (Clement  XIV, 
also  abolished  the  reading  of  the  Lord's  Supper  bull  on  Maundy  Thurs- 
day,  I  115.)     (Cf.  g  57,  1,  2.) 

8.  Anil-  Hierarchical  Movement  in  Germany.  (Cf.  E.  v.  Munch, 
Gesch.  d.  emser  Congresses  u.  s.  Peructation.  Karlsr.  1840. — Ph. 
Wolf,  Gesch.  d.  rom.  kath.  K.  unter  Pius  VI.,  1802,  7  Bde.— Grosz- 
Hojfingcr,  Leb.  u.  Regier.-Gesch,  Joseph's  II.  Stuttg.  1835,  3  Bde. — ■ 
M.  C.  Paganel,  Gesch.  Joseph's  II.,  aus  d.  Franz,  v.  Fr.  Kohler.  Lpz. 
1844. — E.  v.  Miliich,  Leop.  v.  Oest.  als  lleformator ;  in  dess.  Denkwiir- 
digkk.  zur  Gesch.  p.  303,  sq. — l)e  Potter,  Leb.  u.  Memoiren  des  Scipio 
v.  Rioci,  Aus  d.  Fr.  Stuttg.  1826,  4  Bde.)— The  suffragan  Bishop  of 
Treves,  Nicholas  con  Hontheim,  published,  at  the  time  when  Clement 
XIII.  was  contending  with  the  Bourbon  courts,  a  treatise  (De  statu 
ecclesiae  et  legit,  potestati  Rom.  Pontificis  ad  reuniendos  dissidentes  in 
rel.  christ.  composit.  Bullioni  [Frcf.]  1763-74,  4  vol.  4to.),  in  which  he 
defended,  with  ability  and  learning,  the  superior  authority  of  the 
general  councils  and  the  independence  of  the  bishops  against  the 
hierarchical  pretensions  of  the  popes.  The  book  produced  a  profound 
sensation  in  and  beyond  Germany,  and  the  pope  did  not  dare  to  harm 
the  bold  champion  of  the  freedom  of  the  Church.  It  was  only  his  se- 
cond successor,  Pius  VI.  (1775-99)  who  had  the  poor  satisfaction  of 
extorting  a  retraction  from  the  dying  old  man  (1778),  but  he  also  lived 
to  see  other  and  more  dangerous  storms  break  loose  upon  the  hierarchy. 
First,  the  Electors  of  Mayence,  Treves,  and  Cologne,  together  with  the 
Archbishop  of  Salzburg,  pi'ovoked  by  the  arbitrary  conduct  of  a  papal 
nuncio,  assembled  together  in  a  spiritual  congress  at  Ems  (1786),  and 
resolved  upon  the  restoration  of  a  German  Roman  Catholic  National 
Church,  independent  of  Rome,  in  the  so-called  Ems  Punctatio.v. 
But  the  German  bishops  found  it  more  convenient  to  obey  the  distant 
pope  than  the  near  archbishops.  They  joined  their  opposition  with 
that  of  the  pope,  and  the  project  of  the  archbishops  produced  no  re- 
sults. Still  more  threatening  to  the  continuance  of  the  hierarchy  was 
the  government  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  in  Austria  (1765-90).  lie 
had  scarcely  come  into  possession  of  sole  authority,  after  the  deatli  of 
his  mother,  before  he  began  a  radical  reform  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  in 
his  kingdom.  Already  in  1781  he  issued  the  edict  of  tolerance,  by 
which  political  rights  and  the  free  exercise  of  religion  was  secured  to 
the  Protestants.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  to  be  torn  from 
Roman  influence,  to  be  placed  under  a  sovereign  episcopate,  and  made 
serviceable  for  the  religious  and  moral  culture  of  the  nation,  and  all 
its  institutions,  which  could  not  be  used  to  promote  this  object,  were  to 
be  abolished.  The  bishops,  as  well  as  the  pope,  protested  in  vain  ;  the 
latter  even,  trusting  in  the  power  of  his  personality,  undertook  a  jour- 
ney to  Vienna  (17*2).     He  was  politely  and  solemnly  received,  but  was 


THE    ROMAN    CATHOLIC    CHURCH.  235 

not  able  to  change  the  decision  of  the  emperor  in  the  least.  Still  Jo- 
seph's undertaking,  which  was  carried  on  in  haste,  without  proper 
discretion  and  reflection,  without  sparing  what  had  been  historically 
established,  and  generally  more  from  a  humanitarian  than  religious 
stand-point,  failed  on  account  of  the  brief  reign  of  the  emperor  and 
the  reaction  of  all  those  who  had  suffered  from  it.  The  Grand-Duke, 
Leopold  von  Tuscany,  Joseph's  brother,  also  attempted,  since  1786, 
to  reform  in  a  similar  way  the  Church  of  his  province,  with  the  co- 
operation of  the  pious  (Jansenist)  Bishop  Scipio  of  Ricci  (Synod  at 
Pistoja,  1786),  but  in  this  ease  also  th"  hierarchy  was  finally  triumph- 
ant.    (Cf.  I  57,  5.) 

9.  The  French  Revolution.  (Cf.  Abbe  Baldassari,  Gesch.  der  Weg- 
fiihrung  u.  Gefangenschaft  Pius  VI.,  aus  d.  Franz,  v.  H.  Steck,  Liibg. 
1844.)—  Pitts  VI.  was  to  survive  a  still  worse  state  of  affairs.  In  1789 
the  horrors  of  the  Revolution  began  to  afflict  the  Church  no  less  than 
the  State.  The  National  Assembly  (1789-91)  did  not  design  to  interfere 
with  the  faith  of  the  people,  but  only  with  the  hierarchy,  and  to  deliver 
the  State  out  of  its  financial  embarrassments  by  the  possessions  of  the 
Church.  All  monasteries  were  abolished  (1790)  and  their  possessions 
sold.  (Concerning  the  fate  of  Clugny,  cf.  above  2,  and  of  La  Trappe, 
I  57,  2.)  The  clergy  were  to  be  paid  by  the  State  and  elected  by  the 
people.  The  liberty  of  faith  was  declared  to  be  an  inalienable  right 
of  man.  The  National  Assembly  required  the  clergy  to  take  the  oath 
of  allegiance  to  the  Constitution ;  the  pope  forbade  it;  both  under  the  pen- 
alty of  removal  from  office.  Thus  a  formal  schism  took  place ;  the  priests, 
who  refused  to  take  the  oath,  for  the  most  part  emigrated.  Avignon 
was  united  with  the  French  State.  The  terroristic  National  Convention 
{1792-95)  brought  the  king  to  the  scaffold,  destroyed  all  Christian 
customs,  and  formally  abolished  Christianity  (cf.  §  10).  The  Directory 
(1795-99),  occupied  more  with  foreign  affairs,  again,  it  is  true,  per- 
mitted Christian  worship,  but  French  armies  overran  Italy  and  avenged 
the  opposition  of  the  pope  by  proclaiming  a  Roman  republic  (1798). 
Pius  VI.  was  taken  as  a  prisoner  to  France,  and  died  from  the  cruelties 
of  the  Freneh,  without  doing  anything  to  prejudice  himself  and  his 
dignity  (1799).     (Cf.  §  57,  1.) 

10.  The  Roman  Catholic  Contribution  towards  Illumination.  (Cf. 
L.  Noack,  d.  Freidenker  in  d.  Relig.  Bd.  II.  Die  Tranzos.  Freidenker* 
Berne,  1854.)— The  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV.,  with  the  morality  of  its 
Jesuistic  confessors,  with  its  licentiousness,  bigotry,  and  hypocrisy  at 
the  court,  with  its  dragoon  and  Bastile  polemics  against  all  reactions 
of  a  living  Christianity  (among  Huguenots,  mystics,  and  Jansenists), 
with  its  Cevennes  prophets  and  Jansenist  convulsionaires,  etc.,  called 
forth  a  free-thinking  spirit  in  the  educated  French  world,  to  which 
Catholicism,  Jansenism,  and  Protestantism,  appeared  both  ridiculous 
and  absurd.  This  spirit  was  essentially  different  from  English  deism. 
The  principle  of  English  deism  was  Common-sense,  the  general  mora' 


23G        SECTION   III. —  THIRD   PERIOD    (CENT.  18   A.D.). 

consciousness  in  man,  advocated  with  the  clumsy  weapons  of  raticnal 
criticism;  it  still  held  fast  to  something  ideal  and  moral  in  man,  and 
had  a  kind  of  religion  (providence,  virtue,  immortality).  French  Na- 
turalism, on  the  other  hand,  was  a  philosophy  of  esprit,  that  pecu- 
liarly French,  frivolous  ingenuity,  using  the  weapons  of  ridicule  and 
wit,  which  denied  and  derided  everything  moral  and  ideal.  Nevertiie- 
less,  a  close  and  causal  connection  existed  between  the  two ;  the  philo- 
sophy of  Common-sense  was  carried  over  to  France,  and  was  here 
remodelled  into  a  philosophy  of  esprit:  this  was  a  travesty  of  that. 
The  birth-places  of  this  French  philosophy  were  the  bureaux  d'esprit, 
the  clubs  and  salons  of  the  metropolis,  its  common  and  widely  circu- 
lating organ  was  the  Encyclopedic,  edited  by  Diderot  and  D ' Alembert. 
Its  most  brilliant  and  influential  representatives,  whose  numerous 
writings  unchristianized  and  demoralized  not  only  France,  but  also  the 
educated  and  leading  classes  in  remaining  Europe,  were,  besides  the 
two  above-named:  Voltaire  (ob.  1778),  Helvetius,  Montesquieu,  and 
Rousseau  (ob.  1778).  The  physician  De  la  Mettrie  ("L'homme  ma- 
chine," etc.),  and  the  German-French  Baron  de  Ilolbach  ("Systeme  de 
la  nature,"  etc.),  reduced  it  to  the  most  shameless  materialism.  The 
French  Revolution  ripened  the  fruit  of  this  sowing.  The  National 
Convention  formally  abolished  Christianity,  permitted  about  2000 
churches  to  be  burned  and  destroyed,  and  built  a  temple  de  la  Raison, 
in  which  a  harlot  represented  the  goddess  of  reason  (1794).  The  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris,  Gobel,  appeared  with  his  clergy  before  the  bar  of  the 
Convention,  and  declared  that  his  previous  life  had  been  a  delusion ; 
that  he  now  acknowledged  no  other  religion  but  that  of  liberty,  lio- 
bespierre,  however,  had  the  resolution  passed  in  1794:  Le  peuple  fran- 
cais  recommit  l'Etre  supreme  et  l'immortalite  de  l'ame,  and  had  a 
stupid  Fete  de  l'Etre  supreme  celebrated.  The  Directory,  it  is  true, 
allowed  Christian  worship  again,  but  it  also  favored,  as  it  was  able, 
the  deistic  sect  of  Theophilanthropists,  which,  with  its  hollow  phrases, 
soon  provoked  the  ridicule  of  public  opinion. 

The  German  Roman  Catholic  Church  also  suffered  from  this  spirit 
of  illumination,  which,  since  the  middle  of  this  century,  spread  through 
Protestant  Germany.  Whilst  the  (magnetic?)  exorcisms  and  cures  of 
Paler  Gassner  in  Regensburg  still  gained  many  triumphs  for  Roman 
Catholicism  (certainly  of  so  doubtful  a  character,  that  the  bishops,  the 
emperor,  and  finally  the  Roman  court  itself,  found  it  necessary  to  check 
the  doings  of  the  wonder-worker),  Ad.  Weishaupt,  professor  in  Ingol- 
stadt,  instituted,  with  the  forms  of  Free-masonry,  the  secret  Order  of 
llluminati  (1770),  which  spread  the  most  superficial  ideas  of  progress 
and  human  perfectibility  over  the  whole  of  Germany,  although  it  was 
already  dissolved  in  1780  by  the  Bavarian  government,  in  consequence 
of  the  treason  of  several  members.  But  its  secondary  effects  existed 
long  afterwards.  The  spirit  of  illumination  also  influenced  Roman 
Catholic  theology.    But  that  the  Church  still  possessed  power  to  check 


THE  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH.  237 

it,  is  shown  by  the  fate  of  Prof.  Lorenzo  Isenbiehl  of  Mayence,  who  ap- 
plied the  passage,  Isaiah  7 :  14,  not  to  the  mother  of  Christ,  but  to  the 
betrothed  bride  of  the  prophet,  and  was  therefor  deposed  and  sent  back 
to  the  seminary  for  two  years  on  account  of  deficient  theological  know- 
ledge (1774).  When  he  later  (1778)  published  a  learned  treatise  on 
the  same  subject,  he  had  to  atone  for  it  by  imprisonment.  The  pope 
also  condemned  his  interpretation,  and  Isenbiehl  recanted  as  a  good 
Catholic.  It  went  still  harder  Avith  a  young  jurist  of  Salzburg,  named 
Steinbuliler,  who,  on  account  of  several  satires  on  Roman  Catholic 
ceremonies,  was  condemned  to  death  (1781),  but  was  afterwards  par- 
doned, although  he  soon  afterwards  died  from  the  cruel  treatment  he 
received. 

11.  Roman  Catholic  Theology. — The  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes 
was  the  sentence  of  death  for  French  Reformed  theology,  which  was 
thereby  deprived  of  all  the  conditions  of  life  ;  but  it  at  the  same  time 
also  deprived  French  Roman  Catholic  theology  of  its  stimulus  and  im- 
pulse. The  latter  could  now  lie  peaceably  on  its  lees,  since  Huguenot 
polemics  were  silenced,  and  Huguenot  learning  no  longer  provoked  to 
rivalry,  and  resignedly  commit  the  carrying  on  of  polemics  to  the  dra- 
goons, the  scaffold,  and  the  Bastile.  There  was  yet  added  to  this  the 
violent  extermination  of  Jansenism,  which  deprived  the  French  Roman 
Catholic  Church  of  its  noblest  powers.  The  first  half  of  this  century 
has,  nevertheless,  a  few  distinguished  names  to  show,  as  sporadic  se- 
condary effects  of  the  previous  brilliant  epoch  ;  in  the  second  half, 
however,  theology  sank  into  absolute  impotency.  Retribution  did  not 
tarry.  The  Huguenot  opposition  to  the  papacy  and  the  Jansenist 
to  Pelagianism  were  destroyed,  but  the  most  shameless  naturalism, 
atheism,  and  materialism,  with  the  war-cry :  Ecrasez  l'infame,  stood 
now  victorious  on  the  plain  ;  and  Roman  Catholic  theology  sunk  into  so 
deep  a  lethargy,  that  it  could  not  even  attempt  earnestly  to  combat  and 
resist,  but  was  compelled  to  surrender  itself  and  the  entire  French  na- 
tion to  the  monster.  Theological  learning  had  also  greatly  declined  in 
the  other  Roman  Catholic  countries.  Only  Italy  had  a  few  brilliant 
names  in  the  first  half  of  this  century.  In  Roman  Catholic  Germany 
a  self-dependent  activity  in  theology  only  manifested  itself  in  the  time 
of  Joseph  II.,  and  under  the  tolerance  which  he  granted  an  almost 
cynical  spirit  of  free-thinking  (especially  in  judging  matters  of  a 
Church-historical  character)  developed  itself  among  many  Roman 
Catholic  theologians  of  the  empire  (Royko,  Wolff,  Dannenmayr,  Michl, 
etc.)  On  the  other  hand,  from  the  school  of  the  noble  mystic,  Michael 
Sailer  (ob.  1832),  there  went  forth  a  Catholicism  that  was  as  hearty 
and  warm  as  it  was  mild  and  irenical,  which  could  also  be  enjoyed 
by  pious  Protestants  of  a  common  faith  and  life,  and  whose  brotherly 
spiritual  communion  needed  not  to  be  repelled.  Sailer  was  removed 
from  his  office  in  Dillingen  (1794),  because  he  was  not  considered  sulfi- 
ciently  orthodox,  but  he  became  later  Prof,  at  Ingolstadt,  and  (ob.  1832) 
as  Bishop  of  Regensburg. 


238   SECTION  III. —  THIRD  PERIOD  (CENT.  18  A.  D.). 

Distinguished  in  the  sphere  of  Biblical  Theology  are:  the  Oratorian 
Jac.  le  Long  (ob.  1721),  whose  chief  work,  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  presents 
a  very  valuable  historical  apparatus  for  the  study  of  the  Bible, — espe- 
cially in  the  essentially  improved  form,,  which  has  been  given  to  it  by 
the  Protestant  editors  Horner  and  Masch  (Halle,  1778,  4  Bde.  4to.). 
John  Martianay  (ob.  1717),  the  learned  publisher  of  Jerome,  also  wrote 
an  admirable  work  on  Hermeneutics,  in  which  he  lays  down  the  prin- 
ciple, that  the  Bible  is  to  be  explained  by  the  Bible.  The  Benedictine, 
Augustine  Calmet  (ob.  1757),  contributed  a  valuable  Dictionnaire  hist, 
chronol.  geogr.  de  la  Bible  and  a  Commentaire  litteral  et  critique  on 
the  whole  Bible,  in  23  vols.  4to.  His  exegesis  is  especially  valuable  as 
regards  external  matters,  but  its  theology  is  superficial.  The  most 
valuable  are  the  appended  historical  and  critical  Dissertations,  which 
Mosheim  had  translated  and  accompanied  with  condensed  remarks. 
The  Oratorian  Houbigant  and  the  Italian  Bernard  de  Rossi  contributed 
much  of  importance  for  the  criticism  of  the  text  of  the  Old  Testament. 
In  the  time  of  Joseph  II.,  the  free-thinking,  latitudinarian,  supernatu- 
ralistic  John  John,  Prof,  at  Vienna,  elevated  the  study  of  the  Bible 
in  the  German  Roman  Catholic  Church,  by  publishing  a  number  of 
learned  works  (the  most  valuable  of  which  are:  Einleitung  ins  A.  T. 
4  Bde.  u.  Biblische  Archaologie,  5  Bde.) ;  but  he  was  compelled  to 
abandon  his  professorship,  on  account  of  unchurchly  tendencies,  and 
died  in  181G,  as  canon  at  Vienna.  In  the  sphere  of  Church  History,  the 
Italian  John  Dominic  Mansi  (ob.  17G9)  (Vollst'andigste  u.  beste  Samm- 
lung  der  Concilienacten  1759,  sq.  31  vols,  fol.)  and  Ant.  Muratori,  (ob. 
1750),  (Scriptores  rerum  Italic,  28  vols.  fol. ;  Antiqu.  Italic,  med.  aevi, 
6  vols,  fob),  gave  proof  of  splendid  scholarship  and  of  unwearying  in- 
dustry in  collecting  material.  There  are  no  contributions  of  a  dogmatic 
or  polemic  character  of  any  importance.  But  amid  the  horrors  of  the 
French  Revolution,  the  noble  theosophist,  Louis  Claude  de  St.  Martin, 
an  ardent  admirer  of  Jacob  Bohme,  wrote  his  spirited  and  profound 
works  (Des  erreurs  et  de  la  verite,  L'homme  de  desir,  etc.),  and  the 
Viscount  Chateaubriand  praised  the  beauties  of  Christianity  (Genie  du 
Christianisme),  and  celebrated  in  song  the  Christian  martyrs.  (Cf. 
?57,6.) 

I  45.  THE  ORIENTAL  ORTHODOX  CHURCH. 

The  oppressed  condition  of  the  orthodox  Church  in  the  Otto- 
man empire  remained  unchangeably  the  same.  It  developed  itself 
more  powerfully  and  richly  in  Russia,  where  it  was  the  ruling 
Church.  Although  the  Russian  Church,  since  it  possessed  an 
independent  patriarchate  at  Moscow  (1589),  was  independent  of 
the  mother-church  at  Constantinople  in  regard  to  the  form  of 
government,  it  still  stood  in  the  most  intimate  religious  connec- 
tion with  it,  especially  as  the  bond  of  a  common  confession  had 


THE    ORIENTAL    ORTHODOX    CHURCH.  23^) 

been  again  lately  strengthened  by  the  confessional  treatise  of 
Peter  Ilogila.  The  patriarchal  form  of  government  was,  mean- 
while, only  a  temporary  one  in  Russia,  for  the  great  Emperor 
Peter  I.  permitted  the  patriarchate  to  remain  vacant  after  the 
death  of  the  patriarch  Hadrian  (1702),  connected  ecclesiastical 
supremacy  with  the  imperial  power,  and  constituted  (1721)  the 
holy  directing  Synod,  to  which  he  transferred  the  supreme  con- 
trol of  spiritual  and  ecclesiastical  affairs; — to  which  also  the 
patriarch  of  Constantinople  gave  his  consent.  Theophanes 
Prokopoxm.cz,  the  metropolitan  of  Nowgorod,  was  the  emperor's 
right  hand  in  this  reform  of  Church  government. 

Since  the  liturgical  reformation  of  the.  Patriarch  Nikon  (|  42, 
5),  a  new  and  peculiar  style  of  Church  Music  developed  itself  in 
the  Russian  Church,  which  was  sung  by  pure  and  powerful  male  voices, 
without  any  instrumental  accompaniment,  a  splendid  foil  for  the  rich 
liturgy.  Russian  Church  music  attained  its  perfection  under  Catharine 
II.  Among  the  Russian  Theologians  the  above-named  Prokopowicz 
(ob.  1736)  holds  a  prominent  position.  His  dogmatic  Handbook  (in 
Lat.  transl.  Christ,  orthod.  theologia.  Regiom,  1773,  5  vols.)  is  distin- 
guished by  learning,  clearness  of  style,  and  moderation  of  judgment. 
Since  the  middle  of  this  century,  however,  a  Protestantizing  tendency 
crept  in  among  many  representatives  of  theological  science,  especially 
among  the  higher  clergy,  which  tendency,  it  is  true,  held  firmly  fast 
to  the  older  oecumenical  synodal  theology,  but  avoided  the  later  dog- 
matic forms,  or  at  least  attached  no  importance  to  them.  Already  the 
excellent  catechism  of  orthodox  doctrines  (transl.  into  German.  Riga, 
1770),  which  the  learned  Platon  (late  metropolitan  of  Moscow)  as  tutor 
of  the  Grand-Duke  Paul  Petroioitsch,  published,  at  first  for  the  use  of 
his  noble  pupil,  is  not  entirely  free  from  this  tendency.  It  appears 
more  decidedly  in  the  dogmatic  text-book  of  the  archimandric  Theophy- 
lactus  of  Moscow  (1773).  It  was  only  in  recent  times  that  it  was 
entirely  overcome  and  suppressed.  To  the  Sects  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury [l  42,  5),  there  were  added  in  the  18th  a  number  of  new  ones 
of  spiritualistic  gnostic  tendency,  in  the  organization  of  which  proba- 
bly occidental  influences  cooperated.  To  these  belong  especially  the 
Malacani  (milk-eaters)  and  Duchoborzens  (champions  of  the  spirit), 
which  again  divide  into  a  number  of  minor  sects,  and  which  may  also 
have  absorbed  many  of  the  older  (mediaeval)  sects.  Their  doctrines 
are  a  remarkable  mixture  of  Gnosticism,  theosophy,  mysticism,  Pro- 
testantism, and  Rationalism.  The  Duchoborzens  especially,  although 
belonging  only  to  the  peasantry,  have  a  completely  finished  theological 
system  of  a  wonderful  speculative  character.  (Cf.  A.  v.  Harthausen, 
referred  to  at  \  42,  5,  and  T.  E.  Lentz,  de  Duchoborzis.  Dorpati, 
1829,  4to.) 


240      SECTION    III. THIRD    PERIOD    (CENT.  18    A.  J).). 

II.  THE   PROTESTANT   CHURCH. 

I  46.  THE  LUTHERAN  CHURCH  BEFORE  THE  ILLUMI- 
NATION. 

By  the  founding  of  the  University  at  Halle  (1694),  the  pie- 
tistic  controversy  received  a  new  impulse,  and  soon  involved  the 
whole  German  Church  in  a  passionate  strife,  in  which,  on  both 
sides,  the  right  and  true  medium  was  only  too  often  missed  in 
establishing  their  own  views,  and  those  of  the  opponents  were 
perverted  by  unwarranted  inferences.  Spener  died  as  early  as  1705, 
Francke  in  1727,  Breithaupt  in  1732.     Hallean  pietism  became, 
after  the  loss  of  its  chiefs,   continually  weaker,  more  illiberal, 
unscientific,  and  indifferent  towards  purity  of  doctrine,  more  prone 
to  fall  into  artificial  pious  feelings,  more  zealous  and  exclusive  in 
pious  phrases  and  methodistic  forms  of  life.     The   conventicle 
mode  of  worship,  originated  and  nourished  by  it,  became  a  Pan- 
dora-box of  all  possible  fanaticism  and  sectarianism  (§  49,  1). 
But  still  it  produced  a  fermentation  in  theology  and  the  Church, 
which  worked  wholesomely  for   many  years.     More  than   6000 
theologians  from  all  parts  of  Germany,  received,  up  to  Fraucke'ls 
death,  their  theological  education  at  Halle,  and  carried  the  leaven 
of  his  spirit  into  as  many  congregations  and  schools.     In  a  short 
time,  a  large  number  of  distinguished  teachers  of  theology  ap- 
peared in  almost  all  the  German  Lutheran  established  Churches, 
who,  being  as  far  removed  from  the  one-sidedness  of  the  pietists 
as  their   opponents,   practised   and   taught   pure   doctrines  and 
pious  living,  without  denying  the  orthodox  stand-point,  so  far  as 
it  was  authorized   and  beneficial,  and  derived  benefit  from  the 
syncretistic   as  well   as   pietistic  controversies.      Prom    Calixtus 
they  learned  mildness   and  justice   towards   the   Reformed  and 
Roman  Catholic  Church  ;   by  Spener  they  were  incited  to  deep 
experimental  piety,  which  also  enriched  their  theological  know- 
ledge with  a  new  stream  of  life  ;  from  Gottfr.  Arnold's  one-sided- 
ness they  learned  to  seek  after  distorted  truth  even  among  here- 
tics and  sectarians;  and  from  Galov  and   Loacher  they  inherited 
\  zeal  for  pure  doctrines.      The  most  prominent  of  them  all  were 

Alb.Bengel  in  Wiirtemberg  (ob.  1752),  and  Chr.  Aug.  Grusius 
in  Leipsic  (ob.  1775),  both  stars  of  the  first  magnitude,  and  at 
the  same  time  prophecies  of  a  future  time  of  blooming  of  Lu- 
theran theology  ;   a   future  one,   for  this  stand- point,  deepened 


LUTHERAN    CHURCH    BEFORE    ILLUMINATION.       241 

and  ennobled  in  so  many  ways,  did  not  at  that  time  attain  perfect 
development  and  dominion  (§  50).  The  deluge  of  illumination 
since  the  middle  of  this  century  rushed  in  upon  the  German  Lu- 
theran Church,  and  overflowed  also  the  seed  sown  by  these  noble 
men.  Nevertheless,  the  first  five  decades  of  this  century  still 
constitute,  in  spite  of  many  excrescences,  a  blooming  period  of 
theological  science  and  Christian  life  in  the  Lutheran  Church. 

1.  The  Pietistic  Controversies  since  the  Founding  of  the  University  ai 
Halle.  (Cf.  the  lit.  at  \  38,  3,  and  Mor.  v.  Engelhardt,  Val.  C.  Loscher, 
2d  ed.  Stuttg.  1855.)  —  That  Pietism,  which  had  been  condemned  by 
and  excluded  from  the  orthodox  Universities  of  Leipsic  and  Witten- 
berg, now  found  a  refuge  at  Halle,  where,  protected  and  encouraged 
by  the  civil  power,  it  freely  developed  itself  in  practical  life  and  in 
science,  and  from  here  could  spread  over  all  the  provinces  of  Germany 
through  crowds  of  students ;  this  provoked  the  anger  of  the  orthodox. 
The  faculty  of  Wittenberg,  with  John  Deutschmann  at  the  head,  pub- 
lished (1695)  a  controversial  treatise  (Christlich.  Vorstellung,  etc.), 
in  which  they  charged  Spener  with  holding  not  less  than  264  errors. 
The  faculty  of  Leipsic  also  was  not  silent,  and  Carpzov  abused  the 
mild  and  peace-loving  Spener  as  a  procella  ecclesise.  Next  to  Carpzov 
and  Deutschmann,  the  most  violent  opponents  of  the  pietists  were  Sam. 
Schelwig  in  Dantzic  (ob.  1716),  (Synopsis  controverss.  sub  pietatis 
prsetextu  motarum  1701),  Friedr.  Mayer  in  Wittenberg,  Hamburg  and 
Greifswalde  {ob.  1712),  and  John  Fecht  in  Rostock  (ob.  1716).  When 
Spener  died  (1705),  it  was  most  earnestly  disputed  whether  he  could 
be  called  the  sainted.  Fecht  (de  beatit.  mort.  in  Dom.)  denied  it. 
Among  the  later  champions  for  the  palladium  of  pure  doctrines,  the 
learned  Valent.  Ernst  Loscher,  superint.  at  Dresden  (1709-47),  who  at 
least  cannot  be  charged  with  dead  orthodoxy,  was  the  most  estimable 
and  able.  He  opened  the  contest  (1702)  by  publishing  an  anti-pietistic 
journal  (Unsehuldige  Nachrichten  von  alten  und  neuen  theol.  Sachen), 
of  which  31  vols,  appeared  up  to  1751.  His  "  Vollstandiger  Timotheus 
Verinus  "  is,  without  doubt,  the  most  thorough  of  all  the  controversial 
treatises  against  Pietism  (2  vols.  1718-21 ;  the  first  sketch  appeared 
already,.  1711,  in  the  Unschuldigen  Nachrichten).  Franz  Buddeus  of 
Jena  carried  on  a  mediation  between  Loscher  and  the  Hallean  theolo- 
gians for  a  time,  but  without  result.  Francke  and  Breithhaupt  received 
(1710)  an  ever  ready  colleague  and  fellow-combatant  in  Joachim  Lange 
(ob.  1744),  (Antibarbarus  orthodoxies  dogmatico-hermeneuticus  1709- 
11 ; — die  Gestalt  des  Kreuzreiches  Christi,  1713  ; — Abfertig.  d.  Tim. 
Ver.  1719,  etc.)  ;  who,  however,  was  in  no  respect  a  match  for  his  op- 
ponent Loscher.  Pietism,  meanwhile,  penetrated  the  popular  life  more 
and  more,  and  excited  in  many  places  even  violent  popular  tumults. 
Many  States  prohibited  the  pietistic  conventicles,  others  permitted 
64 


242         SECTION   III. —  THIRD   PERIOD    (CENT.  18    A.D.J. 

them  (ox.  gr.  Wurtemberg  and  Denmark).  A  very  singular  pheno 
menon  were  the  praying  children  in  Silesia  (1707).  Children  of  four 
vears  of  age  and  above  that  assembled  on  the  open  field  to  sing  and 
pray  (especially  for  the  recovery  of  the  Churches  taken  possession  of 
by  the  Roman  Catholics).  Proceeding,  probably,  from  the  imitative 
instinct  of  children,  and  from  the  impression  which  the  open-air  wor- 
ship of  the  Swedish  army  made  upon  them,  this  phenomenon  obtained 
an  epidemic  and  contagious  character,  and  spread  over  the  entire 
country.  In  vain  the  pulpits  declaimed  against  it,  in  vain  the  civil 
authorities  proceeded  against  it ;  blows  and  confinement  only  increased 
the  zeal  of  the  children.  Finally  it  was  resolved  to  provide  churches 
for  their  worship.  After  that  the  excitement  gradually  subsided.  But 
the  matter  was  discussed  for  a  long  time  afterwards  by  the  orthodox 
and  pietists,  the  former  (ex.  gr.  Erdm.  Neumeister)  declared  it  to  be  a 
work  of  the  devil;  the  latter  (Freylinghausen,  Petersen,  etc.)  a  won- 
derful awakening  of  divine  grace.  (Cf.  /.  G.  Walch,  1.  c.  I.,  853,  sq. 
and  Hagenbach,  d.  Kinderkreuzzug  u.  die  betenden  Kinder;  in  A. 
Knapp's  Christoterpe,  1853.) 

The  Orthodox  regarded  the  Pietists  as  a  new  sect,  holding  doctrines 
that  were  dangerous  and  hostile  to  the  pure  doctrines  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  ;  whilst  the  Pietists  themselves  declared,  that  they  only  wished 
to  preserve  Lutheran  orthodoxy  unadulterated,  and  to  substitute  a 
biblical,  practical  Christianity  for  its  then  existing  rigid  form  and 
dead  externality.  The  single  points  of  controversy  concentrated  espe- 
cially around  the  doctrines  of  regeneration,  of  justification,  of  sancti- 
fication,  of  the  Church,  and  of  the  millenium  (Rev.  20  :  5,  7).  (1.) 
Ber/eneration.  The  orthodox  affirmed,  that  regeneration  took  place  in 
baptism  ;  that  every  baptized  person  was  regenerated  ;  but  that  the 
new  birth  required  fostering,  nourishment,  and  growth  ;  and  where 
these  had  been  wanting,  reawakening.  The  Pietists,  on  the  other 
hand,  identified  awakening  or  conversion  with  regeneration,  which 
was  conditioned  in  subsequent  life  by  the  Word  of  God,  mediated  by 
spiritual  and  physical  conflicts  of  repentance,  and  thereupon  following 
communication  of  grace,  and  sealed  by  a  very  palpable  approbation  of 
God  in  the  state  of  grace  attained.  With  this  sealing  began  the  life  of 
the  child  in  Christ.  Accordingly  they  distinguished  between  a  theologis 
viatorum,  viz.,  the  churchly  symbolical  doctrine,  and  a  theologia  rege- 
nitorum,  which  has  to  do  with  the  conditions  of  the  soul  after  regene- 
ration ;  on  which  account  they  were  also  charged  with  holding  the 
doctrine,  that  a  true  Christian,  who  had  attained  the  age  of  spiritual 
manhood,  could  and  must  be  without  sin  even  in  this  life.  (2.) 
Justification  mid  Sanctification.  In  opposition  to  a  very  common  view 
of  the  doctrine  of  justification,  which  made  it  too  external,  Spener 
taught  that  living  faith  alone  attained  justification,  and  that  it  must 
be  active  in  preserving  it  (although  without  any  merit).  A  suro 
guarantee  of  attained  justification  existed  only  in  a  faith  which  gave 


LUTHERAN     CHURCH    BEFORE    ILLUMINATION.       243 

jvidence  of  being  alive  in  a  pious  life  and  active  Christianity,  and  not 
already  in  a  belief  in  the  external,  objective  promise  of  the  word  of 
God.     His  opponents  charged  him,  on  this  account,  with  co?  founding 
justification  with  sanctification,  and  with  disregarding  the  farmer  at 
the  expense  of  the  latter.     And  if  the  royal  doctrine  of  justification 
was  not  allowed  to  recede  into  the  back-ground  by  Spener  himself,  it 
was  by  many  of  his  adherents ;  and  an  importance  was  attached,  in  a 
one-sided  way,  to  practical  Christianity,  such  as  the  Lutheran  Church 
could  never  approve.     Moreover,  Spener  and  Francke  preached  against 
worldly   dissipations    and   amusements,   and    against   the    dance,   the 
theatre,  card-playing  (to  which  others  in  their  blind  zeal  added  even 
laughing,  taking  a  walk,  smoking  tobacco,  etc.),  as  inimical  to  earnest- 
ness and   progress  in  sanctification,  and  therefore  sinful;  whilst  the 
orthodox  placed  these  things  among  the  adiaphora.     (3.)    The  Church 
and  Office.     Orthodoxy  regarded  the  word,  the  sacraments,  and  the 
office,    administering    them,  as  the  basis  and  foundation  of  the  Church; 
Pietism,  on  the  contrary,  conditioned  the  nature  and  existence  of  the 
Church  by  individual  believers ;  according  to  the  former,  the  Church 
begat,  nourished,  and  fostered  believers  ;  according  to  the  latter,  be- 
lievers constituted,  preserved,  and  renewed  the  Church  ;  to  which  end, 
conventicles  (ecclesiolse  in  ecclesia),  as  meeting  places  and  propaganda 
of  living  Christianity,  were  the  most  appropriate  means.     Orthodoxy 
lay  all  stress  upon  the  office  and  the  official  grace  vouchsafed  to  it'; 
Pietism  upon  the  person  and  his  faith.     Spener  taught,  that  only  he, 
who  had  experienced  the  grace  of  the  Gospel  in  his  heart,  i.  e.,  who 
was  regenerated,  could  be  a  true  preacher  and  pastor ;  Loscher,  on  the 
contrary,   affirmed,   that  the  ministrations  of  even'  an   unconverted 
though  decidedly  orthodox  preacher,  were  blessed  just  as  much  as 
those  of  a  converted  one,  because  the  saving  power  resided  not  in  the 
person  of  the  preacher,  but  in  the  word  of  God,  which  he  still  preached 
in  its  purity,  and  in  the  sacraments,  which  he  administered  according 
to  their  appointment.    The  Pietists  then  went  so  far  as  entirely  to  deny 
that  there  was  any  saving  power  in  the  preaching  of  an  unconverted 
person.     The  official  promise  of  absolution  without  internal   sealing 
had  no  significance  for  them  ;  they  even  regarded  it  as  dangerous  and 
injurious,  because  it  lulled  the  conscience  to  sleep  and  made  sinners 
secure.     Hence  they  cherished  great  aversion  to  private  confession  and 
priestly  absolution.     They  altogether  rejected  such  a  thing  as  official 
grace ;  true  ordination  was  regeneration  ;   every  regenerated   person, 
and  he  alone,  was  a  true  preacher.     Orthodoxy  demanded  above  all 
else  pure  doctrines  and  churchly  confession  ;    Pietism   also   declared 
these  to  be  necessary,  but  not  as  being  the  principal  things.     Spener 
held  firmly  fast  to  the  necessity  of  adhesion  to  the  symbols ;  but  the 
later  pietists  disputed  it,  because  the  symbols  as  a  work  of  man  could 
contain  errors.     Among  the  orthodox,  on  the  contrary,  some  went  sc 
far  as  to  affirm  a  freedom  from  all  err  >r  ir  the  symbols,  which  rested 


244        SECTION    III.  —  THIRD   PERIOD    (CENT.  15   A.  D.). 

not  only  upon  an  accidental,  but  upon  an  indirect,  divine  illumination. 
Spener's  aversion  to  coercion  as  to  the  me  of  the  pericopes,  to  prescribed 
prayers,  and  to  exorcism,  became  also  a  matter  of  violent  controversy ; 
on  the  contrary,  his  ^introduction  of  confirmation  before  the  first  par- 
ticipation of  the  Lord's  Supper  met  with  approbation  and  imitation 
also  among  the  orthodox.     (4.)  Eschatology.     Spener  interpreted  the 
biblical  doctrine  of  the  millennium  to  mean,  that  at  some  future  time, 
after  the  overthrow  of  the  papacy,  after  the  conversion  of  the  heathens 
and  Jews,  there  would  come  a  period  of  the  most  glorious  and  undis- 
turbed development  and  formation  for  the  Church  of  Christ  on  earth, 
as  ante-sabbath  of  the  eternal  sabbath.     His  opponents  stigmatized 
this  as  Chiliasm  and  fanaticism  ;  and  they  were  right,  not,  however, 
as  against  Spener,  but  as  against  the  abuse  and  misrepresentation  of 
his  doctrine  by  many  of  his  adherents.     Connected  with  this  finally 
(5.)    was  a  controversy   about  divine  providence,   occasioned  by  the 
founding  of  the  orphans'  house  at  Halle,  by  A.  H.  Francke.     The 
Pietists  spoke  of  the  origin  and  prosperity  of  this  institution  as  a  fact 
of  direct  (miraculous)   divine  providence;  whilst  Loscher,  by  proving 
the  use  of  the  ordinary  means,  which  were   contributed  towards  it, 
exhibited  the  entire  matter  as  lying  within  the  sphere  of  general  and 
daily  providence,  without  thereby,  meanwhile,  denying  the  value  of 
the  strong  faith  in  God,  and  of  the  active  love  possessed  by  its  founder, 
as  also  the  significance  of  the  divine  blessing,  which  rested  upon  the 
undertaking. 

2.  Lutheran  Theology —The  last  important  representative  of  the  Old 
Orthodox  School  was  Yal.  Ernst  Loscher,  who,  with  his  rich  scholar- 
ship, contributed,  besides  his  polemics  against  pietism,  much  that  was 
valuable  to  biblical  philosophy  and  Church  history  (De  causis  linguaa 
hebr.  ;  Ausfiihrl.  Hist,  motuum  zw.  d.  Luth.  u.  Reform.  ;  Vollstand. 
Ref.  Acta;  Histoire  d.  mittl.  zeiten,  etc.).  The  Pietistic  School,  which, 
from  principle,  was  more  concerned  about  making  theology  fruitful 
for  practical  Christianity  than  about  its  scientific  advancement,  only 
contributed  works  of  permanent  value  to  devotional  literature  (G). 
The  learned,  copious  author,  Joachim  Lange,  published,  in  7  fol.  vols., 
a  prolix  commentary  on  the  whole  Bible  (Mosaisches,  Biblisch-hisi., 
Davidisch-salomonisches,  Prophetisches,  Evangelisches,  Apostolisehes, 
Apokalyptisches  Licht  und  Recht).  The  jurist,  Christian  Thomasius, 
at  first  connected  himself  with  the  pietists,  only,  however,  in  mutual 
external  contest  against  the  enslavement  of  conscience  by  the  orthodox  ; 
but  he  was  soon  disavowed  by  them  as  an  indifferentist.  To  him  be- 
longs the  honor  of  turning  public  opinion  against  prosecution  for 
witchcraft.  (Vernunftige  u.  christl.  aber  nicht  scheinheil.  Gedanken 
liber  allcrhand  Handel ;  —  Kurze  Lchrs'atze  vom  Laster  d.  Zauberei 
mil  d.  Iloxouprncess.) 

Bui  then'  came  forth,  out  of  the  conflicts  between  the  orthodox  and 
oietistic  schools,  a  third  school,  which  cast  off  the  errors  and  partiali- 


LUTHERAN     CHURCH     BEFORE     ILLUMINATION.       245 

ties  of  both,  and  united  in  itself  their  excellencies,  in  which  Lutheran 
theology,  uniting  orthodoxy  with  free  investigation,  scholarship  with 
religious  fervor,  penetration  with  depth,  decided  adhesion  to  confes- 
sions with  mildness  and  justice,  produced  yet  much   splendid  fruit. 
The  most  important  theologians  of  this  school  are :   David  Hollaz  in 
Pomerania  (ob.  1713),   (Examen  theologicum  acroamaticum),  Bened. 
Starch  of  Leipsic  (ob.  1727),  (Notae  selectae  in  loca  dub.  et  dime.  V.  T. 
et  in  N.  T.),  Francis  Buddeus  of  Jena  (ob.  1729),  (Hist,  ecclst.  Vet. 
Test.  ;  Institutiones  theol.  dogm.  et  theol.  moralis,  Isagoge  hist,  theol. 
ad  theol.  univ.),  Ernst.  Sal.  Cyprian  of  Gotha  (ob.  1745),  Gesch.  d. 
Papstth. ;  Hist.  d.  Augsb.  Conf.)  ;  John  Christian  Wolf  of  Hamburg 
(ob.  1739),   (Bibliotheca  Hebraica ;   Curas  philol.   et  crit.   in  N.  T.)  ; 
Eberh.  Weismann  of  Tubingen  (06. 1747),  (Hist,  ecclest.)  ;  Sal.  Bey  ling 
of  Leipsic  (ob.  1755),  (Observatt.  ss.)  ;  John  Gottl.  Carpzov  of  Leipsic 
(06. 1767),  (Critica  s.  V.  T. ;  Introductio  ad  libros  can.  V.  T.  ;  Apparatus 
antiquitt.  s.  Codicis)  ;  J.  Heinr.  Michaelis  of  Halle  (06.  1731),  (Biblia 
hebr.  s.  variis  lectionibus  et  brev.  annott. ;  uberiores  annott.  in  Hagio- 
graphos.,    3    Bde.    4to ;    his  nephew,  Christian   Bened.  Michaelis  of 
Halle  (ob.  1764),  assisted  him  in  both  these  works)  ;  John  George  Walch 
of  Jena  (ob.  1775),  Einl.  in  d.  Religionsstreitigkk.  ausser  d.  luth.  K., 
5  Bde.,  in  d.  luth.  K.,  5  Bde.,  Biblioth.  theol.  selecta,  Biblioth.  patris- 
tica,  Luther's  Werke) ;  Christoph.  Matthew  Pfaffof  Tubingen  (ob.  1760), 
(K-G.,  K-Recht,  Dogmatik,  Moral) ;  Lorenz  von  Mosheim  of  Helmstadt 
and  Gottingen  (ob.  1755),  the  father  of  modern  Church  history  (Institutt. 
hist,  eccl.,  Commentarii  de  rebus  Christianorum  ante  Constant.  M. ; 
Dissertationes,   Sittenlehre,  etc.)  ;  John  Alb.  Bengel,  prelate  at  Stutt- 
gard  (06.  1752),  (eine  Krit.  Ausg.  d.  N.  T. ;  Gnomon  N.  T.,  a  commen- 
tary on  the  N.  T.,  distinguished  by  pregnancy  of  expression  and  depth 
of  comprehension ;    Erkl'arte    Ofi'b.   Job.,   which    intimated    that   the 
dawning  of  the  millennium  could  be  looked  for  in  the  year  1836 ;  Ordo 
temporum,  etc.     Cf.  J.  C.  Bark,  Bengel's  Leben  u.  Wirken.     Stuttg., 
1831) ;  and  Christian  Aug.  Crushts  of  Leipsic  (ob.  1775),  (Hypomnemata 
ad  theol.  propheticum.     Cf.  Fr.  Delitzch,  d.  bibl.  proph.  Theol.,  ihre 
Fortbild.  durch  Chr.  A.  Cr.,  etc.     Lpz.  1845).  —  A  fourth  school  of 
theologians  was  created  by  the  application  of  the  mathematical   de- 
monstration method  of  the  philosopher  Christian  von  Wolf,  of  Halle 
(ob.  1754).     Wolf  connected  his  philosophy  with  Leibnitz,   and  also 
endeavored  to  reconcile  philosophy  and  Christianity  ;  but  under  the 
manipulations  of  his  dry,  logical,   mathematical   method,  the   living 
breath  of  the  Leibnitzian  system  departed;  the  harmonia  prasstabilita 
of  the  world  became  a  machine,  etc.    The  great  evil  done  by  his  system 
of  philosophising  consisted  in  this,  that,  applied  to  the  demonstration 
of  Christian  truth,  it  only  proved  its  logical  correctness  without  giving 
any  insight  into  its  nature  and  significance,  that  it  only  formally  called 
the  understanding  into  exercise,  and  left  the  soul  en  pty  and  the  heart 
cold,  whereby  a  degeneration  into  natural  theology,  which  rejected  re- 
64* 


246        SECTION    III. THIRD    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.    Li    A.  D.). 

relation  and  mysteries,  was  unavoidable.  Consequently  the  polemics 
of  t'le  theologians,  among  which  were  not  only  narrow-minded  pietists, 
like  Joach.  Lange,  but  also  such  able,  calm,  and  enlightened  men,  liko 
Chr.  A.  Crusius  and  Ft:  Buddeus,  were  not  without  foundation,  when 
they  included  them  also  in  part  in  their  accusations  (which  ex.  gr.  run 
into  fatalism  and  atheism  with  Lange).  Wolf  was  deposed  (1723)  by 
a  government-order  of  Frederick  William  I.,  and  was  compelled  to 
leave  the  Prussian  States  within  two  days,  under  penalty  of  the  halter. 
But  Frederick  II.  had  scarcely  ascended  the  throne  before  he  recalled 
(1740)  the  philosopher  to  Halle,  and  heaped  honors  upon  him.  (C-f. 
Tholuck,  Verm.  Schr.  II.,  p.  10,  sq.) — AVolf's  philosophical  method  in- 
troduced into  theology,  was  first  accepted  by  the  pious  and  learned 
Prof.  Sigmund  Jacob  Baumgarten  in  Halle  (ob.  1757).  His  theology  as  tc 
its  contents  was  still  based  on  orthodox  ground  (Ev.  Glaubenslehre ; 
Gesch.  d.  Religionsparteien ;  Theol.  Bedenken).  /.  Gust.  Beinbeck, 
provost  in  Berlin  (ob.  1741),  also  belongs  to  the  more  moderate  repre- 
sentatives of  this  tendency  (Betrachtungen  ii.  d.  in  d.  Augsb.  Conf. 
enth.  gofctl.  Wahrhh.  4  Bde.  4to.,  fortges,  v.  J.  G.  Canz,  Bd.  5-9).  The 
application  of  the  mathematical  method  of  demonstration  was  carried 
farthest  by  Joh.  Carpov  of  Weimar  (ob.  1768),  (Theol.  revelata  me- 
thodo  scientinca  adorn ata,  4  vols.  4to).  As  applied  to  the  sermon,  the 
method  degenerated  into  the  most  offensive  insipidity.     (Cf.  §50.) 

?>.  Theories  of  Canon  Law. — Church  government  passed,  on  account 
of  the  exigencies  of  the  first  century  of  the  Protestant  Church,  into 
the  hands  of  the  princes,  who,  just  because  no  one  else  existed  for  this 
purpose,  exercised  as  prrecipua  membra  ecclesiae  the  jura  episcopalia 
(§  22,  1).  This  matter  of  exigency  became  in  years  by  degrees  a 
matter  of  right.  Orthodox  theology  and  the  jurisprudence  connected 
with  it  (especially  Benedict  Carpzov  of  Leipsic,  ob.  166G)  justified  the 
change  by  the  Episcopal  System.  This  retained  the  mediaeval  distinc- 
tion between  spiritual  and  temporal  authority,  as  two  independent 
spheres  appointed  by  God ;  but  it  at  the  same  time  made  the  prince  to 
be  the  summus  episcopus,  in  whose  person,  consequently,  the  highest 
spiritual  authority  was  joined  with  the  highest  temporal  authority. 
The  deep  contradictions  of  this  system,  however,  appeared  so  glaringly 
in  countries  having  mixed  confessions  (inasmuch  as  often  a  Reformed 
or  even  a  Papist  prince  was  the  summus  episcopus  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  of  his  country),  that  it  was  necessary  to  establish  the  exist- 
ing right  of  princes  on  other  grounds.  These  were  found  first  in  the 
Territorial  System,  according  to  which  the  prince  possessed  the  highest 
spiritual  authority,  not  as  praecipuum  membrum  ecclesiae,  but  as  head 
of  the  State,  which  spiritual  authority,  therefore,  was  regarded  not  as 
independent  by  the  side  of  civil  authority,  but  only  as  one  side  of  the 
same  (Cujus  regie,  illius  et  religio).  This  system  was  already  pras« 
tically  prepared  for  by  the  historical  development  of  the  German  Re- 
formation (Diet  of  Speiers  a.  1526),  and  received  a  legal  basis  through 


IUTHERAN    CHURCH    BEFORE    ILLUMINATION.     247 

the  Augsburg  as  well  as  the  Westphalian  peace.  It  lacked  only  a  scien- 
tific foundation.  This  was  given  first  by  Samuel  Pufendorfof  Heidel- 
berg (ob.  1694),  adopting  the  views  of  Hobbes  (§  43,  2).  It  was 
more  perfectly  developed  and  more  generally  commended  by  Christian 
Thomasius  of  Halle  (ob.  1728),  and  the  celebrated  Justus  Homing 
Bohmer  made  it  the  foundation  of  his  Jus  ecclesiasticum  protestantium. 
Thomasius'  connection  with  the  Pietists,  and  their  indifference  to 
creeds,  obtained  for  it  admission  and  favor  among  them.  Spener  him- 
self preferred  the  Calvinistic  Presbyterian  form  of  government,  be- 
cause by  it  the  equally  authorized  cooperation  of  the  three  Orders 
(Ministerium  ecclesiasticum,  Magistratus  politicus,  Status  oeconomicus) 
could  most  easily  be  realized.  This  protest  by  Spener  against  both 
systems  was  certainly  not  without  influence  in  the  construction  of  a 
third  system,  the  Collegiate  System,  whose  originator  was  the  Chancellor 
Pfaff  of  Tubingen  (ob.  1700).  According  to  it,  only  the  right  of  eccle- 
siastical sovereignty  (jus  circa  sacra)  is  incumbent  on  the  ruler  of  the 
country  as  such;  whilst  the  jura  in  sacra  (doctrines,  worship,  ecclesias- 
tical legislation  and  its  execution,  appointment  to  the  ministry  and 
excommunication)  are  incumbent  as  jura  collegialia  on  the  totality  of 
all  church-members.  The  normal  constitution  would  therefore  be  this, 
when  all  together  carried  it  into  execution  in  a  collegiate  way  (through 
synods  and  elections  in  the  congregation).  External  circumstances, 
however,  at  the  period  of  the  Reformation,  made  it  also  necessary  to 
transfer  the  collegiate  rights  to  the  princes,  which  is  also  not  in  itself 
inadmissible,  provided  only  that  the  principle  is  held  fast,  that  the 
prince  administers  them  ex  commisso,  and  is  always  accountable  and 
responsible  to  those  who  have  committed  them  to  him.  This  system, 
which,  because  it  in  fact  left  everything  in  the  old  way,  could  only 
claim  the  honor  of  an  old  theory,  and  if  it  was  to  be  seriously  carried 
out,  would  entirely  destroy  the  ecclesiastical  organism  by  its  under- 
valuing the  ministerii  ecclesiastici  (the  ministry),  found  its  most  zeal- 
ous defenders  among  the  later  rationalists,  on  account  of  its  democratic 
tendency.  Practically,  however,  neither  of  the  three  systems  were 
purely  and  consistently  introduced  and  carried  through.  In  most  of 
the  churches  the  form  of  government  vacillated  among  all  three. 

4.  Hymnology  also  bore  many  precious  fruits  during  the  first  half 
of  this  century.  We  distinguish  the  following  groups  of  composers 
of  hymns:  (A.)  The  Pietistic  School,  with  a  scriptural-practical  and 
devotional  tendency.  The  spiritual  life  of  believers,  the  breaking 
through  of  grace  in  conversion,  growth  in  holiness,  the  changing  con- 
ditions, experiences,  and  feelings  in  the  life  of  the  soul,  were  made  the 
objects  of  contemplation  and  description.  They  are  for  the  most  part 
no  longer  hymns  for  the  congregation,  for  the  people,  for  common  wor- 
ship, but  more  for  individual  edification,  and  for  the  closet.  There  are 
only,  relatively  speaking,  a  few  hymns  of  this  school  that  make  an 
exception,  and  still  deserve  the  name  of  church-hymns.    When  pietism 


248         SECTION    III. —  THIRD   PERIOD    (CENT.  18   A.  D.). 

declined,  the  spiritual  poetical  inspiration  awakened  by  it  declined 
also  gradually ;  it  lost  its  original  truth,  power,  and  depth,  and  dege- 
nerated into  sentimentality  and  spiritless  trifling  with  figures,  allego- 
ries, and  phrases.     Moreover,  among  the  Hallean  pietists,  we  must 
distinguish   between  an  older   (1690-1720)   and   a   younger   poetical 
school   (1720-52),  the  former  characterized  by  a  sound  piety  in  the 
spirit  of  A.  II.  Francke,  with  hymns  in  a  simple,  tender,  and  profound 
tone.     I.  The  most  distinguished  of  the  very  numerous  poets  of  this 
older  school  are :  Anastasius  Freylinghausen,  Francke's  son-in-law  and 
director  of  the  orphan's  house  at  Halle  {ob.  1739),  ("  Wer  ist  wohl  wie 
du");  —  Breithaupt,  Joach.   Lange,  theological  Professors  at  Halle; 
—Dan.  Hermschmidt,  Prof,  at  Halle  {ob.  1723),  ("Lobe  den  Herrn,  0 
meine  Seele")  ;— Christian  Friedr.  Richter,  physician  to  the  orphan's 
house  (ob.  1711),  author  of  33  excellent  hymns  ("Gott,  den  ich  als  die 
Liebe  kenne,"  "  Es  gl'anzet  der  Christen  invendiges  Leben")  ; — Emily 
Julianna,  Countess  of  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  (ob.  1706),   composed 
587  hymns,  among  which  also :  "  Wer  weiss.  wie  nahe  mir  mein  Eude," 
the  authorship  of  which  was  also  claimed  by  a  cotemporary  preacher, 
named  Ffefferkorn ;  —  J.  Heinrich  Schroder,  pastor  in  Magdeburg  (ob. 
1728),  ("Eins  ist  Noth")  ;  —  J.  Jos.  Winckler,  pastor  of  the  Cathedral 
of  Magdeburg  (ob.  1722),  ("Ringe  recht")  ;—  Christoph  Dessler,  con- 
rector  in  Nuremberg  (ob.  1722),   ("Wie  wohl  ist  mir,  o.  Freund  der 
Seelen")  ; — Andr.  Goiter,  aulic  counsellor  in  Wernigerode  (ob.  1735), 
("  Schaffet,  schaffet,  Menschenkinder")  ;—Barth    Crasselius,  preacher 
atDusseldiirf  ("Dir,  dir,  Jehova,  will  ich  singen").— II.  The  younger 
Hallean  school  embraces  the  period  of  declining  pietism.    The  superior 
poets  of  this  school  are :  E.  H.  v.  Bogatzky  (ob.  1774),  also  an  esteemed 
ascetic  author;  —  John  Jak.  Rambach,  Prof,  in  Giessen  (ob.  1735),  the 
.  most  churchly  of  the  poets  of  this  school  ("  Grosser  Mittler,"  etc.  )  ;— 
Conrad  Allendorf,  court-preacher  at  Kothen  (ob.  1773),  publisher  of 
the  so-called  Kothnisen  Lieder— a  collection  of  spiritual  love-hymns  in 
the  spirit  of  Solomon's  Song  — ("Unter  Lilien  jener  Freuden");  — 
Fried.  Lehr,  deacon  in  Kothen  (o&.1744),  ("  Mein  Jesus  niuimt  die  Sunder 
au");  —  E.  Gottl.  Woltersdorf,  pastor  in  Bunzlau,  founder  of  the  or- 
phan's house  there  (ob.  1761). 

(B.)  The  poets  of  the  Orthodox  Tendency.  Although  the  poets  of  this 
school  were  in  part  opponents  of  the  pietists,  they  yet  were  all  more  or 
less  incited  to  a  more  living  apprehension  of  piety  by  the  spirit  which 
proceeded  from  Spener.  Orthodox  poets  of  the  strictest  observance 
were,  Vol.  E.  Jjbscher  and  Erdmann  Neumeister  (pastor  and  inspector 
of  schools  at  Hamburg,  ob.  1756),  both  being  as  zealous,  and  even 
violent  in  their  opposition  to  the  one-sidedness  of  pietism,  as  they  were 
fresh  and  strong  in  their  orthodoxy,  as  spiritual  poets  also  not  insigni- 
ficant, without,  however,  being  able  to  soar  to  the  region  of  the  genuine 
church-hymn,  from  which  they  were  hindered  especially  by  their  di- 
dactic character.     Ad.  Lehmics,  otherwise  a  pious  and  spirited  man, 


LUTHERAN    CHURCH    BEFORE    ILLUMINATION.       249 

reduced  the  entire  doctrinal  system  and  all  the  pericopes  to  verse, 
Benj.  Schmolck's  (pastor  at  Schweidnitz,  ob.  1737),  and  Sal.  Franck's 
(secretary  of  the  consistory  at  Weimar,  ob.  1725)  hymns  have  the  same 
devout  and  tender  expression,  that  we  find  among  the  better  pietists. 
Franck  composed  about  300  hymns  ("  So  ruhest  du,  0  meine  Ruh")  ; 
Schmolck  even  more  than  1000  (among  which  the  baptismal  hymn : 
"  Liebster  Jesu,  wir  sind  hier"). — To  the  tendency,  mediating  between 
pietism  and  orthodoxy,  which  was  represented  in  theology  by  Bengel 
and  Crusius,  belong  yet  several  very  important  poets :  John  Andr.  Eothe, 
Zinzendorf's  colleague  at  Berthelsdorf  (ob.  1758),  author  of  the  beau- 
tiful hymn:  "  Ich  habe  nun  den  Grund  gefunden;"  John  Mentzer, 
preacher  in  Oberlausitz,  (ob.  1734),  ("O  dass  ich  tausend  Zungen 
hatte");  and  Phil.  Fried):  Hiller  of  Wurternberg  (ob.  17G9),  who 
composed  more  than  1000  hymns  ;  and  Ludw.  v.  Pfeil,  statesman  (ob. 
1784).  —  In  1751,  J.  Jacob  v.  Moser  collected  a  register  of  50,000 
printed  hymns  in  the  German  language.     (Cf.  \  54,  1.) 

5.  Church  Music.  —  The  original  inventive  fullness  of  the  national 
song  (from  which  proceeded  the  old  church  hymn)  was  already  ex- 
hausted in  the  17th  century,  and  finally  even  the  taste  for  and  pleasure 
in  it  gradually  disappeared  through  the  influence  of  the  opera.  The 
then  existing  secular  national  song  borrowed  its  melodies  from  the  ope- 
ra, and  in  a  short  time  found  means  of  introducing  it  into  the  spiritual 
song.  When  usually  the  composers  of  hymns,  towards  the  end  of  the 
17th  century,  following  the  pattern  of  Solomon's  Song,  struck  the  key- 
notes of  spiritual  nuptial  love  for  the  bridegroom  of  souls,  they  sought 
after  corresponding  musical  sounds,  and  found  them  in  the  flatteringly 
sweet  and  languishing  melodies  of  the  operatic  national  song  of  that 
period.  Pietism,  otherwise  so  exclusive  of  everything  worldly,  followed 
this  example  in  a  still  more  unlimited  degree  ;  and,  in  fact,  the  sweet," 
tender,  and  languishing  tones  of  the  secular  national  song  must  have 
appeared  to  it  to  be  better  adapted  to  the  peculiarity  of  its  hymns,  than 
the  old  churchly  tones,  and  the  joyful,  fresh,  and  powerful  jubilee  of 
the  rythm  of  the  old  church  music.  Thus,  through  the  mighty  influ- 
ence of  pietism,  a  large  number  of  this  kind  of  melodies  (the  so-called 
Hallean  melodies)  were  introduced  to  churchly  use.  Anast.  Frey- 
linghausen,  is  to  be  regarded  as  its  proper  father.  He  not  only  himself 
composed  many  of  the  so-called  Hallean  melodies,  but  he  also  col- 
lected the  best  composed  by  other  musicians,  and  combined  them  in 
his  hymn  book,  which  appeared  (1704)  with  the  most  mournful  of 
the  older  melodies.  The  ablest  musicians  of  this  tendency,  in  addition 
to  him,  are:  Knorr  v.  Rosenroth,  Adam  Drese,  C'hr.  Fr.  Richter,  fur- 
ther, H.  George  Reuss,  rector  in  Blankenburg  (ob.  1716),  and  /.  G. 
Hille,  cantor  in  Glancha  about  the  year  1739. 

The  musicians  of  this  period  had  already  entirely  lost  all  taste  for 
the  old  choral,  and  the  aria-style  had  degenerated  greatly  under  the 
influence  of  pietism,  when  a  master  appeared,  in  whom  was  gathered 


250        SECTION   III.  —  THIRD   PERIOD    (CENT.  18  A.  D). 

and  cor.centrated  everything  grand  and  glorious  that  had  been  contri 
buted  by  evangelical,  churchly,  congregational,  and  artistic  music,  a 
musician  educated  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  like  unto  a  householder, 
who  bringeth  forth  out  of  his  treasury  things  new  and  old  ; — in  whom 
also  the  development  of  church  music  was  concluded  for  a  whole  cen- 
tury. This  was  John  Sebast.  Bach,  since  1723  musical  director  in  the 
Thomas-school  in  Leipsic  (ob.  1750),  the  most  perfect  organist  that  ever 
lived.  He  returned,  with  unqualified  predilection,  to  the  old  choral, 
which  no  one  appreciated  and  understood  more  thoroughly  than  he. 
He  harmonized  it  for  the  organ,  unfolded  his  inmost  being  and  his 
deepest  thoughts  in  the  richest  fullness  of  harmony  through  four- 
voiced  melodies  ;  and  made,  after  Hammerschmidt's  manner,  many  old 
splendid  chorals  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  in  the  language  of  Scripture, 
together  with  recitatives,  duetts,  and  arias,  echo  with  wonderful  power 
in  his  sacred  concerts.  In  the  art  of  fugue,  in  knowledge  of  the 
mysteries  of  harmony,  in  richness  of  modulation,  etc.,  he  was  the 
greatest  master  of  all  times.  He  advanced  the  aria-style  to  its  most 
glorious  and  exalted  development,  and  the  greatest  and  most  sublime 
thoughts  of  German  Protestantism  are  clothed  in  heavenly  music  in 
his  passion-oratorios.  We  have  from  him,  besides,  five  annual  church- 
sompositions  for  every  Sunday  and  festival.  (Cf.  C.  L.  Hilgenfeldt,  J. 
Seb.  Bach's  Leben,  Wirk.  u.  Werke.  Lpz.  1850.) — Besides  Bach,  there 
was  also  another  master  of  unapproachable  greatness  in  the  oratorio, 
George  Friedr.  Handel  of  Halle,  who,  however,  lived  from  1710  to  his 
death  (1759)  mostly  in  England.  He  labored  for  the  opera  for  more 
than  25  years,  and  only  turned  to  the  oratorio  in  his  later  years.  Whilst 
his  operas  have  long  since  been  forgotten,  he  will  be  distinguished  in 
this  department  for  all  time.  His  most  perfect  oratorio  is  the  "  Mes- 
.siah;"  Herder  called  it  a  Christian  epopee  in  sounds.  Of  his  other 
great  oratorios  are  to  be  mentioned :  "  Samson,"  "JudasMaccabeus," 
41  Joshua,"  and  "  Jephtha."     (Cf.  §  81,  2.) 

6.  Christian  Life  and  Devotional  Literature.  —  Pietism  poured  a 
mighty  religious  stream  into  the  national  life,  and  sustained  it  by 
zealous  preaching,  pastoral  care,  devotional  meetings,  and  an  almost 
exuberant  devotional  literature.  Orthodoxy,  also,  which  had  been  en- 
riched by  pietism,  manifested  a  not  less  efficient  and  still  more  sterling 
activity  through  the  ministry,  word,  and  pen.  August.  Hermann 
Francke  (ob.  1727)  founded,  with  seven  florins  in  his  hand,  but  with 
strong  faith  in  his  heart,  the  orphan's  house  at  Halle ;  Woltersdorf 
proved  himself  to  be  Francke's  successor  in  faith  and  love,  by  founding 
the  orphan's  house  at  Bunzlau  ;  the  Baron  von  Canstein  (ob.  1710) 
devoted  his  wealth  to  founding  the  Bible  institution  at  Halle,  from 
which  millions  of  Bibles  have  been  already  sent  forth,  etc.  The  newly 
awakened  zeal  for  missions  gives  evidence  of  the  stirring  religious  life 
and  interest  in  the  Lutheran  church.  The  most  important  of  the  many 
ascetic  authors  are :  /.  Anast.  Freylinghausen  (Grundlegung  der  Theo 


LUTHERAN     CHURCH     BEFORE     ILLUMINATION.       251 

log'ie),  John  Porst,  provost  at  Berlin  (ob.  1728',  (Gb'ttl.  F'uhrung  d. 
Seelen ;  Wachsthum  d.  Wiedergebornen  ;  an  excellent  hymn-book)  ; 
George  Kitsch  of  Gotha  (ob.  1729),  (Theol.  Sendschreiben) ;  John  Jacob 
Rambach  of  Giessen  (ob.  1735),  distinguished  both  as  a  learned  theolo- 
gian and  as  a  spiritual  poet  and  pulpit  orator  (Passionsbetrachtungen, 
etc.);  Benj.  Schmolck  of  Schweidnitz  (ob.  1737),  (Communionbuch ; 
Morgen-und  Abendsegen,  etc.)  ;  Dav.  Hollaz,  son  of  the  dogmatist 
(Evang.  Gnadenordnung)  ;  George  Conrad  Rieger  of  Stutgard  (ob. 
1743),  (Herzenspostille,  etc.);  J.  A.  Steinmetz,  Abbot  of  Klosterbergen 
(ob.  1763),  (Sendschreiben;  Sammlung  auserlesener  materien  zum 
Bau  des  Reiches  Gottes,  etc.).  Among  those  who  were  not  theologians, 
the  following  are  especially  distinguished  as  ascetic  authors :  the  Sile 
sian  nobleman  Charles  Henry  von  Bogatzky  of  Halle  (ob.  1774),  a  man 
who  was  unweariedly  laborious  in  promoting  the  kingdom  of  God  in 
every  way  (Guldenes  Schatzkastlein,  T'agliches  llausbuch  der  Kinder 
Gottes,  Communionbuch,  etc.),  and  John  Jacob  von  Moser,  a  celebrated 
statesman  and  publicist,  a  man  of  the  most  solid  and  approved  piety 
(although  the  Moravian  congregation  at  Ebersdorf  excluded  him  from 
the  Lord's  Supper),  died  in  1785,  at  Stutgard,  after  a  life  filled  with 
persecutions  and  troubles  (having  been  imprisoned  for  six  years  in  the 
fortress  of  Hohentwiel).  —  How  great  also  the  need  for  solid  and  in- 
structive edification  was,  is  shown  by  the  many  popular  expositions  of 
the  Bible,  the  best  of  which  are  the  Pfqffische  Bibelwerk  (Tlibg.  1730), 
the  Hirschberger  Bibel  (1750),  by  Liebich  uud  Burg,  the  Synopsis 
biblioth.  exeg.  or  kui-zgef.  Auszug  d.  Auslegung,  etc.  (Lpz.  1741,  6 
Bde.  4to.),  by  Christoph  Starke,  and  the  comprehensive  Hallesche  Bibel 
by  S.  J.  Baumgarten,  Jacob  Brucker,  Romanus  Teller,  etc.  (Lpz.  1748, 
sq.  19  Bde.  4to.) 

7.  Heathen  Missions.  (Cf.  A.  H.  and  C.  A.  Francke,  Berichte  d.  Dan. 
miss,  in  Ostind.  Halle,  1708-72. — St.  Schulz,  Leitungen  des  Hcichsten, 
etc.  Halle,  1771,  sq.  5  Bde. — J.  F.  Fenger,  Gesch.  d.  tranquebar'schen 
mission,  aus  d.  Dan.  v.  C.  Francke.  Grimma,  1845. — K.  Graiil,  Ausbr. 
u.  Entwickl.  d.  chr.  K.  unter  d.  Tamulen  ;  in  the  hist,  theol.  Ztschr., 
1850,  1U.  —  J.  H.  Brauer,  Beitr.  zur  Gesch.  d.  Heidenbek.  H.  II.: 
Zeigenbalg.  Alt.  1837.  —  J.  C.  G.  Schmidt,  kurzgef.  Lebensbeschr.  ev. 
miss.  Bd.  I.  and  III.  Lpz.  1839. — R.  Vormbaum,  ev.  missionsgesch.  in 
Biographien,  Bd.  II.  Dusseld.  1852.  —  H.  Egede,  Ausf.  nachr.  v.  d. 
gronliind.  miss.  Hamb.,  1740.  —  A.  G.  Ruclelbach,  II.  Egede;  in  s. 
christl.  Biogr.  Bd.  I.  Lpz.  1850.) — The  revival  of  practical  Chris- 
tianity, which  proceeded  from  pietism,  contributed  greatly  also  to  the 
extension  of  Heathen  missions.  Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark  founded 
the  mission  at  Tranquebar  for  his  East  .India  possessions,  for  which 
Francke  sent  to  him  two  very  excellent  and  zealous  laborers,  Henry 
Plutzschau  and  Barth.  Ziegenbalg.  The  latter  translated  the  New 
Testament  into  the  Tamul  language  (ob  1719).  This  Danish  East 
Indian  mission  extended  its  labors  also  into  the  English  possessions 


252   SECTION  III. —  THIRD  PERIOD  (C  E  N  T.  18  A.D.). 

The  orphan's  house  at  Halle  contributed  to  it  quite  a  number  of  ex 
cellent  missionaries,  the  most  prominent  of  whom  was  Christian  Erie- 
derich   Schwarz  (ob.  1798),  the  patriarch  of  Lutheran  missions,  who 
labored  almost  50  years  as  a  faithful  missionary.     In  the  last  quarter 
of  this  century,  however,  the  zeal  for  this  mission  expired  under  the 
influence  of  rationalism ;  the  connection  with  the  orphan's  house  was 
dissolved,  and  the  rich  Lutheran  harvest  was  gathered  almost  entirely 
into  the  garners  of  the  Anglican  church.     The  Hallean  Prof.  Callen- 
berg  founded  (1728)  a  special  institute  at  Halle  for  the  conversion  of 
the  Jcics,  under  whose  auspices  Stephen  Schulz  travelled  over  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa,  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  the  Jews.     As  early  as  the 
11th  century  the  Gospel  had  been  carried  to  Greenland,  since  which 
time,  however,  the  church   there  had  been  forgotten,  and,  as  it  now 
appears,    had    disappeared   entirely  from   view.     This   negligence  of 
Christendom    pressed    heavily    on    the    heart    of   the    preacher   Hans 
Egede,  in  Norway ;  he  did  not  rest  until  he,  supported  by  a  Danish- 
Norwegian  commercial  enterprise,  could  tread  upon  the  icy  land  with 
his  family  in  1721.    He  labored  unweariedly  amid  incredible  hardships 
and  privations,  and  at  the  beginning  with  but  little  success ;  and  he 
also  remained  alone  behind  when  the  commercial  enterprise  was  aban- 
doned.    In  1733  he  had  the  unexpected  joy  of  being  joined  by  three 
Moravian  missionaries,  Christian  David,  and  the  brothers  Stach.    But, 
alas !  this  joy  was  only  too  soon  embittered  by  the  pride  of  the  new- 
comers, who  wished  to  model  everything  after  their  peculiar  Moravian 
principles,  and  slandered  and  avoided  the  brave  Egede,  who  could  not 
submit  to  their  demands,  as  an  unholy  and  unconverted  man  ;  whilst 
he  was  justly  offended  at  their  confusion  of  justification  and  sanctifica- 
tion,  at  their  contempt  for  pure  doctrines,  and  their  special,  unscrip- 
tural  notions  and  phrases,  disposed  as  he  also  was,  to  overlook  their 
want  of  theological  education.    He  repaid  their  hostility  with  the  most 
self-denying  care  when  they  were  attacked  by  a  contagious  disease. 
In  1736,  having  transferred  the  prosecution  of  his  work  to  his  son  Paid, 
he  returned  to  Denmark,   and  labored  since  then   in  Copenhagen   as 
superintendant   of  a   Greenlandish    missionary    seminary    (ob.  1758). 
(Cf.  |  51,  5.) 

I  47.  THE  MORAVIANS. 

Cf.  N.  L.  v.  Zinzendorf,  YlthL  iavtov  od.  naturelle  Rcflexiones  uber 
Bich  selbst.  1749.  — A.  G.  Spanijcnberg,  Leben  d.  Grafen  v.  Z.  Barby, 
1772,  8  Bde.  — /.  W.  Verbeek,  des  Grafen  v.  Z.  Leb.  u.  Char.  Gnadau, 
1845. — L.  C.  v.  Schrautenbach  (a  younger  contemporary  of  Z.,  not  be- 
longing to  the  denomination,  but  closely  related  to  it),  Erinner.  an.  d. 
Gr.  Z.  (1781).  Berlin,  1828,  and  more  thorough  ;  Der  G.  v.  Z.  u.  d. 
Briidergein.  sr.  zeit;  herausg.  v.  F.  W.  Kolbing.  Gnadau,  1851. — ■ 
Barnhagen  von  Ense,  Leb.  d.  Gr.  v.  z.  in  d.  Biogr.  Denkmalen,  Bd.  V., 
Berlin,  1S30.— Fr.  Pilgram,  Leb.  u.  Wirk.  d.  Gr.  N.  L.  v.  Z.,  aus  (rcini.) 


THE    MORAVIANS.  253 

Kath.-Glaubensprincipien  betrachtet.  Lpz.,  1857.  —  Je?.  Risl'er,  Leb. 
Spangenberg's,  Barby,  1794.  —  A".  F.  Ledderhose,  Leb.  Sp's.  Heidlb., 
1846.  —  [Zinzendorf),  Blidingische  Samml.  einiger  in  d.  K.  G.  einsch- 
lagender  Schriften.  Bud.  1742,  ff.  3  Bde. — A.  G.  Spangenberg,  kurzgef. 
hist.  Nachr.  v.  d.  gegenw.  Verf.  d.  ev.  Briiderunit.  5.  A.  Gnadau,  1833. 
Dav.  Cram,  alte  u.  neue  Brliderhist.  Barby,  1774,  continued  (Bd.  2-4) 
by  J.  K.  JSegner,  1791,  ff.  (Kolbing),  Die  Gedenktage  der  erneuerten 
Briidergem.  Gnadau,  1821. —  C.  V.  Lynar,  Nachr.  v.  d.  Urspr.  u.  Fortg. 
d.  Briidernuit.  Halle,  1781.  —  F.  Litiz,  Biicke  in  d.  Gegenw.  u.  Ver- 
gangenh.  d.  ev.  Briidergem.  Lpz.,  1846.  —  E.  W.  Crbger,  Gescb.  d. 
erneuerten  Briiderkirche.  Gnadau,  1852,  if.  3  Bde.  —  J.  F.  Schroder, 
d.  Gr.  v.  Z.  u.  Herrnh.  od.  Gesch.  d.  Briiderunitat.  Nordh.  1857. — A.  Ben- 
gel,  Abriss  d.  s.  g.  Briidergem.  Stuttg.  1751,  2  Thle.  —  J.  G.  Walch, 
theol.  Bedenk.  v.  d.  Beschaffenh.  d.  herrnhiitischen  Secti.  Frkf.  1747. — 
/.  Ph.  Fresenius,  bew'arht  Nachr.  v.  herrnhiitischen  Sachen.  2.  A.  Lpz. 
1746,  ff.  4  Bde.  —  S.  J.  Baumgarten,  theol.  Bedenk.  1741,  ff.  —  N.  L.  v 
Zinzendorf,  die  gegenw.  Gestalt.  d.  Kreuzreiches  Christi.  Lpz.  1745, 
4to.  —  A.  G.  Spangenberg,  apol.  Schlussschrift,  worinnen  liber  tausend 
Beschuldigg.  nach  d.  Wahrh.  beantw.  werden.  Lpz.  1752,  2  Bde.  4 
Dess.,  Declaration  ii.  d.  Beschuldigg.,  etc.  Lpz.  1751,  4to. — Max.  Gbbel, 
Gesch.  d.  Inspirationsgemeinden,  IV.  Der  herrnhiitische  Periodus 
1730-43;  in  the  hist,  theol.  Ztschr.  1855,  I.  —  A.  Christiani,  d.  Gr. 
Zinzend.  u.  d.  Sattler  Bock ;  in  d.  Mittheill.  fiir.  d.  ev.  K.  Russl., 
1855,  V.     [The  Moravian  Manual.    E.  De  Schweinitz.    Philada.  1859]. 

The  talented  Count  Zinzendorf,  captivated  when  but  a  boy, 
glowing  with  burning  love  towards  the  Saviour,  by  the  idea  of  a 
spiritual  fraternity  of  the  friends  of  Jesus,  obtained  an  opportu- 
nity to  realize  this  idea  in  a  way  peculiar  to  himself,  by  the  arri- 
val of  several  Moravian  exiles  upon  his  estates.  Upon  Hutberg 
he  cast  the  mudard-seed  of  his  youthful  dreams  into  fruitful 
ground,  and  it  soon  grew  up  to  a  stately  tree  uuder  the  unweary- 
ing culture  of  the  noble  gardener,  and  its  vigorous  sprouts  were 
not  only  transplanted  to  all  the  Protestant  countries  of  Europe, 
but  also  to  all  other  parts  of  the  world.  The  communion  which 
he  founded  was  called  the  "renewed  fraternity, "  but  in  fact  it 
was  not  a  renewed,  but  a  new  fraternity,  the  most  faithful  copy 
)f  his  altogether  original  peculiarity,  which  for  a  time  ran  into 
'inheard-of  extravagances.  That  the  communion  did  not  perish 
by  these  extravagances,  that  its  fraternization  with  fanatics  and 
persons  professing  to  be  inspired,  its  sectarian  establishment  of  a 
special  covenant  with  the  Saviour,  and  the  not  too  humble  ima- 
gination of  their  philadelphian  position  in  the  kingdom  of  God, 
did  not  plunge  it  into  bottomless  fanaticism,  and  that  it  was  able 
65 


254         SECTION    III. THIRD    PERIOD    (CENT.  18    A.  D.)  . 

to  preserve  itself  upright  upon  the  slippery  and  dangerous  ground 
of  its  marriage-mystery,  is  a  phenomenon  that  stands  alone  in 
Church  History,  and  testifies  stronger  than  everything  else,  how 
deeply  and  firmly  the  originator  and  the  communion  were  rooted 
in  the  Gospel.  The  count  himself  laid  aside  many  of  his  extra- 
vagances, and  what  remained  were  eradicated  so  far  as  they  were 
not  connected  with  the  fundamental  idea  of  the  special  covenant 
by  his  successor,  the  prudent  and  circumspect  Spangenberg.  He 
succeeded,  not  indeed  in  abolishing  the  sectarian  character  of  the 
fraternity,  but  in  modifying  and  concealing  it.  A  great  advan- 
tage to  the  fraternity  in  this  view,  was  the  contrast  of  its  faith- 
ful adhesion  to  the  foundation  of  salvation,  with  the  general 
apostaey  from  faith  which  prevailed  everywhere  in  the  Church. 
In  this  period  of  general  apostaey  it  preserved  the  faith  of  many 
pious  souls,  and  afforded  them  a  welcome  refuge,  with  rich  spiritual 
nourishment  and  care.  But  with  the  resuscitation  of  religious 
life  in  the  19th  century,  it  lost  more  and  more  its  significance  for 
Europe,  on  account  of  its  adhesion  to  its  old  one-sidedness,  its 
continuing  indifference  to  science,  and  aversion  to  eonflict.  In 
one  respect,  however,  its  efficiency  is  greatly  felt,  even  to  the 
present  day, — that  is,  its  heathen  missions,  and  its  widely  ramified 
system  of  education  also  deserves  special  acknowledgment.  They  have 
now  a  half  million  members,  with  about  a  hundred  settlements. 

1.  The  Founder  of  the  Moravians,  KicJiolas  Louis  Count  von  Zin- 
zendorf  and  Poltendorf,  was.born  in  the  year  1700,  at  Dresden.  Spener 
was  among  his  sponsors.  As  his  father  died  early,  and  his  mother 
married  a  second  time,  his  pious,  pietistically-inclined  grandmother,  a 
woman  of  Gersdorf  undertook  the  training  of  the  boy,  who  was  en- 
dowed with  rich  gifts  of  the  head  and  heart.  With  her  he  learned, 
even  in  his  tenderest  youth,  to  seek  his  happiness  in  the  most  inti- 
mate personal  communion  with  the  Lord.  But  her  training  was  directed 
only  towards  nourishing  his  religious  feelings,  and  neglected  to  confine 
them  within  the  limits  of  wholesome  discipline,  which  was  doubly  ne- 
cessary for  his  bold,  rich,  and  aspiring  spirit.  At  this  time  already 
the  tendency  of  his  whole  life  fixed  itself.  When  10  years  old  he 
entered  the  grammar-school  at  Halle  under  the  direction  of  A.  H. 
FrancTce,  where  the  pietistic  fundamental  idea  of  the  necessity  of  an 
ecclesiola  in  ccclesia,  took  root  in  his  soul.  Already  in  his  15th  year 
he  sought  to  realize  it  by  founding  &  mustard-seed  order  (Matt.  13  :  31) 
among  his  fellow-pupils.  Having  completed  his  preparatory  studies, 
his  uncle  and  guardian,  who  began  to  have  scruples  about  his  pietistic 
extravagances,  sent  him  to  orthodox  Wittenberg  to  study  law.  Here 
he  at  first  found  a  kind  of  satisfaction,  a  morsel  of  martyr-happiness, 


THE    MORAVIANS.  255 

in  swimming,  as  a  rigid  pietist,  against  the  orthodx  stream.  Never- 
theless, his  residence  at  Wittenberg  exerted  a  wholesome  influence  on 
him,  for  it  liberated  him  insensibly  from  the  narrow-mindedness  of 
Hallean  pietism,  which,  at  all  events,  did  not  accord  with  the  catholic 
tendency  of  his  spirit.  The  fundamental  idea  of  pietism  (ecclesiola  in 
ecclesia)  he,  meanwhile,  held  fast;  but  it  assumed  in  his  spirit  a  form 
so  grand  and  comprehensive,  such  as  pietism  was  not  able  to  produce. 
His  efforts  to  bring  to  pass  a  personal  conference,  and  if  possible  a 
union  between  the  Hallean  and  Wittenberg  leaders,  were  fruitless. 
In  1711  he  left  Wittenberg,  and  during  a  two  years'  tour  came  into 
personal  contact  with  the  most  distinguished  Christian  men  of  all  con- 
fessions and  sects  (in  Paris  with  Noailles  and  the  Jansenists).  After 
his  return  home  (1721),  he  entered  the  civil  service  of  Saxony,  in 
obedience  to  the  desire  of  his  relatives.  But  a  religious  genius  such 
as  Zinzendorf  could  find  no  satisfaction  in  such  service,  and  soon  an 
opportunity  was  afforded  him  to  realize  the  plan  which  ruled  all  his 
thoughts  and  feelings. 

2.  The  Founding  zf  the  Moravians  (1722-27).  —  Already  the  Smal- 
caldian,  and  much  more  the  Thirty-years'  war,  inflicted  unspeakable 
calamities  and  persecution  upon  the  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Brethren. 
Many  of  them  sought  a  refuge  for  their  faith  and  life  in  emigration  to 
Poland  and  Prussia  (among  them  also  Bishop  John  Amos  Comenius, 
ob.  1671).  Those  that  remained  were  exposed  to  the  most  wicked 
oppression,  even  after  the  AVestphalian  peace.  They  could  only  serve 
God  after  the  faith  of  their  fathers  in  their  houses  secretly  and  in  con- 
stant danger  of  death  ;  externally  and  publicly  they  must  belong  to 
the  Romish  Church.  Thus  gradually  the  light  of  the  Gospel  went  out 
in  the  dwellings  of  their  descendants,  and  the  remembrance  of  the 
faith  and  the  Church  of  their  fathers  was  preserved  only  in  a  tradition 
which  continually  faded  more  and  more.  A  Moravian  carpenter,  Chris- 
tian David,  born  and  educated  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  but 
awakened  on  his  travels  through  evangelical  preaching,  rekindled,  at 
the  beginning  of  the  18th  century,  the  dying  flame  in  several  families. 
They  emigrated  under  David's  guidance,  and  sought  a  refuge  upon  the 
estates  of  Count  Zinzendorf  in  Lausatia  (1722).  The  count  was  absent 
at  the  time,  but  his  steward,  with  the  approbation  of  the  count's  grand- 
mother, allowed  them  to  settle  on  Hutberg  near  Berthelsdorf.  Uttering 
the  words  of  Ps.  84  :  4,  Christian  David  struck  the  axe  into  the  tree, 
which  was  cut  down  to  build  the  first  house.  Soon  the  village  of 
Herrnhat  sprung  up,  and  became  the  centre  of  the  society,  which  Zin- 
zendorf now  made  every  effort  to  establish.  Gradually  other  Moravian 
exiles  gathered  in  ;  but  a  much  greater  number  of  religiously  awakened 
people  of  all  nations  flocked  thither,  Pietists,  Separatists,  Calvinists, 
Schwenkfeldians,  etc.  Zinzendorf  did  not  contemplate  a  separation 
from  the  Lutheran  Church.  The  colonists  were  placed  in  the  parish 
of  the  excellent  preacher  Eothe  of  Berthelsdorf  (g  46,  4).     It  was  no 


256         SECTION    III. THIRD    PERIOD    (CENT.   18    A.D.). 

easy  matter  to  organize  such  a  mixed  crowd ;  and  only  /he  glowing 
enthusiasm   of  Zinzendorf  for  the  idea  of  a  collection  of  souls,  his 
eminent  talent  for  organization,  the  wonderful  elasticity  and  tenacity 
of  his  will,   the  extraordinary  prudence,  circumspection,  and  wisdom 
of  his  understanding,  were  able  to  hold  the  diverse  elements  together, 
and  to  avoid  an  open  rupture  amid  the  constantly  occurring  dissensions. 
The  Moravians  demanded  the  re-establishment  of  the  old  Moravian 
constitution  and  discipline  ;  and  of  the  other  elements,  each  one  desired 
that  to  be  placed  in  the  foreground,  which  was  the  most  important  to 
it.     All  only  sympathized  with  each  other  in  the  aversion  to  holding 
fast  simply  to  the  Lutheran  Church  and  its  preacher  Rothe.    Thus  the 
count  saw  himself  compelled  to  create  a  new  and  separate  society  of 
unity.    The  old  Moravian  constitution  did  not  specially  commend  itself 
to  him,  but  the  lot  decided  in  favor  of  it,  and  the  consideration  of  be- 
ing able  to  appear  as  the  continuation  of  an  ante-reformatory  martyr- 
church,  had  also  its  weight.    Thus  then  Zinzendorf  formed  a  constitu- 
tion with  old  Moravian  forms  and  names,  but  pervaded   throughout 
with  a  new  spirit,  aud  ruled  by  quite  other  tendencies.    The  Moravians 
did  not  venture  to  condemn  the  difference  ;  the  most  able  among  them, 
who  perhaps  discovered  it,  were  silenced  by  prominent  positions ;  in- 
dividual discontents  left  Herrnhut.     On  the  basis  of  this  constitution, 
chartered  by  Zinzendorf,  the  colony  now  constituted  itself,  Aug.  13, 
1727,  under  the  name  of  Renewed  Moravian  Church. 

3.   The  Progress  of  the  Church  to  Zinzendorf  s  Death  (1727-60). — 
Immediately  after  the  organization  of  the  Church  or  Society,  it  began 
to  manifest  an  astonishing  activity  in  propagating  itself,  the  life  and 
soul  of  which   Zinzendorf  was,  and  remained  until  his  death.     New 
congregations  were  organized  in  Germany,  Holland,  England,  Ireland, 
Denmark,  Norway,  and  North  America;  members  of  the  society  were 
sent  to  Protestant  countries  to  form  smaller  societies  among  the  dioas- 
pora  within  the  established  churches,  but  with  Moravian  spirit  and 
forms,  thus  for  instance  with  special  success  in  Livonia  and  Esthonia 
since  1729.     Zinzendorf  was  examined  (1734)  at  Tubingen  as  a  candi- 
date for  the  ministry,  and  received  (1737)  from  the  hand  of  Ja.blon.sh/, 
court-preacher  at  Berlin,  who  was  at  the  same  time  Bishop  of  the  Mo- 
ravians, episcopal  ordination,  which  the  same  had  given  already  two 
years  before  to  another  member  of  the  fraternity,  David  Nitschmann 
(a  wheelwright  by  trade)  ;  as  also  generally  increasing  importance  was 
attached  to  episcopal  succession  in  proportion  as  the  connection  with 
England  became  more  intimate.     Meanwhile,  the  movements  of  the 
society  attracted  the  greatest  attention.     The  government  of  Saxony 
sent  (1736)  a  commission  to  Herrnhut,  of  which  Val.  E.  Lbschcr  was  a 
member.   Although  this  commission  made,  upon  the  whole,  a  favorable 
report,  nevertheless  the  originator  of  the  society  was  banished  from 
the  country.     This  exile  continued  for  ten  years.     Zinzendorf,  like  all 
religious  fugitives  then,  fled  to  Wetteraw.     He  settled  with  his  little 


THE     MORAVIANS.  257 

congregation  at  Ronneburg  near  Biidingen,  established  flourishing 
congregations  at  Marienborn  and  Herrnhaag,  and  made  extensive 
journeys  in  Europe  and  America.  This  period  of  exile  is  the  period 
of  the  greatest  outward  exteusion,  but  also  (especially  the  years  1742- 
50)  the  period  of  the  greatest  internal  dangers.  The  historians  of  the 
society  designate  these  years  as  the  sif ling-period.  At  the  same  time  a 
real  flood  of  controversial  treatises  and  lampoons  began  to  break  upon 
the  society  and  its  founders,  partly  in  an  earnest  and  dignified  tone, 
with  a  sharply  penetrating  criticism  from  the  side  of  most  honorable, 
worthy,  and  learned  representatives  of  Lutheran  theology  [John  Phil. 
Presenilis,  S.  J.  Baumgarlen,  J.  G.  Walch,  Abbot  Steinmetz,  Alb. 
Bengel,  etal.),  partly  in  a  coarse,  offensive,  and  scandalous  manner, 
ex.  qr.  by  /.  Leonli.  Froreisen  ( Abschilderung  des  Mahomet's  und  des 
Zinzendorf's  als  seines  heutigen  Affen.  Strasb.  1747,  etc.),  the  latter 
being  done  especially  also  by  members  who  had  withdrawn  from  the 
society,  concerning  whom  we  may  presuppose  the  most  exact  know- 
ledge of  the  internal  condition  of  the  society,  but  also  the  strongest 
disposition  to  misrepresent  and  ridicule  it.  (Cf.  ex.  gr.  B.  Alex.  VolcJc, 
town-clerk  of  Biidingen,  das  entdeckte  Geheimnisz  d.  Bosh.  d.  herrnh. 
Secte.  Frkf.  1749,  ff.,  and  H.  Joach.  Bothe,  tailor  in  Berlin,  Zuverl. 
Nachr.  des  entd.  herrnh.  Ehegeheimnisses.  Berl.  1751,  2  Bde.)  It  is, 
however,  nevertheless  true,  that  the  count  and  his  society  at  this  time 
gave  only  too  much  matter  and  occasion  for  misrepresentation,  perver- 
sion, and  slander,  by  extravagances  and  peculiarities  of  the  most 
obnoxious  and  dangerous  kind.  To  this  period  belongs,  first  of  all,  the 
celebrated  fiction  of  the  special  covenant — the  Pandora-box  of  all  other 
errors  —  and  the  bold  political  stratagem  (1741)  by  which  Zinzendorf 
made  Leonhard  Dober  to  "succeed"  the  Lord  Jesus  in  the  office  of 
chief-elder.  To  this  period  belong  also  the  greatest  literary  fruitful ness 
of  the  count,  together  with  the  development  of  his  peculiar  theological 
views,  modes  of  speech,  and  doctrines  ;  the  composition  and  public  use 
in  worship  of  the  notorious,  later  expelled,  spiritual  hymns,  with  their 
indescribably  foolish  trifling,  and  their  partly  blasphemous,  partly 
obscene  images  and  analogies ;  further,  the  mountebank  laudation  of 
his  society,  the  not  always  honest  proselytism,  the  introduction  and 
practice  of  a  very  questionable  and  shameless  matrimonial  discipline  ; 
finally,  the  so-called  elegancies  [i.  e.  excepting  joyful  festivities,  whose 
centre  was  the  cultus  of  the  "  Seitenhohlchens,"  with  illuminated  or 
transparent  representations  and  tasteless  emblems  or  decorations  of 
the  same,  etc.).  such  as  the  "mite-societies"  for  preparing  these  ele- 
gancies, towards  which  especially  the  congregation  at  Herrnhaag,  the 
model  for  all  the  others,  contributed  the  non-plus-ultra  of  silly  insi- 
pidity. Even  the  pietistic  party,  whose  theory  of  repentance  and  con- 
version was  certainly  and  justly  offensive  to  the  society,  opposed  it  on 
account  of  its  blessed  resting  in  the  favor  of  its  Saviour,  which  inclined 
to  Antinomism.  (Cf.  K.  H.  v.  Bogatzki/,  Aufr.  Declaration  u.  e.  gegen 
65* 


258         SECTION    III. THIRD    PERIOD    (CENT.  18    A.  D.). 

ihn  herausgek.  herrnhutische  Schrift.  mit  c.  Yorr.  v.  Abt  Steinmetz, 
llaile,  1751.  —  G.  Tersteyen,  Warnungsschreiben  wider  die  Leichtsin* 
uigk.  se.  der  Herrnbuter,  im  weg  d.  Wahrh.  St.  V.).  The  controversial 
treatises  of  inspired  lunatics  in  Wetteraw,  with  whom  Ziuzendorf  for- 
merly fraternized,  but  had  now  completely  broken,  brought  things  to 
light,  of  which  those  without  had  no  idea,  and  which  greatly  compro- 
mised Ziuzendorf 's  sincerity  and  integrity  (J  49,  2). — All  this  opposi- 
tion, odious  as  it  for  the  most  part  was,  produced  meanwhile  a  salutary 
effect.  The  count  became  gradually  more  careful  as  to  himself,  more 
cautious  in  his  addresses,  more  discreet  in  his  conduct,  removed  several 
of  the  worst  excrescences  in  doctrine  and  practice,  and  exterminated 
also  in  great  part  the  fanatical  element.  In  1747,  finally,  the  go- 
vernment of  Saxony  revoked  the  edict  of  exile  against  the  founder  of 
the  society ;  and  as  it  two  years  later  explicitly  accepted  the  Augsburg 
Confession,  it  attained  formal  recognition  in  Saxony.  At  the  same 
time  it  was  recognized  in  England  by  an  act  of  parliament  ( 1749)  as  a 
church  entitled  to  equal  privileges  with  that  of  the  Anglican  Episcopal, 
with  pure  episcopal  succession.  Ziuzendorf  managed  all  the  important 
matters  of  the  society  until  his  death,  and  it  adhered  to  him  with  child- 
like confidence,  and  was  a  faithful  copy  of  his  character,  inheriting  not 
only  his  fervor,  but  also  his  extravagances  in  forms  of  expression,  of 
doctrine,  and  of  life.  He  died  (170U)  in  the  perfect  enjoyment  of  that 
happiness  which  his  glowing  love  to  the  Saviour  had  prepared  for  him. 

4.  Ziuzendorf' s  Plan  and  Labors.  —  The  pietistic  idea  of  the  neces- 
sity of  an  eeolesiola  in  ecclesia  gave  him  the  first  impulse  to  the  work 
of  his  life.  But  the  weakness  of  this  tendency  could  not  remain  con- 
cealed to  his  sharp  and  penetrating  spirit.  With  clear  vision  he  looked 
through  the  little,  narrow-minded  doings  of  Pietism,  which  never  could 
accomplish  anything  rightly  with  its  establishment  of  institutions,  its 
unscriptural  methods  of  piety,  and  theories  of  conversion  and  sealing. 
Ziuzendorf,  therefore,  desired  not  a  conventicle,  but  a  society ;  not  an 
ideal,  invisible,  but  a  real,  visible  Church  ;  not  a  narrow-minded  me- 
thodism,  but  a  free,  rich  dominion  of  the  Christian  spirit.  He  did  not 
aim  at  first  at  the  conversion  of  the  world,  nor  at  the  reformation  of 
the  Church,  but  at  the  collection  and  conservation  of  souls  belonging 
to  the  Saviour.  But  he  hoped  to  build  a  reservoir,  into  which  all  the 
rivulets  of  the  water  of  life  would  flow  together,  and  from  which  he 
would  be  able  to  water  the  whole  world.  And  as  he  succeeded  so  well 
in  forming  a  society,  and  it  had  progressed  so  rapidly,  he  was  perfectly 
convinced  that  it  was  the  Philadelphia  of  Revelations  (3  :  7  ff.),  that 
with  it  had  begun  the  Philadelphia?  period  of  Church  History,  concern- 
ing which  all  the  prophets  and  apostles  had  prophesied.  His  plan  was 
designed  originally  for  all  Christendom,  and  he  took  steps  to  realize  it 
in  this  form.  To  build  a  bridge  between  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
and  his  Bociety,  he  published  (1727)  a  small  Christian- Catholic  hymn 
and  prayer-book,  mostly  taken  from  Angelus  Silesius'  "  Hcly  Delight 


THE     MORAVIANS.  259 

of  the  Soul  "  and  sketched  a  letter  to  the  pope  (published  later  by 
Waleh)  with  which   he  intended  to  send  this  book  to  him.     Zinzen- 
dorf    positively    denied    the    whole     matter,    and    pronounced    the 
letter  to  be  a  pasquil ;  but  Spangenberg  admitted  that  the  count  had 
sketched  it,  but  never  sent  it  off.     He  also  endeavored  to  interest  the 
Greek  Church  in  his  society  by  writing  to  the  patriarch  and  to  the 
Empress  Elizabeth  of  Russia,  whereby  he  brought  the  Greek  descent 
of  the  Moravian  brethren  to  bear.    Practically,  however,  his  collection 
of  souls  was  confined  within  the  limits  of  the  Protestant  Church,  and 
within  these  limits  contributions  were  made  to  it  from  all  confessions, 
sects,  and  communions.     He  was  personally  attached  sincerely  to  the 
Lutheran  Church  and  its  characteristic  doctrines.     But  in  a  society 
which  was  in  principle  designed  to  be  the  rendezvous  of  the  pious  out 
of  all  nations,  doctrine  and  creed  could  not  be  the  uniting  and  cement- 
ing bond.    It  could  only  form  a  communion  of  love,  not  of  faith.    The 
inmost  kernel  of  Lutheranism,  reconciliation  by  the  blood  of  Christ, 
was  preserved,  and  even  made  to  be  the  proper  living  element  of  the 
society,  though  only  as  the  blessed  feeling  of  his  blood.     But  this  con- 
tinued to  be  the  properly  Lutheran  basis  in  the  society,  which  also, 
when  it  was  divided  into  confessional  tropes  (into  the  Moravian,  Lu- 
theran, and  Reformed  trope),  remained  in  all  the  common  basis.    This 
division  first  took  place  in  1744,  and  was  occasioned  by  the  founding 
of  the  new  congregations  at  Marienborn  and  Herrnhaag  in  Wetteraw, 
in  which  the  Reformed  element  was  predominant.     The  uniting  head 
of  the  three  divisions  was  the  count  himself,  who,  in  this  capacity,  bore 
the  title  Ordinarius.     But  this  matter  of  division  was  also  only  some- 
thing external,  and  introduced  no  confessional  precision  into  the  so- 
ciety ;  it  was  consequently  also  of  no  duration.     The  later  adhesion  to 
the  Augsburg  Confession  (1749)  was  only  an  act  of  policy,  which  ob- 
tained civil  recognition,   otherwise   it  was  without  any  effect.     The 
society  remained,  as  it  had  been  before,  without  and  indifferent  to  any 
confession.    As  now  Zinzendorf 's  society  rejected  the  unity  of  confession 
as  a  principle  of  communion,  and  as  no  permanent  communion  can  be 
based  on  a  mere  feeling  of  love,  consequently  nothing  remained  to  the 
founder  but  to  make  the  Constitution  the  bond  of  unity  instead  of  the 
confession.     The  forms  of  this  constitution  were  borrowed,  from  exter- 
nal considerations,  from  the  Old  Moravian  Church-discipline,  but  not 
Bradacz's,   but  Zinzendorf's   spirit  filled   and  ruled  them.     The  old 
Moravian  constitution  was  an  episcopal-clerical  one,  and  started  from 
the  idea  of  the  Church ;  the  new  one  was  essentially  Presbyterian,  and 
started  from  the  idea  of  the  congregation,  and  that  a  congregation  of 
saints.    Moravian  bishops  are  only  titular  ones  ;  they  have  no  dioceses, 
no  church  government,  nor  ban.     All  this  resides  in  the  power  of  the 
Unity-elders,  among  whom  the  lay-element  is  decidedly  predominant. 
Further,  Moravians  have  no  pastors,  but  only  preaching  brethren  ;  the 
care  of  souls  is  assigned  to  the  elders  and  their  assistants.    In  addition 


260        SECTION   III.  —  THIRD   PERIOD    (CENT.  18   A.  D.). 

to  that  half-Lutheran  and  this  pseudo-Moravian  element,  the  society 
had  also  as  basis  a  Donatist  element.  This  consisted  already  in  the 
fundamental  idea  of  a  collection  and  communion  of  only  true  children 
of  God,  and  found  its  completion  as  well  as  its  dogmatic  establishment 
in  the  conclusion  of  a  Special  covenant  with  the  Saviour  on  Sept.  16, 
1741,  in  London.  The  "Gedenktage"  (p.  241,  if.)  report  the  following 
concerning  it :  Leonhard  Dober  had  filled  the  office  of  a  General-elder 
for  several  years.  But  it  was  observed  at  a  synod  held  in  London  that 
he  had  not  the  proper  talents  for  this  office.  He  now  asked  to  be  dis- 
missed. In  the  anxiety  to  refill  the  office,  "it  occurred  to  all  at  the 
same  time,  to  accept  the  Saviour  for  it."  They  looked  after  the  watch- 
word of  the  day,  and  found  Isaiah  45  :  11  (a  passage  not  correctly 
translated  by  Luther).  "  Instantly  we  all  resolved  to  accept  no  other 
than  him  as  General-elder,  and  he  gave  us  to  understand  that  He  ap- 
proved (How?).  We  asked  for  permission;  we  obtained  it.  (How?). 
The  question  was  not,  whether  the  Saviour  was  generally  the  shepherd 
and  bishop  of  our  souls;  but  our  purpose  and  concern  was:  that  he 
should  make  a  special  covenant  with  his  insignificant  people,  and  re- 
ceive us  as  his  special  possession,  take  care  of  all  our  concerns,  specially 
watch  over  us,  personally  unite  himself  with  each  member  of  the  society, 
and  do  everything  in  perfection  that  our  former  elder  had  done  among 
us  in  weakness."  In  a  circular  addressed  to  "  the  Church  of  the  Lamb," 
Zinzendorf  announced  the  unheard-of  favor  which  had  been  bestowed 
upon  them;  —  and,  as  is  customary  on  the  accession  of  a  new  king  to 
the  throne,  a  letter  of  grace  proclaimed  "  a  universal  forgiveness  of 
sins,  committed  either  against  the  society  or  its  members,"  and  offered 
'"  all  apostates,  to  the  last,  whom  the  Lord  according  to  his  wonderful 
and  inscrutable  counsel  had  excluded,"  restoration  to  the  society.  In 
America,  the  congregation  at  Philadelphia  issued  a  proclamation  to  all 
Christians,  which  begins  with  the  words:  To-day  a  visible  Church  of 
the  Lord  is  finally  seen  and  recognized  here ;  we  constitute  the  body 
of  the  Lord  ;  hither  to  us,  all  ye  who  belong  to  the  Lord  ! 

Among  the  numberless  extravagances  perpetrated  by  Zinzendorf  and 
the  society,  during  the  so-called  sij'ting-period,  which,  however,  Zin- 
zendorf himself  partly  abandoned  later,  the  following  are  the  most 
remarkable  and  obnoxious  :  (1.)  The  doctrine  of  the  maternal  office  of 
the  Holy  Ghost.  Zinzendorf  viewed  the  Holy  Trinity  as  "  man,  wife, 
and  child"  ("  papa,  mamma,  and  their  little  flame,  brother  lambkin"). 
The  Holy  Ghost  fills  the  position  of  mother  (God  the  Father's  eternal 
wife,  heart-mamma)  ;  his  maternal  office  is  exercised  in  a  three-fold 
way:  at  the  eternal  generation  of  the  Son  of  God,  at  the  conception 
of  the  man  .lesus,  at  the  regeneration  of  believers.  (2.)  The  doctrine 
of  the  paternal  office  of  Jesus  Christ  (according  to  Isaiah  9  :  (>.)  The 
creation  of  the  world  was  accomplished  alone  and  exclusively  by  the 
Son  (the  "blessed  potter"  according  to  Gen.  2  :  7),  therefore  Christ  is 
our  special  father,  our  direct  father.     The  father  of  our  Lord  Jesus 


THE    MORAVIANS.  261 

Christ  is  only  '  what  the  world  calls  a  father-in-law,  a  grandfather." 
(3.)  Concerning  the  earthly  life  of  our  Saviour,  Zinzendorf,  in  order  to 
make  prominent  and  clear  the  depth  of  his  humiliation,  loved  to  use 
the  most  disrespectful  expressions  (journeyman-carpenter,  journey- 
man, he  hung  upon  the  cross  as  a  gallows-bird,  etc.).  (4.)  He  spoke 
equally  disrespectfully  also  of  the  "  miserable  fisherman's,  shepherd's, 
and  visitator  stylo,  of  the  classical  obscurity  and  rabbinical  scholastic 
terminology  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  On  the  other  hand,  he  pronounced 
his  society  to  be  a  living  Bible.  (5.)  The  theory  and  practice  of  the 
marriage-mystery,  according  to  Eph.  5  :  32.  The  society  and  every 
single  soul  in  it  is  the  spiritual  bride  of  Christ,  and  to  make  the  inti- 
mate character  of  this  relation  clear,  marriage-life  is  depicted  even  to 
obscenity,  and  applied  to  the  spiritual  marriage  with  Christ,  especially 
in  the  hymns.  But  Christ  is  also  the  proper  husband  in  corporeal 
matrimony.  The  begetting  of  children  is  a  work  of  Christ  (belongs 
to  his  paternal  office)  ;  earthly  husbands  are  only  "  his  procurators,  in 
whose  favor  he  has  resigned  it;"  they  are  the  vice-christs,  vice-men 
of  the  wives.  Marriage  is  a  real  sacrament,  sanctified  thereto  by  the 
circumcision  of  Christ  and  the  opening  of  his  side  with  the  spear.  The 
blood  of  Christ  shed  thereby  is  the  oil  of  matrimony,  and  the  begetting 
of  children  is  a  holy,  divine  work,  that  should  be  performed  by  true 
Christians  without  any  sensation  of  fleshly  lust,  and  consequently  also 
without  shame.  The  "  dog-principiis  tolerated"  by  the  apostle  (1  Cor. 
7  :  9),  which  are  now  only  practised  by  negroes  and  islanders,  must  be 
denied  admission  into  the  society.  To  this  end  the  contraction  of  mar- 
riage and  the  copula  carnalis  were  placed  under  the  special  supervision 
of  the  stewards  of  the  society ;  and  the  latter  was  done  for  a  time  by 
the  newly  married  amidst  the  singing  and  prayer  of  the  society  assem- 
bled in  an  adjoining  room. 

Zinzendorf,  almost  apotheosized  by  his  adherents,  has  not  met  with 
a  proper  judgment,  either  as  to  his  greatness  or  his  weakness,  from 
his  opponents.  His  greatness  lay  in  his  heart  glowing  with  love  to  the 
Saviour  ("I  have  only  one  passion,  that  is  He,  only  He"),  in  the 
universal  love,  with  which  he  gladly  embraced  all  believers,  in  order 
to  gather  them  beneath  the  cross.  This  greatness,  which  he  possessed, 
is  not  even  acknowledged  by  his  most  estimable  opponents,  among 
whom  Bengel  is  by  far  the  most  important.  His  weakness  consisted 
almost  less  in  the  various  extravagances  of  which  he  was  guilty,  than 
in  the  fact  that  he  regarded  himself  as  being  called  to  establish  a 
society.  But  apart  from  this,  his  labors  bear  the  stamp  of  grandeur, 
en  account  of  the  great  self-sacrifice,  unwearied  energy,  and  self-deny- 
in  o-  faithfulness  with  which  he  performed  them.  He  devoted  his  whole 
life,  soul,  heart,  and  wealth,  to  his  self-chosen  calling.  The  advan- 
tages, also,  which  birth,  position,  and  high  secular  culture  offered  him, 
he  knew  how  to  make  subservient  to  his  mission.  He  was  personally 
persuaded  of  his  divine  calling,  and  as  he  was  not  accustomed  to  bow 


262  SECTION    III. THIRD    PERIOD    (CENT.  18    A.  D.)  . 

to  the  written  Word  of  God,  but  interpreted  it  according  to  his  subjec* 
tive  canon :  "  It  appears  so  to  me,"  and  made  only  this  (together  with 
the  lot)  the  rule  of  his  life  and  labors,  it  is  easily  explicable  how  he, 
in  spite  of  great  spiritual  illumination  and  a  rich  fund  of  Christian 
sense,  could  fall  into  fanatical  errors.  And  from  this  relation  to 
his  calling,  the  advancement  of  which  by  all  imaginable  means  he 
had  always  and  only  in  view,  are  explained  also  single  impurities  in 
his  life  (especially  want  of  strict  truthfulness,  where  it  might  appear 
to  be  injurious  to  his  cause).  Very  much  of  what  was  crooked  and 
perverse  in  his  character  must  also  be  attributed  to  the  distracted  age 
in  which  he  lived.  Zinzendorf 's  writings,  of  which  there  are  more 
than  100,  are  marked  by  originality,  genial  thoughts,  and  peculiar 
phrases.  Among  his  more  than  2000  hymns,  many  of  them  improvised 
in  the  act  of  worship,  of  which  Alb.  Knapp  published  (Stuttg.  1845) 
700  of  the  best,  there  are  many  possessing  great  fervor  and  sweetness, 
some  of  really  poetic  merit,  a  few  also  (''  Jesu,  geh  voran,"  "  Du  unser 
auserw'ahltes  Haupt"),  Avhich  have  found  their  way  into  the  hymn- 
books  of  the  evangelical  Church.  The  largest  portion  of  them  are  mere 
rhymes,  a  repertorium  of  theological  and  spiritual  extravagances. 

5.  The  Moravians  since  Spangenberg's  Labors. — The  society  owes  its 
present  form  to  the  prudent,  wise,  and  temperate  bishop,  Aug.  Gottlieb 
Spanr/enberij  [ob.  17(J2),  who,  after  Zinzendorf's  death,  obtained  a 
superior  influence,  and  is  justly  regarded  as  its  second  founder.  It 
received  from  him  the  measured  forms  which  yet  characterise  it.  The 
constitution  was  revised  and  perfected  at  the  synod  of  Marienborn 
(1764).  Zinzendorf's  monarchical  position  was  changed  into  the  con- 
ference of  unity-elders,  and  Spangenberg  removed  the  yet  remaining 
excrescences  of  fanaticism.  But  the  fundamental  error  of  a  special 
covenant  remained  untouched,  and  still  constituted  the  fundamental 
presupposition  of  everything  that  the  society  as  such  thought,  taught, 
wrote,  did,  and  accomplished, — and  it  continues  to  celebrate  on  the 
16th  Sept.,  "the  blessed  experience  of  the  elder's  office  of  Jesus,"  as 
its  proper  birth-day  and  special  Whitsuntide.  In  the  statutes  of  the 
evang.  Br'udr.-Unit.  Gnadau  (1819,  $  5),  it  defines  itself  in  distinction 
from  the  existing  churches  as  a  "  society  of  true  children  of  God,  as  a 
family  of  God,  which  has  Jesus  for  its  head," — in  the  Hist.  Nachricht. 
v.  d.  Verfass.  d.  Brdr.-Unit.  Gnadau,  1823,  #  4,  as  "  a  collection  of 
living  members  of  the  invisible  body  of  Jesus  Christ,"  and  in  its 
"  Litanei  am  Ostermorgen"  (Gesangb.  Nr.  210),  in  immediate  connec- 
tion with  the  creed  of  universal  Christendom  is  placed  as  fourth,  spe- 
cially Moravian  credo :  "  i"  believe,  that  our  brethren  N.  N.  and  our 
sisters  N.  N.  (N.  B.  Here  persons  who  have  died  at  the  nlace  since  the 
previous  Easter  are  mentioned  by  name)  have  gone  to  the  upper  con- 
gregation, and  have  entered  into  the  joy  of  their  Lord."  However, 
the  synod  of  1848  made  a  change  in  this  article  of  faith,  but  not  so 
great  as  to  abandon  the  principle.     But  it  is  certain  that  the  society 


THE    MORAVIANS.  263 

did  not,  ic  a  public  way,  cause  the  consciousness  of  its  special  election 
to  appear  so  prominently  in  the  foreground.  This  considerate  and 
purified  Moravianism  received,  in  Spangenberg's  Idea  Fidei  fratrum, 
a  dogmatic  expression,  which  was  connected  with  the  Lutheran  doc- 
trine, but  not  the  less  thoroughly  penetrated  by  the  above-mentioned 
fundamental  presupposition.  Only  a  few  new  societies  were  established 
after  Zinzendorf 's  death,  and  none  of  these  were  of  much  importance. 
Rather  before  this  event,  the  flourishing  congregations  in  Wetteraw 
were  destroyed  and  scattered  (1750)  by  the  ruler  of  the  country,  Count 
von  Isenburg-Budingen  (because  they  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance). The  labors  among  the  Diaspora  in  Livonia  and  Esthonia, 
after  the  first  attempt  to  establish  the  society  there  (1729-43),  had 
ended  in  the  banishment  of  the  Moravians,  were  more  successful  in 
the  second  half  of  this  century,  and  assumed  a  form  here  as  nowhere 
else  in  a  national  church.  They  organized  here  formally  a  church 
within  the  church,  whose  members,  sustained  by  the  conviction  that 
they  had  been  added  to  "  the  little  band"  of  the  elect  by  the  infallible 
voice  of  the  Lord  in  the  lot,  gave  infinite  trouble  to  the  orthodox  cler- 
gymen of  the  country,  especially  of  Livonia  who  saw  the  destructive 
character  of  this  course,  and  testified  against  it  from  the  Word  of 
God.  This  testimony  manifested  its  conquering  power  here  also,  and 
Moravianism  began  to  reform  (1857)  not  only  too  late,  but  also  in  too 
lukewarm  a  manner,  to  save  its  institutions  in  Livonia  from  the  certain 
destruction  which  impended  over  them.  (Cf.  Th.  Harnack,  d.  luth.  K. 
Livland's  u.  d.  herrnhut.  Brlidergemeine,  in  der  kirchl.  Zeitschr.  v. 
Kleifoth  u.  Mejer  1855,  V.  VI.  1857,  IX.  X.) 

With  regard  to  the  doctrinal  peculiarity  of  the  Moravians,  the  firsi 
thing  to  be  made  prominent  is,  that  freedom  from  all  creeds  is  a  prin- 
ciple. The  acceptance  of  the  Augustana,  in  1749,  was  not  a  real 
appropriation  of  them  ;  and  how  merely  external  the  relation  of  the 
society  to  them  still  is,  is  shown  by  the  synodic  indulgence  of  1848. 
Conseo^ently,  it  is  difficult  to  say  what  the  doctrines  of  the  Moravians 
are.  If  we  confine  ourselves  to  Spangenberg's  Idea  Fidei,  and  to  the 
sermons  and  devotional  works,  then  their  doctrinal  views  do  not  by 
any  means  appear  to  be  either  un-Lutheran  or  anti-Lutheran,  but 
rather  such  as  contain  neither  the  extensive  fulness  nor  the  intensive 
wealth  of  the  Lutheran  doctrines, — and  Bengel's  sharp  criticism:  that 
the  Moravians  pluck  off  the  leaves  from  the  entire  tree  of  wholesome 
doctrines,  expose  that  which  is  most  hidden,  and  even  divide  this  in 
half,  is  even  yet  perfectly  true.  First  of  all  they  repudiate  science 
(according  to  a  wrong  translation  and  application  of  Eph.  3 :  19) 
as  unnecessary  to  the  appropriation  of  redemption,  and  seek  to  appre- 
hend and  preserve  salvation  by  direct  faith  and  love.  As  regards  the 
objects  of  faith,  the  Son  (the  God-man)  is  regarded  as  the  exclusive 
agent  by  whom  salvation  is  applied  and  accomplished,  so  that  the  re- 
lations of  the  Father  and  the  Holy  Ghost  to  redemption  are  entirely 


264      SECTION   III. —  THIRD   PERIOD    (CENT.  IS    A.  D.) . 

ignored.    Further,  entire  redemption  is  again  attributed,  in  a  one-sided 
way,  to  the  sufferings  and  death  of  the  Son  ;  and  the  other  not  less 
essential  side  of  the  same,  which  is  grounded  in  his  life  and  resurrec- 
tion, is  left  out  of  view,  or  iather  its  fruits  are  likewise  traced  to  his 
atoning  death.     Consequently  not  only  justification,  but  also  sanctifi- 
cation,  are  attributed  exclusively  to  the  death  of  Christ,  and  this  is 
apprehended  not  so  much  as  a  legal  satisfaction  (without,  hoAvcver, 
expressly  denying  this  directly),  as  a  divine  manifestation  of  love, 
which  awakens  reciprocal  love.     Redemption  is  viewed  as  emanating 
solely    from    the   blood  and  wounds  of   Christ,  and  as  in  this  aspect 
the  justice  of  God  comes  less  into  view  than  His  grace  and  love,  so  also 
the  Gospel  is  made  prominent  to  the  almost  entire  exclusion  of  the  law 
(almost  to  Antinomianism).     Sermon  and  doctrine  should  be  directed 
towards  exciting  pious  feelings  of  love,  and  thus  promote  a  certain 
religious  sentimentality.     The  weak  side  of  the  society  is,  accordingly, 
its  inability  to  religiously  develop  the  whole  man  with  all  his  capacities 
and  powers,  and  to  make  the  entire  fulness  of  the  gospel  contribute  to 
this  end;  —  its  strong  side,  on  the  other  hand,  is  its  inwardness,  and 
even  this  is  unsound,  because  it  is  penetrated  with  the  idea  of  a  special 
covenant  with  the  Lord. 

The  peculiarity  of  their  worship  also  contributed  towards  exciting 
pious  feeling,  including  pleasant  sacred  music,  affecting  melodies,  rich 
liturgical  service,  love-feasts  (agapae,  with  tea,  rusk,  and  the  singing 
of  chorals),  feet-washing,  and  the  fraternal  kiss  at  the  communion,  etc. 
The  daily  watch-words  (from  the  0.  T.)  and  doctrinal  texts  (from  the 
N.  T.)  are  designed  to  control  and  direct  the  feelings  and  meditations 
of  each  day,  and  are  regarded  as  being  a  kind  of  oracle  both  for  the 
congregation  and  for  private  life.      So  early  as  1734  the  society  pos- 
sessed a  hymn-book  of  its  own,  with  972  hymns.     The  most  of  these 
hymns  proceeded  from  the  society  itself,  and  are  a  faithful  copy  of  its 
condition  at  that  time.     It  contained,  besides,  the  Bohemian  and  Mo- 
ravian hymns  translated  by  M.  Weiss,  and  also  many  old  choice  hymns 
of  the  evangelical  church ;  the  latter,  however,  were  most  miserably 
mutilated  and  abbreviated.     By  degrees  (to  1749)  twelve  appendices 
and  four  additions  were  made  to  it,  so  that  the  number  of  hymns  in- 
creased to  2357.     The  one-sidedness  of  the  emotional  tendency  dege- 
nerated, especially  in  these  additions,  and  most  of  all  in  the  twelfth, 
to  the  most  offensive  caricature,  in  the  insipid,  and  more  than  childish 
trifling  with  the  blood  and  wounds  of  Christ,  etc.     Zinzendorf  himself 
discovered  this  degeneracy  in  time,  struck  off  the  twelve  appendices  in 
1751,  and  prepared  in  London  a  new  revised  hymn-book  (the  so-called 
London  hymn-book).     Under  Spangenberg's   superintendence   of  the 
society,  Christian  Gregor  (at  that  time  music-director,   later  Bishop, 
i,l>.  1801)  undertook  the  publication  of  the  hymn-book  yet  in  use.    With- 
out possessing  poetical  talent,  he  yet  did  good  service  by  retouching 
mid  abbreviating  the  hymns  then  in  use.     He  retained  542  of  Ziuzen- 


THE     MORAVIANS.  265 

dorf's  hymns,  and  added  not  less  than  308  of  his  own  pious  rhymes 
This  "Neue  Gesangbuch  der  Brlidergemeinen"  appeared  in  1778;  in 
1784,  a  book  of  chorals,  likewise  prepared  by  Gregor,  was  added  to  it. 
Zinzendorf  is  the  chief  religious  poet  of  the  society.    The  count's  only, 
early  deceased  (1752)  son,  Christian  Renatus  (commonly  called  Chris 
tel)  bequeathed  to  the  society  a  number  of  hymns  (among  which  is 
"Die  wir  uns  allhier  beisamen  finden").     The  other  numerous  reli- 
gious poets  are  of  no  importance.     Worthy  of  special  mention  is  Span- 
genberg's  hymn  :   "  Heil'ge  Einfalt!  Gnadenwunder  !"•  -The  Melodies 
were  of  the  Hallean  type,  but  strayed  even  more  than  these  into  the 
sentimental,  emotional,  and  unchurchly,  until  in  1784  Gregor,  by  his 
new  choral-book,  brought  this  tendency  within  the  limits  of  the  renewed 
spirit  of  the  society. 

The  Christian  Practical  Life  of  the  society,  after  it  had  come  out  of 
its  sifting  period,  purified  through  Spangenberg's  efforts,  manifested 
itself  in  "an  almost  monkish  contraction  of  civil  and  social  life,"  with 
stereotyped  phrases  and  peculiar  usages,  even  as  to  clothing  (the  caps 
of  the  wives,  widows,  and  maidens).  Characteristic  of  the  society  is 
further  the  blessed,  quietistic  feeling  of  favor  in  personal  communion 
with  the  Saviour,  the  peace,  which  avoided  all  conflict  and  controversy, 
the  prudent,  measured  cutting-out  of  the  whole  life,  etc.  The  unbe- 
lief that  reigned  in  the  Protestant  Church,  gave  for  a  time  an  apparent 
justification  to  the  separation,  conditioned  by  the  special  covenant. 
Since  the  revival  of  Christian  life  in  the  Church,  this  separatism  has 
also,  at  least  in  its  external  relations,  receded  into  the  background, 
but  has  not  by  any  means  entirely  disappeared.  The  society 'still  re^ 
gards  itself  as  being  the  preferred  and  favored  people  of  the  Lord. 

Finally,  with  regard  to  the  Form  of  Church  Government,  Christ  him- 
self is  the  chief  elder  of  the  Church,  who  governs  it  by  means  of  the 
lot.  The  leaders  of  the  society  at  least  hold  fast  to  the  use  of  the  lot, 
in  spite  of  the  opposition  which  has  arisen  in  the  society  within  several 
decades.  With  it  the  special  covenant  would  lose  all  significance,  and 
the  existence  of  the  society  outside  of  the  Church  all  justification.  '  The 
lot  is  used  in  marriages,  in  filling  ecclesiastical  offices,  in  sending  forth 
missionaries,  in  receiving  into  the  society,  etc.  Nevertheless,  the  so- 
ciety has  permitted  a  relaxation  of  the  practice  in  marriages,  inasmuch 
as  it  is  only  used  with  consent  of  the  candidates  of  matrimony,  and  the 
result  is  not  regarded  as  binding,  which,  in  fact,  involves  a  contradic- 
tion and  an  abandonment  of  the  principle.  The  administration  of  the 
affairs  of  the  society  resides  in  the  Unity-elders'  conference  (with  three 
departments,  one  for  ecclesiastical  and  educational  affairs,  another  for 
economical  affairs,  and  a  third  for  missions).  From  time  to  time  Gene- 
ral Synods  are  also  convoked,  possessing  legislative  authority.  The 
society  is  divided  into  separate  bands,  the  married,  the  widowed,  the 
unmarried  brethren,  the  maidens  and  children,  with  special  stewards 
living  for  the  most  part  also  in  separate  houses,  and  holding  epecial 
06 


266    SECTION  III. THIRD  PERIOD  (CENT.  18  A.  D.). 

religious  services  in  addition  to  those  that  are  general.  The  ecclesias- 
tical officers  are  divided  into  bishops,  presbyters,  deacons,  deaconesses, 
and  acolytes. 

6.  Heathen  Missions.  (Cf.  D.  Cram,  Hist.  v.  Grb'nl.  Barby,  17G2, 
2  Thle. —  G.  A.  Oldendorp,  Gesch.  d.  Miss.  d.  ev.  Br.  auf  den  Caraib, 
Inseln.  Barby,  1777,  2  Bde. —  G.  H.  Loskiel,  Gesch.  d.  Miss.  d.  ev.  Br. 
unter  d.  Indianern  in  Nordamerika,  Barby,  1789. —  F.  L.  Kolbing, 
Gesch.  d.  Miss,  in  Grind,  u.  Labrador.  Gnadau,  J  Sol,  2  Bde.)  —  Zeal 
for  missions  Avas  early  kindled  in  Zinzendorf  s  heart  by  meeting  with 
a  West  Indian  negro  at  Copenhagen.  He  laid  the  subjoct  before  his 
young  society,  and  as  early  as  1732  the  first  Moravian  missionaries, 
Leonh.  Dober  and  Dav.  Nitschmann,  were  sent  to  St.  Thomas ;  and  in 
the  next  following  }-ears  the  missions  of  the  society  were  extended  in 
every  direction  over  Greenland  (#  4G,  7),  North  America,  almost  all 
the  West  India  islands,  South  America,  Kapland  (among  the  Hotten- 
tots), East  India,  Labrador  (among  the  Esipiimaux),  etc.  The  mis- 
sionary labors  of  the  Moravians  constitute  the  most  beneficent  and 
honorable  portion  of  their  history.  Their  mode  of  missionary  opera- 
tions was  chiefly  adapted  to  uncivilized  nations,  and  only  to  such.  In 
East  India  ex.  gr.  they  were  not  able  to  accomplish  anything.  The 
society  did  not  lack  self-sacrificing  missionaries,  of  whom  nothing  was 
demanded  but  love  to  the  Saviour  and  devotion  to  their  calling.  They 
were  for  the  most  part  pious,  enlightened  mechanics,  who  brought 
practical  adaptedness  to  their  new  calling,  which  was  of  great  im- 
portance, simply  preached  the  cross,  and  cared  for  the  bodily  and 
spiritual  welfare  of  those  committed  to  them,  with  maternal  solicitude. 
The  Moravian  guardianship  of  souls  is  here  transfigured  into  a  real 
patriarchal  relationship.  The  brightest  example  of  such  a  missionary 
patriarch  was  Dao.  Zeisberger,  who  labored  for  63  years  (ob.  1808) 
among  the  North  American  Indians.  In  contrast  with  the  enormous 
expenditure  of  money  by  Protestant  missions,  it  is  to  be  remarked  with 
honor,  that  the  Moravian  missions  were  able  to  accomplish  the  greatest 
results  with  the  least  pecuniary  means. 

§  48.  THE  REFORMED  CHURCH  AND  METHODISM. 

What  Pietism  and  Moravianism  was  to  the  Lutheran  Church, 
that  Metholism  was  to  the  Reformed  Church  of  England,  from 
which  it  proceeded  almost  at  the  same  time.  In  the  Dutch  and 
German  Reformed  Churches,  Goccejanism  (§  40,  3),  which  was 
still  in  favor  in  the  first  decades  of  the  18th  century,  made  its 
influence  felt.  After  that  the  rigidly  Calvinistic  system  had  been 
softened  by  it,  the  antithesis  between  Calvinistic  orthodoxy  and 
Arminian  heterodoxy  lost  its  sharpness,  and  Arminian  tenden- 
cies were  felt  more  and  more  in  Reformed  theology.    The  sharp- 


REFORMED     CHURCH     AND     METHODISM.  267 

ness  of  the  antithesis  between  Calvinism  and  Lutheranism  was 
also  moderated  on  both  sides,  although  the  Union  movevients, 
made  from  time  to  time,  failed  on  account  of  Lutheran  oppo- 
sition. 

1.  Methodism.  (Cf.  /.  Hampson,  Life  of  J  Wesley,  2  vols. — /.  Rob. 
Southey,  Life  of  J.  Av3sley,  2  vols. — H.  Moore,  the  Life  of  the  Rev.  J. 
Wesley.  Lond.  1824,  2  vols.— R.  Watson,  Life  of  J.  Wesley.—  G.  Whit- 
field's Leben,  nach.  d.  Engl,  herausg.  v.  A.  Tholuck.  Lpz.  183-4. 
Leben  J.  Fletcher's  niit  vorw.  v.  A.  Tholuck.  Lpz.  1838. — /.  H.  Burk- 
hard,  Vollst.  Gesch.  d.  Methodisten.  N'tirnb.  1795,  2  Bde. — Th.  Jack- 
son, Hist,  of  the  Kise  and  Progress  of  Methodism. — J.  Taylor,  Wesley 
and  Methodism.  Lond.  1851. — S.  L.  Jacoby,  Handb.  d.  Methodism, 
2  A.  Brem.  1855.—/.  W.  Baum,  d.  Methodismus.  Zurich,  1838.) — 
The  living  power  of  the  gospel  was  paralyzed  in  the  English  episcopal 
Church  by  the  formalism  of  scholastic  learning,  and  by  the  mechanism 
of  a  style  of  worship  rich  in  forms.  A  reaction  was  produced  by  John 
Wesley,  a  young  man  of  deep  religious  earnestness  and  glowing  zeal  to 
save  souls.  While  pursuing  his  studies  at  Oxford,  he  formed  a  society 
with  several  friends,  the  object  of  which  was  to  promote  pious  living 
and  labors  (1729).  These  united  friends  were  now  already  called,  in 
ridicule,  Methodists,  because  they  were  charged,  not  unjustly,  with 
practising  piety  in  a  methodical  way.  Wesley,  by  friendly  intercourse 
with  several  Moravians,  grew  in  Christian  experience  and  in  living 
faith.  In  1732,  he  found  a  worthy  co-laborer  in  George  Whitfield,  a 
young  man,  possessing  like  zeal  with  Wesley  for  his  own  salvation  as 
well  as  for  that  of  his  fellow-men,  and  still  greater  talents.  Both  now 
labored  with  ceaseless  activity  to  awaken  and  quicken  the  religious 
life  of  the  people,  not  only  in  England,  but  also  in  America.  After 
his  return  from  America  (1738),  Wesley  organized  a  comprehensive 
religious  union,  which,  under  the  direction  of  a  conference,  sent  local 
and  travelling  preachers  into  all  the  world.  The  Methodists  did  not 
desire  to  separate  from  the  Episcopal  Church  ;  they  rather  wished  to 
work  in  it  as  a  spiritual  leaven.  Whitfield  also  returned  to  England 
in  1739.  Both  preached  now  powerfully  and  unceasingly,  for  the  most 
part  in  the  open  air,  often  in  the  presence  of  20,000  to  30,000  hearers, 
and  were  subjected  to  much  insult  and  ridicule ;  but  also  called  many 
hardened  sinners,  mostly  from  the  lower  classes,  to  repentance  and 
faith.  (Whitfield  alone  preached  about  18,000  sermons  in  34  years). 
The  most  distinguished  of  their  co-laborers  is  John  Fletcher  (ob.  1785). 
Wesley  founded  a  seminary  at  Kingswood  to  educate  Methodist 
preachers.  The  connection  with  the  Moravians  was  soon  broken  up, 
because  the  Methodist  mode  of  salvation  was  directed  (in  glaring  con- 
trast with  the  quiet  and  emotional  mode  of  the  Moravians)  towards  an 
arousing  of  the  secure  sinner  by  all  the  terrors  of  the  law  and  all  the 
horrors  of  hell,  as  also  towards  producing  a  conflict  of  repentance  W'tb 


268        SECTION   III.—   THIRD   PERIOD    (CENT.  18  A.  D.)  . 

a  final  violent  conversion.  But  an  irreconcilable  rupture  took  place 
already  (1741)  among  the  leaders,  concerning  the  Calvinistic  doctrines 
of  predestination,  which  caused  a  separation  of  the  Methodists  into 
A  rminian  Wesleyans  and  Calvinistic  Whitfieldians,  the  former  being 
the  most  numerous.  Whitfield  died  in  1770,  Wesley  in  1791.  The 
Methodists  were,  in  various  ways,  in  spite  of  all  their  extravagances,  a 
wholesome  salt  for  the  Protestant  Church  of  England  and  America, 
and  remained  such  during  the  entire  period  of  reigning  unbelief  down 
to  the  present  time ;  when,  however,  their  one-sidedness,  over  against 
the  newly  awakened  life  of  the  Church,  ran  frequently  into  the  most 
extreme  and  glaring  perversity.  (Cf.  \  55,  12.)  Methodism  also  in- 
herited from  its  founder  a  zeal  for  missions  as  a  Christian  duty,  and 
has  labored  to  promote  them  with  wonderful  energy,  perseverance,  and 
self-sacrifice. 

2.   The  Endeavors  after   Union.— The  Brandenburg  dynasty  made 
constant  effort  (g  34,  2)  to  prepare  the  way  for  a  union  of  the  Lutheran 
and  Reformed  Churches  of  the  country.    Frederick  I.  (III.)  established 
in  1703  a  Collegium  caritativum  to  this  end  under  the  presidency  of 
the  Reformed  court-preacher  Vrsinus,  in  which  the  Reformed  Church 
was  also  represented  by  Jablonsky,  formerly  Moravian  bishop,  and  the 
Lutheran  by  cathedral-preacher  Winkler  of  Magdeburg  and  the  provost 
Liltkens  of  Cologne  on  the  Spree.     Spener,  who  did  not  wish  a  forced, 
but  a  spontaneous  union,  refused  to  participate  in  the  movement ;  Lilt- 
kens  withdrew  displeased  after  a  few  sessions  ;  and  when  Winkler  pub- 
lished a  plan  of  union   (Arcanum  regium),   which   surrendered  the 
Lutheran  Church  into  the  hands  of  the  Reformed  king,  there  arose  so 
great  a  storm  against  the  project  [Vol.  E.  Loscher  of  Dresden  also  op- 
posed it),  that  it  had  to  be  abandoned.     But  already  in  the  following 
year  the  king  took  the  plan  up  again,  but  in  another  form,  namely : 
Jablonsky,  with  a  commission  from  the  king,  entered  upon  negotiations 
with  England  concerning  the  introduction  of  the  Anglican  form  of 
Church  government  into  Prussia,  in  order  to  build  a  bridge  by  it  for 
the  union  with  the  Lutheran  Church.     But  this  plan  failed  also  (cf. 
Darleg.  der  im  vor.  Jahrh.  wegen  Einf.  d.  engl.  K.  Verf.  in  Pr.  gepflog. 
unterhh.  Lpz.  1842).— Equally  fruitless  were  the  union  efforts  which 
were  made  by  the  Chancellor  Chr.  Matth.  Pfaff  of  Tubingen  (Nubes 
testium  pro  moderate  et  pacifico  de  reb.  theol.  judicio,  etc.     Genev., 
1719,  4to.),  and  by  Prof.  /.  Alf.  Turretin  of  Geneva.  Cyprian  of  Gotha 
(Abgedrung.  Unterr.  von  kirchl.  Verein  d.  Prot.  Frkf.  1722),  and  even 
Weissmann  of  Tubingen  and  Mosheim  of  Helmstedt  opposed  them. 
But  several  decades  later  even  a  Lutheran  theologian,  Christopher  Aug 
Heumann  of  Gottingen,  undertook  to  prove  "that  the  doctrine  of  the 
Reformed  Church  on  the  Lord's  Supper  was  the  correct  one."     The 
treatise  was  published  after  his  death  (Gottg.  1764),  and  there  was  na 
Loscher  or  Cyprian  living  to  refute  it. 
3.  Theological  Literature.— Arminian  theology  can  point  to  the  bril- 


NEW    SECTS    AND    FANATICS.  269 

liant  names  ff  John  Clericus  (ob.  1736),  (biblical  criticism,  hermeneu- 
tics,  exegesis,  Church  History)  and  John  Jacob  Wetstein.  The  latter 
was  Dean  at  Basle,  but  was  deposed  (1730)  on  account  of  heterodox 
views,  and  (ob.  1754)  as  Prof,  of  the  Remonstrant  gymnasium  at  Am- 
sterdam. His  critical  edition  of  the  N.  T.  (Amsterdam,  1751,  2  Bde., 
fol.)  gained  for  him  imperishable  renown.  Alb.  Schultens  of  Leyden 
(ob.  1750)  extended  the  science  of  philology  by  the  comparison  of 
kindred  dialects,  especially  of  the  Arabic.  He  also  wrote  commentaries 
on  Job  and  the  Proverbs.  Of  the  Coccejanian  interpreters  of  the  Scrip- 
tures are  to  be  named  Fr.  Ad.  Lampe  of  Bremen  (ob.  1729),  (Ev.  Joh. 
3  Bde.,  4to. ;  Geheimnisz  d.  Gnadenbundes,  6  Bde.,  etc.)  and  J.  Mark 
of  Leyden  (ob.  1731),  (kl.  Proph.)  Hadr.  Reland  of  Utrecht  (ob.  1718) 
contributed  much  of  importance  to  biblical  antiquity  (Palestina  ex 
vett.  monum.  illustr.,  Antiquitt.  ss.)  Prominent  among  the  anti-deistic 
apologists  are  the  Englishmen  J.  Leland  (ob.  1766)  and  Th.  Stackhouse 
(o6.1752),  (Biblical  History),  and  the  Frenchman  Jak.  Saurin  (ob.\~20), 
(Biblical  History)  ; — among  the  systematic  theologians,  J.  F.  Stapper 
of  Berne  (ob.  1775)  (Institute  theol.  polem.,  5  vols.;  Grundlegung  d. 
wahr.  Rel.,  12  vols. ;  Sittenlehre,  6  vols.)  ;  and  Dan.  IVittenbach  of 
Marburg  (ob.  1779)  (Theol.  elenchthicse  initia ;  Tentamen  theolog. 
dogm.,  with  the  application  of  the  Wolfian  method)  ;  among  the  Church 
historians,  J.  Alf.  Turretin  of  Geneva  (ob.  1737)  and  Herm.  Venema 
of  Franeker  (ob.  1787.) — Finally,  mention  is  yet  to  be  made  of  an  un- 
paralleled phenomenon  in  the  Reformed  Church,  namely,  a  mystic, 
and  that  one  of  the  noblest  and  most  pious  that  ever  lived :  Gerh.  Ter- 
steegen,  ribbon-weaver  at  Muhlheim  on  the  Ruhr  (ob.  1769),  (he  was  not 
able  to  complete  his  preparation  for  a  learned  calling).  He  is  also 
distinguished  as  a  sacred  poet  ("  Gott  ist  gegenw'artig").  He  was  a 
patriarchal  hermit,  to  whom  anxious  souls  came  from  far  and  near  to 
receive  spiritual  counsel,  comfort,  and  refreshment :  and  he  was  withal 
a  child  in  humility  and  simplicity.  Without  being  a  separatist,  he 
regarded  the  Church  with  indifference  and  neglect.  The  most  popular 
of  his  numerous  writings  are:  Geistl.  Blumengartlein,  Geistl.  Brosa- 
men,  Harfenspiel  d.  Kinder  Zions,  Der  Frommen  Lotterie,  Geistl. 
Briefe,  Weg  d.  Wahsh.,  Lebensbeschr.  heiliger  Seelen  (R.  Csth.  mys- 
tics), 3  Bde.,  4to.  (Cf.  K.  Barthel,  G.  Terst's  Leben,  in  the  Bielefel- 
der  Sonntagsbibl.  V.  6.)     (Cf.  §  50.) 

I  49.  NEW  SECTS  AND  FANATICS. 

The  same  phenomenon,  which  appeared  everywhere  in  the  16th 
century,  viz.,  the  Reformation  having  attached  to  it,  as  a  carica- 
ture, fanatics  and  ultraists  of  all  kinds, — repeated  itself  in  the 
religious  agitations  which  Pietism  caused  in  the  beginning  of 
the  18th  century.  Even  as  Pietism  gathered  believers  and  tho 
66* 


270  SECTION    III. THIRD    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.  1  8    A.  D.)  . 

awakened  into  small  bands,  which  as  ecclesiolse  in  ecclesia  were 
to  be  centres  of  life  in  the  dead  mass  and  alarm-voices  for  the 
sleeping  ;  so  also  through  the  same  excitant,  a  host  of  Sepa- 
ratists were  produced,  who  denounced  the  Church  as  Babel,  her 
means  of  grace  as  impure,  and  her  preaching  empty  and  hypo- 
critical babbling.  They  derived  their  spiritual  nourishment  from 
the  writings  of  Bohme,  Gichtel,  Guyon,  Poiret,  and  other  theo- 
sophists.  Their  most  important  rendezvous  was  Wetteraw,  where 
the  princely  house  of  Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg  afforded  a 
refuge  for  all  exiled  Pietists.  Count  Casimir  formed  his  court 
and  civil  officers  out  of  these,  although  he  belonged  to  the  Na- 
tional Reformed  Church.  Nevertheless,  there  was  scarcely  a 
section  in  Protestant  Germany,  in  Switzerland,  and  in  the  Ne- 
therlands, where  kindred  phenomena  did  not  appear.  In  Swe- 
denborgianism,  a  new  phenomenon  appeared,  independently  of 
the  pietistic  movement.  The  Baptists  and  Quakers,  among  the 
older  fanatical  sects,  furnished  new  off-shoots  ;  while  on  the  other 
side  Dort  orthodoxy  also  ran,  in  some  of  its  forms,  into  secta- 
rianism. 

1.  Fanatics  and  Separatists  in  Germany.  (Cf.  Max.  Gobel,  Gesch. 
d.  chr.  Lebens  in  d.  rhein.  westph.  K.  Bd.  II.  Kobl.  1852.— .P.  TV.  Bar- 
ihold,  d.  Erweckten  im  prot.  Deutschl.,  bes.  d.  frommen  Grafenhofe ; 
in  Raumer's  hist.  Taschenb.  1852-53.  —  F.  W.  Winlcel,  Aus.  d.  Leb. 
Casimir's,  Gr.  v.  Sayn  Wittgenst.  Frkf.  1842. — The  same.  Casimir  u.  d. 
rel.  Leb.  sr.  Zeit.  In  the  Sonntagsbibl.  IV.  1.  Bielef.  1851).  —  Rosa- 
mond Juliana  von  Asseburg,  a  young  lady  generally  esteemed  on  ac- 
count of  her  piety,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Magdeburg,  declared  that 
from  her  seventh  year  she  had  received  visions  and  revelations,  chiefly 
concerning  the  millennium.  She  found  in  Dr.  John  With.  Petersen, 
superintendent  at  Llineburg,  a  zealous  adherent,  who,  especially  after 
his  marriage  with  Joh.  Elcnore  v.  Merlau,  also  pretended  to  have  re- 
ceived divine  revelations,  promulgated  by  speaking  and  writing  the 
must  fantastic  Chiliasm  in  connection  with  the  heresy  of  the  restora- 
tion of  all  things.  He  was  deposed  from  his  office  in  1692,  and  died  in 
1727.  Henri/  Jl>rch,  Prof,  of  theology  at  Herborn,  and  author  of  the 
mystic  and  prophetic  Bible  (Marb.  1712,  4to.),  was  a  similar  pheno- 
menon  in  the  Reformed  Church.  The  most  prominent  among  the 
itinerant  apostles  of  a  fanatical  separatism  are,  the  preacher  Tuchfeldt 
(if  Magdeburg,  the  wig-maker  John  Tennhardt  (as  chancery  clerk  of 
the  heavenly  majesty),  the  spur-maker  liosenbach,  and  the  hermit 
Ernst  Christoph.  Hochmann.  The  latter,  a  man  of  imposing  appear- 
ance and  captivating  eloquence,  labored  for  a  long  time  at  Mlihlheim 
on  the  Ruhr,  and  was  also  highly  esteemed  by  Tersteegen.     Having 


NEW    SECTS    AND    FANATICS.  271 

been  expelled  from  here,  he  found  a  last  refuge  at  Schwarzenau  in 
Berleburg.  In  Wlirtemberg  the  pious  court-preacher  Hedinger  of 
Stutgart  (06.  1703)  was  the  father  of  Pietism  and  Separatism  (cf.  his 
life  by  A.  Knapp,  in  the  Christoterpe).  The  most  important  of  his 
adherents  were  the  learned  preacher  Eberh.  Ludw.  Gruber  and  the 
saddler  John  Frederick  Rock.  Being  banished  from  Wlirtemberg,  they 
emigrated  to  Wetteraw,  the  former  following  the  occupation  of  a  farmer, 
the  latter  that  of  court-saddler  (170G).  Here  they  and  a  multitude  of 
other  separatists,  for  whom  the  Wittgenstein  count  had  provided  a  re- 
fuge, lived  several  years  as  anchorites,  restricted  to  self-communion 
and  to  communion  with  this  or  that  brother  in  prayer,  without  bap- 
tism, the  Lord's  Supper,  and  public  worship.  Count  Casimir's  court 
in  particular  was  the  rendezvous  of  saints  from  all  nations.  The  most 
important  of  these  were  the  count's  physician  in  ordinary,  Dr.  Carl, 
the  French  mystic  Marsay,  the  exile  from  Strasburg  John  Frederick 
Haug,  learned  in  oriental  languages,  and  later  Dippel.  Out  of  this 
circle  proceeded  a  multitude  of  mystic,  separatistic  writings,  especially 
the  Berleburg  Bible  (7  vols.  fol.  1720-42),  of  which  Haug  was  the 
chief  author.  It  renews  interpretation  according  to  the  threefold 
sense,  violently  combats  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  justification,  confes- 
sional books,  the  clergy,  the  dead  church,  and  contains  many  deep 
glimpses  and  profound  observations,  but  also  many  trivialities  and 
monstrosities.  Its  mysticism  lacks  originality,  and  is  compiled  from 
the  theosophic  writings  of  all  centuries,  from  Origen  to  modern  times. 
(Cf.  F.   W.   Winkel,  in  d.  bonner  Monatsschr.  1851,  I.) 

2.  The  Inspiration-Congregations  in  Wetteraw.  (Cf.  M.  Gbbel,  Gesch. 
d.  wahr.  Insp.  Gemd.  ;  in  the  hist,  theol.  Ztschr.  1854,  II.  III.,  1855, 
I.  III.)— Several  of  the  chief  Sevenua-prophets  fled  to  England  (1705) 
after  the  unfortunate  issue  of  the  Camisardian  war.  At  first  they  met 
with  much  sympathy,  but  were  afterwards  excommunicated  and  placed 
in  the  pillory.  They  now  went  to  the  Netherlands,  and  wandered 
thence  through  Germany.  They  awakened  at  Halle  the  gift  of  inspi- 
ration, among  others  in  three  students,  the  brothers  Pott,  and  these 
were  the  persons  who  transferred  it  to  Wetteraw  (1714).  The  chiefs 
of  the  Separatists  there,  Gruber  and  Rock,  at  first  stoutly  opposed  the 
Inspiration-phenomenon,  but  they  also  were  overpowered,  and  soon 
became  the  most  powerful  of  the  "  instruments".  Prayer  associations 
were  now  formed,  grand  love-feasts  were  held,  and  an  ecclesia  ambu- 
latoria  was  established  by  itinerant  brethren,  who  carried  spiritual 
nourishment  to  the  scattered  quiet  ones  in  the  country,  and  the  children 
of  the  prophets  were  gathered  from  all  lands.  The  utterances,  which 
took  place  in  an  ecstatic  state,  were  exhortations  tc  repentance,  to 
prayer,  to  imitation  of  Christ,  revelations  of  the  divine  will  in  regard 
to  the  affairs  of  the  society,  and  announcement  of  the  approaching 
judgment  of  God  over  the  degenerate  world  and  church,  although 
without  fanatical,  sensual  Chiliasm.     Apart  from  contempt  for  the 


272   SECTION  III. THIRD  PERIOD  (c  E  N  T.  18  A.D.). 

sacraments,  the  doctrines  of  the  church  were  not  essentially  perverted. 
Nevertheless,  already  in  1715  a  division  took  place  between  those  whc 
were  truly,  and  those  who,  by  their  unbridled  and  impure  utterances, 
were  regarded  as  falsely  inspired.     Those  who  were  truly  inspired 
formed  a  church  organization,  and  excluded  from  it  all  who  would  not 
submit  to  its  discipline  (1716).    Hereby  they  lost  many  "  instruments", 
and  those  who  proved  themselves  to  be  genuine  also  gradually  grew 
dumb.     Only  Rock  possessed  the  gift  of  inspiration  after  1719,  and  he 
continued  to  claim  it  to  his  death  (1749).     Gruber  died  in  1728,  and 
with  him  a  pillar  of  the  societies  fell.    Rock  was  now  the  only  support. 
A  new  epoch  of  their  history  begins  with  their  contact  with  Mora- 
vianism.     Zinzendorf  formed  a  connection  with  them  in  1730  through 
a  deputation,    and   then   he   personally  visited   them   in   Berleburg. 
Rock's  deep  Christian  character  made  a  powerful  impression  on  him. 
It  is  true,  he  was  offended  at  his  contempt  for  baptism  and  the  Lord's 
Supper,  and  at  the  convulsive  form  of  his  utterances ;  but  this  did  not 
withhold  him  from  yielding  to  the  high  spirit  of  this  powerful  man, 
from  pressing  his  companionship  upon  him,  and  from  inviting  him, 
the  notorious  blasphemer  of  baptism,  to  the  sponsorship  of  his  new- 
born daughter.     In  1732  Rock  visited  Herrnhut.    He  took  sides,  in  an 
utterance,  with  the  fraternity  against  the  Lutheran  clergyman  Eothe 
of  Berthelsdorf,  and  departed  after  a  love-feast,  at  which  their  souls 
flowed  too-ether  in  a  renewed  eternal  brotherhood.     But  Zinzendorf 
had  only  the  interests  of  his  society  in  view  ;  his  crooked  and  ambi- 
guous relation  to  those  professing  to  be  inspired  drove  him  to  many 
inconsistencies,  which  offended  Rock's  straightforward  and  open  dis- 
position, and  estranged  him.     The  establishment  of  a  flourishing  Mo- 
ravian congregation  in  Wetteraw,  which  was  chiefly  composed  of  pro- 
selvtes,  completed  the  rupture.     Rock  denounced  the  "  Hutberger"  as 
Babel-cobblers.     Zinzendorf,  on  the  other  hand,  condemned  him  as  a 
false  prophet.     When  the  Moravians  were  driven  from  Wetteraw  in 
1750  (g  47,  5),   the  Inspirationists  took  possession  of  their  property  and 
splendid  buildings.     With  Rock's  death,  however,  the  spirit  of  pro- 
phecy ceased  entirely.    The  societies  declined  more  and  more  from  that 
time*  both  internally  and  externally,  until  the  revival  of  religious  life 
in  the  19th  century,  when  they  also  were  revived.     "Instruments" 
again  made  their  appearance,  and  those  who  were  awakened  by  them 
were  newly  organized.     The  refusal  of  governments  to  tolerate  them, 
however,  compelled  the  greater  part  of  them  to  emigrate  to  America. 

3.  John  Conrad  Dippel,  theologian,  physician,  and  alchymist,  disco- 
verer of  Prussian-blue  and  of  the  Oleum  Dippelii,  occupied  a  peculiar 
position  among  the  Separatists  of  this  period.  He  was  at  first  an  or- 
thodox opponent  of  Pietism,  then  aroused  by  Gottfr.  Arnold  he  became 
a  champion  of  Pietism,  and  advanced  to  Separatism.  Since  1697  he 
appeared  under  the  name  Christianus  Democritus  (orthodoxia  ortho- 
doxorum,  oder  die  verkehrte  Wahrh.  u.  d.  wahrh.  Liigen  d.  s.  g.  Lu- 


NEW    SECTS    AND    FANATICS.  273 

theraner;  Papismus  Protestantium  vapulans  od.  d.  gesfaupte  Papstth. 
an  d.  blinden  Verfechtern  blinden  Menschensatz. ;  Fatum  fatuum,  i.  e. 
foolish  necessity,  etc.)  in  a  mocking  spirit  as  the  opponent  of  all  ex- 
ternally orthodox  Christianity,  mixing  mysticism  and  rationalism  in  a 
remarkable  manner,  and  yet  not  without  Christian  depth  and  expe- 
rience. Persecuted,  banished,  and  imprisoned  everywhere,  he  roamed 
over  Germany,  the  Netherlands,  Denmark,  and  Sweden,  and  finally 
found  a  permanent  refuge  at  the  court  of  Casimir  in  Berleburg  (1729- 
34).  Here  he  came  into  contact  with  the  Inspirationists,  who  offered 
everything  to  gain  him,  but  he  declared  that  he  would  rather  submit 
to  the  devil  than  to  this  Spirit  of  God.  He  was  most  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  Zinzendorf  for  a  time,  but  later  he  also  assailed  him  with 
the  bitterest  sarcasm.  He  died  in  1734,  at  the  castle  of  Wittgenstein. 
His  writings  are  collected  under  the  title:  Eroffneter  Weg  zum  Frieden 
mit  Gott  und  aller  Creaturen.  Berleb.  1747,  3  Bde.  4to.  (Cf.  W. 
Klose  in  the  hist,  theol.  Ztschr.  1851,  III.  and  K.  Buchner  in  Raumer's 
histor.  Taschenbuch,  1857.) 

4.  Hypocritical  and  Criminal  Separatists  Sects.  —  Whilst  the  Sepa- 
ratists and  the  inspired  ones  of  this  period  preserved  their  moral  life 
pure  in  general,  some  of  their  societies  degenerated  into  the  most  scan- 
dalous debauchery.  The  most  shameless  of  all  was  the  Buttlar  Sect, 
founded  by  Eva  von  Buttlar,  at  Allendorf  in  Hesse,  1702.  Having 
been  expelled  from  here  within  6  weeks,  the  sect  carried  on  its  criminal 
proceedings  at  many  other  places,  whither  it  emigrated.  Eva  was 
honored  as  the  door  of  Paradise,  as  the  New  Jerusalem,  as  the  Mother 
of  us  all,  as  the  Sophia  come  down  from  heaven,  the  new  Eve  and  the 
incarnation  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  God  the  Father  was  incarnate  in  the 
candidate  Winter,  and  God  the  Son  in  her  youthful  paramour  Appen- 
feller.  Marriage  was  declared  to  be  sinful ;  sensual  lust  must  be  put 
to  death  in  spiritual  communion,  then  carnal  communion  is  also  holy. 
Eva  lived  in  the  most  shameful  harlotry  with  all  the  men  of  the  sect ; 
likewise  the  other  women  belonging  to  it,  in  whom  the  ovary  had  been 
crushed  in  Satanic  foresight.  At  Sasmannshausen  in  AVittgen stein, 
where  their  secret  worship  had  been  watched,  they  were  threatened 
with  punishment,  but  escaped.  In  Cologne  they  connected  themselves 
with  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  At  Liide,  near  Pyrmont,  their 
criminal  madness  reached  its  highest  point.  Winter  was  condemned 
to  death,  but  had  his  punishment  commuted  to  scourging  (1706).  Eva 
escaped  the  same  punishment  by  flight,  and  carried  on  her  scandalous 
conduct  for  some  years  longer,  but  with  more  prudence.  (Cf.  E.  F. 
Keller,  in  the  hist,  theol.  Ztschr.  1845,  IV.  and  M.  Gobel,  Gesch.  d.  chr. 
Lebens  II.  778  ff.).  —  Of  a  similar  character  was  the  Bordelum  Sect, 
founded  by  the  licentiate  David  Bar,  at  Bordelum  near  Flensburg, 
about  1739,  and  the  Briiggeler  Sect  at  Bruggelu,  in  the  canton  of  Berne, 
where  the  two  brothers  Kohler  announced  themselves  to  be  the  two 
witnesses  mentioned  in  Rev.  ii.  (1748). — The  sect  of  the  Zionites  at  Rons- 


274        SECTION   III. —  THIRD   PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.  18   A.  D.)  . 

dorf  in  the  duchy  of  Berg  also  belongs  here.  Ellas  Eller,  overseer  of 
a  manufactory  at  Elberfield,  being  religiously  excited  by  reading  all 
kinds  of  myotic  and  theological  writings,  married  in  1725  an  elderly, 
rich  widow ;  but  he  soon  found  greater  pleasure  in  a  pretty  young 
maiden,  Anna  von  Jiuchel,  whom  he  drove  into  prophetic  ecstasy  by 
fanatical  excitement.  She  prophesied  the  approaching  dawn  of  the 
millennium.  Eller  appointed  her  the  mother  of  Zion  (Rev.  12  :  1  ff.) 
and  himself  father  of  Zion,  while  he  assigned  his  wife  the  part  of  the 
harlot  of  Babylon.  When  the  latter  had  been  tormented  to  death  by 
jealousy  and  confinement,  he  married  Buchel,  and  founded,  with  his 
adherents,  Ronsdorf  (1737),  as  the  new  Zion.  The  colony  obtained 
the  privileges  of  a  town,  and  Eller  became  burgomaster.  When  Anna 
died  (1744),  Eller  gave  to  the  faithful  a  new  mother  of  Zion,  and  be- 
came more  insane  in  his  deception  and  tyranny.  At  length,  after  long 
infatuation,  the  eyes  of  the  Reformed  preacher  Schlelennacher  (the 
grandfather  of  the  celebrated  Frederick  Daniel  S.)  were  opened.  lie 
escaped,  by  flight  to  the  Netherlands,  the  fate  of  another  apostle,  who, 
at  Eller's  instigation,  had  been  condemned  to  death  as  a  sorcerer  at 
Dusseldorf.  Eller  was  able  to  ward  off  every  complaint  against  him- 
self by  bribery  at  the  court.  The  sect  was  led  for  a  time  after  his  death 
(1750)  by  his  step-son.  (Cf.  F.  W.  Krug,  krit.  Gesch.  d.  Schwarmerei 
in  Groszherzogth.  Berg.  Elbf.  1851,  p.  64,  ff.) 

5.  Swedenborgianlsm.  (Cf.  ./.  A.  Mblrfer,  u.  d.  Lehre  Sw.'s;  in  the 
tiibg.  Quartalschr.  1830,  IV. — /.  G.  Vaihinger,  d.  Swedenborgianism, 
nebst  d.  Katech.  d.  neuen  K.  Tiibg.  1843.—  C.  F.  Nanz,  E.  Sw.  d.  nord. 
Sener.  Schw.  Hall.  2.  Q.  1850.— Imm.  Tafel,  Samml.  v.  Urkunden  efc 
T'ubg.  1839,  ff.  3  Abth. — The  same,  Vergloich.  Darstell.  d.  Lehrgegens. 
d.  Kath.  u.  Prot.,  zugleich  Darstell.  d.  Unterscheidungslehre  Sw.'s. 
Tiibg.  1835.)  —  Immanuel  von  Swedenborg,  son  of  the  Lutheran  bishop 
of  West  Gothland,  Jcsper  Swedberg  (cf.  Rudelbach's  chr.  Biogr.  I. 
293,  ff. ),  and  councillor  in  the  Bergwerks  college  at  Stockholm,  was  a 
man  of  comprehensive  learning  in  the  natural  sciences,  and  of  specu- 
lative talents.  After  long  investigation  into  the  mysteries  of  nature, 
he  fell  into  magnetic  ecstatic  states,  in  which,  sometimes  transported 
to  heaven,  sometimes  to  hell,  he  had  intercourse  with  spirits.  In  1734 
he  came  to  the  conviction  that  he  was  called  by  such  revelations  to  re- 
form degenerate  Christianity  to  a  Church  of  the  New  Jerusalem  as  the 
completion  of  all  churchdom.  The  apocalyptic  revelations,  which  he 
imagined  he  received,  he  designated  as  a  new  gospel.  After  his  death 
(1772)  his  writings  were  collected  and  published  by  his  disciples;  and 
in  1788  they  formed  themselves  into  congregations  in  Sweden  and 
England.  The  new  church  began  in  the  19th  century  to  spread  in  a 
threatening  manner.  In  addition  to  Sweden,  England,  and  North 
America,  it  also  has  many  warm  and  zealous  adherents  in  Germany, 
ohiefly  in  Wlirtemberg.  Here  already  since  1765  the  prelate  Oetinger 
called  attention  to  Swedenborg's  revelations,  and  took  up  many  of  their 


NEW    SECTS    AND    FANATICS.  275 

elements  into  his  own  profound  theosophy.  Lately  the  procurator 
Ludw.  Ho/acker,  and  especially  the  librarian  Tafel,  have  been  active 
in  propagating  the  new  church,  partly  by  their  own  writings,  s.nd 
partly  by  publishing  and  translating  Swedenborg's  works.  A  general 
conference  of  the  church  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  published  a 
confession  of  faith  and  a  catechism  in  1828.  Swedenborg's  religious 
system  was  a  speculative  mysticism  with  a  physical  foundation  and 
rationalizing  tendency.  For  him  the  object  of  religion  is  the  opening 
of  an  intimate  correspondence  between  the  spirit  and  human  world, 
and  the  penetrating  into  the  mysteries  of  connection  between  both. 
The  Bible  (although  with  the  exclusion  of  the  Apostolic  Epistles  as 
mere  explanatory  treatises),  above  all  the  Apocalypse,  was  the  word 
of  God  for  him,  although  he  despised  the  letter,  and  only  acknowledged 
the  validity  of  the  spirit  or  inner  sense.  There  is  not  one  of  the  fun- 
damental orthodox  doctrines  which  he  either  did  not  reject  or  ration- 
alize. He  rejected  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  in  the  strongest 
terms.  According  to  him,  God  is  only  one  person,  and  this  one  God- 
head is  Christ,  who  manifests  himself  in  a  three-fold  form:  the  Father 
is  the  principle  of  the  manifesting  God,  the  Son  the  form,  the  Spirit 
the  activity  of  the  manifested  God.  The  design  of  the  manifestation 
of  Christ  is  the  union  of  the  human  and  divine;  redemption  is  nothing 
more  than  the  fighting  with  and  overcoming  hellish  spirits.  Angels 
and  devils  are  the  spirits  of  departed  men,  either  in  a  state  of  bliss  or 
of  despair.  There  is  no  resurrection  of  the  dead,  but  the  spiritual  form 
of  the  body  continues  to  exist  after  death.  The  second  coming  of 
Christ  is  not  to  be  personal  and  visible,  but  spiritual  by  means  of  the 
revelation  of  the  spiritual  sense  of  the  Scriptures,  whereby  the  church 
of  the  New  Jerusalem  is  founded. 

0.  New  Baptistic  Sects. — In  1708  there  were  also  Anabaptists  {Tim- 
bers) in  Wetteraw,  but,  finding  little  sympathy  and  much  difficulty  in 
the  way  of  their  progress  here,  they  for  the  most  part  emigrated  in 
1714  to  North  America,  and  founded  several  colonies  here  (German- 
town  and  Ephrata),  which  yet  number  about  40,000  souls.  From  the 
Baptists,  who  emigrated  from  England,  proceeded  the  Christians  (now 
about  300,000  souls),  who,  rejecting  every  Christian  party-name  (almost 
like  1  Cor.  1  :  12),  also  reduced  the  Christian  faith  to  a  minimum.  The 
Baptists,  since  the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  also  emigrated  to  Scot- 
land, where  the  brothers  Haldane  founded  the  baptistic  sect  of  the 
Haldanites  ("Apostolic  Church"),  who  likewise  distinguished  them- 
selves by  great  indifference  towards  doctrines  and  the  ministry,  but 
also  by  great  energy  in  practical  life. 

7.  Neio  Quaker  Sects.  —  The  Jumpers,  who  appeared  in  Cornwallis 
about  1760,  were  in  principle  at  least  related  to  the  Quakers.  Appeal- 
ing to  David's  dancing  before  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  they  professed 
to  give  evidence  of  being  possessed  by  the  Spirit  by  convulsive  leaping 
^nd  dancing,  connected  with  a  kind  of  barking  (whence  they  are  also 


276      SECTION    III. —  THIRD   PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.  18   A.D.J. 

called  Barkers).  The  sect  emigrated  to  North  America,  where  there 
still  are  some  adherents.  A  somewhat  similar  sect  are  the  Shakers. 
Its  founder  was  Anna  Lee  (ob.  1782).  She  professed  to  be  the  bride  oi:' 
the  Lamb,  but  died  without  giving  birth  to  the  promised  Messiah. 
Nevertheless,  this  sect  exists  to  the  present  day  in  several  villages  on 
the  Hudson  river.  Its  adherents  live  in  celibacy  and  community  of 
goods.  They  derive  their  name  from  the  manner  in  which  they  move 
their  bodies  at  their  meetings,  which  often  extends  to  exhaustive 
dancing  and  jumping,  which  is  regarded  as  a  symbol  partly  of  trem- 
bling at  the  anger  of  God,  partly  of  joy  on  account  of  salvation  through 
Christ. 

8.  In  contrast  with  the  general  apostacy  from  the  rigid  orthodoxy 
of  Dort  in  the  Netherlands,  was  the  increase  of  the  sect  of  the  Hebrews, 
which  traced  its  origin  (about  1730)  to  a  certain  Mirgam  Vos  and  a 
licentiate  VerscJiooren,  and  run  the  doctrine  of  predestination  to  the 
affirmation,  that  an  elect  person  could  not  sin,  but  a  non-elect  one  could 
onhi  sin.  They  derived  their  name  from  the  circumstance,  that  they 
declared  it  to  be  the  indispensable  duty  of  all  true  Christians  to  read 
the  word  of  God  in  the  original  languages.  Another  sect,  that  of  the 
Hattemists,  adherents  of  the  Dutch  preacher  Pontiaan  van  Hattem, 
who  was  deposed  in  1740,  are  said  to  have  drawn  from  the  doctrine  of 
predestination  the  conclusion,  that  sin,  because  it  was  predestined  by 
God,  was  only  sin  in  the  imagination  of  men,  and  that  Christ  delivered 
men  from  this  imagination  (Acta  ecclst.  Weim.  IV.  1060  ff.) 

|  50.  THE  THEOLOGY  AND  LITERATURE  OF  THE  PERIOD 

OF  ILLUMINATION. 

Cf.  L.  Noack,  die  Freidenker  in  d.  Relig.  Bd.  III.  Die  Deutsche 
Auf  kl'aning.  Berne,  1855. — F.  Biallobloizhj  and  F.  Sander,  das  Auf  kom- 
men  u.  Sinken  d.  Rationalism,  in  Deutschl.  ;  nach  d.  Engl.  d.  E.  B. 
Pusey  bearb.  Elbf.  1829.—  C/ir.  G.  Ficker,  krit.  Gesch.  d.  Rationalism, 
in  Deutschl.  ;  nach  d.  Franz,  d.  Amand  Saintes  bearb.  Lpz.  1847. — K. 
F.  A.  Kahnis,  d.  innere  Gang  d.  deutsch.  Protestsm.  seit  der  Mitte  d. 
vor  Jahrh.  Lpz.  1854. — A.  Tholuck,  Abrisz  e.  Gesch.  d.  Umwalz.,  die 
s.  1750,  auf.  d.  Gebiete  d.  Theol.  in  Deutschl.  stattgef. ;  in  his  miscel- 
laneous works  Bd.  II.  Hamb.  1889.— J.  A.  II.  Tittmann,  pragm.  Gesch. 
d.  Theol.  u.  Rel.  in  d.  prot.  K.  seit  1750.  Lpz.  1824.— K.  F.  Staudlin, 
Gesch.  d.  Rationalism,  u.  Supranaturalism.     Gottg.  1820. 

Since  the  middle  of  this  century,  English  deistic  unbelief 
having  already  outlived  itself,  illumination  under  the  name  of 
Rationalism  crept  into  the  Protestant  theology  of  the  continent, 
especially  of  German;/.  There  proceeded,  it  is  true,  out  of  the 
agitation  of  the  pietistic  controversies,  a  theology  (§  46)  which, 
overcoming  as  well  the  rigid  objectivism  of  orthodoxy  as  the 


THEOLOGY   AND   LITERATURE   OF   ILLUMINATION.     277 

weak  subjectivism  of  Pietism,  saving;,  however,  from  the  former 
a  firm  basis  and  wholesome  moderation,  from  the  latter  religious 
inwardness  and  freedom,  was  in  itself  able  and  worthy  to  inherit 
and  control  the  future  of  the  church.  But  this  inheritance,  to 
the  possession  of  which  it  seemed  to  be  called,  was  taken  from 
it  by  the  theology  of  illumination.  It  was  yet  too  immature  and 
unfinished,  its  representatives  and  champions  were  too  few  and 
scattered,  to  be  able  to  resist  successfully  as  a  solid  phalanx  the 
storm  of  illumination.  The  storm  came  from  abroad,  but  it  was 
invested  with  the  mighty  power  of  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  it 
found  a  dissolution  and  agitation  going  on  within,  which  brought 
sympathies  and  allies  to  it  from  all  sides,  and  promoted  the 
transition  of  the  one  extreme  into  the  other.  Arminian  Pela- 
gianism,  possessing  brilliant  learning  (Clericus,  Wetstein),  Eng- 
lish Deism,  circulated  by  translations  and  refutations,  and  French 
Naturalism,  introduced  by  a  great  and  generally  admired  king, 
were  the  assailing  powers  from  without.  The  Free-Mason 
Lodges  also,  which  had  been  transplanted  to  Germany  from 
England  in  1733,  mightily  opposed  illumination  in  their  endeavor 
to  realize  a  moral,  practical,  universal  religion.  And  there  was 
within  especially  the  Wolfian  philosophy,  popular  philosophy,  and 
Pietism,  with  its  step-brother  Separatism,  which  directly  made 
the  ground  productive  for  the  growth  of  Rationalism.  Ortho- 
doxism,  on  account  of  the  secondary  effects,  which  survived  it, 
can  also  be  reckoned  among  the  accessories.  German  Rational- 
ism, however,  is  essentially  different  from  Deism  and  Naturalism 
in  this,  that  it  does  not,  like  these,  altogether  reject  the  Bible 
and  the  Church,  but,  rather  adhering  to  both,  supposes  that  it 
has  presented  their  unperishable  substance  in  its  rational  religion, 
purified  from  accommodation  and  the  ideas  of  the  age  ;  and  it 
has,  therefore,  retained  the  Bible  as  an  indispensable  record  of 
religion,  and  the  Church  as  a  wholesome  institution  of  religion. 
Nevertheless,  Rationalism,  during  the  whole  period  of  its  domi- 
nion, was  opposed  by  a  Supranaturalism,  that  held  fast  to  re- 
vealed religion.  It  was  a  dilution  of  the  old  faith  of  the  Church, 
effected  by  the  water  of  illumination.  The  reaction  which  it 
caused  was  consequently  from  the  beginning  weak  and  feeble. 
The  power  of  the  vulgar  Rationalism  of  that  day,  meanwhile, 
lay  not  in  itself,  but  in  the  allies  which  it  had  in  the  hollowness 
and  superficiality  of  the  spirit  of  the  age.  Because  now  the 
philosophy  and  especially  the  national  literature  of  the  Germans 
67 


278         SECTION    III. —  THIRD   PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.  1  3   A.  D.). 

began  to  wage  a  successful  warfare  against  this  superficiality, 
they  in  a  certain  degree  obtained  the  significance  of  a  school- 
master to  Christ,  although  they  were  in  themselves  for  the  most 
part  indifferent,  even  hostile  to  Christianity. 

1.   The  English  Deists.     (Cf.  \  43,  2.)  — Deism  entered  upon  a  new 
stage  of  its  development  with  Locke's  Philosophy  (§  43,  1).     It  was 
henceforth  the  basis  of  its  reasoning.     The  most  important  Deists  of 
this  period  are:  John  Toland,  an  Irishman,  first  a  Roman  Catholic, 
then  Arminian  (ob.  1722),   (Christianity  not  mysterious;  Nazarenus, 
or  Jewish,  Gentile,  and  Mahometan  Christianity,  etc.) ;  the  Earl  of 
Shaftesbury  (ob.  1713),    (Characteristics  of  men,   manners,   opinions, 
times)  ;  Anthony  Collins,  justice  of  the  peace  in  the  county  of  Essex, 
and  as  such  highly  esteemed  (ob.  1729),  (Priestcraft  in  perfection,  or  a 
detection  of  the  fraud,  etc.,  A  discourse  of  free-thinking,  et  al.) ;  Tho- 
mas Woolston,  fellow  of  Cambridge  (ob.  1733,  in  prison),  (A  discourse 
on  the  miracles  of  our  Saviour)  ;  Bernh.  v.  Mandeville  from  Dort,  phy- 
sician  in   London  (ob.  1733),   (Free  thoughts   on   Religion)  ;  Matthew 
Tindal,  professor  of  law  at  Oxford  (ob.  1733),   (Christianity  as  old  as 
the  Creation)  ;   Thomas  Morgan,  Nonconformist  preacher,  deposed  as 
an  Arian,  then  physician  (ob.  1743),  (The  moral  philosopher)  ;  Thomas 
Chubb,  glove-maker  and  tallow-chandler  at  Salisbury  (ob.  1747),  popu- 
larizing compiler,  (The  true  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ)  ;  Henry,  Viscount 
Bolingbroke,  high  civil  officer,  charged  with  high-treason  and  pardoned 
(ob.  1751),  (Philosophical  works). — Deism  never  found  favor  among 
the  people,  and  an  attempt  was  not  once  made  to  organize  a  congrega- 
tion.    The  following  of  the  numerous  opponents  of  Deism  are  worthy 
of  special  mentipn :   Thomas  Sherlock,  Bishop  of  London  (ob.  1761); 
Edward  Chandler,  Bishop  of  Durham  (ob.  1750)  ;  John  Iceland,  Pres- 
byterian preacher  in  Dublin  (ob.  1766)  ;    William  Warburton,  Bishop 
of  Gloucester  (ob.  1779)  ;  Nath.  Lardner,  Dissenting  preacher  (ob.  1768). 
— The  celebrated  historian  and  skeptic,  David  Hume,  librarian  in  Ed  in- 
burg  (ob.  1776),  may  yet  be  added  to  the  Deists  as  an  opponent  of  posi- 
tive Christianity  (Treatise  upon  human  nature  ;  Essays,  moral,  political, 
and  literary;  Enquiry  concerning  the  human  understanding;  Natural 
history  of  religion  ;  Dialogues  concerning  natural  religion). 

2.  The  Forerunners  of  German  Illumination.  —  We  have  already 
learned  to  know  Knutzen  ($  43,  2)  and  Dippel  (§  49,  3)  as  such.  In 
their  footsteps  walked  Juhn  Christian  Edclmann,  a  vagabondizing 
licentiate  of  theology  of  Weissenfels  (ob.  1767),  who,  since  1735, 
hawked  about  a  multitude  of  fanatical  works,  written  in  rude  and  low, 
but  powerful  language,  full  of  glowing  wrath  and  scoffing  wit  against 
all  positive  Christianity.  He  passed  from  one  Christian  sect  to  another, 
but  found  in  none  what  he  sought.  In  1741  he  accepted  an  invitation 
from  Zinzendorf,  who  at  the  same  time  furnished  him  with  travelling 


THEOLOGY   AND   LITERATURE    OF    ILLUMINATION.    279 

money,  and  lived  for  a  time  in  his  family.  Then  he  connected  himself  with 
the  Berlehurg  Separatists  ("because  they  recognized  baptism  and  the 
Lord's  Supper,"  the  abominations  of  the  Church),  and  assisted  on  the 
commentary,  although  Rang  had  greatly  to  change  his  elaborations,  in 
order  to  use  them.  This,  and  his  contempt  for  prayer,  ruptured  the 
bond  of  union.  After  that  he  wandered  over  the  whole  of  Germany. 
He  regarded  himself  as  being  a  favorite  of  providence,  at  least  as  a 
second  Luther.  He  pronounced  Christianity  to  be  the  most  irrational 
and  absurd  of  all  religions ;  Church  history  a  conglomerate  of  immo- 
rality, lies,  hypocrisy,  and  fanaticism ;  the  prophets  and  apostles  bed- 
lamites ;  and  Christ  was  not  even  an  example  and  teacher.  The  world 
needs  only  one  salvation,  viz.,  salvation  from  Christianity.  Providence, 
virtue,  and  immortality  (the  latter  established  by  manifestation  of 
spirits),  are  the  only  objects  of  religion.  His  writings  made  a  great 
noise  (Unschuldige  Wahrheiten  ;  Bereitete  Schlage  auf  der  Narren 
Rucken ;  Moses  mit  aufgedecktem  Angesicht  von  zwei  ungleichen 
Brudern,  Lichtlieb  und  Blindlieb,  beschauet ;  Christus  and  Belial,  et 
al.),  and  called  forth  an  incredible  number  of  counter-treatises,  of 
which  Trillins  mentions  not  less  than  16G  in  the  Freidenker  lexicon. 
(Cf.  J.  H.  Pratje,  Hist.  Nachr.  v.  J.  Chr.  Edelmann,  2.  A.  Hamb.  1755. 
Edelmann's  Selbst-biographie,  herausg.  v.  C.  TJr.  Klose.  Berl.  1840, 
and  also  Ev.  K.  Z.  1851,  No.  31,  ff.)  To  the  forerunners  of  illumina- 
tion belongs  also  the  private  tutor  Lorenz  Schmidt  of  Wertheim  in 
Baden,  a  pupil  of  the  philosopher  Wolf  (§  46,  2),  (ob.  1749).  He  is 
the  author  of  the  notorious  Wertheim  translation  of  the  Bible  (First 
part,  containing  the  laws  of  the  Israelites,  Werth.  1735),  which  para- 
phrases the  language  of  the  Bible,  and  thereby  eviscerates  all  positive 
Christianity.  His  book  was  confiscated  by  the  supreme  court  of  the 
empire,  and  he  was  punished  with  severe  imprisonment. 

3.  Illumination  in  Germany  since  1750.  —  Hostility  to  all  positive 
Christianity  spread  from  England  and  France  also  over  Germany.  The 
writings  of  the  English  Deists  were  translated  and  refuted,  but  mostly 
in  so  weak  a  manner,  that  the  refutation  accomplished  the  opposite  of 
what  it  designed.  Whilst  English  Deism  with  its  apparent  profound- 
ness found  favor  with  the  learned,  the  poison  of  frivolous  French  Na- 
turalism tainted  the  higher  classes.  Prussia's  great  king,  Frederick  II. 
(1740-8G),  who  surrounded  himself  with  French  free-thinkers  (Vol- 
taire, D'Argens,  Le  Mettrie,  etc.),  contributed  largely  to  the  spread  of 
unbelief.  He  desired,  that  in  his  states  every  one  should  be  saved 
according  to  his  own  fashion,  in  which  desire  he  was  also  in  earnest, 
although  his  personal  aversion  to  churchly  and  pietistic  piety  often 
misled  him  to  act  unjustly  and  severely,  as  ex.  gr.  when  he  inflicted 
upon  the  "grumbler"  Francke  in  Halle,  who  opposed  the  visiting  of 
theatres  by  theological  students,  the  punishment  of  himself  visiting 
the  theatre,  and  of  obtaining  the  attestation  of  the  director  of  the 
theatre  that  he  had  done  so.     Under  the  name  of  German  poyular  phi- 


280         SECTION    III. THIRD    PERIOD    (CENT.    18    A.  D.). 

losophy  [Mendelssohn,  Garve,  Eberhard,  Platne;  Steiribari,  etc.1),  which 
proceeded  from  the  Wolfian  philosophy  emptied  of  its  Christian  con- 
tents, a  bold,  superficial,  and  self-sufficient  reasoning  of  the  common 
human  understanding  gave  itself  airs.  Basedow  became  the  reformer 
of  pedagogy  in  the  sense  of  illumination  (Philanthropia  in  Dessau, 
p'adagogisches  Elementarwerk),  and  created  quite  a  furor  for  a  timo 
by  the  charlatan  trumpeting  of  his  contributions;  although  Herder 
declared,  that  he  would  not  commit  calves,  to  say  nothing  of  human 
beings,  to  the  training  of  the  distinguished  pedagogue.  Basedow's 
most  distinguished  pupils  and  co-laborers  were  Salzmann  in  Schnep- 
fenthal  near  Gotha,  and  Campe  in  Braunschweig.  The  "Allgemeine 
deutsche  Bibliothek"  (100  Bde.  1765-92),  published  by  the  bookseller 
Nicolai  in  Berlin,  assumed  the  position  of  a  literary  inquisitorial 
tribunal  against  everything  noble  and  profound,  that  the  period  was 
still  able  to  produce,  and  branded  it  as  superstition  and  Jesuitism. 
Illumination  made  itself  felt  in  theology  under  the  name  of  Rationalism. 
Pietistic  Halle  cast  its  skin,  and  in  connection  with  Berlin  stood  at  the 
head  of  the  illuminatory  movement.  Soon  numerous  heralds  of  the 
new  light  sprung  up  also  in  the  other  universities,  and  rationalizing 
pastors  arose  in  all  sections  of  Germany,  who  only  preached  about  a 
moral  reformation  of  man  ;  also,  it  is  true,  on  Christmas,  about  the 
advantage  of  feeding  cattle  in  the  stable,  and  on  Easter  about  the 
tokens  of  apparent  death,  or  about  the  advantages  of  early  rising.  The 
old  liturgies  were  mutilated  or  supplanted,  and  all  the  superficiality 
and  insipidity  of  the  period  were  called  into  requisition  to  eliminate 
the  old  faith  out  of  the  churchly  hymn-books,  and  to  smuggle  in,  in  the 
place  of  the  old  choice  hymns,  the  weakest  hymns  of  moral  reforma- 
tion. Wilh.  Abraham  Teller,  provost  of  Berlin,  declared  publicly,  that 
he  was  willing  to  recognize  the  Jews  as  genuine  Christians,  on  the  basis 

©  ©  © 

of  their  faith  in  God,  virtue,  and  immortality.  K.  Friedr.  Bahrdt, 
after  having  been  removed  from  various  spiritual  and  academical  offices 
on  account  of  his  immoral  conduct,  and  proscribed  by  the  theologians, 
gave  the  people  as  tavern-keeper  in  Halle  the  benefit  of  his  wisdom, 
and  died  from  a  disgraceful  disease  (1792).  The  Prussian  government, 
under  Frederick  William  II.,  attempted  in  vain  to  secure  to  the  church 
its  old  legal  basis  by  the  edict  concerning  religion  of  1788,  by  which 
the  severest  punishment  was  threatened  every  departure  in  doctrine 
and  preaching  from  the  orthodox  confessions  :  it  accomplished  nothing, 
with  all  its  rigor,  against  the  reigning  spirit  of  the  age  (only  one  depo- 
sition, that  of  the  preacher  Schulz  at  Gielsdorf  near  Berlin,  an  old 
insolent  rationalist,  could  be  carried  into  effect),  and  Frederick  William 
III.  (1797-1840)  suspended  the  edict  at  his  accession  to  the  throne. 

4.  Transition  Theology. — It  was  four  men,  especially,  who,  although 
still  adhering  to  the  faith  in  a  divine  revelation,  nevertheless  prepared 
the  way  for  the  admission  of  Rationalism  into  theology:  viz.,  Ernesti 
of  Leipsi?  in  exegesis  of  tb )  New  Testament,  Michaelis  of  Gottingen 


THEOLOGY    AND    LITERATURE    OF    ILLUMINATION.      281 

in  exegesis  of  the  Old  Testament,  Sender  of  Halle  in  biblical  and  his- 
torical criticism,    Tollner  of  Frankfiirt-on-the-Oder  in  dogmatic  theo- 
logy.    John  Aug.  Ernesti  (ob.  1781),  since  1734  rector  of  the  Thomas- 
school,   since  1742  Prof,  of  the  University  of  Leipsic,  and  there  the 
rival  and  antipode  of  his  colleague  Chr.  Aug.  Crusius,  was  originally 
a  classical  philologist,  and  remained  such  also  as  professor  of  theology. 
His  Institutio  interprets  N.  T.  (1761)  laid  it  down  as  a  fundamental 
law  of  exegesis,  that  the  interpretation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  was  to 
be  conducted  entirely  in  the  same  manner  as  the  interpretation  of  a 
profane  author.     But  it  holds  good  also  with  regard  to  classical  litera- 
ture, that  a  full  and  complete  understanding  of  an  author  can  only  be 
obtained  in  so  far  as  the  interpreter  possesses,  in  addition  to  the  neces- 
sary knowledge  of  the  language,  history,  and  age,  also  the  same  spirit 
in  which  the  author  thought  and  wrote.     And  because  Ernesti  lacked 
the  conviction  of  this  necessity,  his  biblical  hermeneutics  was  ration- 
alistic, and  he  the  father  of  rationalistic  exegesis,  strongly  as  he  ad- 
hered still  to  the  idea  of  inspiration   as  also  to  orthodox  doctrines 
What  Ernesti  was  in  regard  to  the  N.  T.,  that  John  David  Michaelia 
(son  of  the  pious  and  orthodox  Chr.  Bened.  M.),  since  3750  Prof,  at 
Gb'ttingen  (ob.  1791),  became  in  regard  to  the  0.  T.    He  acknowledged 
openly,  that  he  never  perceived  anything  of  the  testimonium   Sp.  s. 
internum  ;  and  he  based  his  demonstration  of  the  divinity  of  the  Scrip- 
tures alone  upon  external  evidences,  such  as  the  miracles,  prophesies, 
authenticity,  etc.,  a  web  which  unhelief  tore  to  pieces  with  ease.     No 
one  was  a  greater  master  than  he  in  the  art  of  substituting  his  own 
empty,  superficial,  and  conceited  spirit  for  that  of  the  sacred  authors, 
and  then  to  explain  it  at  great  length.     His  "  Mosaisches  Kecht,"  6 
Bde.,  is  classic  in  this  view.    He  left  behind  82  works,  some  very  volu- 
minous (among  which  are:  Einl.  ins  N.  T. ;    Uebers.  des  A.  T.  mit 
Anm.   fur   Ungelehrte,   13  Bde.  4to.     Orient,  und  exeg.  Biblioth.,  24 
Bde. ;  Einl.  ins  A.  T.,  etc.)     John  Sal.  Semler,  a  pupil  of  Baumgarten, 
and  since  1751  Prof,  at  Halle  (ob.  1791),  was  a  forerunner  of  Ration- 
alism in  a  still  greater  and  more  comprehensive  measure  than  Ernesti 
and  Michaelis.     Growing  up  under  the  influence  of  Hallean  Pietism, 
and  consequently  possessing  a  kind  of  religion  of  habit,  which  he  called 
his  private  religion,  and  of  which  he  could  never  rid  himself,  endowed 
with  uncommon  understanding  and  acuteness,  but  without  any  depth 
of  spirit,  he  acquired  an  immense  mass  of  chaotic  knowledge,  and  un- 
dermined, without  wishing  to  touch  Christianity,  the  pillars  of  orthodox 
theology,  by  arbitrarily  disputing  the  genuineness  of  the  biblical  writ- 
ings ("Abhandlung  von  der  freien  Unters.  d.  Kanons"):  by  laying 
down  a  theory  of  inspiration  and  accommodation,  which  allowed  error, 
mistake,  and  well-meant  delusion  in  the  Scriptures ;  by  an  interpreta- 
tion which  disposed  of  everything  disagreeable  in  the  Now  Testament  as 
"Jewish  notions"  (ex.  gr.  De  daemon  iaois)  ;  by  a  critical  treatment  of 
church  and  dogmatic  history    which   permitted   the  doctrine  of  the 
67* 


282    SECTION  III. THIRD  PERIOD  l^tENT.  18  A.  D.). 

church  to  appear  as  a  result  of  misconception,  -want  of  judgment,  and 
violence,  etc.  The  number  of  his  writings  amounts  to  151.  He  sowed 
the  wind  and  reaped  a  whirlwind,  at  which  he  himself  trembled. 
Therefore  he  opposed  perseveringly  the  appointment  of  Bahrdt  to 
Halle,  and  earnestly  combated  the  Wolfenbuttler  Fragments,  written 
by  Reimarus,  Prof,  at  Hamburg  (ob.  17(35),  discovered  and  published 
(1774  and  1778)  in  the  Wolfenbuttler  library  as  manuscript  by  Leasing, 
which  attributed  the  introduction  of  Christianity  to  bold  deception 
But  Semler  could  not  resist  the  storm,  and  he  died  broken-hearted,  just 
when  it  reached  its  height.  (Cf.  //.  Schmid,  die  Theologie  Sender's. 
Erlg.  1858.)— John  Gottl.  Tbllner,  since  1750  Prof,  at  Frankfiirt-on-the- 
Oder  (ob.  1774),  was  by  no  means  equal  to  the  beforenamed  in  learn- 
ing, influence,  and  authority  ;  nevertheless,  he  is  worthy  of  a  place 
beside  them,  in  so  far  as  he  first  opened  the  way  for  the  introduction 
of  Rationalism  into  dogmatic  theology,  lie  also  still  adhered  to  the 
idea  of  revelation,  miracle,  and  prophecy,  but  he  also  contributed  the 
"proof,  that  God  leads  men  to  happiness  already  by  the  revelation  of 
nature  ;"  the  revelation  of  Scripture  is  only  a  more  certain  and  perfect 
means  thereto.  He  investigated  further  "the  divine  inspiration  of  the 
Scriptures,"  and  found  that  the  sacred  authors  thought  and  wrote 
without  any  special  divine  aid,  and  God  was  thereby  active  ouiy  In  a 
way  not  to  be  more  particularly  defined.  Finally,  he  investigated  "  the 
active  obedience  of  Jesus  Christ,"  and  in  doing  so  he  gives  an  example 
of  how  orthodox  dogmas  are  to  be  set  aside. 

5.  Rationalistic  Theology. — From  the  schools  formed  by  these  men, 
especially  from  Semler's,  went  forth  crowds  of  Rationalists,  who, 
subsequent  to  1770,  occupied  almost  all  the  professors'  chairs  and 
pulpits  in  Protestant  Germany.  At  their  head  stands  Charles  Fred. 
Bahrdt  (since  1779  at  Halle,  ob.  1792),  who,  at  first  an  author  of  or- 
thodox textbooks,  then  sinking  deeper  and  deeper  through  vanity, 
want  of  principle,  and  immorality,  and  walking  in  Elderman's  foot- 
steps, first  struck  the  shamelessly  bold  key  (Die  neuesten  Oifenbarun- 
gen  Gotts,  4  Bde. ;  Briefe  liber  die  Bebel  im  volkston,  5  Thle. ;  Kir- 
chen-und  Ketzeralmanach ;  Selbstbragaophie,  etc.,  altogether  102 
works),  which  indeed  the  preacher  Charles  Venturini  of  Horndorf 
in  Braunschweig  (ob.  1807)  was  able  to  excel  (Nattirl.  Gesch.  d.  groszen 
Proph.  von  Nazareth,  3  Bde.)  Similar  to  them  was  the  orientalist 
/.  Will.  Fred.  Jlezel,  since  1802  Prof,  at  Dorpat,  at  the  same  also  rum- 
distiller,  millwright,  and  inventor  of  building  clay-walls  by  stamping 
the  layers  (ob.  1829),  (81  works,  among  which:  Die  Bibel  mit  vollst. 
erkl.  Anm.,  12  Bde.)  In  contrast  with  these,  however,  the  majority 
of  the  Rationalists  endeavored  to  obtain  a  reputation  for  respectability 
in  life,  doctrines,  and  literary  productions.  Subsequent  to  179(1  the 
Kantian  philosophy  exerted  an  important  and,  relatively,  also  an 
ennobling  influence  on  rationalistic  theology.  /.  Jacob  Griesbach 
(of  Jena,  1812)  contributed  much  of  importance  in  the  sphere  of  the 


THEOLOGY   AND   LITERATURE    OF   ILLUMINATION.     283 

criticism  or  the  tixt  of  the  New  Testament.     The  introduction  to  the 
N.  T.  was  prepared  by  Charles  Alex.  v.  Hanlein  of  Erlangen  (ob.  1829). 
Will.  Abr.  Teller  of  Berlin  contributed  a  dictionary  of  the  N".  T.  (5  A. 
1792),  which  inaugurated  the  superficial  mode  of  treating  the  ideas  of 
the  N.  T.  (ex.  gr.  sanctification,  reformation,  regeneration,  resolution  to 
lead  a  different  life).     Following  his  example,  J.  Benj.  Koppe  of  Got- 
tingen  (ob.  1791),  (N.  T.  graece  e.  perpet.  illustr.   continued  by  H. 
Heinrichs  and  Jul.  Pott,  0  Bde.)  and  J.  George  Rosenmuller  of  Leipsic 
(ob.  1815),  (Scholia  in  N.  T.,  6  Bde.),  interpreted  the  N.  T.  with  in- 
credible superficiality.     In  the  same  spirit,  /.  Chr.  Schluze  of  Giessen, 
(ob.  1806),   (Scholia  in  V.  Y.),  and  Lorenz  Bauer  of  Heidelberg  (ob. 
180G)  (Forts,  der  Scholia  v.  Schalze,  Einl.  ins  A.  T.,  Theol.  d.  A.  T., 
Mythol.  d.  A.  u.  N.  T.,  Moral  d.  A.  T.,  Hebr.  Allerthumer,  etc.), 
labored  in  the  sphere  of  the  Old  Testament.     The  contributions  of  J. 
Gottfr.  Eichhom  of  Gottingen  (ob.  1827),  Einl.  ins  A.  T.,  5  Bde. ;  Re- 
pertorium  fur  bibl.  u.  morgenl.  Lit. ;  Bibl.  Urgesch.  fortges.  v.  J.  Ph. 
Gabler)  and  Leonh.  Bertholcll  of  Erlangen  (ob.  1822),  (Einl.  ins  A.  T., 
Coram,  z.  Daniel;  Dogmengesch.),  are  more  profound  and  respectable. 
The  rationalistic  stand-point  was  represented  in  Church  History  by  H. 
Ph.  Gourad  Henke  of  Helmstedt  (<>b.  1807),  and  the  Wurtemberg  minis- 
ter of  state,  L.  Tim.  v.  Spittler  (ob.  1810).     Rationalistic  doctrines  of 
faith  and  morals  were  spread  less  in  learned  and  scientific,  than  in 
popular  and  practical  works.     Sam.  Steinbart  of  Frankfurt-on-the-Oder 
(ob.  1809),  wrote  and  defended  his   "  System  der  reinen  Philos.  od. 
Gliickseligkeitslehre  des  Christenthums ;"  and  John  Aug.  Eberhard, 
Prof,   of  philosophy  at  Halle  (ob.  1809),   apotheosized   Socrates  and 
classic  heathenism  ("  Neue  Apologie  des  Socrates,"  2  Bde.),  in  the 
spirit  of  the  popular  philosophy.     The  acute  John  Henry  Tieffrunk, 
Prof,  of  philosophy  at  Halle  (ob.  1837),  on  the  other  hand,  introduced 
Kantian   philosophy  with  its   rigid  categories  into  theology  (Einzig 
moglicher  Zweck  Jesu ;  Censur  d.   christl.  prot.  Lehrbegr.,  3  Bde. ; 
Die  Miindigk  in  d.  Rel.,  2  Bde.).    Jerusalem  of  Wolfenblittel  (ob.  1789), 
Zollikoffer,  Ref.  preacher  in  Leipsic  (ob.  1784),   Spalding,  provost  at 
Berlin'  (ob.  1804),   (Werth  der  Gefilhle  im  Christth. ;  Nutzbarkeit  d. 
Predigtamtes),  Fr.  Ad.  Sack  of  Berlin  (ob.  1817),  Marezoll  of  Jena 
(ob.  1828),  Lbffler  of  Gotha  (ob.  1816),  /.  G.  Rosenmuller  of  Leipsic 
(ob.  1815),   Toiler  of  Zurich  (ob.  1808),  Aug.  Herm.  Niemeyer  (k.  H. 
Francke's   great-grandson),  Chancellor  in  Halle  (ob.  1828),  (Charak- 
teristik  d.  Bibel.,  5  Bde.;  Gumdsatze  d.  Erzich.,  3  Bde.;  Lehrb.  d. 
Rel.   fur  gelehrte   Sehnlen.  18  A.  1843),  Rufnagel  of  Erlangen  (ob. 
1830),    Jonath.    Schudetojf  of  Ronneburg   (ob.  1843),    (kirchenreckl. 
Schriften,  bes.  zur.  Vertheichgung  des  Collegialsystems),  etc.,  contri- 
buted towards  the  spread  of  Rationalism  by  sermons  and  by  popular 
doctrinal  and  devotional  works.     (Cf.  §  56,  2.) 

6.  A  theological  tendency,  abandoning  the  old  orthodoxy,  without, 
nowever,  resigning  itself  to  Rationalism,  maintained  itself  in  the  most 


284   SECTION  III. —  THIRD  PERIOD  (CENT.  18  A.  D.). 

various  gradations  between  both,  under  the  name  of  Supranaturalism, 
which  desired  still  to  presei-ve  faith  in  a  supernatural  revelation.    Thie 
faith  was  certainly  of  a  very  weak  kind  among  many  so-called  supra- 
naturalists  ;  a  revelation  remained,  which  scarcely  revealed  anything 
that  was  not  already  known  to  reason.    But  in  addition  to  these,  a  not 
insignificant  number  of  worthy  men  also  labored,  who  were  really  in 
earnest  to  save  the  essential  truths  of  salvation  ;  but  it  is  characteristic 
of  almost  all  of  them,  that,  although  belonging  to  the  Lutheran  church, 
they  approximated  in  principle  at  least  to  the  Reformed  church  in  their 
views  and  apprehensions  of  Scripture  and  of  the  Church.     The  most 
influential  and  able  fosterer  of  Supranaturalism  during  this  period 
was  the  university  of  Tubingen.     The  series  of  spiritless  supranatu- 
ralistic  dogmatists  is  opened  by  Moras  of  Leipsic  (ob.  1792),  (Epitome 
theol.  christ.)   Less  of  Gottingen  (ob.  1797),  Doderleinof  Jena  {ob.  1792), 
Seiler  of  Erlangen,  and  Nosselt  of  Halle  (ob.  1807),  became  less  and 
less  spirited ;  the  latter  can  even  be  numbered  among  the  Rationalists. 
The  ablest  and  most  worthy  representatives  of  Supranaturalism,  who 
most  powerfully  and  successfully  resisted  the  current  of  the  age,  are 
Gotll.  Christian  Storr  of  Tubingen  (ob.  1805),  (Comm.  z.  Hebraerbr. ; 
Zweck  d.  evang.  Gesch. ;  Apologie  d.  OfFb.  Joh. ;  Doctrina    christr.  pars 
theoretica,  translated  by  C.  C.  Halt;  Lehrb.  d.  chr.  Dogmatik.  1813. 
He  also  had  a  controversy  with  the  Konigsberg  philosopher ;  Annott. 
quasdam  theol.  ad  philos.  Cantii  doctrinam  1793 — by  which  he  gained 
his  high  esteem);   G.  Christian  Knapp  of  Halle  (ob.  1825),   (Vorless. 
u.  d.  chr.  Glaubensl.,  published  by  Thilo ;   Scripta  varii  argumenti, 
etc.),  and  Francis  Votkmar  Reinhard,  Prof,  at  Wittenberg,  chief  court- 
preacher  at  Dresden  (ob.  1812),  the  most  eloquent  preacher  of  this  age 
(System  d.  chr.  moral,  5  Bde.;  Versuch  ii.  d.  Plan  Jesu ;  Predigten, 
35  Bde. ;  Gest'andnisse ;  Vorless.  ii.  d.  Dogmatik).    In  a  sermon  on  the 
anniversary  of  the  Reformation  in  1800,  Reinhard  professed  his  adhe- 
sion to  the  Lutheran  doctrine  of  justification,  with  such  decision,  that 
all  Germany  was  agitated  by  it,  especially  as  a  ministerial  decree  held 
this  sermon  up  as  a  model  for  all  the  preachers  of  Saxony.     Worthy 
of  all  honor  as  Apologists  are  the  great  mathematician  Leonh.  Eider 
of  St.   Petersburg   (ob.  1783),   (Rettung  der  Offenbarung  gegen   die 
Einw'drfe  der  Freigeister),  the  not  less  great  physiologist  Albr.  Haller 
of  Zurich  (ob.  1777),  (Briefo  ii.  d.  wicht,  Wahrhh.  d.  Offenb.,  Briefe  ii. 
einige  Einwurfe  noch  lebender  Freigeister).     More  comprehensive  and 
thorough  were  the  contributions  of  the  theologians  Theod.  Christopher 
Lilienthal  of  Konigsberg  (ob.  1782),  (Die  gute  Sache  der  gottl.  Offb., 
16  Bde.,   against  the  attacks  of  Deists)  ;  John  Fred.  KlenJcer  of  Kiel 
(ob.  1827),  (Neue  Priifung  u.  Erklar.  d.  vorziigl.  Beweire  fur  d.  Wahrh. 
d.  Christth.,  3  Bde.  ;  Ausf.  Unters.  d.  firiinde  fiir  die  Echth.  u.  Glaub- 
wurdigk.    d.    schriftl.   Urk.  d.  Christth.,  5  Bde. ;    Bibl.   Sympathien, 
od.  Betrachtt.  ii.  d.  Berichte  d.  Evangelisten,  etc.),  and  Dan.  Joach. 
Kbpp*.n,  preacher  in  Mecklenburg  (Die  Bibel.  e.  Work  d.  gottl.  Weish.) 


THEOLOGY    AND    LITERATURE    OF    ILLUMINATION.      285 

The  zealous  preacher,  who  was  abused  beyond  all  measure,  John  Melch. 
Gotze,  chief  pastor  of  Hamburg  (ob.  1786),  a  Loscher  redivivus,  con- 
tended for  the  palladium  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy  against  his  ration- 
alistic colleagues,  against  the  theatre  as  a  school  for  the  German  peo- 
ple, against  Barth,  Basedow,  and  consorts,  against  the  Wolfenb'uttler 
fragments,  against  Werther's  Sorrows,  etc.  His  polemics  were  not 
without  passion  and  malice,  and  in  spite  of  all  his  learning  he  was  by 
no  means  a  match  for  an  opponent  like  Leasing.  But  he  was  not  a 
blockhead,  pettifogger,  and  fanatic ;  this  is  evident  from  the  intimate 
friendship  which  existed  between  him  and  Lessing  for  many  years, 
before  the  occurrence  of  the  controversy.  Worthy  of  special  mention 
as  authors  in  the  sphere  of  Biblical  History  are :  the  excellent  surer- 
intendent  John  Jacob  Hess  of  Zurich  (ob.  1828),  (Gesch.  d.  Israel,  vor 
d.  Zeiten  Jesu,  12  Bde. ;  Lebensgesch.  Jesu,  3  Bde.  ;  Lehre  Jesu,  2 
Bde. ;  Gesch.  d.  Apostel,  3  Bde. ;  Vom  Reiche  Gottes,  2  Bde. ;  Kern 
d.  Lehre  vom  R.  Gs.  ;  Briefe  ii.  d.  Offenb.  Joh.) ;  /.  Conr.  Pfenninger, 
deacon  at  Zurich  (ob.  1792),  (Jlidische  Briefe,  e.  Messiade  in  Prosa, 
12  Bde.)  ;  Magn.  Fred.  Boos,  prelate  of  Wlirtemberg  (ob.  1804),  (Einl. 
in  d.  bibl.  Gesch.  bis  auf  Abraham  ;  Fusstapfen  d.  Glaubens  Abr.  in 
d.  Gesch.  d.  Patr.  u.  Proph.)  Lavater  and  Herder  also  are  to  be  named 
here.  Supranaturalism  was  represented  in  the  sphere  of  Church  His- 
tory  by  the  industrious  JohnMatth.  Schrb'ckh  of  Wittenberg  (ob.  1808); 
the  profound  Christ.  Will.  Francis  Walch  of  Gottingen  (ob.  1784), 
(Voll'st.  Hist.  d.  P'apste;  Hist.  d.  K.  Versammll.  ;  Hist.  d.  Ketzereien, 
11  Bde.  ;  Neueste  Rel.  Gesch.  9  Bde.);  the  Kantian  Charles  Fred. 
Stdudlin  of  Gottingen  (ob.  182G),  (Universalgesch.  d.  K. ;  Gesch.  d. 
Sittenlehre  Jesu,  4  Bde.  ;  Gesch.  d.  theol.  Wissch.  s.  1500 ;  K.  G.  v. 
Groszbrit.,  2  Bde.  ;  many  historical  monographs  on  the  oath,  prayer, 
conscience,  marriage,  friendship,  the  drama,  etc.), and  the  "Venerable" 
Gattl.  Jacob  Planck  of  Gottingen,  ob.  1833  (82  years  old),  a  leading 
representative  of  "pragmatic"  historiography  (Gesch.  d.  Entsteh.,  d. 
Veranderungen  u.  d.  Bildung  unseres  prot.  Lehrbegr.,  6  Bde. ;  Gesch. 
d.  Entst.  u.  Ausbild.  d.  chr.  kirchl.  Gesellschaftsverf.,  5  Bde. ;  Gesch. 
d.  Christth.  in  d.  Per.  sr.  Einflihrung,  2  Bde.,  etc.)  The  Wlirtemberg 
prelate  Fred.  Christopher  Oetinger  (ob.  1782),  the  magus  of  the  South, 
occupied  a  quite  peculiar  position  (Theol.  ex  idea  vitse  deducta;  Etwas 
Ganzes  vom  Evangelio,  on  Isaiah  40  ff. ;  Biblisch-emblemat.  Wbrter- 
buch  zum  N.  T.,  opposed  to  that  by  Teller ;  Selbstbiogr.,  published  by 
Hamberger,  Stuttg.,  1845,  etc.).  He  was  a  disciple  of  Bengel,  deeply 
learned,  like  him,  in  the  Scriptures,  but  also  an  admirer  of  Jacob 
Biihme,  and  even  not  opposed  to  Swedenborg's  ghost-seeing  revelations. 
But  notwithstanding  all  this,  he  is  still  deeply  rooted  in  Lutheran 
orthodoxy  with  his  biblical  realism  and  his  theosophy,  which  acknow- 
ledges corporeity  as  the  3nd  of  the  ways  of  God,  and  the  first  repre- 
sentative of  a  theology  :f  the  future,  which,  it  is  true,  in  its  develop- 
ment might  need  thorozgh  purifying  and  close  sifting,  but  yet  might 


286   SECTION  III. —  THIRD  PERIOD  (CENT.  18  A.  D.). 

be  .adapted  to  represent,  in  its  fundamental  idea,  the  basis  for  the  final 
true  reconciliation  of  Idealism  and  Realism.  (Cf.  C.  A.  Auberlen,  die 
Theosophie  Oettinger's  nach  ihren  Grundziigeu.  T'ubg.  1848.)  (Cf. 
§56,3.) 

7.  German  Philosophy.  (Cf.  Erdmann,  s.  c.  \  163,  1.— 77.  M.  Chaly- 
baus,  hist.  Entw.  d.  spec.  Phil.  v.  Kant,  bis  Hegel.  3  A.  Dresd.  1843. — 
A*.  Biedermann,  d.  deutsche  Phil,  von  Kant  bis  auf  unsere  Zeit.  Lpz. 
1842,  2  Bde.—  C.  Fortlage,  Genet.  Gesch.  d.  Phil,  seit  Kant.  Lpz.  1852.) 
-—As  Locke  fills  the  interval  between  Bacon  and  Deism  and  Materialism, 
so  does  Christian  v.  Wolf '  (g  46,  2)  constitute  the  centre  and  transition 
from  Leibnitz  to  popular  philosophy.  Immanuel  Kant  of  Konigsberg 
(ob.  1804),  saved  philosophy  from  the  superficial  self-sufficiency  and 
quackery  of  the  latter,  and  led  it  upon  the  arena  of  a  mental  conflict, 
■which  is  unparalleled  in  power,  energy,  extent,  and  continuance. 
Kant's  philosophy  ("  Kritik  der  reinen  Vernunft,"  "Die  Religion  in- 
nerhald  der  Grenzen  der  bloszen  Vernunft"),  stood  altogether  outside 
of  Christianity,  and  upon  the  same  ground  with  theological  Ration- 
alism. Nevertheless,  by  digging  deep  into  this  ground,  it  brought  out 
much  superior  ore,  of  whose  existence  vulgar  Rationalism  had  no  idea, 
and  became,  without  wishing  or  knowing  it,  a  schoolmaster  to  Christ 
in  manifold  ways.  Kant  demonstrated  the  impossibility  of  a  know- 
ledge of  supersensuous  things  by  means  of  the  pure  reason,  but  ac- 
knowledged tlic  ideas  of  God,  freedom,  and  immortality,  as  postulates 
of  the  practical  reason  (conscience)  and  as  the  principle  of  all  religion, 
whose  contents  was  alone  the  moral  law ;  Christianity  and  the  Bible, 
when  they  have  become  the  foundations  of  national  culture,  are  to  be 
retained,  but  must  be  made  efficient  by  moral  interpretation.  Whilst 
he  thus,  on  the  one  hand,  approached  the  sympathies  of  Rationalism, 
he  also,  on  the  other,  powerfully  opposed  its  superficiality  and  self- 
sufficiency,  as  it  came  to  him  in  the  form  of  popular  philosophy.  His 
sharp  criticism  of  pure  reason,  his  deep  knowledge  of  human  weakness 
and  depravity  revealed  in  his  doctrine  of  the  radical  evil,  his  categorical 
imperative  of  the  moral  law,  were  well  adapted  to  produce  in  profound 
minds  a  despair  of  themselves,  a  disgust  with  the  hollowness  of  the 
age,  and  a  want  which  Christianity  alone  could  fully  satisfy. — Fr.  II. 
Jacobi  (oo.l819),  in  his  heart  a  Christian,  in  his  understanding  a  hea- 
then, led  religion  from  the  limits  of  abstract  reason  back  into  the 
depths  of  the  soul,  and  thus  awakened  a  positive  longing. — John  Gotll. 
Fichte  (ob.  181  f)  transformed  Kantianism,  which  he  at  first  uncondi- 
tionally embraced,  into  an  idealistic  "theory  of  the  sciences,"  in  which 
only  the  Ego  appears  as  real, — but  the  Non-ego  attains  reality  through 
the  Ego,  and  thus  the  world  and  nature  are  only  important  as  the 
reflex  of  the  spirit.  But  when,  having  reached  atheism,  he  was  ex- 
pelled from  his  position  at  Jena,  a  spiritual  revolution  tock  place  in 
him,  which  led  him  away  from  the  brink  of  atheism  upon  the  way  of 
mysticism  newer  to  Christianity.     In  his  "Anweisung  zum  seligen 


THEOLOGY    AND    LITERATURE    OF    ILEUM  ■.' NATION        287 

Leben"  (1S0G),  he  frees  religion  from  the  mere  service  of  morality, 
and  seeks  the  blessedness  of  life  in  the  loving  surrender  of  the  whole 
soul  to  the  All-Spirit,  the  fullest  expression  of  which  he  found  in  St. 
John's  gospel.  On  the  other  hand,  Pauline  Christianity,  with  its  fun- 
damental doctrines  of  sin  and  atonement,  appeared  to  him  as  a  dege- 
neration, and  Christ  himself  as  the  most  perfect  representative  of  the 
incarnation  of  God,  which  is  repeated  in  all  ages  and  in  every  pious 
person. — Already  in  the  last  years  of  this  century,  Schdling  came 
forward  with  his  philosophy  of  identity,  which  became  one  of  the  most 
powerful  agencies  in  creating  a  new  age.     (Cf.  §  53,  1.) 

8.  German  National  Literature.  (Cf.  H.  Gelzer,  d.  deutsche  poet. 
Liter,  seit  Klopstock  u.  Lessing,  nach  ihren  ethischen  u.  rel.  Gesieht- 
spunkten.  2.  A.  Lpz.  1848,  f.) — When  the  loud  tones  of  the  evangelical 
hymn  were  about  to  expire  in  Gellert's  (ob.  1789)  pious  hymns,  Klop- 
stock appeared  (ob.  1803)  to  praise  the  Messiah  in  a  new  song.  But 
the  pathos  of  his  odes  had  no  effect,  and  his  Messiade,  as  mistaken  in 
form  as  in  contents,  had  the  fate  of  only  being  praised  and  not 
read.  Lessituj  (ob.  1781)  did  not  wish  to  have  orthodoxy  cast  away, 
impure  as  it  was,  until  there  should  be  found  to  take  its  place 
something  better  than  the  new-fashioned  theology.  He  could 
only  see  a  patchwork  of  bunglers  and  half- philosophers  in  the 
new  system,  not  in  the  old  one ;  he  rather  declared  that  he 
knew  of  nothing  in  the  world,  on  which  human  acuteness  had  been 
more  exercised,  than  on  it.  It  vexed  him,  that  it  was  imagined  possi- 
ble to  suspend  the  weight  of  an  eternity  upon  the  thin  thread  of  ex- 
ternal evidences  ;  and  therefore  it  was  a  pleasure  to  him  to  throw  the 
Wolfenbuttler  fragments  at  the  heads  of  the  theologians,  and  to  cover 
the  chief  pastor  Gbt~e,  who  was  offended  at  it,  with  ridicule  and 
mockery  ("Antigotze").  In  his  "  Nathan"  he  permits,  in  an  almost 
perfidious  way,  Christianity  to  be  represented  by  a  stupid  zealot ; — as 
the  proper  solution  of  the  problem,  the  thought  gleams  through,  that 
in  the  end  all  three  of  the  rings  were  spurious.  In  another  work  he 
presents  revelation  from  the  stand-point  of  a  gradual,  progressive 
"  training  of  the  human  race,"  which  lost  its  significance  as  soon  as  it 
reached  its  end ;  and  in  confidential  conversations  with  Jacobi  he  pro- 
fessed his  belief  in  Spinoza's  "JLv  xav  Jliv.  Wielancl  (ob.  1813)  was 
soon  transformed  from  a  youthful  zealot  for  orthodoxy  to  a  refined 
voluptuary  by  the  popular  philosophy.  Herder  (ob.  1803),  with  his 
enthusiasm  for  the  infinitely  deep  and  sublimely  poetic  contents  of  the 
Bible,  especially  of  the  Old  Testament,  exposed  at  least  the  lifelessness 
and  insipidity  of  the  customary  treatment  of  the  Old  Testament. 
Goethe  (ob.  1832)  hated  thoroughly  the  vandalism  of  Neology,  took 
pleasure  in  the  "  confessions  of  a  beautiful  soul,"  had,  in  his  early 
youth,  some  sympathy  for  the  Moravians,  but  believed,  in  the  ripeness 
of  his  manhood,  that  he  did  not  need  Christianity.  Schiller  (ob.  1805), 
enthusiastic  for  everything  that  was  noble,  beautiful,  and  good,  never- 


288       SECTION    III. —  THIRD    PERIOD    (CENT.  IS  A.  I).). 

theless  disregarded  Christianity  and  insinuated  Kantian  Rationalism 
clothed  Avith  poetic  beauty  into  the  hearts  of  the  German  people.  His 
sorrow  on  account  of  the  destruction  of  the  mythology  of  old  Hellas, 
was,  consciously  or  otherwise,  less  in  contrast  with  Christianity  than 
with  the  poverty  of  Deism,  which  had  banished  the  living  God  of 
Christianity,  and  supplied  his  place  with  the  dead  laws  of  nature. 
And  even  if  he  was  earnest  in  supposing  that  he  was  able  from  reli- 
gious feeling  to  profess  no  religion,  still  he  unconsciously  paid  homage 
to  Christianity  in  many  Christian  views.  Jacobi's  mental  philosophy 
also  had  its  poetical  interpreters  in  Jean  Paul  (ob.  1825)  and  Hebel 
(ob.  1826),  in  whom  the  same  disunion  exists  between  the  pious  mind, 
which  felt  itself  irresistibly  drawn  towards  Christianity,  and  the  cold 
understanding,  which  turned  away  from  faith  and  towards  the  reign- 
ing unbelief.  /.  H.  Voss,  possessing  a  coarse  Dutch  rustic  constitution, 
delineates  in  his  Louisa  the  ideal  of  a  rationalistic  rural  pastor,  and 
persecuted  with  inquisitorial  severity  the  blockheads  and  bondmen. — 
But  by  the  side  of  these  worldlings,  and  as  much  respected  by  them 
as  they  were  insulted  and  slandered  by  the  heroes  of  the  "  deutschen 
Bibliothek,"  stood  two  genuine  sons  of  Luther,  the  Wandsbeckcr  Mes- 
senger (Matth.  Claudius,  ob.  1815,  cf.  W.  Herbst,  M.  CI.  d.  Wandsb. 
Bote.  Gotha,  1857),  and  Hamann  (ob.  1788),  the  Magnus  of  the  North 
of  whom  Jean  Paul  says,  that  his  commas  are  planetary,  his  periods 
solar  systems  (cf.  C.  H.  Gildemeister,  J.  G.  Ham.  d.  Mag.  d.  Nord., 
Leb.  u.  Schriften,  3  Bde.  Gotha,  1857),  and  two  noble  sons  of  the  Re- 
formed Church,  the  laborious  Lavater  (ob.  1801),  and  the  prayerful 
Jung-Stilling  (ob.  1817).  Besides  these,  we  must  not  forget  the  cele- 
brated historian  John  Von  Milller  (ob.  1809),  who  recognized  Christ  as 
the  centre  of  all  ages  in  a  way  more  profound  than  any  historian  be- 
fore him.     (Cf.  I  53,  3.) 

I  51.  ECCLESIASTICAL  LIFE  DURING  THE  PERIOD  OF 

ILLUMINATION. 

The  old  church  faith,  meanwhile,  had  still  during  this  period 
of  reigning  unbelief  its  seven  thousand  who  had  not  bowed  their 
knees  before  the  Baal  of  the  spirit  of  the  age.  A  Lavater  and 
Stilling,  a  Claudius  and  Hamann,  are  not  by  far  the  only,  though 
the  most  brilliant  and  best  known  names  of  the  faithful  sons  of 
the  Church.  A  high  place  of  honor  among  them  is  also  occupied 
by  the  preacher  John  Fred.  Oberlin  of  Wald'bach  (Ban  de  la 
Roche)  (ob.  1826),  who  is  scarcely  sufficiently  honored  by  being 
called  a  saint  of  the  Protestant  Church.  "Father  Oberlin,"  by 
ofiicial  labors  extending  through  60  years,  elevated  his  morally 
and  spiritually  depraved  and  temporally  poor  congregation  to  a 
condition  of  industrial  prosperity,  noble  civilization,  and  pure 


ECCLESIASTICAL    LIFE   DURING   ILLUMINATION.       289 

ehurchly  piety,  and  transformed  the  barren,  waste  Steinthal  into 
a  patriarchal  Paradise.  Among  the  supranaturalistic  theologians 
there  were  also  many  who  adhered  in  their  hearts  to  the  old  faith, 
even  though  they  also  in  their  science  clothed  it  with  garments 
of  the  new  fashion.  The  flower  of  the  German  people  was  still 
rooted  in  biblical  and  ehurchly  Christianity.  Where  the  pulpit 
permitted  it  to  die  out,  there  they  derived  rich  spiritual  nourish- 
ment from  the  writings  of  the  fathers,  and  where  the  modern 
vandalism  of  Illumination  had  mutilated  and  diluted  the  ehurchly 
hymn-books,  there  the  old  choice  hymns  still  lived  in  the  heart's 
of  the  mothu's  and  fathers,  and  resounded  with  power  at  family 
worship,  and  a  Eippel  exemplified  in  his  "  Lebenslaiifen  "  their 
wonderful  power  in  the  life,  loving,  and  suffering  of  a  Christian. 
The  Moravian  Church  became  often  a  haven  of  safety  for  the 
educated,  who  were  more  exposed  to  danger.  The  "common 
danger  also  united  pious  Roman  Catholics  and  pious  Protestants 
in  the  love  of  a  common  Saviour.  Thus  in  Miinster  a  circle  of 
the  noblest  souls  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  formed 
around  the  noble  princess  Galizin  and  the  able  minister  Fiirsten- 
berg,  in  which  also  ex.  gr.  a  Eamann  with  his  genuine  Lutheran 
spirit  found  the  most  intimate  communion  and  the  warmest  recep- 
tion. Pestalozzi  (ob.  1827)  appeared  already  in  1775  in  Swit- 
zerland to  rescue  the  science  of  teaching  from  the  superficiality 
of  Basedow,  reforming  the  national  school  in  a  spirit  that  was 
genuinely  popular,  and  at  least  not  hostile  to  Christianity. 

1.  The  Dilution  of  the  Hymn-Boohs  and  Sacred  Poetry.  —  It  was 
Elopstock  who  opened  the  way  for  the  unparalleled  hymn-book  van- 
dalism of  this  period,  by  remodelling  29  old  church  hymns  (1758). 
He,  as  also  his  immediate  successors,  Cramer  and  J.  Ad.  Schlegel,  only 
wished  to  improve  the  form,  i.  e.,  modernize  them,  which,  however, 
could  not  be  done  without  diluting  their  contents.  Their  numberless 
successors  among  the  champions  of  Illumination  only  made  the  more 
thorough  havoc  both  with  contents  and  form.  General  superintendents, 
consistorial  counsellors,  and  court-preachers,  rivalled  each  other  in 
preparing  and  introducing  new  hymn-books,  with  diluted  old  and  still 
more  watery  new  hymns.  Every  town  had  its  own  and  peculiarly 
amended  hymn-book.  Meanwhile,  to  the  honor  of  the  German  people 
of  this  period,  especially  of  Wlirtemberg,  it  must  be  said,  that  they 
with  reluctance  permitted  the  old  treasure  of  their  hymn-books  to  be 
taken  from  them,  and  the  new  fabrications  to  be  forced  upon  them. 
Only  a  few  voices  from  the  educated  classes,  as  ex.  gr.  the  poet  Schu- 
bart,  were  raised  against  the  nuisance,  but  they  were  unheard.  —  Aa 
68 


290 


SECTION    III. THIRD    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.  1  8    A.  1).). 


poor  as  the  spirit  of  Illumination  was  in  faith  and  in  poetry,  so  rich 
was  it,  nevertheless,  in  the  production  of  so-called  sacred  hymns. 
These  are  almost  entirely  of  a  moral  character,  and  where  a  well- 
meant  hymn  of  faith  appears,  it  bears  not  the  least  comparison  with 
the  hymns  of  the  16th  and  17th  centuries.  Abstraction,  dogmatic  tone, 
and  pathos,  are  the  substitutes  for  the  sublimity,  inwardness,  fresh- 
ness, and  nationality  of  the  old  hymns.  The  hymns  of  the  noble  and 
pious  Gellcrl  are  by  far  the  best  contributed  by  this  period.  Klopstock 
repudiated  Gellert's  doctrinal  tone,  and  sought  to  awaken  and  stir  up 
religious  feeling.  On  the  other  hand,  he  lacked  popularity,  of  which 
Gellert  possessed  at  least  a  minimum.  Among  the  sacred  poets  who 
inherited  his  spirit,  Lavater  is  the  most  able  and  Christian.  (Cf. 
S  54,  8.) 

2.  Sacral  Music.  —  Sacred  music  sunk  also  with  the  hymns  of  this 
period  to  the  lowest  degree  of  its  existence.  The  old  chorals  were 
recast  into  modern  forms,  by  which  they  altogether  lost  their  ancient 
power  and  beauty.  A  multitude  of  new,  unnational,  and  difficult  me- 
lodies, in  a  dry  pedantic  style,  appeared;  the  last  trace  of  the  old 
rhythm  disappeared,  and  tedious,  heavy  monotony  gained  the  ascend- 
ency, by  which  all  sublimity  and  freshness  was  lost.  Preludes  and 
interludes  of  a  secular  character  were  introduced  as  substitutes.  An 
operatic  overture  generally  introduced  the  people  into  the  church;  a 
march  or  a  waltz  dismissed  them  from  it.  The  church  ceased  to  foster 
and  to  produce  music  ;  the  theatre  and  concert-hall  took  its  place.  The 
operatic  supplanted  all  taste  for  the  oratorio  style.  Cantata  of  a  tho- 
roughly secular  and  effeminate  spirit  were  composed  for  festival  occa- 
sions. A  proper  church  style  in  music  no  longer  existed,  on  which 
account  also  Winterfeld  closes  his  history  of  evangelical  sacred  music 
with  Seb.  Bach.  It  was  almost  worse  with  the  Roman  Catholic  mass- 
music.  Palestrina's  earnest  and  elevated  school  had  almost  entirely 
disappeared  in  the  polite  operatic  style,  and  a  greater  nuisance  was 
and  is  still  made  of  the  organ  than  in  the  Protestant  churches.  (Cf. 
I  54,  8.) 

3.  Religious  Parties  within  the  Church.— -From  the  secondary  effects 
of  Spener's  Pietism,  enriched  by  Oetinger's  theosophy,  proceeded  in 
Wurtemberg  the  party  of  the  Michelians.  Its  founder  was  a  layman, 
Michael  Hahn.  a  butcher  (ob.  1810).  His  writings  are  full  of  deep 
views  of  the  Divine  economy  of  salvation  (among  which  especially  s. 
Briefe  von  d.  ersten  Offenb.  Gottes  durch  die  ganze  Schbpfnng  bis\n 
das  Ziel  aller  Dinge).  The  doctrine  of  a  double  fall  (whence  resulted 
a  great  disregard,  but  not  rejection  of  marriage),  of  the  restoration  of 
all  things;  further  and  especially  the  disregarding  of  justification  in 
favor  of  sanctification,  of  Christ  for  un  in  favor  of  Christ  in  us,  the 
urging  of  uninterrupted  repentance,  etc.,  was  peculiar  to  him.  The 
latter  was  enhanced  by  the  extreme  contrast  of  the  Pregizerians  (with 
preacher  Pregizer  of  Haiterbach  at  their  head),  who,  laying  all  stress 


ECCLESIASTICAL    LIFE    DURING    ILLUMINATION.       291 

upon  baptism  and  justification,  certain  in  the  faith  of  their  happiness, 
and  not  needing  self-tormenting  repentance,  impressed  upon  their  life 
and  worship  the  character  of  great  cheerfulness  and  joyfulness.  Both 
parties,  having  spread  over  the  whole  of  Wurtemberg,  still  exist,  but 
have  approached  each  other  very  nearly  in  common  opposition  to  the 
destructive  tendencies  of  modern  times.  They  had  besides  a  common 
ground  in  their  Chiliasm  and  in  the  doctrine  of  restoration.  (Cf.  Haug, 
i.  Secte  d.  Michelianer  ;  in  d.  Studien  d.  ev.  Geistlichk.  Wlirtb.  XI.  I.— 
Griineisen,  Gesch.  d.  rel.  Gemeinschaften  in  Wurtemb. ;  in  the  hist. 
theol.  Ztschr.  1841,  1.)— The  party  of  the  Collenbuschians  in  Berg  stood 
also  in  a  certain  connection  with  Oetinger's  theosophy  and  other  Wur- 
temberg elements.  Sam.  Collenbusch,  practising  physician  at  Wich- 
linghausen  (ob.  1803),  who,  being  ofi'ended  by  the  orthodox  doctrines 
of  original  sin  as  original  guilt,  of  the  wrath  of  God  and  of  the  repre- 
sentative satisfaction  of  Christ,  formed  a  doctrinal  system,  in  which 
Christ,  laying  aside  his  divine  attributes,  took  upon  himself  with 
human  flesh  also  the  susceptibility  of  sinning,  the  sufferings  of  Christ 
were  derived  from  the  wrath  of  Satan,  and  have  only  the  significance 
of  the  sufferings  of  trial  and  of  steadfastness,  and  redemption  consists 
in  the  fact,  that  Christ  bore  Satan's  wrath  for  us  and  sends  his  Spirit 
into  us  to  work  sanctification.  The  most  important  of  the  theological 
adherents  of  the  pious  physician  are  both  the  Hasenkamps  and  the 
excellent  Gottfr.  Menken,  Reformed  preacher  in  Bremen  (ob.  1831), 
(Ilomilien  liber  die  Gcsch.  d.  Elias  und  zu  Hebr.  11 ;  Anleitung  zum 
eigenen  Unterricht  in  d.  Wahrhh.  d.  h.  Schrift).  (Cf.  F.  W.  Krug 
Gesch.  der  Schwarmerei,  etc.,  Elberf.  1851,  p.  205,  ff.,  and  M.  Gbbel 
Gesch.  d.  chr.  Lebens,  Bd.  II.) 

4.  German  Illumination  found,  outside  of  German;/,  but  little  favor  at 
first.  It  spread  soonest  and  most  in  the  Netherlands,  then  in  Denmark 
and  Norway,  and  but  little  in  Sweden.  In  Amsterdam  a  part  of  the 
Lutheran  congregation  tore  itself  loose,  when  a  neological  preacher 
was  forced  upon  it  (1791),  and  organized  itself  independently  as  the 
"Restored  Lutheran  Church,"  or  the  "  Old  Light."  It  still  numbers 
seven  Dutch  congregations,  with  12,000  members.  In  1797  several 
members  of  the  Wallonian  (French  Reformed)  congregation  at  Delft 
in  the  Netherlands  formed  a  religious  society  under  the  name  Christo 
sacrum,  which  wished  to  adopt  all  the  Christian  confessions,  and  to 
unite  all  in  a  true  Church  of  Christ  upon  the  foundation  of  faith  com- 
mon to  all.  The  confessional  doctrinal  differences  were  to  be  regarded 
as  unessential,  and  left  to  private  conviction,  on  which  account  also  a 
separation  from  the  old  churches  was  not  regarded  as  necessary.  But, 
although  the  new  congregation  at  first  made  some  progress,  and  the 
government  formally  guaranteed  it  religious  freedom  in  1802,  it  soon 
declined  for  want  of  internal  strength  and  under  the  power  of  growing 
nnbelief,  and  exists  now  only  in  several  weak  and  needy  remnants. — 
In  Norway  a  powerful  religious  excitement  was  created  by  the  peasant 


292  SECTION    III. —  THIRD    PERIOD    (CENT.  18    A    I).). 

Nielsen  Mauge,  who,  since  1795,  preached  the  gospel  there.  In  Eng- 
land the  Dissenters,  especially  the  Methodists,  exerted  a  wholesome 
influence  on  the  national  church.  Here  in  the  person  of  W.  Cowpef 
(ob.  1800)  we  meet  with  a  noble  sacred  poet  of  high  lyrical  endow- 
ments, whose  life  and  poetry,  however,  are  consumed  by  melancholy, 
caused  by  the  bugbears  of  predestinarian  despair  and  mcthodistic  care 
of  his  soul. 

5.  Protestant  Union  and  Missionary  Labors.  (Cf.  Jul.  Wiggers, 
Gesch.  d.  ev.  Miss.  Ilamb.  1845,  2  Bde.)  —  In  order  to  establish  propa- 
ganda to  realize  the  grand  thought  of  union  effort  for  Christian,  prac- 
tical ends,  the  Augsburg  senior  John  Vrlsperger  travelled  over  Eng- 
land, Holland,  and  Germany.  But  his  zeal  was  first  crowned  with 
permanent  success  in  Basle  by  establishing  the  German  Society  of 
Christianity  ("Deutsche  Gesellsch.  zur  Befb'rder.  christl.  Wahrh.  u. 
Gottseligkeit")  1780.  Soon  a  number  of  branch  societies  were  formed  in 
Switzerland  and  South  Germany.  A  periodical:  "  Sammlungen  fur 
Liebhaber  christl.  Wahrheit  und  Gottseligkeit"  became  the  organ  of 
the  society  (1784),  which  drew  within  the  province  of  its  labors  all 
possible  Christian  objects  (Bible  and  tract  distribution,  care  of  the 
poor  and  sick,  itinerant  preaching,  circulating  libraries,  evangelization 
of  Roman  Catholics,  missions  among  the  Jews,  Turks,  and  Heathen, 
etc.).  Gradually  some  of  the  branches  grew  strong  enough  to  be  in- 
dependent, ex.  gr.  1804,  the  Basle  Bible  Society,  1816,  the  Missionary 
Society,  1820,  the  Beuggen  Institution  for  neglected  children  and  the 
educa+ion  of  charity-school  teachers ;  further,  a  union  for  the  friends 
of  Israel,  a  tract-union,  a  deaf  and  dumb-asylum,  etc.,  whereby  a  dis- 
solution of  the  society  was  prepared  for  in  a  way  not  to  be  regretted. — ■ 
In  the  last  decade  of  this  century,  a  feeling  for  united  labor  for  Chris- 
tian objects  was  also  awakened  in  England,  and  first  of  all  for  Heathen 
Missions.  This  took  place  in  the  year  1795,  when  a  large  number  of 
Christians  of  all  parties,  mostly  Dissenters,  united  to  found  the  general 
London  Missionary  Society,  and  already  in  the  following  year  the  first 
missionary  ship  sailed  to  the  South  Sea  islands  under  Captain  Wilson, 
with  29  missionaries  on  board.  They  labored,  almost  hopelessly,  but 
perseveringly,  for  16  years,  until  finally  King  Pomare  II.  of  Tahiti  be- 
came the  first  of  the  converts.  A  victory  over  a  heathen  reaction-party 
(1815)  secured  full  dominion  for  Christianity.  The  example  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society  led  to  imitation  in  other  quarters ;  thus 
arose  in  1796  two  Scotch,  and  in  1797  a  Netherland  Missionary  Society, 
and  in  1800  in  London  the  Episcopal  Missionary  Society  for  the  Eng- 
lish possessions  in  Africa,  Asia,  etc.  In  the  same  year  Jdnicke  of 
Berlin  founded  his  mission  institute.  The  Danish  Lutheran  (g  47,  7) 
and  the  Moravian  missions  (§  47,  6)  carried  on,  meanwhile,  their  mis- 
sionary operations  vigorously,  especially  the  latter.     (Cf.  \  54,  9,  10.) 


FOURTH   PERIOD 


OF 

CHURCH     HISTORY 

IN  ITS  MODERN  GERMANIC  FORM  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 

NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

Jf.  K.  R.  Hayenbach,  K.  G.  d.  18  u.  19  Jahrh.  2.  A.  Lpz.  1856.  Bd 
II. — J.  C.  L.  Gieseler,  K.  G.  d.  neuesten  Zeit.  Herausg.  v.  C.  R.  Rede 
pennig,  Bonn  1855. — F.  A.  Scharp f  (k&th.),  Vorless.  ub  d.  neueste  K 
G.  Freib.  1852.  —  ^.  Gams  (kath.),  Gesch.  d.  K.  Christi  im  19.  Jahrh. 
Innsbr.  1853,  ff.,  2  Bde.— Jul.  Wiggers,  kirchl.  Statistic.  Ilamb.  1842,  f. 
2  Bde.— Ders.  d.  kirchl.  Bewegung  in  Beutschl.  Rost,  1848. — K.  Netz, 
die  Kirchen  d.  europ.  Abendl.  Frkf.  1847,  Bd.  l.  —  D.  Schenkel,  die 
rel.  Zeitkampfe.  Hanib.  1847.—  G.  Fr.  Rheinwald,  -Acta  hist,  ecclst. 
Seculi  XIX.  Hamb.  1836-38,  3  Bde.— A'.  Matthes,  allg.  kirchl.  Chronik. 
J  -IV.  Lpz.  1855-58. 

I.  GENERAL  INTRODUCTION. 

I  52.  REVIEW  OF  THE  RELIGIOUS  AGITATION  DURING 
THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

The  horrors  of  the  French  Revolution  demonstrated  what 
must  become  of  the  modern  world  without  God  and  Christianity; 
the  reign  of  the  new  divine  scourge  lifted  the  eyes  and  hearts  of 
the  people  to  Him,  from  whom  alone  help  was  yet  to  be  hoped 
for ;  the  wars  for  liberty  in  their  enthusiasm  ("  with  God  for 
king  and  fatherland")  did  place  their  trust  in  this  help,  and  the 
double  victory  (1813  and  1815)  gloriously  justified  this  trust 
Princes  and  people  were  filled  with  thankfulness  to  God.  Alex- 
ander I.,  Francis  I.,  and  Frederick  William  III.  (being  at  the 
enme  time  representatives  of  the  three  principal  churches)  formed. 
68*  (293) 


294       SECTION    III. FOURTH    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.  19    A.  D.) 

after  the  Congress  of  Vienna  had  established  the  political  rela- 
tions, the   Holy  Alliance  (1815),  which  had  for  its  object  the 
cultivation  and  preservation  of  Christian  brotherly  love  among 
the  nations  as  the  branches  of  one  family,  and  among  the  princes 
as  the  fathers  of  the  same.     "  To  make  Christianity  the  highest 
law  of  national  life,  in  spite  of  all  confessional  dissensions,"  was 
the  declared  object  of  the  Holy  Alliance,  which  was  joined  by  all 
the  princes  of  Europe,  excepting  the  Pope,  the  Sultan,  and  the 
King  of  England,   but  which,   nevertheless,   soon   became   anti- 
quated as  a  political  idyll.     Alexander  II.,  at  his  accession  to 
the  throne  (1855),  first  again  recognized  in  this  idyll  an  eternally 
true  ideal  of  Christian  rulers.— A  religious  fermentation  had  also 
been  produced   among  the   people  ;   but  what  six  decades  had 
levelled  to  the  ground  could  not  rise  again  in  a  night.     Old  and 
new,  and  partly  very  heterogeneous  elements,  were  commingling 
and  fermenting  in  the  national  spiritual  life,  in  poetry  and  philo- 
sophy, in  theology  and  the  church.      Subsequent  to  1830  a  decided 
clarification  has  taken  place,  and  the  antitheses  have  manifested 
themselves   purely   and  independently.     The   restitution   of  the 
papacy  in   1814  already  awakened  a  new  enthusiasm  for  ultra- 
montane Roman  Catholicism,  as  also  the  jubilee  of  the  Refor- 
mation  in   1817  for  Protestantism;  whilst  the  theological  and 
practical  principles  of  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches, 
which  had  been  repressed,  the  former  in   Supranaturalism,  the 
latter  in  Pietism,  by  a  premature  union,  which  regarded  them  as 
no  longer  existing,  were  likewise  agitated  anew.     A  powerful 
effort  was  also  made  by  the  old  sects  to  obtain  a  wider  influence, 
and  new  sects  full  of  powerful  errors  appeared.     Thus  the  eccle- 
siastical and   religious  principles  were  drawn   out  sharper  and 
increased,  and  over  against  the  church  and  Christianity  a  naked 
and  bold  anti-Christianity  asserted  itself  in  Socialism  and  Com- 
munism, in  political,  religious,  and  scientific  Libertinism;   whilst 
pauperism  and  proletarianism,  a  fruit  chiefly  of  the  largely  mul- 
tiplied manufactories,  increased  in  a  terrible  way.      In  1848  the 
igniting  spark  fell  upon  this  accumulated  mass  of  powder,  and 
in  a  short  time  Western  Europe  was  enveloped  in  the  flames  of 
political  revolution.     The  two  years  of  reaction  (1849-50)  suc- 
ceeded in  mastering  this  wild  conflagration.     But  the  fire  still 
smouldered  beneath  the  ashes.     May  God  grant,  that  in  a  night, 
when  the  watchmen  may  sleep,  another  whirlwind  may  not  kindle 
it  anew  1     Within  the  sphere  of  religious  life  agitation  existed 


GENERAL     BASIS     OF     CULTURE.  295 

in  every  direction.  Pantheism,  Materialism,  and  Atheism  de- 
vastated science  and  practical  life,  even  to  the  lowest  strata  of 
the  people.  Old  and  new  sects  increased  in  a  threatening  man- 
ner. Ultramontanism  bent  its  bow  more  tightly.  The  Protestant 
Union  became  in  every  direction  a  concordia  discors,  and  even 
Lutheranism,  which  sundered  itself  from  it,  concealed  a  danger- 
ous dissension  in  its  bosom.  The  prophecies  of  Scripture  alone 
opened  a  view,  through  all  confusions  and  anxieties,  to  the  final 
issue  of  all  history,  for  which,  whether  it  be  near  or  far  off,  even 
the  complications  of  the  present  must  prepare  the  way. 

I  53.  THE  GENERAL  BASIS  OF  THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  NINE- 
TEENTH CENTURY  IN  ITS  CONNECTIONS  WITH  THEO- 
LOGY AND  THE  CHURCH. 

Philosophy  exerted  an  important  influence  upon  the  religious 
development  of  this  period,  both  as  regards  science  and  practical 
life.  Whilst  Rationalism  in  its  philosophical  development  was 
not  able  to  go  beyond  Kant,  the  other  theological  tendencies 
were  more  or  less  directed  by  the  philosophy  of  this  period.  In 
addition  to  philosophy,  Belles  Lettres,  which  was  also  in  mani- 
fold ways  affected  by  philosophy,  exerted  a  powerful  influence 
upon  the  religious  views  of  the  educated  classes.  The  exact 
sciences  also  were  brought  into  a  closer  relation  to  Christianity, 
partly  friendly  and  partly  hostile.  But,  generally,  a  Christian 
tendency  made  itself  felt  more  decidedly  than  ever  in  the  sciences  ; 
and  it  appears  as  characteristic  that,  whilst  formerly  the  Chris- 
tian convictions  of  the  learned  had  little  or  no  influence  in  the 
formation  of  these  sciences,  now  the  endeavors  of  many  educated 
Christian  men  were  directed  towards  penetrating  them  with  the 
Christian  principle  and  permitting  it  to  remodel  them. 

1.  German  Philosophy.  (Cf.  §50,  7.)— Fries  (ob.  1843)  also  acquired 
importance  for  the  development  of  Protestant  theology,  by  the  influence 
which  his  philosophy  exerted  upon  several  distinguished  theologians 
(De  Wette,  Hase).  His  philosophy  started  from  Kantian  Rationalism, 
which  it  regarded  as  standing  in  need  of  being  made  more  profound 
and  thorough,  and  which  it  sought  to  do  in  a  method  nearly  similar  to 
Jacobi's.  Schelling's  philosophy  of  identity,  on  the  other  hand,  .started 
from  Fichte's  idealism,  and,  in  its  progress,  assumed  the  form  of  essen- 
tially pantheistic  Natural  Philosophy.  He  learned  from  Fichte  that 
the  world  was  null  and  void  without  the  spirit,  hut  he  inverted  the 
relation.     Whilst  Fichte  allowed  reality  to  the  world  (the  Non-ego) 


296      SECTION    III. —  FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.  19    A.  D.) 

only  in  so  far  as  man  apprehended  and  penetrated  it  with  his  spirit, 
and  this  first  gave  it  real  existence,  according  to  Schelling  the  spirit  is 
nothing  else  than  the  life  of  nature  itself,  ami  consequently  identical 
with  it,  or  rather  both  are  the  opposite  poles  of  the  same  phenomenon. 
The  spirit  still  slumbers  and  dreams  in  the  lower  grades  of  natural 
life,  but  in  man  it  has  attained  to  self-consciousness.  The  total  life 
of  nature,  or  the  soul  of  the  world,  is  God.  Man  is  a  reflection  of  God 
and  a  microcosm.  God  reaches  objective  reality  and  the  unfolding  of 
his  self-consciousness  in  the  development  or  history  of  the  world  ;  Chris- 
tianity is  a  turning-point  in  the  history  of  the  world ;  its  fundamental 
doctrines  of  revelation,  Trinity,  incarnation,  and  reconciliation  are 
regarded  as  prescient  attempts  to  solve  the  enigma  of  the  world.  Schel- 
ling's  living,  poetic  view  of  the  world  penetrated  all  the  sciences  and 
gave  them  a  new  and  unprecedented  inspiration.  But  it  was  an  abo- 
mination to  the  reigning  rationalistic  theology.  It  returned  its  hatred 
with  ridicule  and  contempt.  It  introduced  a  new  and  fresh  element 
of  life  among  the  younger  generation  of  theologians.  As  Schelling 
was  connected  with  Fichte,  so  was  Hegel  with  Schelling,  whose  pan- 
theistic Natural  Philosophy  he  transformed  into  pantheistic  Mental 
Philosophy.  According  to  this  philosophy,  divine  revelation  as  an 
unfolding  of  the  divine  self-consciousness  from  non-existence  to  exist- 
ence, i.  e.  from  mere  self-existence  to  real-existence,  manifests  itself  not 
so  much  in  the  life  of  nature,  as  rather  in  the  thinking  and  acting  of 
the  human  spirit.  Judaism,  heathenism,  and  Christianity  are  the  three 
progressive  stages  of  the  development  of  this  process  of  revelation  ;  Ju- 
daism is  far  inferior  to  classic  heathenism,  but  in  Christianity  we  have 
the  perfect  religion,  of  course  only  in  the  lower  form  of  conception, 
which  it  is  the  mission  of  philosophy  to  convert  into  knowledge.  It  at 
least  again  brought  Protestant  orthodox  doctrines  into  formal  repute. 
When  Marheineke  again  constructed  Lutheran  orthodoxy  in  its  entire 
dialectic  perfection  into  a  speculative  system  of  dogmatics,  upon  the 
basis  of  this  philosophy;  when,  further,  the  talented  and  profound 
jurist  Goschel  united  it  with  a  refreshing  Pietism,  then  the  illusion 
was  entertained  for  a  time  that  the  long-sought-for  reconciliation  of 
philosophy  and  theology  had  been  finally  discovered  in  this  philosophy. 
(The  berliner  Jahrb'ucher  was  for  a  long  time  its  organ.)  But  the 
condition  of  things  changed  immediately  after  the  Master's  death  (1831). 
Hegel's  school  was  divided  into  an  orthodox  and  a  numerically  larger 
(or  "young  Hegelian")  one;  the  former  advancing  the  churchly  ten- 
dency of  the  Master;  the  latter  despising  Christianity  as  an  antiquated 
form  of  conception,  and  running  his  philosophical  views  into  the  most 
open  self-deification  and  self-worship  of  the  human  spirit  (Anthropo- 
theism).  David  Strauss,  Bruno  Bauer,  and  Louis  Feuerhach  introduced 
this  tendency  into  theology,  whilst  Arnold  Huge  endeavored  to  intro- 
duce and  make  it  felt  in  the  social,  aesthetic,  and  political  relations  of 
life.    The  organ  of  this  tendency  was  since  1837  the  "Halleschen  (later 


GENERAL  BASIS  OF  CULTURE.         29'i 

Deutsche  Jahrbucher."  When  these  were  suppressed  in  1843  by  the 
State,  the  Young-Hegelians,  in  order  to  obtain  a  strong  support,  con- 
nected themselves  with  the  Rationalists  (now  friends  of  light),  whom 
but  a  short  time  before  they  ridiculed  as  the  "  antediluvian  theolo- 
gians". In  the  revolution  of  1848,  Ruge,  with  some  of  his  companions, 
affiliated  with  the  communistic  Republicans.  Schelling,  who  had  been 
silent  for  almost  three  decades,  and  had  meanwhile  transformed  his 
former  Pantheism  into  Christian  Gnosticism,  occupied  (1841)  Hegel's 
chair  in  Berlin  as  his  declared  opponent,  but  was  able  to  produce  only 
a  transient  excitement  among  the  younger  generation  of  theologians 
with  his  dualistic  doctrine  of  potencies,  which  was  announced  as  the 
finally  attained  understanding  of  Christianity.  He  died  upon  a  jour- 
ney to  Switzerland  (1854),  after  his  brilliant  career  at  Berlin  had  come 
and  gone  like  a  meteor.  His  son  has  commenced  to  erect  to  him  a 
worthy  monument  by  publishing  his  collected  works. 

The  hegemony  of  Hegelian  philosophy  was  ruined  by  the  division 
of  the  schools  and  by  the  radicalism  of  its  adherents ;  and  Schelling, 
in  the  second  stadium  of  his  philosophical  development,  was  not  able 
to  found  a  peculiar  school.  On  the  other  hand,  quite  a  series  of  younger 
philosophers  appeared,  who,  starting  from  Hegelian  dialectics,  pur- 
posed to  free  philosophy  from  the  ban  of  Pantheism,  and  instead  of  it 
to  substitute  a  speculative  Theism,  which  made  itself  felt  as  Christian 
philosophy,  and  came  in  fact  into  a  closer  relation  to  historical  Chris- 
tianity, by  acknowledging  its  positive  contents.  At  the  head  of  these 
most  honorable  men  stood  Fichte's  son;  besides  him,  Weisse,  Braniss, 
Chalybaus,  Fischer,  Ulrici,  Wirth,  etc.  Its  organ  is  the  "  Zeitschrift 
fin-  Philosophie  und  Philosophische  Kritik,"  published  by  Fichte,  Jr. 
But  important  as  the  philosophical  power  of  these  men  is,  they  still 
have  not  been  able  to  obtain  the  influence  in.German  science  which 
Schelling  and  Hegel  possessed  in  so  large  a  degree.  —  Herbart,  Kant's 
successor  at  Konigsberg  (ob.  1841  at  Gottingen),  challenged  the  entire 
new  philosophy  from  Fichte  the  father  to  Fichte  the  son,  by  declaring 
that  the  metaphysical  God  lay  altogether  beyond  the  horizon  of  philo- 
sophy, which  he  would  confine  to  the  limits  of  empiricism.  His 
Realism  was  the  sharpest  antithesis  of  Hegelian  Idealism.  His  philo- 
sophy, abstractedly  considered,  stands  indifferent  to  Christianity,  but 
is  not  incapable  of  being  brought  into  a  friendly  relation  to  it,  as 
Taute's  philosophy  of  religion  has  demonstrated.  Nevertheless,  Her- 
bart's  philosophy  also  was  not  able  to  exert  a  great  influence  on  prac- 
tical life  and  science.  The  tendency  of  the  present  age,  which  is  more 
decidedly  in  the  direction  of  practical  interests,  is  in  the  main  not 
favorable  to  the  cultivation  of  philosophy. 

2.  The  Exact  Sciences.  —  Schelling' s  profound  views  became  so 
very  significant  in  that  they  were  not  confined  to  the  philosophical 
movements  of  the  age,  but  also  breathed  a  new  life  into  the  other 
sciences.     This  influence  was  most  widely  exerted  upon  the  natural 


298         SECTION    III. FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.  19    A.  D.) 

sciences.  There  was  not  wanting,  it  is  true,  a  certain  wavering  and 
mistiness,  to  which  mesmeric  magnetism  especially  contributed  largely, 
but  the  turbid  fermentation  was  gradually  clarified,  and  the  Christian 
views  separated  themselves  from  their  pantheistic  appendages.  The 
genial  Henry  Steffens  (ob.  1845),  and  in  a  much  greater  measure  the 
profound  and  judicious  G.  H.  v.  Schubert,  taught  how  to  fathom  and 
understand  the  book  of  nature  as  the  reflection  and  supplement  of  the 
divine  revelation  in  the  Holy  Scriptures.  A  congenial  spirit  of  the 
latter  was  the  Frankfurt  senator  Fr.  v.  Meyer,  who  contributed  less,  it 
is  true,  for  and  through  his  special  science,  but  on  that  account  more 
for  and  through  deep  Christian  apprehension  of  the  divine  mysteries) 
in  nature  and  history.  Hegel's  philosophy  also  appeared  at  first  to 
deepen  and  enrich,  in  a  Christian  way,  the  other  sciences  ;  at  least  it 
presents  in  Goschel  a  thinker,  who  in  a  Christian  spirit  transfigures 
jurisprudence,  and  confirms  Christianity  in  a  legal  way.  On  the  other 
side,  however,  Hegel's  philosophy,  in  its  application  to  the  other 
departments  of  knowledge,  brought  into  sway  an  abstruse,  dialectical 
tendency;  its  disciples  of  the  extreme  left  wing  wished  to  construct 
all  the  sciences  a  priori  from  abstract  ideas,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
eradicate  from  them  the  last  reminiscences  of  a  Christian  spirit. 

If  we  consider  the  sciences  singly,  and  their  relation  to  Christianity, 
it  is  the  Natural  Sciences,  above  all  others,  which  here  come  into  view. 
Their  great  and  glorious  names,  which  history  praises  as  their  proper 
founders  ( Copernicus,  ob.  1543,  Kepler,  ob.  1630,  Newton,  ob.  1727, 
Holler,  ob.  1777,  Davy,  ob.  1829,  Olivier,  ob.  1832,  etc.),  have  also  a 
glorious  and  native  sound  for  the  Christian  ear.  All  of  them,  and 
many  others  of  the  great  masters  of  natural  philosophy,  professed 
their  faith  with  heart  and  lips  in  Christian  truth,  which,  in  their 
opinion,  was  not  the  least  endangered  by  their  brilliant  discoveries. 
It  was  otherwise  with  the  theologians.  Even  a  Schleiermaeher  (Sends- 
chriften  an  L'ricke  in  the  Studd.  u.  Kritt.  1829)  apprehended  the  fore- 
seen destruction  of  all  Christian  views  of  the  world  through  the  irre- 
sistible results  of  natural  philosophy  ;  and  Bretschneider  (Sendschriften 
an  einem  Staatsmann,  1830)  proclaimed  to  the  world  without  pity,  that 
what  Schleiermaeher  had  only  feared,  had  already  fully  taken  place. 
A  natural  philosopher  ( K.  v.  Raumer)  proved  to  them,  however,  that 
there  was  yet  no  ground  at  all  either  for  rationalistic  rejoicing  or  for 
Christian  fear,  and  convicted  the  superficial  babbler  Ballenstedt,  a 
rationalistic  rural  pastor  of  the  purest  water  ("Die  Urwelt,"  1819), 
of  the  most  colossal  ignorance.  But  the  condition  of  things  was  soon 
advanced  to  a  new  stage.  The  investigation  of  nature,  awakening 
from  the  intoxication  of  Schelling's  natural  philosophy,  pronounced  all 
speculation  to  be  contraband  and  pure  empiricism,  and  the  prudent 
investigation  of  the  actual  to  be  the  only  admissible,  the  only  useful 
object  of  its  pursuit.  This  was  well  meant,  and  also  honestly  and  judi- 
ciously carried  out  by  the  majority  of  natural  philosophers.    But  whilst 


GENERAL    BASIS    OF    CULTURE.  299 

they  committed  the  spirit  in  and  above  nature  to  the  investigation  of 
theologians  and  philosophers,  as  not  belonging  to  the  province  of  em- 
pirical investigation  of  nature,  those  young  in  the  natural  sciences, 
here  also  effecting  the  emancipation  of  the  flesh  from  the  spirit,  de- 
clared that  the  spirit  was  not  at  all  present,  because  it  could  not  be 
discovered  by  the  dissecting  knife.  Charles  Vogt,  formerly  regent  of 
the  empire  of  the  year  1849,  asserted  in  all  earnestness,  that  thought 
was  only  a  secretion  of  the  brain,  in  the  same  way  as  urine  was  a  se- 
cretion of  the  kidneys  ;  and  Moleschott  declared  all  life  to  be  a  mere 
change  of  matter,  and  recognized  no  other  destination  of  man  after 
death  than  to  be  manure  for  the  ground.  The  rabble  of  science  and 
of  life  shouted  its  approbation  of  them,  but  men  of  true  science  (Bud. 
Wagner,  Andr.  Wagner,  Liebig,  and  many  others),  chastised  the  irra- 
tional and  unscientific  spirit  as  it  deserved,  and  openly  and  firmly 
professed  their  adhesion  to  Christian  truth.  The  celebrated  discoverer 
of  electro-magnetism,  Oerstedt,  had  earlier  already  sought  "the  spirit 
in  nature;"  but  of  com-se  the  spirit  which  he  found  was  not  the  spirit 
of  the  Bible  and  of  the  Church.  Tho  grand-master  of  German  Natural 
Philosophy,  Al.  v.  Humboldt,  also  acknowledged  the  system  of  the  world 
to  be  a  K6<5,u.os  full  of  grand  harmony  in  the  whole  and  in  the  parts ; 
but  he  also  discovered  no  Christian  ideas  and  views  in  God's  great 
book  of  nature.32  Medicine  stood  and  stands  on  the  same  level  with  the 
natural  sciences.  Only  a  Be  Volenti  ("Medicina  pastoralis")  per- 
ceived, with  Protestant  soberness,  in  the  Christian  faith  a  vehicle  of 
medical  science ;  whilst  a  Eingseis  in  Miinchen  pronounced  even  the 
entire  Romish  papacy  with  the  adoration  of  saints  and  worship  of  tho 
host  to  be  a  conditio  sine  qua  non  of  all  medicine.  The  physicians 
also,  who  believed  in  magnetism,  stood  for  the  most  part  personally 
and  with  their  science  in  intimate  relation  to  Christianity  (ex.  gr. 
Passavant,  Ennemoser,  etc.) — Magnetic  Somnambulism,  the  Wlirtem- 
berg  ghost-seeing,  the  North  American  Spirit-rappings,  and  the  uni- 
versal Table-moving  and  Table-writing,  have,  in  spite  of  the  wrath  of 
many  natural  philosophers,  who  saw  thorein  only  refined  fraud  or  ob- 
stinate self-deception,  and  of  many  earnest  Christians,  who  warned 
\gainst  Satan's  deception  and  arts,  found  crowds  of  believers,  who 
gave  ear  to  the  new  revelation  with  rapture. 

Of  all  the  sciences,  no  one  was  so  thoroughly  pervaded  by  the  Chris- 
tian spirit  as  Jurisprudence.  A  large  number  of  excellent  jurists,  who 
are  reckoned  among  the  most  distinguished  notabilities  of  this  science, 
and  who  were  always  ready  to  give  evidence  of  their  zeal  for  the  Church 
and  Christianity  in  practical  life  as  well  as  in  science,  adorned  many 
German  professorships  and  tribunals,  or  filled  high  civil  offices.  Ag 
examples  we  need  only  mention  the  names  of  Fr.  v.  Meyer,  Goschel, 
Stahl,  Bethmann-Hollweg,  Savigny,  Puchta,  Thibaut,  Bickell,  Jacobson, 
Bichter,  Mahler,  Goschen,  Wasserschleben,  Buschke,  Mejer,  Scheuerl, 
etc.,  and  the  Roman  Catholics  Walter,  Pliilipps,  et.  al. — Historiography:, 


n 


00         SECTION    III. —  FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.  19    A.  I>.) 


after  it  had  surmounted  the  superficial  pragmatism  of  the  rationalistic 
period,  and  objectivity  had  again  acquired  its  rights,  also  followed  the 
Christian  and  cliurchly  factors  of  history  with  love  and  recognition. 
Protestant  historical  inquiry  especially  manifested  throughout  an  al- 
most boundless  readiness  to  acknowledge  and  admire  the  grand  pheno- 
mena of  mediaeval  Roman  Catholicism,   even  with  the  denial  of  the 
Protestant  consciousness;  and  proceeded  from  the  apotheosis  of  a  Boni- 
face, Gregory  VII.,  and  Innocent  III.,  to  the  defamation  of  the  Refor- 
mation as  a  revolution   (John  Voigt,  H.  Leo,  C.  A.  Menzel,  Hurter, 
Gfrorer,  etc.)    Ultramontane  historiography  accepted  such  admissions, 
but  by  no  means  thought  of  recompensing  like  with  like,  but  only  in- 
tensified its  old  method  of  wickedly  and  perfidiously  slandering  every- 
thing Protestant  (Riffel,  Dbllinger,  etc.),  and  of  making  history  instead 
of  impartially  investigating.      Geography,  which  was  first  raised  to  a 
science  by  Charles  Hitter,  paid  to  Christianity  the  tribute  of  its  recog- 
nition, which   it   also   deserved  from   this   quarter.     Finally,  ancient 
classic  Philology  also,  in  several  important  representatives,  illumined 
ancient  classic  heathenism  and  its  religion  with  the  Christian  spirit, 
and  endeavored  to  interpret  it  in  the  sense  of  the  apostle  (Acts  14 :  16 ; 
17  :  27  ;  Rom.  1 :  19,  if.)    Creuzer  prepared  the  way  thereto  by  a  deeper 
apprehension  of  ancient  heathen  mythology.      Gbrres  v\alked   in   his 
footsteps,  whose  pupil  Sepp  (das  Heidenth.  u.  dessen  Bedentung  fur 
d.  Christth.  1853,  3  Bde.)  exposes  without  reserve  the  deep  internal 
connection  of  Roman  Catholicism  with   heathenism  by  proving  that 
ancient  heathen  mythology  and  mysteriosophy  are  only  a  latent  Catho- 
licism.    On  the  other  hand,  the  Protestants  Nagelsbach  (Honierische 
und  nachhomerische  Theologie)  and  Lilbker  (Sophokleische  Theologie) 
fathomed,  with  like  depth  and  discretion,  the  religious  life  of  the  an- 
cient world  in  its  relation  to  Christian  truth. 

3.  National  Literature.  (Cf.  J.  V.  Eichendorff  (Roman  Catholic), 
liber  die  ethische  u.  rel.  Bedent.  der  neuern  romant.  Poesie  in  Deutschl. 
Lpz.  1847.  —  K.  Barthel,  d.  deutsche  Nationallit.  d.  Neuzeit.  4.  A. 
Braunschw.  1855. — J.  A.  Mor.  Brilhl  (Roman  Catholic),  Gesch.  d. 
kath.  Lit.  Deutschl.  vom  17.  Jahrh.  biz  zur  Gegenw.  Lpz.  1854.)  —  As 
alrea.Iy  Schiller's  poetry  introduced  Kantian  philosophy,  clothed  in 
noetic  garb,  into  the  national  life,  so  did  also  the  other  phases  of  phi- 
losophical development  find  their  poetical  representatives.  It  is  true, 
Goethe  was  too  rich  and  independent  a  genius  to  be  led  captive  by  a 
philosophical  school ;  nevertheless  his  views  of  life,  and  especially  his 
views  of  nature,  were  related  in  many  ways  with  Scheliing's  jhiloso- 
pliy.  His  religion  was  a  Spinozian  Pantheism.  The  Romantic  School 
connected  itself  more  decidedly  and  unreservedly  with  Schelling.  His 
Natural  Philosophy  is  the  ground  out  of  which  it  grew,  and  out  of 
which  it  received  as  well  its  proclivity  to  Pantheism  as  to  Roman  Ca- 
tholicism (for  the  philosophy  of  identity  is  related,  in  principle,  to 
Komu.n  Catholicism,  in  so  far  as  the  latter  also,  only  in  a  different 


GENERAL    BASIS    OF    CULTURE.  301 

way  [|  20]  likes  to  identify  or  confound  the  divine  and  the  human). 
The  antithesis  between  romantic  and  classic  was  in  itself  considered 
not  that  between  Christian  and  heathen,  and  referred  generally  less  to 
the  religious  contents  than  to  the  poetic  form.  Romanticism  desired 
to  liberate  art  and  poetry  from  the  bondage  of  strict,  antique  classic 
form,  and  to  lead  it  back  to  genuine  German  forms.  It  was  thereby 
directed  to  the  rich  fulness  of  the  middle  ages,  whose  contents  it  then 
sought  to  naturalize  with  the  form  in  modern  times.  But  since  the 
mediasval  view  of  the  world  was  decidedly  Christian,  and  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  classic  school  had  in  great  part  lapsed  into  the  hea- 
thenism of  illumination,  the  above-named  antithesis  had  a  certain 
justification.  Romanticism,  it  is  true,  manifested  a  great  religious 
inwardness  (especially  in  Novalis  and  La  Motte  Fougui),  and  became 
the  sworn  enemy  of  rationalistic  Illumination,  which  it  pursued  in  all 
its  hiding-places,  exposed  and  made  ridiculous  ( Tieck's  Zerbino)  ;  ne- 
vertheless, in  its  contest  with  the  prudery  of  Rationalism,  it  ran  intc 
frivolity  (Fr.  Schlegel's  Lucinde), — and  the  direct  repristination  of  the 
mediaeval  forms  and  views,  which  had  fallen  behind  the  progress  of  the 
world,  was  ever  an  unnatural  thing,  which  could  not  be  atoned  for  by 
the  superabundance  of  imagination,  and  which  avenged  itself  on  many, 
even  the  better  and  nobler  ones  (ex.  gr.  Fr.  Schlegel, — to  say  nothing 
of  the  starved  form  of  a  Zach.  Werner),  by  apostacy  from  Protestantism 
to  Roman  Catholicism.  The  twilight  of  Romanticism  was  fundamen- 
tally opposed  to  Hegelian  philosophy,  and  its  disciples  of  the  left  wing 
almost  succeeded  in  stamping  even  the  expression  "romantic"  as  a 
term  of  abuse  for  Jesuitism  and  obscurantism  of  all  kinds.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  dissolute  and  destructive  tendency  which,  after  Heo-el's 
death,  mastered  his  school,  contributed  its  part  towards  creating  a 
later  anti-Christian  and  revolutionary  poetry.  Closely  connected  with 
the  Romantic  School,  for  which  the  way  was  broken  in  Schleoel's 
Lucinde,  was  the  School  of  young  Germany,  with  its  gospel  of  the 
rehabilitation  of  the  flesh.  Its  leader  was  the  gifted  poet  H.  Heine. 
The  pantheistic  deification  of  Schelling's  and  the  self-deification  of 
Hegel's  school  received  their  expression  in  Leop.  Schefer's  "  Laienbre- 
vier"  and  Weltpriester,  as  also  in  Sallet's  "Laienevangelium  ;"  whilst  the 
63'mpathies  of  the  young  Hegelians  for  the  communistic  spirit  of  the  a°-e 
were  heralded  by  Herwegh's  and  later  also  by  Freiligrath' s  poems. 

Purer  and  clearer  than  in  the  Romantic  School  was  the  Christian 
element  in  the  noble  national  poets  Mar.  Arndt  and  Max.  v.  Schenken- 
dorf,  who,  being  led  to  faith  in  the  living  God  of  the  Bible  bv  the  dis- 
tressed state  of  the  fatherland  and  the  enthusiasm  of  the  war  for 
liberty,  sought  to  sing  this  same  faith  with  fresh  and  inspired  notes 
into  the  hearts  of  the  German  people.  Vhland's  sweet  lyric  poetry 
connected  itself,  through  the  enthusiasm  for  national  interests  of  the 
present  with  the  patriotic  poets,  and  through  the  longing  with  which 
he  penetrated  into  the  rich  mine  of  the  German  past,  with  the  Roman- 
G9 


302      SECTION   III. —  FOURTH   PERIOD    (CENT.  19    A.  D.) 

tists,  but  excelled  them  far  in  clearness  and  sterling  worth.  Without 
being  or  claiming  to  be  a  specifically  Christian  poet,  his  rich  and  clear 
tenderness  of  heart,  nevertheless,  made  the  soil  of  German  national 
life  receptive  for  the  Christian  religion.  The  same  is  true  also  of 
Biickert's  poems,  which  transplanted  the  fragrant  flowers  of  Oriental 
poesy  into  the  German  garden.  The  Christian  consecration  of  poetic 
genius  appears  still  more  decidedly  in  the  noble  and  lovely  lyric  poet 
Emanuel  Geibel,  the  greatest  and  most  Christian  of  the  secular  poets 
of  the  present  age. —  Connected  with  those  named  was  a  long  series  of 
specifically  Christian  poets.  The  most  important  of  these  are:  Alb 
Knapp,  C.  A.  Doring,  Ph.  Spitta,  K.  B.  Garve,  J.  Friedr.  v.  Meyer, 
J.  Pet.  Lange,  Henry  Mimes,  Gust.  Knack, Gust.  Jaliu,  P.  F.  Engsffeld, 
Jul.  Sturm,  Vict.  Strauss,  H.  A.  Seidel,  Louisa  lien sel,  and  many  others, 
who  are  worthily  collected  together  in  Knapp's  Christoterpe  (1833-53). 
Those  named  belong  to  the  Evangelical  Church.  With  all  the  Chris- 
tian depth,  inwardness,  freshness,  and  enthusiasm  which  they  revealed 
in  their  sacred  poetry,  still  no  one  of  them  was  able  to  elevate  himself 
to  the  sublime  simplicity,  power,  popularity,  and  churchly  objectivity 
which  characterized  the  old  evangelical  hymn ;  they  all,  in  this  regard, 
bore  too  much  the  signature  of  this  age,  the  subjective  temper  of  its 
struggles,  conflicts,  and  excitements.  Only  one  poet  of  modern  times, 
Fred.  Rucicert,  struck  the  key  of  the  old  hymns  in  owe  hymn  (the  advent 
hymn:  "I>ein  Konig  kommt  in  niedern  Hullen").  Roman  Catholic 
Germany  has  no  poet  of  the  first  degree,  but  many  of  the  second  and 
third,  possessing  great  religious  depth  and  feeling,  ex.  gr.  B.  Clemens 
Rrentano,  Ed.  v.  Schenk,  Guido  Gorres,  Melchoir  v.  Diepenbroclc,  Fred. 
Beck,  Annette  v. Droste- Hiilsliof,  the  excellent  juvenile  and  popular  poets 
Franz  v.  Pocci,  William  Smets,  etc.  The  highly  praised  poet,  Oscar  v. 
Redwitz,  dug  an  early  grave  for  his  poetic  fame  by  the  "  Siegelinde," 
when,  by  a  shallow  Roman  Catholic  drama,  "  Thomas  Morus/'  he  kin 
died  new  hope  among  his  ultramontane  friends,  that  they  would  be 
able  at  some  time  to  honor  in  him  a  "Roman  Catholic"  poet  of  the 
first.  Another  son  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  talented  Nicho- 
las v.  Lenau  (Niembsch  v.  Strehlenan),  became  insane  (ob.  1850) 
through  the  distracted  state  of  his  inner  life.  He  stood  once,  with  his 
great  master-work,  "  Savonarola,"  in  the  stronghold  of  the  evangeli- 
cal faith. 

In  France,  Lamartine,  soon  after  the  Restoration,  manifested  a  ro 
mantic,  Christian  tendency.  The  poetical  sublimity  and  enthusiastic 
Spirit  of  his  poems  made  a  deep  impression  upon  the  excitable 
Frenchmen,  but  it  was  not  lasting.  His  poetry  gradually  declined 
through  his  subsequent  participation  in  the  debates  of  the  Chambers, 
and  his  Christian  tendency  degenerated  into  a  vague  cosmopolitanism. 
For  the  rest,  the  French  romantic  school  since  the  Revolution  of  July 
{Vict.  Hugo,  Balsac,  George  Sand,  Eug.  Sue,  etc.)  continued  to  assume 
a  more  anti-Christian  character,  and  promoted  the  communistic  and 


GENERAL    BASIS    OF    CULTURE.  303 

libertine  spirit  of  the  age.33— England  had  a  highly  gifted  and  Chris- 
tianly  disposed  poet  in  W.  Wordsworth  (ob.  1850).  In  Lord  Byron,  on 
the  other  hand,  appeared  a  poet  of  the  first  rank,  who  experienced  in 
himself,  more  deeply  than  any  other  poet,  the  great  chasm  which  runs 
through  the  consciousness  of  our  age,  and  which  he  has  delineated 
more  faithfully  in  its  awful  greatness  than  any  other.  He  permits  the 
disharmony  of  nature  and  of  human  life  to  rush  along  in  powerful 
and  captivating  notes.  Incurable  pain,  despair,  weariness  of  life,  and 
misanthropy  without  hope,  even  without  a  desire  for  reconciliation, 
glowing  enthusiasm  for  the  glory  of  the  past,  burning  passion  for 
liberty  and  gigantic  defiance  of  human  power,  surge  through  each 
other  in  scenes  of  woe.  Whilst  in  England  a  ban  still  rests  upon 
Byron's  poems,  which  banishes  them  from  social  and  family  circles, 
their  influence  has  only  acquired  the  greater  sway  on  the  continent. 
His  colossal  spirit,  however,  also  begat  here  a  pigmy  race  of  imitators, 
who  strut  so  largely  in  continental  literature. 

4.  National  Culture. — Whilst  the  poetical  national  literature  exerted 
an  influence  chiefly  only  on  the  higher  and  educated  classes,  an  immense 
number  of  popular  and  juvenile  works  were  published,  which  were  de- 
signed for  the  lower  classes  and  the  youth.  But  only  a  few  succeeded 
in  striking  the  true  popular  and  juvenile  key,  and  still  fewer  is  the 
number  of  those  who  offered  the  people  and  the  youth  that  which  was 
beneficial.  Pestalozzi's  "  Lienhard  and  Gertrude,"  Hebel's  "  Sehatz- 
kastlein,"  and  Zsehokke's  "Goldmachendorf,"  spared  at  least  the  Chris- 
tian consciousness  of  the  people,  even  though  they  were  not  designed 
to  strengthen  and  nourish  it.  Berth.  Auerbach,  a  Jew,  also  delineates 
the  Christian  life  of  the  people  with  admirable  abnegation  of  his  Spi- 
nozian  unbelief,  in  his  masterly  village  histories  ;  although  his  subse- 
quent authorship  was  devoted  to  democratic  revolutionary  movements 
and  pantheistic  propagandism.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  modern 
times  have  also  produced  a  number  of  authors  as  genuinely  national 
as  Christian,  who,  writing  and  narrating  out  o^the  spirit  of  the  people, 
became  true  apostles  of  Christian  views,  manners,  and  discipline  for 
the  people.  The  most  important  among  these  are :  Jeremiah  GotthelJ] 
(Albert  Bitzius,  ob.  1854),  W.  O.  (Will.  Oertel)  Von  Horn,  Carl  Stbber, 
Otto  Glaubrecht  (Rud.  Ludw.  Oeser),  Gust.  John,  Aug.  Wildenhahn, 
Mary  Nathusius,  Will.  Bedensbacher,  Karl  Wild,  et  al.  In  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  Albanus  Stolz  displayed  an  admirable  popular  talent 
(Kalender  fur  Zeit  und  Ewigkeit,  since  1843).  Comparatively  few  of 
the  immense  number  of  juvenile  works  correspond  with  their  object  and 
aim.  The  chief  of  the  authors  in  this  department  of  Christian  narra- 
tion is  G.  H.  v.  Schubert.  Next  to  him  are  Barth,  the  author  of 
"  armen  Heinrich,"  and  Stober,  as  also  the  Roman  Catholic  Christo- 
pher Schmidt,  the  author  of  "  Ostereier."  (Cf.  K.  Bcmhardi,  ~W eg- 
weiser  durch  die  deutschen  Volks-  und  Jugendschriften,  Lpz.  1852,  and 
H.  Prbhle,  Hansbuchlein  fur  das  Volk  u.  s.  Freunde.     Lpz.  1852.  Bd. 


304     SECTION    III. —  FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT,  19   A.  D.). 

I.  Einl.)  The  common  schools  became,  especially  through  Dinter's  (ob. 
1831)  successful  efforts,  nursuriesof  the  tame,  shallow,  and  self-sufficient 
Rationalism  of  the  ancient  regime,  whilst  they  owe  especially  to  Dies- 
terweg's  labors  during  the  last  thirty  years  their  transformation  into 
propaganda  of  naturalistic  democracy.  Next  to  the  army  of  literary 
Bohemians,  the  teachers  of  the  common  schools  of  this  period  labored 
most  successfully  in  poisoning  the  German  nation.  The  General 
Teachers'  Convention  of  Germany  formed  a  centre  for  this  tendency. 
Not  less  than  G000  radical  teachers  were  present  at  the  meeting  in 
Vienna,  in  1870.  At  Hamburg,  in  1872,  where  some  5100  teachers 
were  present,  individual  voices  ventured  to  speak  of  the  Christian 
character  of  the  common  schools,  and  were  answered  -with  hisses. 
Thereafter  no  place  could  be  found  to  entertain  the  convention.  And 
yet,  during  the  last  forty  years,  both  State  and  Church  have  made 
earnest  efforts,  and  not  without  success,  to  reorganize  the  common 
schools  upon  a  Christian  basis.  And  in  1872,  an  Evangelical 
Teachers'  Conference  was  arrayed  against  radicalism.  The  Chris- 
tian spirit  has  also  begun  to  take  a  position  by  the  side  of  reign- 
ing heathenism  in  the  German  gymnasia.  At  least,  religious  in- 
struction in  many  of  the  higher  institutions  of  learning  has  again 
passed  into  the  hands  of  Christian  teachers  ;  and  only  a  few  have 
been  able  to  maintain  a  height  of  Illumination  such  as  is  occupied  by 
the  Homburg  academical  gymnasium,  where  Niemeyer's  "  Lehrbuch 
der  Religion"  is  still  the  text-book.  Nevertheless,  but  little  is  accom- 
plished by  religious  Christian  instruction  in  these  institutions,  if  the 
other  instructions  given  do  not  correspond  with  it,  which,  alas !  is  too 
much  the  case  yet.  From  this  want  arose  the  Christian  gymnasium  at 
Giifershh  (since  1849),  and  lately  (1855)  a  Lutheran  gymnasium  at 
Bogasen  in  Posen.  In  the  Protestant  Church  Eyth  (Classiker  u.  Bebel. 
1838)  took  up  arms  against  the  heathen  classics  as  the  basis  of  culture, 
but  the  most  influential  voices  defended  them.  This  question  was  also 
largely  discussed  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  Paris  Univers 
(editor,  Veuillot)  desired,  in  order  to  cut  off  the  nourishment  of  modern 
heathenism,  to  substitute  the  Church  Fathers  for  the  classics;  the 
Archbishop  Sibour  of  Paris  and  several  other  bishops  protested  ener- 
getically against  it.  The  Pope  brought  the  passionate  controversy  to 
an  end  (1853)  by  a  compromising  decree,  which  takes  the  side  of  the 
Univers,  but  with  great  forbearance  towards  the  archbishop. 

5.  jirt.3i — The  general  mental  agitation  which  was  called  forth  by 
the  new  century  also  introduced  new  spirit  and  life  into  art.  Winckel- 
mann  (ob.  1768)  interpreted  heathen  classic  art,  and  Romanticism 
awakened  a  sense  and  enthusiasm  for  mediaeval  Christian  art.  The 
greatest  masters  of  Architecture  were  Schinkel  {ob.  1841),  Klenze,  and 
Heideloff.  A  Protestant  king  (Frederick  William  IV.)  began  the  com- 
pletion of  the  cat aedral  at  Cologne  (1842),  and  a  Protestant  architect 


GENERAL    BASIS     OF     CULTURE.  305 

(Ernst  Zicimer)  superintended  it. —  Sculpture  has  three  great  master* 
to  point  to,  who  impressed  profound  Christian  views  upon  hrass  and 
marble.     The  Italian  Canova  {<>b.  1822)  was  the  renewer  of  this  art. 
The  German  Dannecker  (ob.  1841),  inspired  by  him,  excelled  his  mas- 
ter.    His  Christ  represents  the  Divine  Mediator  in  a  sublime  marble 
statue,  as  he  beheld  him  in  vision ;   his  John   embodies  the  image  of 
the  disciple    meditating  on   the  mystery   of   the  holy   Trinity.      But 
greater  than  both  of  these  is  the  Dane  Thorwaldsen  (ob.  1844),  who 
sculptured  Christ  and  his  apostles,  together  with  other  groups,  for  the 
Church  of  our  Lady  in  Copenhagen.  —  A  new  epoch  in  Painting  also 
began.     In  1810  a  number  of  young  German  painters  met  together  in 
Rome,  who,  enthusiastic  for  the  mediteval  ideals  of  art,  formed  a  Ger- 
man painter's   league,  from  which    proceeded    the   Romantic    school. 
Overbeck,  the  founder  of  the  league,  remained  in  Rome  and  went  over 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  because  he  could  and  would  only  paint 
that  which  he  could  also  worship.     The  most  profound  inwardness  and 
tenderness  of  religious  feeling  are  revealed  in  all  his  works ;  but  his 
contempt  for  that  which  was  classic  avenged  itself  in  striking  defects 
of  form.    His  friends  gradually  emancipated  themselves  from  this  one- 
sidedness.      Cornelius,  the  most  distinguished  of  them,  left  Rome,  and 
in  1819  took  the  control  of  the  academy  at  Dusseldorf ;  in  1825  that 
of  Munich  ;  and  in  1841  went  to  Berlin.     He  is  the  founder  of  the 
Munich  school  (Schnorr,  Veith,  Kaulbach,  etc.),  which  combines  reli- 
gious inwardness  with   beautiful   and   sublime  forms,   and   strives  to 
spiritualize  nature  to  ideal  beauty;  whilst  the  Dusseldorf  school,  under 
the  control  of  Karl  Frederick  Lessing,  restricted  itself  to  a  faithful 
copying  of  nature.    Lessing's  Protestant  consciousness  expressed  itself, 
in  contrast  with  the  ultramontane  zeal  of  his  rigidly  Roman  Catholic 
art-companions,   in    his   two   great    master-pieces,   "  Huss    before    the 
Council"  and  the  "Imprisonment  of  Pope  Paschalis  by  the  Emperor 
Henry  V.,"  and  completed  the  long-prepared-for  rupture  of  the  schools 
(1842).    Between  these  two  German  schools  stood  the  Romantic  French 
school,  with  H.  Vemet  at  its  head.  —  Music  also  made  great  progress, 
through  the  three  great  masters  in  Vienna.     They  devoted  their  best 
powers  to  secular  music,  but  they  also  treated  biblical  and  churchly 
subjects  with  imperishable  success.      Mozart  (ob.  1791)  wrote  when 
dying  his  glorious  requeim  ;  Haydn  (ob.  1809)  set  to  music  the  seven 
words  of  Christ  on  the  cross,  and  produced  in  his  "Creation"  a  grand 
work  of  art,  which,  however,  is  almost  more  an  opera  than  an  oratorio. 
Beethoven  (ob.  1827),  having  lost  his  hearing,  withdrew  into  the  magic 
world  of  his  imagination,  from  which  proceeded  a  Christ  on  the  Mount 
of  Olives  and  the  second  mass,  "  also  a  creation,  which,  however,  did 
not  reach  the  seventh  day"  (Hase),  because  the  lofty  spirit  of  the  mas- 
ter was  not  the  spirit  of  the  church.     The  Berlin  singing  academy 
under  the  control  of  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy  (a  nephew  of  the  well 
known  Jewish  uopular  philosopher),  has  gained  great  credit  in  re- 
69* 


306      SECTION    III. —  FOURTH   PERIOD    (CENT.    19    A.  D  ) 

awakening  the  taste  for  the  old  churchly  art  music,  by  again  perform- 
ing the  oratorios  of  Handel,  Each,  etc.  —  an  example  which  has  been 
extensively  imitated  in  other  parts  of  Germany.  Mendelssohn's  own 
oratorios  "  Pauiu.s"  and  "  Elias,"  in  which  he  permits  the  simple  word 
of  God  to  rule  in  its  power  and  truth,  as  also  his  psalms,  are  the  most 
glorious  productions  which  have  appeared  in  this  department  in  modern 
times.  He  was  removed  by  an  early  death  (1847),  before  he  was  able 
to  translate  his  ideal  Christ  into  notes.35 


II.  PROTESTANTISM. 


Cf.  J.  G.  Jorg,  Gesch.  d.  Protestantism,  in  sr.  neuesten  Entwiekel. 
2  Bde.     Regensb.  1858. 

|  54.  THE  PllOTESTANT  CHURCH  IN  GENERAL,  ESPE- 
CIALLY IN  GERMANY. 

The  beginning  of  this  century  found  Rationalism  in  its  fullest 
bloom  and  dominion.  But  a  new  spirit  began  to  stir  already  in 
philosophy  and  national  literature,  and  the  heart  and  mind  of 
the  noblest  of  the  German  nation  became  again  receptive  for  the 
faith  of  the  fathers,  through  the  enthusiasm  of  the  wars  of  liberty. 
A  strong  and  energetic  Pietism,  which  also  was  not  deficient  in 
martyr-joyfulness,  entered  the  arena  and  fought  Rationalism  to 
the  death,  although  appearing  to  yield  in  the  single  combats. 
The  year  1830,  with  the  Hallean  controversy,  constitutes  a  turn- 
ing-point. From  this  time  Rationalism  began  to  decline  ;  it  was 
compelled  to  withdraw  from  the  high  places  of  science  and  cul- 
ture, and  to  try  its  chances  in  the  agitation  of  the  popular  masses. 
Meanwhile  a  new  factor  of  churchly  development  had  appeared 
in  the  Union.  A  division  in  the  camp  of  Pietism  was  produced 
amid  the  actions  and  reactions  of  the  agitation  occasioned  by  it. 
On  the  one  side  Pietism  rose  to  Confessionalismj,  and  contended 
as  such  as  decidedly  and  as  powerfully  for  the  palladium  of  what 
was  specifically  churchly,  as  it  had  formerly  for  the  treasure  of 
the  general  Christian  confession.  On  the  other  side,  it  entered 
most  heartily  into  the  Union,  and  glorified  in  it  the  most  blessed 
acquisition  of  the  century.  All  theological  tendencies  flowed 
together  gradually  into  these  two  antitheses,  and  the  present 


THE    PROTESTANT    CHURCH    IN    GENERAL.        307 

finds  itself  in  the  midst  of  a  yet  undecided  conflict  of  the  one 
against  the  other,  which  is  carried  on  both  in  the  sphere  of 
science  and  of  practical  life  with  spiritual  and  carnal  weapons. 

1.  Protestant  Rationalism  preserved  itself  with  its  peculiar  self- 
sufficiency  and  unimprovableness  also  through  the  religious  elevation 
which  the  mental  life  of  the  nations  reached  since  the  wars  for  free- 
dom. Innumerable  preachers  and  teachers  in  common  and  higher 
schools  still  adhered  to  it,  and  subsequent  to  1830  it  was  also  still 
represented  in  many  theological  professors'  chairs.  In  the  Stun- 
den  der  Andacht,  by  Zschokke,  further  in  Tiedge's  Urania,  and  en- 
tirely caricatured  in  Witschel's  Morgen  und  Abendopfern,  etc.,  ap- 
peared a  sentimental  nationalism,  which,  even  though  it  became  a 
bridge  for  many  to  true  Christianity,  nevertheless  inflicted  incalculable 
injury  upon  the  religious  development  of  the  German  nation,  inasmuch 
as  it  drew  the  religious  want,  caused  by  the  wars  for  freedom,  away 
from  its  true  spiritual  nourishment.  —  Nevertheless,  Rationalism  lost 
respect  and  influence  more  and  more,  especially  among  the  higher 
educated  classes.  Schelling's  natural  philosophy  and  Hegel's  philo- 
sophy of  conception,  Romanticism  and  cosmopolitan  literature,  in 
winch  the  spirit  of  modern  times  continually  advanced  forward  in  the 
most  heterogeneous  way,  Avere  equally  opposed  to  it.  It  had  to  draw 
in  its  sails  before  Schleiermacher's  theological  science,  and  the  then 
generalissimo  and  Patriarch  of  Rationalism,  Rohr  of  Weimar,  found 
in  his  own  diocese  in  the  person  of  Hase  of  Jena  a  not  less  pietistic 
than  orthodox  opponent,  whose  crushing  polemics  struck  him  (1834) 
as  onee  Lessing's  struck  the  chief  pastor  Gotze.  Claus  Harms  (ob. 
1855)  on  the  part  of  the  church,  opened  the  contest  against  the  apos- 
tacy  from  the  faith  of  the  fathers  on  the  occasion  of  the  Pteformation- 
jubilee  (1817),  with  95  new  theses,  which  contrast  Luther's  almost 
forgotten  doctrine  with  the  unchurchly  spirit  of  the  age ;  and  Aug.  Halm 
(1827)  defended  in  an  academical  disputation  at  Leipsic  the  position, 
that  the  Rationalists  ought  to  be  dismissed  from  the  church.  Since 
1827  the  "  Evangelische  Kirchenzeitung,"  by  Hengstenberg  of  Berlin, 
began  an  opposition  as  fearless  as  energetic  against  Rationalism  in  all 
its  forms.  It  created  the  greatest  excitement  by  publishing  an  anony- 
mous article  (by  the  jurist  E.  L.  v.  Gerlach),  which  openly  charged 
the  professors  Gesenius  and  Wegscheider  of  Halle  with  infidelity,  even 
with  the  scoffing  of  what  was  holy,  and  advocated  the  interposition  of 
the  civil  power  (1830).  But  although  the  ex-minister  Stein  (to  Gagern) 
expressed  the  hope  that  the  state  would  not  hesitate  to  place  a  dozen 
Rationalists  extra  statum  nocendi,  still  the  government  only  was  con- 
cerned about  silencing  the  controversy  that  had  arisen,  without  ex- 
amining the  charges  of  the  complainant.  Pietism  also  vigorously 
opposed  Rationalism  in  almost  all  the  other  German  Protestant  coun- 
tries, and  provoked  many  lively  controversies.     The  scientific  theolo- 


308      SECTION    III. —  FOURTH   PERIOII    (CENT.    19    A.  D.) 


& 


gians  disavowed  it ;  the  philosophers  despised  and  ridiculed  it ;  it  even 
came  so  far,  that  men  of  scientific  culture  regarded  it  as  an  insult  tc 
he  reckoned  among  the  Rationalists.  It  was  already  believed  that  the 
time  had  come  to  perforin  its  obsequies,  —  but  it  was  too  soon.  Its 
power  at  this  time  lay  in  the  masses  of  the  people,  who  had  been 
trained  in  unbelief,  and  it  offered  this  to  them.  When  the  preacher 
Sintenis  of  Magdeburg  declared  in  a  newspaper  that  the  worship  of 
Christ  was  blasphemous  superstition  (1840),  and  the  consistory  insti- 
tuted proceedings  against  him,  the  neighboring  preachers  Uhlich  and 
Konig  organized  a  union  of  so-called  Friends  of  Light,  which  soon 
called  thousands  of  laymen  and  clergymen  to  a  public  meeting  at 
Kothen.  In  such  a  meeting  (184-1),  Wislicenus  of  Halle  destroyed  the 
self-deception  of  Rationalism,  that  it  still  occupied  the  ground  of  Scrip- 
tures and  the  Church,  by  the  question  whether  the  Scriptures  or  the 
Spirit  was  to  be  the  norm  of  faith.  Guericke,  who  was  present  as 
"Church  historian,"  made  a  note  of  it,  and  the  evang.  Kirchenzeitung 
contained  numberless  protests  and  excommunications.  The  left  wing 
of  Schleiermacher's  school  took  offence  at  this,  and  issued,  Aug.  15, 
1846,  from  Berlin,  a  declaration  with  88  signatures  against  the  paper 
pope  of  the  antiquated  reformation  confession  and  the  inquisitorial 
conduct  of  the  "  Kirchenzeitung's"  party,  which  disregarded  ail  free- 
dom of  faith  and  of  conscience,  wishing  to  hold  fast  only  to  one  thing 
—  that  Jesus  Christ,  the  same  yesterday,  to-day  and  forever,  was  the 
only  ground  of  our  salvation.  The  popular  wit  of  Berlin  called  them 
friends  of  twilight  or  bats,  because  they  neither  wished  to  be  friends 
of  light  nor  of  darkness ;  and  the  aged  Clans  Harms,  "  Einer  gegen 
Achtundachtzig,"  attacked  them  with  the  bold  defiance  of  a  youth, 
and  with  the  self-consciousness  of  an  aged  confessor,  who  labored  and 
suffered  more  than  they  all,  in  crushing  philippics.  The  friends  of 
light,  hoAvever,  fraternizing  with  the  German  Catholics  and  Young- 
Hegelians,  founded  free  congregations  at  Halle  (  Wislicenus),  Konigs- 
burg  (Rnpp),  Magdeburg  (  Uhlich)  and  at  many  other  places.  Saxony 
prohibited  the  assemblies  already  in  1845,  as  directed  against  churchly 
confession;  —  Prussia  at  least  forbade  the  participation  of  the  laity  in 
the  same;  but  by  an  edict  of  toleration  (1847)  guaranteed  tolerance 
and  free  exercise  of  religion  to  their  congregations.  The  religious 
emptiness  of  their  assemblies  and  sermons  filled  the  revolutionary 
movement  of  1848  with  politico-democratic  agitation.  This  furnished 
the  State  with  the  welcome  occasion  to  place  them  under  strict  police 
control,  and  to  dissolve  them  one  after  the  other. 

2.  Pietism  did  not  entirely  die  out  even  during  the  years  of  spiritual 
famine,  but,  being  purged  of  many  eccentricities,  found  a  refuge  and 
nourishment  chiefly  in  connection  with  the  Moravians.  It  also  devel- 
oped itself  in  W'urtemberg  in  an  independent  and  peculiarly  theoso- 
phical,  chiliastic  way  (to  which  was  added  later  a  species  of  ghost- 
seeing  with  all  kinds  of  revelations  from  Hades,  practised  especially 


THE  PROTESTANT  CHURCH  IN  GENERAL.    SOS 

by  Justinus  Kerner).  It  was  also  strengthened  to  make  a  more  decided 
impression  by  the  religious  agitations  of  the  new  century.  In  contrast 
with  the  clergy,  who  had  almost  entirely  fallen  under  the  baneful  in- 
fluence of  Rationalism,  it  laid  hold  of  the  religious  kernel  of  the  na- 
tional life,  and  as  the  weak  rationalistic  moral  sermons  could  not 
satisfy  its  religious  wants,  it  sought  to  do  this  by  conventicles  and 
meetings,  which  were  led  by  gifted  men,  mostly  mechanics,  but  well 
read  in  the  Bible  and  ascetic  works.  As  Pietism  did  not  shun  martyr- 
dom of  any  kind,  neither  the  ridicule  and  abuse  of  the  infidel  masses, 
nor  the  hatred  of  rationalistic  pastors,  nor  yet  the  interposition  of  the 
civil  power,  were  able  to  retard  its  progress.  It  also  gradually  pene- 
trated the  younger  generation  of  the  clergy,  and  even  theologians  at 
the  universities.  The  energetic  vigor  of  modern  Pietism  is  manifested 
in  its  great  labors  for  missions,  foreign  as  well  as  home,  in  which  it 
accomplished  the  most  extraordinary  results  with  the  fewest  means. 
A  fresh  and  hearty  religious  poetry  was  again  produced  by  it ;  the  old 
choice  hymns  of  the  evangelical  church  were  again  used,  and  the 
ascetic  treasures  of  the  churchly  past  were  again  rescued  from  the 
dust.  This  modern  Pietism  was  evangelical  and  Protestant  from  the 
beginning.  As  it  did  not,  like  the  Pietism  of  the  previous  century, 
start  from  the  antithesis  against  dead  churchliness  and  orthodoxy,  but 
rather  from  the  antithesis  against  unchurchliness  and  Rationalism,  it 
consequently  was  also  distinguished  from  it  advantageously  by  a  more 
decided  tendency  towards  what  was  generally  churchly, — although  the 
proper  characteristics  of  Pietism,  overrating  the  invisible  above  the 
visible  church,  sanctification  above  justification,  the  pain  of  repentance 
above  the  joy  of  faith,  inclination  towards  Chiliasm,  indifference  to- 
wards the  churchly  apprehension  of  doctrines,  etc.,  belonged  more  or 
less  to  it.  But  as  the  Pietism  of  the  previous  century  indicated  in  its 
degeneracy  the  transition  to  Rationalism,  so  did  that  of  the  present  in 
its  elevation  form  the  transition  to  the  revival  of  churchly  conscious- 
ness and  life. — Of  some  significance  for  the  revival  of  religious  life  in 
several  sections  of  Germany,  but  especially  in  Switzerland,  were  the 
missionary  labors  of  Lady  von  Krudeaer  (by  birth  Baroness  Vieting- 
hoff  of  Riga,  1766).  This  lady,  after  "having  been  brought  up  in  the 
dwellings  of  vanity,"  and  wasting  many  years  in  a  worldly  life,  but 
then  "humbled  by  her  sins  and  errors,"  was  seized  by  a  glowing, 
fanatical  love  for  the  Saviour.  She  now  (since  1814)  travelled  through 
the  greatest  portion  of  Europe,  preached  repentance,  proclaimed  sal- 
vation and  condemnation,  carried  the  consolation  of  the  Gospel  to  the 
criminals  in  the  prisons,  preached  the  foolishness  of  the  cross  to  the 
wise  of  this  world,  to  kings  and  princes  the  majesty  of  Christ  as  the 
King  of  kings.  Wherever  she  went,  she  disturbed  secure  sinners, 
melted  the  stony  hearts  of  the  hardened  to  tears  of  repentance,  at- 
tracted great  crowds  of  spiritually  miserable  ones  of  all  kinds  and  of 
all  classes,  etc.     By  some  she  was  honored  as  an  elect  saint,  as  a  pre 


310       SECTION    III. —  FOURTH   PERIOD    (CENT.  19   A.D.} 

phetess  and  a  performer  of  miracles  ;  by  others  she  was  ridiculed  as  a 
fool,  and  persecuted  as  a  dangerous  fanatic  or  deceiver.  Banished 
from  country  to  country,  she  finally  died  (1824)  in  the  Crimea.36 

3.   The  Protestant  Union.     (Cf.  /.  G.  Scheibel,  actenm'asz.  Gesch.  d. 
neuest.  Union.    Lpz.  1834,  2  Bde.  —  A.  G.  Rudelbach,  Ref.,  Lutherth. 
u.  Union.     Lpz.  1839.  —  0.  Krabbe,  d.  ev.  Landeskirche  Preuszens. 
Berl.  1849.  —  C.  W.  Hering,  Gesch.  d.  kirchl.  Unionsversuche.     Lpz. 
1836-38,   2  Bde.)  —  Since  Prussia  became  one  of  the  great  powers 
of  Europe,  it  became  the  centre  of  intelligence  and  the  champion  of 
Protestantism.      This    position,   not   less    than    the  opposition  to    the 
Reformed  confession  among  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  popula- 
tion, made  it  highly  desirable  on  the  part  of  the  Prussion  government 
to  bring  to  pass  a  union  of  both  Protestant  Churches.     The  circum- 
stances were  very  favorable  to  it ;  the  Lutheran  separate  consciousness 
had  almost  entirely  vanished  both  in  science  and  in  practical  life ; 
Lutheran  Supranaturalism  had  formally  passed  over  into  Reformed 
apprehension  of  principles,  and  willingly  abandoned  Luther's  doctrine 
concerning  the  Lord's  Sapper  ;  Calvinism  had  sunk  into  Zwinglianism, 
and  rejoiced  to  see  the  doctrine  of  predestination  setaside;  Rationalism 
hoped' that   the  peculiar  and  characteristic  doctrines  of  Christianity 
would  fall  with  those  of  Lutheranism,  and  Pietism  with  its  enthusiasm 
and  its  indifference  towards  the  theology  of  the  creeds  willingly  gave  its 
consent.    Thus  Frederick  William  III.'s  summons  (at  the  jubilee  of  the 
Reformation,  1817)  to  a  Lutheran-Calvinistic  Union  in  behalf  of  a  re- 
generation of  the  Protestant  Church,  met  with  much  sympathy.     The 
introduction  of  a  new  liturgy  (1822),   in  the  formation  of  which  the 
pious  king  himself  participated,  awakened,  it  is  true,  manifold  oppo- 
sition ;  its  forms  were  considered  too  churchly,  even  Romanizing.     A 
second  edition  of  it  (1829)  conciliated  by  a  large  selection  of  its  formu- 
laries, and  soon  the  liturgy  had  the  authority  of  a  law,  and  the  Union 
was  a  fait  accompli.     Under  a  common  church  government  and  a  com- 
mon  liturgy   there  existed   now   in    Prussia   an   evangelical   national 
church  with  three  sections, — a  Lutheran  and  a  Reformed,  which  held 
fast  to  their  characteristic  doctrines,  but  did  not  wish  to  regard  them 
as  separative, — and  a  real  united  section,  which  entirely  abandoned  the 
characteristic  doctrines.    But  since  these  three  sections  did  not  remain 
separated,  their  commingling  being  rather  designedly  promoted, — since 
besides,    Indifferentism,    Rationalism,   and   infidelity,    boasted  of  the 
Union  as  being  a  practical  indifi'erentizing,  even  abolition  of  the  con- 
fessions of  faith, —  since  finally  the  continually  increasing  churchly 
consciousness  opposed  the  Union  more  and  more  decidedly,  the  confu- 
sion in  the  Prussian  united  church  became  greater  every  year.     The 
attempt  to  give  it  a  firm  basis  in  a  confession  of  faith  and  in  a  consti- 
Uition    by  a  general   synod,   failed   entirely,    and   only  increased   the 
difficulties   (cf.  I  55,  1).     The    largest   ecclesiastical   conferences,    of 
which  that  of  Gnadauer  was  the  most  important,  also  attempted  in 


THE  PROTESTANT  CHURCH  IN  GENERAL.   311 

vain  to  overcome  and  to  remove  the  evil  from  within. — Prussia's  exam- 
ple in  the  union  of  both  churches  was  at  once  followed  in  Baden, 
Nassau,  Rhenish  Bavaria,  Anhalt,  Hesse,  etc.,  and  also  provoked 
here  similar  evils  and  conflicts.     (Cf.  §  55.) 

4.  Lutheran  Opposition  to  the  Union. — The  Prussian  union  expressly 
declared  that  it  did  not  wish  a  change  from  one  church  to  the  other, 
but  only  a  union  in  brotherly  love  upon  the  basis  of  a  common  faith. 
But  it  declared  practically  that  the  characteristic  doctrines  were  non- 
essential, and  thereby  placed  itself  upon  the  stand-point  of  the  Re- 
formed Church,  which  at  all  times  desired  and  strove  after  the  union 
on  this  condition.     Thus  it  was  easily  intelligible  that,  if  it  should 
meet  with  opposition  from  any  particular  church,  it  was  not  to  be  ex- 
pected from  the  Reformed,  but  rather  from  the  Lutheran.     This  was 
the  case  also.     The  contest  for  the  continuance  of  ancient  Luther- 
anism  proceeded  from  Breslau,  where  Dr.  Seheibel  was  dismissed  from 
his  offices  as  preacher  and  professor  (1832)  for  his  opposition  (ob.  in 
exile,  1843).    H.  Stcffens  also,  who  again  attained  to  the  consciousness 
of  his  native  northern  Lutheranism  through  friendly  and  confidential 
intercourse  with  Seheibel,  connected  himself  with  the  reaction  ("Wie 
ich  wieder  Lutheraner  wurde,"  1831).     Outside  of  Breslau  also  Schei- 
bel's  example  was  imitated,  especially  in   Silesia.     The  remonstrant 
clergy  were   punished  with  deposition,   and,   if  they  continued  their 
opposition,  with  imprisonment,  and  the  congregations  were  threatened 
with  sharp  police  measures.     In  the  village  of  Honigern,  under  the 
preaeher  Kellner,  the  church  was  even  opened  for  the  use  of  the  liturgy 
against  the  passive  resistance  of  the  congregation,  by  military  foree 
(1834).     The  suspended  clergy  held  a  synod  at  Breslau  in  1835,  and 
resolved  to  use  every  lawful  means  to  save  the  Lutheran  Church.     The 
police  measures  were,  on  this  account,  made  more  severe  against  the 
resistant*,  and  a  large  number  of  Lutherans  emigrated  to  Australia 
and  North  America.      Guericke  of  Halle,  who,   having  been  secretly 
ordained  as  a  minister,  served  a  small  congregation  of  Lutherans  in 
his  house,  was,  after  manifold  police  punishments,  dismissed  from  his 
professorship  (1835),  and  Avas  only  restored  (1840)  after  making  some 
concessions.     Since  1838  the  coercive  measures  have  been  generally 
modified.      Frederick  William  IV.  released  the  arrested  clergy  from 
prison  (1840),  and  in  1841  a  Lutheran  Church  entirely  independent  of 
the  established  church  was  formed  at  Breslau  by  a  General  Synod, 
which  received  a  general  concession  in  1845  through  royal  favor.     It 
was  governed  by  a  church  college  residing  in  Breslau,  of  which  the 
excellent  jurist  Huschlce  was  president.     Meanwhile,   the   Lutheran 
consciousness  was  awakened  also  in  many  other  congregations  (espe- 
cially in  Pomerania,  etc.),  which,  however,  were  still  kept  in  the  esta- 
blished church   by   ready  concessions  in  regard  to  worship  and  the 
liturgy.     Nevertheless,  the  Lutheran  protestations  and  secessions  of 
eingh  clergymen  (often  with  a  large   portion  of  their  congregations) 


312       SECTION    III. FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.  19    A.  D.) 

multiplied,  the  latter  connecting  with  the  church  college  of  Breslau. 
These  were  designated  as  "  the  ehurchly  constituted  Lutherans  in 
Prussia,''  in  distinction  from  those  Lutherans  who  remained  in  the 
united  established  church.  In  the  other  German  countries  also,  where 
the  Union  had  been  accomplished,  especially  in  Baden,  Nassau,  Rhe- 
uish  Bavaria,  the  Lutheran  consciousness  has  been  awakened  here  and 
there  within  the  last  few  years,  and  is  striving  after  emancipation  from 
the  embrace  of  the  union  police  of  the  established  churches.  (Cf.  $55.) 

5.  Protestant  Confederation.  —  The  Union  endeavored  to  unite, 
strengthen,  and  rejuvenate  the  Protestant  Church  by  fusion.  But 
almost  the  very  opposite  was  the  result.  Another  way  to  preserve  the 
collective  interests  of  Protestantism,  was  that  of  the  Confederation,  by 
which  the  peculiarity  and  independence  of  the  confessions  could  be 
protected,  and  their  common  interests  be  represented  with  united 
strength.  This  way  has  been  largely  followed  in  modern  times.  The 
Gustave-Adolphus  Union,  occasioned  by  the  bi-centennial  anniversary 
of  the  Swedish  saviour  of  the  Protestant  Church  (1832),  was  formed 
Oct.  31,  1841,  to  aid  feeble  Protestant  churches,  especially  in  Roman 
Catholic  countries.  All  the  Gorman  States,  except  Bavaria  and  Aus- 
tria, took  part  in  it.  The  want  of  a  positive  creed  on  the  part  of  the 
Union,  which  had  a  bond  of  union  only  in  the  negation  of  Roman 
Catholicism,  aroused  suspicion  from  the  start  in  the  minds  of  many 
ehurchly  persons.  But  it  was  just  this  want  of  a  positive  creed  which 
secured  for  it  the  sympathies  of  the  masses.  The  infidel,  demagogic 
element  soon  gained  the  ascendency.  It  is  true,  a  general  convention 
of  the  Union  at  Berlin  (Sept.,  184(3)  was  yet  able  to  exclude  the  Ko- 
nigsberg  delegate  Bupp,  because  he  with  his  congregation  had  aposta- 
tized from  the  Protestant  principle;  but  numberless  protestations  from 
branch  unions  opposed  this  act  in  the  must  decided  terms.  Those  of  a 
ehurchly  spirit  now  went  out  of  the  Union,  and  in  1847  made  the 
attempt  to  form  a  separate  ehurchly  one  (Berlin,  Konigsberg).  The 
whole  movement  fell  into  stagnation  amid  the  complications  of  the 
revolution  of  1848  ;  nevertheless  in  1849  another  general  convention 
(the  seventh)  was  held  at  Breslau,  at  which  an  important  decrease  of 
co-operation  and  of  income,  but  also  of  unchurchly  infidel  agitation, 
was  revealed.  Since  that  time,  however,  the  Union  has  again  greatly 
increased  under  the  superintendence  of  the  prelate  K.  Zimmermann 
of  Darmstadt.  Its  income  has  increased  from  year  to  year.  In  1853 
it  was  $67,244;  in  the  following  year  $77,218;  and  in  1858  it  was 
$107, 6G6.  The  Union,  possessing  such  large  means,  under  careful  and 
well-considered  management,  has  already  accomplished  great  and 
praiseworthy  results ;  and  it  will  accomplish  still  more  in  the  future 
with  increasing  co-operation  and  support.  Nevertheless,  the  rigid 
Lutherans  still  refuse  to  have  anything  to  do  with  it,  from  confessional 
interests;  and  a  specifically  Lutheran  miniature  union  has  been  formed 
»i  Leipsic  under  the  name  of  Gotteslcasten,  which  seeks  to  supplement 


THE     PROTESTANT     CHURCH     IN     GENERAL.        313 

the  Gust.  Ad.  Union  in  so  far  as  it  proposes  chiefly  to  aid  -where  the 
latter  cannot  from  fundamental  antipathies  (ex.  gr.  the  independent 
Lutherans  of  Prussia).  (Of.  K.  Zimmermann,  d.  Gust.-Ad.-Ver.  4.  A. 
Darmst.  1858.) 

An  attempt  to  form  a  still  grander  and  more  comprehensive  Confe- 
deration of  all  Protestant  churches  and  sects  of  all  countries,  chiefly 
to  oppose  the  progress  of  the  Papacy  and  of  Puseyism,  and  generally 
all  high-church  movements,  was  made  by  Dr.  Chalmers  (cf.  §  55,  8)  in 
England.     After  several  preliminary  meetings,  the  first  great  one  of 
the  Evangelical  Alliance,  composed  of  delegates  from  all  lands,  was 
held  in  London  in  August,  1846.     The  object  of  the  Alliance  was  to 
unite  more  closely  all  evangelical  Christians  on  the  basis  of  the  great 
common  doctrines  of  salvation  ;    to  defend  and  extend  this  common 
basis  of  faith  with  united  powers,  especially  as  against  the  Papacy; 
and  to  contend  for  the  freedom  of  conscience  and  the  religious  tolera- 
tion of  all  churches  and  sects,  excepting  the  Papacy.     Faith  in  the 
inspiration  of  the  Scriptures,  the  Trinity,  original  sin,  the  divinity  of 
Christ,  justification  by  faith  alone,  the  obligation  of  both  the  sacra- 
ments, the  resurrection  of  the  body,  the  final  judgment,  the  eternal 
blessedness  of  the  righteous  and  the  eternal  misery  of  the  wicked,  was 
made  to  be  the  condition  of  membership  of  the  Alliance:  accordingly, 
the  Baptists  were  included  but  the  Quakers  excluded.     In  1855  the 
Alliance  combined  its  ninth  annual  meeting  with  the  great  industrial 
exhibition  at  Paris,  and  took  the  form  of  a  church  exhibition  ;  inas- 
much as  the  representatives  of  the  single  national  churches  endeavored 
to  present  to  those  present  a  view  of  the  ecclesiastical  condition  of  the 
churches.     The  tenth  meeting  was  held  at  Berlin  in  1857.     The  com- 
mittee of  the  Alliance,  with  Sir  Culling  Eardley  at  its  head,  made 
every  effort  to  make  this  meeting  the  largest  and  most  brilliant.     A 
deputation  presented  an  address  to  the  King  of  Prussia,  in  which  it 
was  openly  declared  that  the  Alliance  not  only  waged  war  against  the 
Sadducaism,  but  also  against  the  Pharisaism  in  the  German  evangeli- 
cal church.    The  confessional  Lutherans  who  from  the  first  opposed  the 
principle  and  tendency  of  the  Alliance,  believed  that  the  latter  clause 
of  this  declaration  was  a  declaration  of  war  against  them.     The  king, 
however,  received  the  deputation  most  graciously:  and  soon  expressed 
his  displeasure  concerning  the  suspicions  about  the  Alliance  in  a  decree, 
in  which  he  at  the  same  time  declared  that  he  connected  the  highest 
hopes  for  the  future  of  the  Church  with  its  efforts,  and  beheld  in  it  a 
sign  of  Christian  fraternal  feeling  such  as  had  never  yet  been  realized. 
Although  many  distinguished  representatives  of  confessional  Lutheran- 
ism  had  also  been  specially  and  personally  invited  to  take  part  in  this 
meeting,  not  one  of  them  wTas  present.     Likewise,  the  men  of  the 
Protest.  Kirchenzeitung  (cf.  $56,  5)  excluded  themselves  from  partici- 
pating in  it,  because  the  nine  articles  were  too  orthodox  for  them.    On 
the  other  hand,  representatives  of  Pietism,  Unionism,   and  Melanch 
70 


314       SECTION    III. —  FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.   19    A.  D.) 

thonianism,  as  also  of  Methodism,  Moravianism,  and  the  Baptists,  from 
nil  parts  of  the  world,  were  present  in  large  numbers,  and  constituted 
the  heads  of  the  ecclesiastical  and  political  liberals.  After  a  great  deal 
had  been  said  about  the  unity  and  diversity  of  the  children  of  God  : 
about  the  universal  priesthood;  about  the  superiority  of  the  present 
meeting  to  the  oecumenical  councils  of  the  early  church  ;  about  the 
want  of  spiritual  Life  in  the  churches,  in  spite  of  the  return  of  theology 
to  the  churchly  confessions,  etc.,  with  laudation  of  the  efforts  of  the 
Alliance  and  indirect  thrusts  at  half  Roman  Catholic  Lutheranism  and 
its  deification  of  the  sacraments  and  the  ministry,  whereby  the  theo- 
logy of  rhetoric  was  able  to  expatiate, — in  addition  also  to  many  excel- 
lent and  appropriate  words  (ex.  gr.  by  Kitsch,  Merle  d'Aubigne,  et  al.), 
the  ominous  kiss  with  which  Merle  d'Aubigne;  although  resisting, 
greeted  Chevalier  Bunsen,  or  rather  the  excited  feeling  with  which  Lie. 
Krummacher  made  a  report  concerning  it  to  the  meeting,  introduced  a 
harsh  discord  into  the  concert.  Court-preacher  Beyschlag,  besides, 
combated  the  churchly  doctrine  of  inspiration,  with  the  acknowledg- 
ment of  which,  however,  the  nine  articles  connected  the  privilege  of 
membership;  and  Prof.  Schlotimann  proposed  rather  to  cast  aside  the 
whole  of  the  nine  articles,  as  to  the  present  form  of  which,  at  all 
events,  only  the  least  number  of  those  present  were  agreed.  The  gra- 
cious royal  reception  of  the  members  of  the  Alliance,  at  which  Lie. 
Krummacher  gave  expression  to  his  overflowing  feelings  in  the  words: 
"  Your  majesty,  we  all  ought  not  to  fall  at  your  feet,  but  upon  your 
neck!"  was  glorified  by  his  brother,  Dr.  F.  W.  Krummacher,  as  a  sug- 
gestive prelude  of  the  great  scene  of  greeting  at  the  day  of  judgment. 
Sir  Culling  decreed:  "  There  is  no  longer  a  German  Ocean  !"  Lord 
Shaftesbury  announced  in  London  that  a  new  epoch  in  the  world's 
history  had  begun  with  the  meeting  at  Berlin  ;  and  others  returning 
home  spoke  of  it  as  a  second  Whitsuntide.  Dr.  Krummacher,  however, 
exclaimed  prophetically,  at  the  beginning  of  the  meeting,  in  his  address 
of  welcome:  "0  heart-stirring  mirage!"  Since  then  the  German 
branch  of  the  Alliance  in  Berlin  has  established  in  its  service  a  "Neue 
evangelisohe  Kirchenzeitung "  (1859),  of  which  Hengstenberg  has 
complained  as  an  unwarrantable  theft  of  title. 

A  kindred  institution  is  the  Evangelical  Church  Diet  in  Germany. 
When  in  1848  the  State  was  compelled  to  abandon  its  Christian  charac- 
ter and  the  sovereign  episcopacy  of  the  Protestant  princes  was  called 
into  question  by  the  revolution  in  Germany,  a  number  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished churchly-minded  theologians,  clergymen,  and  laymen,  met 
together  in  September,  1848,  in  the  first  church  diet  at  Wittenberg,  to 
form  an  Evangelical  Church  Alliance  for  German!/,  which  had  for  its 
object  the  support  and  independent  organization  of  the  evangelical 
churches  in  an  orderly  and  legal  way,  not  by  means  of  a  union  which 
obliterated  all  confessional  differences,  but  by  means  of  a  churchly 
confederation.  The  Lutheran,  Reformed,  United,  and  Moravian  Churches 


THE  PROTESTANT  CHURCH  IN  GENERAL.   315 

were  first  of  all  embraced  within  it.     The  second  general  church  diet 
was  again  held  at  Wittenberg  in  September,  1849.  The  strict  Lutherans 
for  the  most  part  had  withdrawn  ;  the  churchly  Lutherans  of  Silesia 
were  not  at  all  represented.     The  Lutheran   conference,  which    had 
been  held  a  short  time  before  at  Leipsic  under  the  presidency  of  Heir- 
less, declared  expressly  that  the  Wittenberg  confederation  of'  churches 
of  different  confessions  was  impracticable  and  irreconcilable  with  the 
principles  of  the  Lutheran  Church.     The  formation  of  a  church  alli- 
ance, such  as  was  originally  contemplated,  has  been  entirely  abandoned 
by  the  church  diet,  since  the  political  reaction  has  also  restored  the 
ecclesiastical  power  of  the  princes.     It  has  since  then  held  its  annual 
meetings  in  the  chief  German  cities  in  turn,  and  has  succeeded  in  pre- 
serving a  tolerably  active  co-operation.     The  presidency  has  been  re- 
gularly   conferred    on    the    jurist   Bethmann-Hollweg.     Vital    church 
questions  and  the  means  by  which  to  revive  a  churchly  feeling  and 
life  have  been  thoroughly  discussed  by  it.  Such  discussions  have,  doubt- 
less, exerted  a  wholesome  influence  on  many  who  were  present ;  but 
the  attempts  to  influence,  by  deputations  and  letters  to  evangelical  and 
Roman  Catholic  princes,  the  principles  of  government  in  States  having 
established    churches,   have  been    for  the   most  part   coolly  or   ironi- 
cally frustrated.     At  the  church  diet  at  Berlin  (1853)  the  proposition 
■was  made,  openly  to  declare  that  the  Augustana  of  1530  was  the  oldest 
and  simplest  common  record  of  publicly   acknowledged  evangelical 
doctrines  in  Germany, — without  prejudice,  however,  to  the  Reformed 
interpretation  of  the  tenth  article, — and  that  it  was  still  the  common 
creed  of  all  present.    After  some  opposition  and  necessary  protestation, 
even  the  Reformed  present  agreed  ;  but  not  only  the  Schleiermacherans 
of  the  left  wing  protested  against  this  demonstration,  which  they  re- 
garded as  hostile  to  the  Union,  but  also  "some  teachers  of  theology 
and  canon  law"  of  the  universities  of  Erlangen,  Leipsic,  and  Rostock, 
entered  publicly  a  protest  in  the  name  of  the  Lutheran  Church  against 
this  sham  confession  of  the  church  diet  as  being  an  offence  against  the 
treasure  of  the  evangelical  church  and  an  undermining  of  its  leo-al 
status.       At  Stutgart    (1857}   there  were   violent  debates  concerning 
heathen  missions  and  evangelical  catholicity,  between  those  represen- 
tatives of  confessional  Lutheranism,  who  till  now  had  remained  faith- 
ful to  the   Diet,  and   the  Unionist  majority.     Hamburg  received  the 
church  diet  of  1858  very  unwillingly  into  its  midst.     Hamburg  news- 
papers opposed  it  with  such  effect,  that  the  police  regarded  it  as  ne- 
cessary to  adopt  extraordinary  measures  to   prevent  street-scandals. 
The  transactions  were  of  less  importance  than  ever  before.     Stahl  and 
Hengstenberg  were  brilliant  for  the  first  time  by  their  absence.     Beth- 
niann-Hollweg,  then  already  designated  for  the  ministry  of  Prussia, 
also  presided  probably  for  the  last  time  over  the  church  diet  in  Ham- 
burg. 

The  Protestant  governments  of  Germany,  following  the  example  of 


3  L6     SECTION    III. —  FOURTH   PERIOD    (CENT.  19    A.  D.) 

Prussia  and  "Wurtemberg,  also  seized  the  idea  of  confederative  unity. 
Already  in  1846  a  so-called  Evangelical  Conference  met  at  Berlin,  at 
which  most  of  the  governments  were  represented.  It  endeavored  in 
vain  to  establish  a  common  basis  of  doctrines,  and  was  sunk  into  obli- 
vion by  the  events  of  following  years.  But  in  1852  the  project  was 
again  agitated  and  carried  through  with  great  perseverance.  The 
Eisenach  Conference  met  at  first  annually,  then  every  two  years 
(1852-53-55  ....),  to  confer  officially  concerning  the  manner  in  which 
the  German  Protestant  governments  acted  with  regard  to  questions  of 
worship,  government,  and  discipline.  It  established  an  official  organ 
for  publishing  all  German  church-boards  ("Allg.  Kirchenblatt  f.  d.  ev. 
Dtschl.  herausg.  v.  C.  G.  Noser,  Stuttg.  1852,  ff.),  and  accomplished 
much  important  preparatory  labor,  but  it  has  also  had  its  difficulties 
to  contend  with.     (Cf.  below,  §  8.) 

6.  Luther anism.  —  The  organization  of  those  Prussian  Lutherans, 
Avho  had  separated  from  the  established  church  into  the  church  college 
in  Breslau,  was  at  first  also  disapproved  of  by  otherwise  rigidly  churchly 
Lutherans  in  and  beyond  Prussia,  in  so  far  as  by  them  (in  opposition 
to  the  principle  of  the  Lutheran  Church)  great  importance  seemed  to 
be  attached  to  the  form  of  church  government  and  to  institutions  such 
as  could  only  belong  to  the  confession.  It  is  true,  that  during  the  first 
period  of  conflict  and  sifting,  here  and  there  phenomena  may  have 
appeared,  which  approached  near  to  Donatism  and  Novatianism. 
These,  however,  were  more  and  more  overcome  and  removed  in  the 
course  of  progress,  and  with  them  the  disinclination  from  that  quarter 
was  gradually  removed.  Since  the  persecutions  and  oppressions  to 
which  they  were  subjected  have  been  brought  to  an  end,  their  church 
affairs  have  assumed  a  more  decided  and  prosperous  form.  And  even 
though  Guericke  thought  it  necessary  to  separate  from  them  on  account 
of  supposed  violence  done  to  his  conscience  to  preserve  his  theological 
freedom,  still  foreign  Lutherans  (in  Bavaria  and  Saxony,  etc.)  had  no 
hesitation  in  maintaining  fraternal  fellowship  with  them.  Their  com- 
munion embraces  about  40,000  to  50,000.souls,  who  are  ministered  to 
by  40  preachers  under  seven  superintendents. 

As  the  revolution  of  1848  undermined  the  form  which  the  Prussian 
established  church  had  hitherto  assumed,  and  had  made  its  continuance 
more  than  doubtful,  the  Lutherans  who  had  remained  within  the 
established  church  also  took  fresh  hope,  that  through  the  new  organi- 
zation* of  church  government  they  would  also  be  able  to  again  assert 
the  rights  of  the  Lutheran  Church  of  their  country.  To  accomplish 
this  end,  Lutheran  provincial  Unions  were  formed  in  Silesia,  Poscn, 
Pomerania,  Saxony,  etc. ;  and  on  the  evening  preceding  the  second 
Wittenberg  church  diet,  they,  through  their  deputies,  formed  them- 
selves into  a  Collective  Union,  under  the  presidency  of  Goschel.  In  a 
public  proclamation  to  the  Lutheran  congregations,  :t  declared  that  it 
desired  earnestly  and  zealously  to  agitate  the  restoration  of  the  Prus- 


THE     PROTESTANT     CHURtH     IN     GENERAL.         317 

Bian  Lutheran  Church  to  all  its  well-earned  and  legally  guaranteed 
rights,  and  to  insist  upon  the  preservation  or  renewal  of  Lutheran 
confession,  worship,  and  church  government,  together  with  Lutheran 
congregational  order,  but  to  disapprove  of  secession  from  the  esta- 
blished church,  because  it  involved  a  voluntary  and  premature  aban- 
donment of  rights.  With  the  full  knowledge  and  the  unconcealed 
statement  of  this  separatistic  tendency  the  Union  then  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  general  church  diet,  from  which,  however,  its  adherents 
have  since  then  gradually  withdrawn. 

Among  the  Lutheran  established  churches,  which  would  have  no- 
thing to  do  with  the  Union,  are  especially  those  of  Bavaria,  Saxony, 
and  Mecklenburg ;  and  Hanover  also  in  part,  where  Lutheranism  has 
most  strongly  developed  itself.  To  them  may  be  added  yet  the  church 
of  Livonia,  which,  though  externally  isolated,  is  nevertheless  rooted 
with  all  the  fibres  of  its  being  in  the  Lutheran  Church,  in  which  also 
within  a  decade  a  synodal  life  has  unfolded  itself,  which  many  a  foreign 
established  church  on  closer  acquaintance  with  it  might  envy. — The 
Lutheran  Conference  at  Leipsic,  first  brought  about  by  Rudclbach,  was 
also  of  significance  for  the  awakening  and  vivifying  of  Lutheran 
churchly  consciousness.  The  thesis  maintained  by  Lbhe,  Delitzsch, 
and  Ka /mis,  that  adhesion  to  the  Lutheran  symbols  unconditionally 
excluded  from  partaking  of  the  Lord's  Supper  with  the  Reformed  as 
such,  gave  great  offence  to  the  Unionists  and  Reformed.  Nevertheless, 
others,  ex.  gr.  Hofling  and  Thomasius,  have  expressed  more  moderate 
views  on  this  subject.  A  wide  difference  has  arisen  among  German 
Lutherans  about  the  spiritual  office,  which  the  one  party  {Lbhe,  Klie- 
foth,  Krabbe,  Petri,  Mllnchmeyer,  Vilmar,  etc.)  regard  as  an  institution 
of  direct  divine  appointment,  although  without  any  Romanizing  or 
Anglicanizing  succession  tendency;  the  other  {Hofling,  Philippi,  Hof- 
mann,  Hamac/c,  Thomasius,  Huschke,  Harless,  Kahnis,  etc.)  only  as 
being  conditioned  by  the  word  and  sacraments,  necessary  to  their  pro- 
per administration,  and  rooted  in  the  spiritual  priesthood.  The  Con- 
ference of  Reichenbach,  to  which  the  most  important  theologians  of 
both  theories  assembled  in  order  to  come  to  an  understanding  about 
this  difference  (185G),  was  only  perfectly  unanimous  in  the  negation 
of  the  Catholic  doctrine  and  Romanizing  one-sidedness.  Great  offence 
was  occasioned  by  the  meeting  of  Lutheran  friends  at  Rothenmoor  in 
Mecklenburg  (1858),  where,  in  discussing  the  passage:  "A  man  that 
is  a  heretic,  reject,"  remarks  such  as  this  were  made,  a  true  Lutheran 
could  not  pray  with  a  Reformed  ;  but  they  were  also  deservedly  repelled 
and  repudiated  (especially  by  Prof.  Dieckhof  of  Gottingen).  Still  the 
responsibility  of  that  remark  is  to  be  measured  hereby,  that  the  treat- 
ment of  this  subject  was  only  incidental,  and  the  remark  itself  was 
only  applicable  to  those  cases  where  fellowship  in  prayer  could  be  re- 
garded as  being  at  the  same  time  fellowship  in  faith  ;  and,  uttered  in 
70* 


318       SECTION    III. FOURTH    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.  1  9    A.  D.)  . 

the  private  circle  of  friends,  it  had  been  made  public  through  unforo 
seen  abuse  of  confidence. 

7.  Melanchthonianism  and  Calvinism. —  This  intensification  of  the 
Lutheran  consciousness  within  and  without  the  Union  also  aroused  here 
and  there  the  Reformed  consciousness,  to  strengthen  which  Ebrard 
established  in  1851  the  "  Reformirte  Kirchenzeitung."  He  conducted 
it  for  several  years,  when,  having  been  placed  at  the  head  of  a  Union 
established  church  (Rhenish  Bavaria)  by  changed  official  position,  he 
transferred  it  to  Charles  Gbbel  of  Erlangen.  The  Reformed  Church 
of  Germany  occupied  from  the  beginning  a  middle  position  between 
Lutheranism  and  Calvinism,  which  certainly  was  closely  related  to 
later  Melanchthonianism.  Such  a  diluted  Calvinism  is  also  the  banner 
of  this  Kirchenzeitung.  Ebrard  even  undertakes  to  prove  that  the 
rigid  doctrine  of  predestination  is  only  a  sporadic  extreme  of  the  Re- 
formed system  of  doctrines,  against  which  Al.  Schweizer,  from  purely 
scientific  interest  ("  Reformirte  Dogmatik  ;  "  "  Die  protest.  Centraldog- 
men  in  ihrer  Entwickel.  in  d.  ref.  K."),  has  shown,  that  the  doctrine 
of  predestination  is  rather  the  all-ruling,  all-conditioning  soul  of  the 
same,  and  that  its  admirable  power,  fulness,  depth,  and  consistency, 
is  directly  grounded  in  it.  But  Heppe  of  Marburg  went  even  fur- 
ther than  Ebrard  by  the  discovery  of  a  Melancfhonian  church  ("  Die 
confessionelle  Entwickel.  d.  altprot.  K.  Deutschlands,"  1854).  Hero 
we  learn  that  synergistic,  and,  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 
Calvinistic  Melanchthonianism  (which  only  appeared  since  1540  !),  con- 
stituted the  original  evangelical,  Protestant  church  of  Germany  ;  that 
only  after  Luther's  death,  fanatics,  who  would  be  more  Lutheran  than 
Luther  himself,  established  the  so-called  Lutheran  Church,  and  per- 
fected it  by  the  formula  of  Concord ;  that  the  Calvinizing  of  the  Pala- 
tinate, Ilessia,  Brandenburg,  and  Anhalt,  was  only  a  reaction  against 
hyper-  and  pseudo-Lutheranism,  a  restoration  of  the  original  Melanch 
thonian  church,  and  the  modern  Consensus-Union  was  only  the  com 
pletion  of  this  Restitution.      (Cf.  g  21,  1.) 

But  genuine  and  rigid  Calvinism  had  also,  in  this  century,  its  zeal- 
ous adherents,  not  only  in  Scotland  and  the  Netherlands  (|  55),  but 
also  in  Germany,  especially  in  Wupperthal.  The  excellent  Gottfr. 
Dan.  Krunt marker,  since  181G  preacher  in  Elberfeld  (ob.  1837),  and  for 
a  time  his  nephew  Fred.  W.  KrummacJier  in  Barmen  (then  Unionist 
court-preacher  at  Potsdam),  were  here  its  enthusiastic  apostles.  When 
in  1835  the  Prussian  government  made  every  preparation  to  force  the 
introduction  of  the  Union  also  in  Wupperthal,  and  threatened  the  re- 
sistant Reformed  preachers  with  deposition,  there  arose  an  excitement 
here  among  the  Reformed  scarcely  less  violent  than  that  among  the 
Lutherans  in  Silesia.  The  clergy,  with  the  majority  of  their  church- 
members,  finally  accepted  the  liturgy  of  the  Union,  adding  the  clause, 
however,  so  far  as  it  agreed  with  the  nature  of  the  Reformed  ritual. 
But  a  portion  of  the  congregations,  and  of  them  many  of  their  most 


THE  PROTESTANT  CHURCH  IN  GENERAL.   319 

excellent  members,  separated,  and  persistently  rejected  all  overtures 
of  reunion.  The  royal  act  of  tolerance  of  1847  (g  55,  1)  gave  them 
finally  the  privilege  of  organizing  an  independent  congregation  at 
Elberfeld,  which  called  Dr.  Kohlbriigge  to  be  their  pastor  (he  was 
formally  preacher  of  the  restored  Lutheran  church  at  Amsterdam 
[§51,  4],  then  forced  from  this  position  through  a  contest  with  a 
rationalizing  colleague,  and  since  then  became  one  of  the  most  enthu- 
siastic adherents  of  the  doctrines  of  the  council  of  Dort,  by  the  study 
of  Calvin's  writings),  and  represents,  under  the  name  of  the  Dutch 
Reformed  Church,  the  only  anti-unionistic,  rigidly  Reformed  congre- 
gation in  Germany.  (Cf.  F.  W.  Krug,  krit,  Geschichte  d.  Sjhwarmerei, 
etc.     Elbf.  p.  257,  ff.) 

8.  Complications  with  regard  to  Worship.— The  hymn-books  of  the 
established  churches  almost  everywhere  were  brought  into  a  condition 
•which  bordered  on  the  miserable  and  insipid,  both  as  regards  their 
religious  and  asthetic  character,  by  the  vandalism  of  Illumination. 
Although  there  existed  more  than  80,000  sacred  hymns,  there  never- 
theless existed  a  complete  famine  in  regard  to  sacred  music.  Only 
among  the  old  fathers  and  mothers  of  the  people  did  there  still  live 
reminiscences  and  echoes  of  the  richness  and  blessedness  of  the  hymns 
of  the  evangelical  church.  These  made  themselves  again  felt  through 
the  revived  religious  life,  and  demanded  the  repossession  of  the  stolen 
or  squandered  inheritance  of  the  fathers.  The  noble  poet  Moritz  Arndt 
was  the  first  who  entered  the  lists  in  its  behalf  (Vom  Wort  u.  v.  Kirch- 
enlied.  Bonn,  1819).  The  want,  which  became  daily  more  felt,  called 
forth  at  first  a  series  of  private  attempts  to  reintroduce  the  old  hymns 
(the  Berlin  Liederschatz  by  Eisner,  the  Collections  by  C.  v.  Raumer, 
Bunsen,  Slier,  A.Knapp,  Daniel,  Layrifz,  Stip,  etc.)  These  were  only 
here  and  there  introduced  into  use  in  public  worship,  but  bestowed 
only  the  greater  blessing  upon  family  worship,  and  are  also  of  import- 
ance as  preliminary  labors  for  churchly  official  reform.  The  Wiivtem- 
berg  established  church  published  as  early  as  1842  a  new  hymn-book, 
which,  being  prepared  according  to  Grlineisen's  mediating  principles, 
met  the  churchly  demands,  in  spite  of  its  defects,  in  a  measure  that 
could  scarcely  be  hoped  for  amid  the  destructive  tendencies  of  the 
times.  In  other  Protestant  countries,  provinces,  and  cities,  better 
hymn-books  have  already  been  introduced,  or  at  least  are  being  pre- 
pared. But  in  not  a  few  countries  and  towns  the  despotism  of  ration- 
alistic church  authorities  adheres  firmly  to  the  hymnological  acquisitions 
of  Illumination  even  to  the  present  day.  The  conference  of  Eisenach 
published  (1853)  a  collection  of  150  classic  hymns  (accompanied  with 
the  old  rhythmic  melodies),  designed  to  serve  as  an  appendix  to  all 
existing  hymn-books,  and  as  a  basis  for  all  new  ones.  It  required  great 
labor  to  establish  the  principle  that  the  year  1750  should  be  the  terminus 
ad  quern  of  selection.  W.  Wackernagel  desired  the  unchanged  original 
text,  and  as  he  was  not  able  to  accomplish  this,  he  withrew  from  the 


320         SECTION    III. —  FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.  19    A.  D.) 

commission  ;  Geffken  of  Hamburg  did  the  same  for  the  contrary  reason, 
and  produced  a  selection  of  his  own,  which,  however,  was  laid  to  one 
side.  Meanwhile,  only  a  few  established  churches  have  to  this  time 
adopted  the  Eisenach  collection,  among  which  is  the  Bavarian,  which 
has  taken  it  up  in  its  new  hymn-book,  which  is  now  indisputably  the 
best  of  all  used  by  the  established  churches. 

The  want  of  a  choral-book  was  not  less  than  that  of  a  hymn-book. 
The  first  occasion  for  discussion  on  this  subject  was  given  in  1814  by 
a  proclamation  of  the  Prussian  king,  Frederick  William  III.,  concern- 
ing a  preparatory  reform  of  Protestant  worship,  by  which  the  liturgy 
should  again  become  prominent.  Natorp  of  Minister  expressed  him- 
self strongly  in  1817  concerning  the  necessity  of  restoring  the  choral 
to  its  ancient  honor  and  simplicity  ;  among  his  numerous  successors 
the  distinguished  jurist  Thibaut  of  Heidelberg  ("Ueber  Reinheit  der 
Tonkunst")  still  deserves  special  mention.  The  reform  of  the  choral 
was  carried  on  the  most  vigorously  in  Wlirtemberg.  The  attempt  to 
revive  church  music  through  the  introduction  of  quartette  tunes  alone 
(according  to  the  choral-book  by  Kocher),  without  taking  up  again  the 
old  rhythm  and  the  original  form  of  the  melodies,  failed  entirely  (1828). 
A  new  choral-book,  prepared  under  Grilneisen's  auspices  (1843),  admitted 
the  unanimous  singing  of  the  congregation,  with  rich  organ  accompani- 
ments, introduced  a  much  greater  number  of  the  older  choice  melodies, 
but  had  not  the  courage  also  to  restore  the  original  rhythm,  urgently 
as  Hauber  contended  for  it  (in  d.  deutsch  Viertaljahrsschr.  1841,  IV.) 
Able  preliminary  contributions  towards  a  reform  of  church  music  were 
made  by  the  excellent  work  by  Winterfeld  (der  ev.  Kirchenges.  Lpz. 
1843,  2  Bde.)  and  by  the  collections  of  G.  v.  Tucker  (Schatz  des  ev. 
Kirchenges.  Lpz.  1848,  2  Bde.)  and  of  Fr.  Layritz,  the  Gutersloher 
Hauschoralbuch,  the  eisenacher  Kernlieder,  etc. 

During  the  period  of  Illumination  all  love  for  the  Liturgy  in  worship 
had  been  entirely  lost,  and  the  new  liturgies  were,  if  pissible,  for  the 
most  part  more  insipid  than  the  new  hymn-books.  The  Prussian  Union 
liturgy,  therefore,  marks  a  decided  progress  towards  something  better, 
in  spite  of  its  defects.  The  representatives  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
returned  to  the  old  Lutheran  liturgies,  in  their  movements  of  reform. 
The  Reformed  overcame  more  and  more  their  old  antipathy  for  what 
was  liturgical.  Purely  liturgical  worship,  accompanied,  where  it  was 
possible,  with  artistic  music,  spread  abroad  from  Berlin.  The  Eise- 
nach Conference  declared  itself  to  be  unfit  to  undertake  joint  Lutheran 
preliminary  labors;  and  the  representatives  of  purely  Lutheran  esta- 
blished churches  held  liturgical  conferences  at  Dresden  (1852,  1854, 
1856),  for  which  Klicfoth  of  Schwerin  contributed  the  preliminaries. 

9.  Home  Missions.  (Cf.  Wielicm,  die  innere  Mission  der  deutsch  ev. 
K.  Eine  Deukschr.  etc.  Hamb.  1840. —  The  same,  Fliegende  Blatter  des 
rauhen  Hauses.  Hamb.  1849  ff.) —  The  Protestant  Church  was  for  a 
bng  time  behind  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  regard  to  Home  Mis- 


THE  PROTESTANT  CHURCH  IN  GENERAL.   321 

sious,  but  since  the  beginning  of  this  period  it  has  begun  to  cancel  this 
debt  with  interest.  England,  with  its  stirring  activity  in  promoting  the 
kingdom  of  God,  leads  the  way.  Here  it  is  the  Dissenters  especially 
who  have  distinguished  themselves  in  this  work.  Germany  has  con- 
tributed something  of  importance,  considering  the  humble  means  which 
Pietism  and  churchliness  here  have  afforded.  In  the  other  countries 
of  the  continent,  but  especially  in  North  America,  much  has  been  done 
for  Home  Missions.  The  result  is,  that  to-day  the  entire  Protestant 
world  is  embraced  in  anetof  benevolent  and  philanthropic  institutions, 
which  have  proceeded  from  specifically  Christian  motives,  and  which 
regard  temporal  aid  and  relief  as  being  the  basis  of  spiritual  help.  A 
quite  special  earnestness  and  zeal  for  Home  Missions  resulted  from  the 
revolutionary  complications  of  modern  times,  which  were  well  adapted 
to  place  in  the  clearest  light  the  insufficiency  of  the  efforts  thus  far 
made,  and  the  crying  necessity  for  increased  activity.  The  restlessly 
active  Wichem  travelled  through  Protestant  Germany  in  1849,  for  the 
sole  purpose  of  awakening  an  interest  in  this  work ;  and  in  the  autumn 
of  the  same  year  a  Congress  for  Home  Missions,  which  was  to  reas- 
semble annually,  met  in  Wittenberg  in  connection  with  the  second 
Church  Diet.  The  object  of  this  congress  was  to  combine  the  indivi- 
dual efforts  made  for  Home  Missions  into  one  organization.  Here  also 
objections  were  made  by  the  Lutherans,  viz.  that  the  organization  of 
such  unions  under  the  direction  of  a  central  board,  connected  with  dis- 
regard of  creeds  and  of  congregational  boundaries,  was  to  be  decidedly 
condemned, — and  that  from  the  point  of  view  that  then  Home  Missions 
would  place  themselves  by  the  side  of  the  church  and  undermine  its  foun- 
dation. Further,  it  was  said  that  what  Home  Missions  had  in  view 
was,  it  is  true,  a  work  of  necessity,  but  that  it  should  be  done  upon 
the  basis  of  the  churchly  confession  within  each  and  every  congrega- 
tion. To  these  were  added  many  other  objections,  ex.  gr.  that  Home 
Missions  had  become  to  many  interested  in  them  a  matter  of  pious 
fashion,  an  opus  operatum;  that  a  methodistic  spirit,  a  stiff  mechanism, 
and  a  restless  spirit  of  work,  which  were  not  born  of  the  spirit  of  the 
gospel,  had  crept  in  ;  that  the  ostentatious  display  of  figures  and  num- 
bers was  in  bold  contrast  .with  Matt.  6:3;  that  working  upon  the 
masses  accomplished  nothing,  but  rather  that  each  single  erring  sheep 
must  be  followed  into  the  wilderness  with  unwearying  faithfulness,  etc. ; 
although,  meanwhile,  it  was  declared  most  emphatically  that  all  these 
objections  did  not  hold  against  the  thing  itself,  but  only  against  the 
form  it  had  assumed. — A  review  of  only  the  most  important  institutions 
for  the  advancement  of  Home  Missions  would  fill  pages.  We  can  here 
only  mention  a  few  of  the  most  important,  especially  German  institu- 
tions, which  became  at  the  same  time  mother  and  model  institutions 
for  numberless  others  of  a  like  character.  The  oldest  is  the  House  of 
Refuge  of  Count  Recke-Volmarstein  at  Dusselthal  since  1816;  next  the 
Institution  for  Teachers  of  Charity- Schools  and  the  Juvenile  Asylum  at 


322         SECTION    III. FOURTH    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.   19    A.  D.) 

Beuggen  (since  1820),  conducted  by  the  excellent  Zeller.    From  it  have 
gone  forth  hundreds  of  teachers  for  charity-schools  and  houses  of  refuge. 
Since  182G  the  Martin's  foundation  in  Erfurt  has  existed  under  Rheiri' 
th, iter's  direction,  which  also  has  stimulated  to  the  establishment  of 
many   similar   institutions.     The  Bough  House    in    Hamburg,    under 
Wichern's  direction   (since  1833)  has   distinguished    itself  above  all 
others  by  its  compass  and  far-reaching  labors.     In  183G  pastor  Flied- 
ner  established  the  Institution  of  deaconesses  at  Kaisersicerth  for  the 
care  of  the  sick.    This  institution  was  enlarged  from  year  to  year,  and 
led  to  the  establishment  of  many  similar  ones  in  Germany,  England, 
and  France.    By  the  side  of  these  unions  there  existed  several  societies 
for  the  care  of  released  criminals,  with  numerous  similar  societies. 
There  are  asylums  fur  infants  and  sunday-schools  almost  in  every  town 
and  city.     In  France  the  Evangelical  Society  labored  with  great  and 
beneficent  success,  and  De  Volenti  established  the  Evangelists'  School 
near  Berne.     In  many  places  pastoral  aid  societies  were  formed.     The 
unemployed  abilities  of  candidates  were  called  into  requisition,  prison 
and  itinerant  preachers  were  appointed,  and  religious  agencies  were 
brou°-ht  to  bear  upon  the  numerous  emigrants,  laborers  in  manufacto- 
ries, on  railroads,  etc. ;  Magdalene  asylums,  Christian  associations  for 
journeymen  and  youths,  Christian  hotels,  popular  libraries,  temperance 
societies,  saving  funds,  numberless  asylums  for  vagrant  children,  etc., 
were  established.     Tract  Societies  in  London,  Hamburg,  Berlin,  etc., 
sent  forth  millions  of  tracts  of  an  awakening  and  instructive  character. 
The  Union  for  Northern  Germany  published  larger  works  of  the  same 
character.     The  C diver  Publication  Union  published  Christian  text  and 
school-books  with  wood-cuts,  at  the  lowest  price.     In  Berlin  an  evan- 
gelical Book-  Union  was  formed  to  spread  the  orthodox  treasures  of  the 
older  ascetic  literature.     Christian  women  and  maidens,  following  the 
bright  example  of  the  English  Quakeress,  Elizabeth  Fry,  the  noble 
Amelia  Sieveking  of  Hamburg,  etc.,  rendered  invaluable  services  every- 
where, in  behalf  of  Home  Missions,  among  the  needy  and  suffering  of 
their  race.     A  Society  for  Home  Missions  in  the  sense  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  was  established  by  Lbhe  in  Bavaria,  in  connection  with  an 
institution  of  deaconesses  at  Neudettalsau. 

The  Bible  Societies  constituted  an  independent  branch  of  Home  Mis- 
sions. Modern  Bible  societies  (cf.  {S46\  6)  originated  in  England.  The 
great  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  in  which  all  Protestant  deno- 
minations and  sects  participated,  even  the  Quakers,  was  formed  in 
London  in  1804,  as  a  necessary  supplement  of  the  missionary  societies. 
It  distributed,  from  principle,  only  Bibles  without  human  addition, 
consequently  without  the  Apocrypha,  without  remarks  and  explana- 
tions, mostly  also  without  heads  of  chapters  and  parallel  passages.  In 
regard  to  the  Apocrypha,  concerning  the  non-admission  of  which 
the  statutes  say  nothing  expressly,  there  was  a  violent  controversy 
(1825-27),  which  ended  with  the  complete  victory  of  the  enemies  of 


THE  PROTESTANT  CHURCH  IN  GENERAL.   323 

the  Apocrypha.  It  was  decided  that  all  pecuniary  support  should  be 
tefused  to  all  societies  and  persons  who  circulated  Bibles  with  the 
Apocrypha,  the  Bibles  already  bound  be  delivered  up,  and  the  proceeds 
from  the  same  be  handed  over  to  the  chief  London  society.  More  than 
fifty  societies  on  the  continent  separated  from  the  northern  society  in 
consequence  of  this  action.  The  great  North  American  society  fully 
agrees  with  the  principles  of  the  London  society.  The  Baden  Mission- 
ary Union  renewed  the  controversy  in  Germany,  by  making  the  oppo- 
sition to  the  Apocrypha  the  subject  of  a  prize  essay  (1852).  The 
learned  essay  by  Ph.  Fr.  Kcerl  received  the  first  prize ;  the  popular 
one  by  E.  Kluge  received  the  second.  Decided  Lutherans  (Krausshold, 
Wild)  also  approved  the  condemnation.  Stier  and  Hengstenberg,  on 
the  other  hand,  defended  the  introduction  of  it ;  and  most  of  the  con- 
sistories advised  to  adhere  to  the  old  practice,  because  every  abuse  and 
misunderstanding  was  prevented  by  the  Lutheran  title,  as  also  by  the 
prohibition  to  select  texts  for  sermons  from  it.  All  the  Protestant 
Bible  societies  have  distributed,  within  the  last  fifty  years,  about 
50,000,000  of  Bibles  and  New  Testaments,  in  almost  200  languages. 

The.  series  of  annotated  Bibles  of  this  century  was  opened  by  Di titer's 
rationalistic  "  Schullehrerbibel"  (1826  ff.)  In  opposition  to  it  is  Phil, 
ff.  Brandt's  evangelical  "Schullehrerbibel"  (only  the  N.  T.  1829  ff.) 
Richter's  "  Erklarte  Hausbibel"  and  Liseo's  "Bibelwerk"  have  been 
far  excelled  by  Gerlach's  work  (continued  by  Schmieder);  all  three, 
however,  have  been  pitched  too  high  for  the  middle  and  lower 
classes.  Besser's  "  Erklarungen  N.  Tl.  Biicher"  ("  Bibelstunden  ") 
have  furnished  an  unsurpassed  model  for  the  churchly  ])ra,?/er-nieetmgs, 
which  have  been  established  everywhere  within  several  decades.  In 
regard  to  devotional  literature,  modern  times  have  done  the  most  and 
best  by  republishing  the  treasures  of  the  16th  and  17th  centuries. 

10.  Foreign  Missions.31  (Cf.  /.  Wiggers,  Gesch.  d.  ev.  Mission.  Hamb. 
1845.  2  Bde.  —  J.  ff.  Brauer,  d.  Missionswes.  d.  ev.  K.  in.  s.  Bestande. 
Hamb.  1847-51.  2  Bde.  — A'.  Wild,  Umschau  auf.  d.  Arbeitsfelde  d.  ev. 
Mission.  Nordl.  1854.  —  A  Osfertag,  ubersichtl.  Gesch.  der  protest. 
Missionen  von  d.  Ref.  bis  zur  Gegenw.  Stuttg.  1858.)  — The  zeal  of 
Protestant  Christendom  for  missions  among  the  heathen,  which  received 
such  a  mighty  impulse  towards  the  end  of  the  previous  century  (cf. 
§51,  5),  has  continued  to  increase  to  the  present  day.  The  missionary 
societies  (trunk  and  branch)  have  increased  from  year  to  year.  There 
exist  now  in  the  Protestant  world  thirty-four  great  chief  societies  with 
numberless  branches,  which  yearly  expend  about  $8,000',000  on  mis- 
sions, and  support  at  1600  mission  stations  4000  European  and  Amer- 
ican missionaries  and  an  equal  number  of  native  helpers.  England 
still  holds  the  first  place  in  this  work ;  next  to  it  are  North  America 
and  Germany.  The  Moravians  also  maintain  their  old  reputation  in 
this  department  of  Christian  labor.  Distinguished  among  the  modern 
chief  societies  (with  more  or  less  branches)  within  the  Reformed  Church 


324        SECTION   III. —  FOURTH   PERIOD    (CENT.  19    A.  D.) 

are  the  American  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  (since  1810)  and  the  Ame- 
rican Baptist  Missionary  Union  (since  1814).  Besides  these,  North 
America  has  a  Methodist  and  an  Episcopal  missionary  society  of  im- 
portance. The  most  of  the  modern  societies  in  Germany  are  connected, 
in  principle,  with  the  United  church.  The  most  important  are  the  Basle 
(since  181G),  the  Berlin  (since  1823),  the  Rhenish,  with  the  missionary 
seminary  at  Barmen  (since  1820),  (which  has  more  of  a  confederate 
character  with  predominant  Lutheran  elements)  — and  the  North  Ger- 
man Society  (since  1836),  binding  its  missionaries  to  the  Augsburg 
Confession,  with  the  exclusion,  however,  of  the  other  Lutheran  confes- 
sional works.  The  missionary  school,  established  in  1800  by  Janicke 
at  Berlin,  has  a  modified  Lutheran  character;  it  has  been  followed  in 
this  respect  by  the  Gosnerish  Missionary  Society.  The  Dresden  Mis- 
sionary Society  (since  183G)  has  assumed  a  decidedly  Lutheran  charac- 
ter. Its  seminary  was  removed  in  1848  to  Leipsic,  so  that  its  pupils 
might  derive  advantage  from  the  university.  It  has  resumed  the  old 
Lutheran  missionary  work  in  East  India  (§  57,  7).  The  question  of 
caste  caused  a  threatening  disagreement  for  a  time,  but  the  danger  is 
now  over.  In  Sweden,  Denmark,  Norway,  the  Baltic  provinces,  in 
Bavaria,  Hanover,  Mecklenburg,  Hesse,  and  North  America,  exclu- 
sively Lutheran  societies,  partly  independent,  partly  in  connection 
with  Dresden-Leipsic,  have  been  formed ;  Cassel  directs  its  efforts 
especially  to  China.  Worthy  of  special  mention  yet  is  the  Hermanns- 
burg  institution  under  the  direction  of  pastor  L.  Harms,  which  sent 
out  its  own  missionary-ship  in  1853,  to  establish  a  mission  among  the 
Gallas  in  Africa.  Altogether,  15  chief  societies  have  now  1581  mis- 
sionaries, with  1311  native  helpers,  at  802  stations.  The  number  of 
converts  amounts  to  about  700.000.  A  distinguished  service  also  ren- 
dered by  evangelical  missions  is  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade  by  the 
great  powers  of  Europe  (1830),  and  the  emancipation  of  all  slaves  in 
the  English  colonies  (since  1834),  for  which  the  English  nation  sacri- 
ficed $120,000,000.  The  noble  Wilberforce  {ob.  1833)  devoted  his 
life  to  the  accomplishment  of  this  object.  New  societies  were  also 
formed  in  England,  Germany,  and  France,  to  sustain  missions  among 
the  Jews ;  and  though  much  labor  has  been  performed,  but  little  has 
resulted  from  them. 

If  we  begin  a  review  of  Protestant  missions  with  Northern  Europe, 
the  Swedish  mission  in  Lapland  first  comes  into  view,  which,  having 
been  resumed  by  the  excellent  Stockjleth  since  1825  (§  39,  6),  has 
greatly  flourished.  In  North  America  we  meet  the  highly  favored 
mission  of  the  Moravians  in  Greenland  and  Labrador.  Moravian, 
Methodist,  Baptist,  and  Protestant  Episcopal  missionaries,  have 
labored  with  success  among  the  aborigines  and  slaves  of  North  America 
and  the  West  Indies.  The  Moravians  have  also  established  missions 
on  the  Mosquito  coasts  and  in  Paramaribo  in  South  America.  On  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  the  Sierre-Leone  colony  was  established  by  Eng- 


THE  PROTESTANT  CHURCH  IN  GENERAL.    325 

land  ta  colonize  and  Christianize  emancipated  negro  slaves.  For  the 
same  purpose  the  colony  of  Liberia,  further  south,  was  established 
from  the  United  States.  Both  are  in  a  flourishing  condition  through 
the  labors  of  Methodist,  Baptist,  and  Protestant  Episcopal  missionaries. 
On  the  Gold  Coast  the  Gospel  has  been  introduced  by  the  Basle,  in 
old  Calabar  by  the  Baptist,  on  Gaboon  river  by  the  American  and  the 
North  German  Society.  Cape-town  is  the  point  of  departure  of  Chris- 
tian civilization  for  South  Africa.  The  missionary  labors  of  the  Mora- 
vians were  here  specially  successful  among  the  Hottentots  ;  the  Berlin 
missionaries  labored  among  the  Corannas,  and  the  evangelical  French 
society  among  the  Betschuans.  The  pupils  of  the  Barmen  seminary 
penetrated  deeper  into  the  interior  of  the  west  coast  than  had  ever 
been  trod  b}^  a  European,  amid  unspeakable  hardships.  They  labored 
among  the  Hottentots,  Namaquas,  Damaras,  and  Hereros.  The  mis- 
sionary Halm  of  Livland  is  worthy  of  special  mention  as  the  apostle 
of  the  Hereros.  On  the  east  coast  the  London  society  gained  a  wide 
field  of  labor  among  the  Caffres.  Further  towards  the  north  on  the 
east  coast  the  Anglicans  labored,  and  the  Hermannsburg  society  sought 
a  field  among  the  Gallas.  On  the  island  of  Madagascar  the  London 
mission  (since  1818)  converted  the  King  Radama  to  Christianity.  His 
successor,  the  Queen  Ranacalona,  inaugurated  in  1835  a  bloody  perse- 
cution against  the  Christians,  by  which  also  the  apostle  of  the  Mada- 
gascar, David  Jones,  received  the  martyr's  crown  (1843).  The  perse- 
cution continues  to  the  present  day,  and  it  has  not  yet  been  able  en- 
tirely to  exterminate  Christianity.  But  since  the  successor  to  the 
throne  is  a  Christian,  better  times  are  in  prospect.  An  Anglican 
bishopric  exists  on  the  island  of  Mauritius,  whither  also  many  Chris- 
tians of  Madagascar  fled.  In  Abyssinia  the  missionaries  Gobat,  lsenburg, 
and  Krupf,  have  labored  (1835-43)  to  revive  the  dead  national  church, 
but  they  were  compelled  to  withdraw  on  account  of  the  enmity  of  the 
native  priests  and  the  machinations  of  papist  missionaries.  In  Algiers 
the  missionary  Ewald  labored  among  the  Jews  until  1842.  If  we  gc 
to  Asia,  we  find  American  missionaries  specially  active  in  the  Turkish 
provinces,  striving  to  revive  the  old  churches  by  the  establishment  of 
common  schools.  An  evangelical  bishopric,  hovering  between  Union 
and  Confederation,  and  uniting  home  with  foreign  missions,  has  been 
established  at  Jerusalem  (1841)  by  the  English  and  Prussian  crowns, 
as  the  centre  of  ecclesiastical  labors  in  behalf  of  the  dispersed  Pro- 
testants in  the  Orient,  and  of  evangelical  missions  among  the  oriental 
Jews.  The  choice  of  bishops  alternates  between  the  two  crowns,  but 
ordination  and  rites  have  been  yielded  to  the  Anglican  Church.  The 
first  bishop  Alexander,  a  Jewish  proselyte,  died  in  1845.  His  successor 
was  the  excellent  missionary  Gobat.  A  missionary  field,  which  has 
again  in  the  19th  century  been  diligently  cultivated,  is  East  India, 
where  }uite  peculiar  difficulties  stand  in  the  way  of  missionary  labors: 
the  strict  castes,  the  proud  self-sufficiency  of  the  pantheistic  Brahmins, 
71 


i>26         SECTION    III. FOURTH    PERIOD    ^CENT.   19    A.  D.) 

even  the  politico-commercial  interests  of  the  East  India  company,  etc. 
The  old  Lutheran  missionary  harvest  (§  47,  7)  was  for  the  most  part 
gathered  by  the  Anglican  Church.  The  Lord-bishop  Heber  (oh.  1826) 
gained  great  renown  in  connection  with  this  mission.  The  missionary 
Bhenius  of  West  Prussia  also  labored  here  in  the  service  of  the  Angli- 
can Church  with  great  success.  But  as  he  was  not  able  to  accept  un- 
conditionally the  principles  of  the  Anglican  Church,  a  rupture  occurred, 
and  he  labored  from  this  time  forward  to  his  death  (1838)  on  his  own 
responsibility  in  the  Lutheran  spirit.  His  successor  Mailer  again  sub- 
mitted to  the  Anglican  Church  (1841).  The  missionaries  of  the  Dres- 
den (Leipsic)  society  have  again  collected  the  remnants  of  the  East 
Indian  Lutheran  Church,  which  has  now  six  chief  stations  there  with 
a  wide  field  of  labor.  In  addition  to  it,  American,  English,  and  Ger- 
man missionaries,  of  almost  all  creeds,  labor  in  India  and  the  Indian 
archipelago.  The  military  insurrection  in  the  northern  part  of  East 
India  (1857)  suspended  the  mission  there  for  almost  two  years.  It  is 
to  be  hoped  that  when  it  is  suppressed,  they  will  only  flourish  the  more. 
In  China,  Gutzlaff  of  Pomerania,  succeeding  Morrison,  labored  with 
unparalleled  boldness  and  unwearied  patience  on  his  own  responsi- 
bility, in  spite  of  all  difficulties.  Since  China  has  been  in  a  measure 
opened  to  Europeans  by  the  English  war  (1842),  the  institutions  of 
evangelical  missions  have  assumed  a  more  grand  and  systematic  cha- 
racter under  G'utzlaff's  direction,  to  conquer  the  heavenly  kingdom  by 
the  Gospel.  Since  the  rebellion  of  the  new  son  of  heaven  (Tien-li)  in 
1852  (a  descendant  of  the  old  king  dynasty,  which  has  been  banished 
for  200  years,  who  received  instructions  from  an  evangelical  missionary 
at  Canton,  and  acknowledges  the  revelations  of  God  made  through 
Moses  and  Christ,  but  declares  that  he  is  the  younger  brother  of  Christ) 
fresh  hopes  for  the  success  of  missions  were  kindled,  and  missionaries 
from  all  countries  were  sent  thither.  But  the  rebellious  son  of  heaven 
only  manifested  the  disposition  to  become  a  second  Mohammed.  The 
conflict  of  the  governor  of  Canton  with  the  English,  French,  and  Ame- 
ricans, and  the  punishment  which  was  therefor  inflicted  in  part  (1857), 
made  the  emperor  finally  (1858)  willing  to  make  a  treaty  with  these 
three  powers,  as  also  with  Russia,  according  to  which  the  whole  coun- 
try was  to  be  thrown  open  to  trade,  and  missions  and  the  free  exercise 
of  religion  was  granted  to  Christians.  About  the  same  time  also,  after 
300  years'  seclusion,  Japan  was  opened  to  European  and  American 
trade,  and,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  also  to  Christian  missions.  The  Protestant 
missions  in  Polynesia  have  been  the  most  successful  of  all  through  the 
labors  of  English  and  American  missionaries.  The  apostle  of  the  South 
Sea  Islands,  John  Williams,  died  a  martyr  (1839).  The  flourishing 
evangelical  church  at  Tahiti  was,  however,  severely  afflicted  by  tho 
unprecedented  violence  of  French  ships  in  1837,  the  Queen  Pomare 
was  abused,  the  country  was  placed  under  French  protectorate,  and 
not  only  Roman  Catholic  missionaries,  but  also  French  dissoluteness, 


PROTESTANT  ESTABLISHED  CHURCHES.    327 

were  forced  upon  the  country.  In  1851,  missionary  labor  on  the  Sand- 
wich Islands  may  be  regarded  as  having  been  completed,  and  the 
church  there  as  a  Protestant  established  church.  The  results  of  mis- 
sions among  the  Cannibals  of  New  Zealand  (of  -whom  Sam.  Marsden 
was  the  apostle)  were  small,  as  also  among  the  stupid  aborigines  of 
Australia,  where  even  the  labors  of  the  Moravians  have  been  almost 
fruitless. 


3  55.  THE  PROTESTANT  ESTABLISHED  CHURCHES.38 

The  year  1814,  with  its  new  order  of  things,  carried  out 
by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  (1817),  with  its  movements  towards 
union,  which  produced  the  large  body  of  full-armored  men,  who 
are  battling  even  to  the  present  time,  —  and  finally,  the  political 
revolutionary  years  1830  and  1848,  with  their  liberal  conquest 
even  in  the  sphere  of  the  church,  constituted  epochs  for  the  de- 
velopment of  most  of  the  Protestant  established  churches.  In 
1848  the  idea  of  established  churches  seemed  to  have  been  rooted 
out  almost  everywhere  and  forever.  But  the  democratic  experi- 
ments of  church  government  of  this  year  demonstrated,  that  if 
the  separation  of  the  Church  from  the  State  was  to  be  generally 
beneficial  for  Europe,  it  was  not  so  yet  at  this  time,  and  the 
restoration  of  the  following  years  preserved  the  church  from 
boundless  confusion  and  unavoidable  dissolution  into  numberless 
atoms. 

1.  Prussia.  (Cf.  O.  Krabbe,  d.  ev.  Landeskirche  Preussens  u.  ihre 
offentl.  Rechtsverhaltnisse.  Berl.  1849.) — With  reference  to  the  evan- 
gelical established  church  of  Prussia  (cf.  §  54),  Frederick  William  IV. 
declared  that  he  only  desired  to  hold  the  superior  direction  of  the 
church,  in  order  that  it  might  progress  in  an  orderly  and  legal  way  to 
independence.  The  realization  of  this  royal  declaration  and  wish  was 
inaugurated  after  an  ecclesiastical  conference  at  Berlin,  composed  of 
delegates  from  almost  all  German  countries,  accomplished  nothing,  by 
a  Prussian  General  Synod,  which  was  opened  at  Berlin  on  Whitsunday, 
184G.  The  synod  at  its  18th  session  proceeded  to  the  consideration  of 
the  difficult  question  of  doctrine  and  confession.  The  result  of  the 
same  was  the  adoption  of  a  formula  of  ordination  proposed  by  Dr. 
Nitzscli,  whereby  the  ordinandus  was  required  to  believe  in  the  prin- 
cipal fundamebtal  truths  of  salvation  instead  of  the  hitherto  ecclesias- 
tical confession.  But  as  the  doctrines  of  creation,  original  sin,  the 
supernatural  conception,  the  descent  of  Christ  into  hell,  and  His 
ascension  to  heaven,  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  the  final  judgment, 
eternal  life  and  eternal  destruction,  were  not  expressly  embraced  in 


328        SECTION    III. —  FOURTH   PERIOD    (CENT.  19   A.  D.). 

these  fundamental  truths,  and  consequently  were  not  regarded  as  obli- 
gatory, and  further,  since  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  peculiar  do© 
fcrinal  position  was  practically  abolished  by  this  formula  of  ordination, 
and  with  it  the  existence  of  a  Lutheran  as  well  as  of  a  Reformed 
Church  within  the  Union,  a  small  minority  of  Lutherans  already  pro- 
tested against  it  at  the  synod  :  numerous  still  more  decided  and  power- 
ful protests  were  made  outside  of  the  synod,  to  which  the  columns  of 
the  evang.  Kirchenzeitung  were  opened.     The  government  gave  no 
authority  to  the  proceedings  of  the  synod,  and  profane  mockers  dis- 
played their  wit  on  the  unfortunate  Nicaenum  of  the  19th  century.    On 
the  other  hand,  however,  the  king  issued  a  patent  of  tolerance,  March 
1847,  by  which  sovereign  protection  was  anew  guaranteed  to  the  exist- 
ing churches  ;   hut  all  who  did  not  find  in  them  the  expression  of  their 
faith,  were  allowed  to  form  new  religious   societies.     But  when  the 
storm  of  revolution  broke  in  1848,  no  State  was  more  threatened  with 
unchristianization    than    Prussia.     The    minister   of  worship,    Count 
Schwerin,  was  ready  to  grant  a  reorganization  of  the  Church  according 
to  the  wishes  of  the  popular  majority,  expressed  by  a  synod.     But  be- 
fore this  synod  could  assemble  the  reaction  had  already  commenced. 
The  transition  minister  Ladenbertj  obtained  the  opinion  of  consistories 
and  faculties,  who  collectively  made  prominent  the  danger  of  such  a 
synod.     Instead  of  the  synod,  therefore,  a  High-consistory  was  formed 
in  Berlin,   which  was  independent  of  the  ministry,  and  placed  only 
under  the  king  as  praecipuum  membrum  ecclesioe,  and  which  was  to 
represent   the   demanded   freedom   of  the   Church   from  the  State  as 
already  realized  in  it.     At  the  same  time  a  Church-order  was  recom- 
mended  and   largely   introduced,   which    constituted    a   consistory   in 
every  congregation,  which  was  bound  by  the  three  oecumenical  and  the 
Reformed  symbols  agreeing  with  them.     On  the  6th  of  March,  1852, 
the  king  issued  a  government  order,  according  to  which  the  High-con- 
sistory should  not  only  govern  the  evangelical  established  church  in 
its  collective  character,  but  also  guard  the  interests  of  the  Lutheran 
and  of  the  Reformed  Church  ;  and  to  this  end  it  was  to  be  composed 
of  members  of  both  these  churches,  each  of  which  were  only  to  decide 
questions  touching  their  own  church.     Dr.  Nitzsch  alone  remained  after 
the  itio  in  partes  occasioned  in  this  board  on  this  account,  and  declared 
that  he  was  able  to  find  the  expression  of  his  religious  convictions  in 
neither  of  the  confessions,  but  only  in  the  consensus  of  both.     The 
difficulty  was  obviated  by  regarding  him  as  the  representative  of  con- 
gregations holding  the  same  views.     Encouraged  to  entertain  bolder 
hopes  by  such  connivance  in  high  places,  the  Lutheran  Union  pre- 
sented a  petition  to  the  king,  subscribed  by  101  clergymen,  in  which 
the  restoration  of  Lutheran  faculties  and  of  Lutheran  church  property 
was  demanded.    This  demand  was  answered  by  an  unfavorable  govern- 
ment order,  July  12,  1853,  in  which  the  king  expressed  his  just  dis- 
pleasure at  such  misinterpretation  of  the  order  of  the  previous  year, 


PROTESTANT  ESTABLISHED  CHURCHES.    329 

and  made  the  solemn  declaration  that  it  was  never  his  intention  to 
disturb,  much  less  to  destroy,  the  Union  founded  by  his  father,  now 
resting  in  God;  he  only  desired  to  secure  for  confession  within  the 
Union  the  protection  to  which  it  had  unquestionable  claim.  Since 
then,  the  special  interests  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  which  for  a  time 
seemed  to  be  favored,  have  been  in  visible  and  increasing  disfavor.— 
The  High-consistory,  meanwhile,  continued  to  manifest  great  activity, 
and  to  adopt  many  wholesome  regulations.  To  these  belong  the  general 
church  and  school  visitations  of  1852,  though  carried  out  with  too 
much  noisy  and  theatrical  display.  The  ostensible  favor  with  which 
the  king  regarded  the  efforts  of  the  evangelical  alliance  (1857,  £  54,  5), 
was  the  last  evidence  of  decided  aversion  to  confessional  churchly 
efforts  which  Frederick  William  IV.  was  able  to  manifest.  A  tedious 
and,  as  it  appeared,  hopeless  disease  compelled  him  to  transfer  the 
government  into  the  hands  of  his  brother  Will.  I.  When  the  prince- 
regeut  (Oct.  1858)  began  to  reign  in  his  own  name,  he  declared,  in  an 
address  to  his  newly-chosen  ministry,  that  it  was  his  firm  determina- 
tion to  maintain  and  promote  the  evangelical  Union,  whose  beneficent 
progress  was  impeded  and  almost  destroyed  by  an  orthodoxy  which  was 
incompatible  with  the  very  essence  of  the  evangelical  church.  But  in 
order  to  accomplish  this  task  it  was  necessary  that  the  organs  used 
should  be  carefully  chosen  and  partly  changed.  All  hypocrisy  and 
sham-piety,  however,  were  to  be  unmasked  wherever  they  appeared. 
Hengstenberg's  and  Erbkam's  (in  Konigsberg)  withdrawal  from  the 
examining  commission  for  situations  in  the  higher  schools,  Sta/il's 
formal,  but  long-sought-for,  withdrawal  from  the  High-consistory,  and 
the  relaxation  of  the  strict  procedure  against  the  free  congregations 
which  hitherto  prevailed,  as  also  the  greater  connivance  of  the  govern- 
ment at  the  demands  of  the  liberals  in  regard  to  the  question  of  divorce 
(by  conceding  a  facultative  civil  marriage),  are  at  present  the  only 
evidences  of  a  changed  policy  in  the  government  with  regard  to  eccle- 
siastical affairs. 

2.  The  present  Kingdom  of  Saxony  has  had  Roman  Catholic  princes 
since  1697,  but  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  only  been  able  to  ac- 
quire territory  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  court.  The  govern- 
ment of  the  evangelical  church  resides,  by  a  treaty,  in  the  ministers 
commissioned  in  evangelicis,  so  long  as  the  king  is  Roman  Catholic. 
Although  several  of  these  have  been  special  protectors  of  the  orthodox 
church,  nevertheless  rationalistic  illumination  has  not  only  taken  deep 
root  among  the  clergy,  but  also  among  the  people.  Meanwhile,  a 
pietistic  reaction  has  also  gained  a  footing,  especially  powerful  in 
Muldentbal,  where  Rudelbacli's  blessed  labors  have  given  it  a  decidedly 
churchly  character.  On  the  other  hand,  the  religious  movement,  under 
the  leadership  of  the  pastor  of  the  Bohemian  congregation  in  Dresden, 
Mart.  Stephan,  came  to  a  shameful  end.  As  the  representative  and 
renovator  of  a  strict  Lutheranism,   he  labor  d  very  successfully  in 

u* 


330        SECTION    III.  —  FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.  19    A.  D.) 

v 

Dresden  since  1810,  but  he  lapsed  deeper  and  deeper  into  hierarchical 
usurpation  and  neglect  of  watchfulness  over  himself,  through  the  sub- 
missiveness  of  his  adherents,  which  almost  amounted  to  deification. 
When  in  1837  the  police  interfered  with  his  night  meetings,  without, 
however,  having  discovered  anything  immoral,  and  suspended  him 
from  his  official  labors,  he  called  upon  his  adherents  to  emigrate  to 
America.  Many  of  them  (clergymen  and  laymen)  blindly  obeyed 
him,  and  founded  (1838)  a  Lutheran  church  in  Missouri.  Stephan's 
despotic  and  hierarchical  usurpation  reached  its  height  here  ;  he  also 
gave  loose  reins  to  his  lusts.  Women,  who  had  been  violated  or  abused 
by  him,  finally  exposed  his  shame,  and  the  congregation  excommuni- 
cated him,  whereupon  he  went  over  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
(1846).  Taught  by  such  experiences,  and  entirely  purified  of  the 
separatists  and  Donatistic  elements,  the  Lutheran  reaction  in  Saxony 
is  now  in  the  most  flourishing  condition.  Since  1850  HarUss  has  stood 
at  its  head  as  chief  court-preacher  at  Dresden,  but  in  1852  already  he 
abandoned  this  position  to  become  the  head  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
of  his  native  country,  Bavaria.  The  emigration  led  by  Stephan  also 
took  with  it  a  number  of  the  inhabitants  of  Saxony- Alt  enburg.  The 
consistory,  in  a  rescript  to  the  council  of  Ronneburg  (1838)  traced  this 
separation  to  the  fact  that  the  religious  wants  of  the  congregations 
were  not  satisfied  by  the  rationalistic  sermons,  and  admonished  that 
the  fundamental  doctrines  of  evangelical  Christianity  should  be  more 
diligently  preached.  This  rescript  received  the  most  hateful  interpre- 
tations, and  became  the  subject  of  the  most  passionate  attacks  from 
within  and  without  the  country.  The  government  obtained  the  opinions 
of  four  theological  faculties  concerning  the  conduct  of  the  consistory 
and  its  opponents,  which  it  simply  published  with  the  praise  and  blame 
they  expressed,  and  then  discouraged  all  investigation.  The  revolu- 
tionary storm  of  1848  also  raged  through  the  church  of  Altenburg. 
But  since  the  storm  has  subsided,  the  government  of  the  State  and 
church  has  been  directed  with  prudence  and  zeal  towards  promoting 
churchly  feeling  and  life.  It  has,  however,  not  yet  succeeded  in  placing 
a  decidedly  Lutheran  teacher  of  theology  in  the  common  university  of 
the  Saxon  dukeioms  (Jena).  In  Weimar  and  Gotha  also  the  nation- 
alism of  Bohr  and  Bretschneider,  which  a  few  decades  ago  ruled  almost 
all  the  pulpits,  has  begun  to  disappear.  Nevertheless,  the  Duke  of 
Gotha  called  in  1856  Dr.  Charles  Schicarz  of  Halle,  who  could  only 
see  hopes  of  a  better  time  for  the  Protestant  Church  in  the  school  of 
Baur  and  the  Protestant  "  Kirchenzeitung"  ($  56,  4,  5),  to  Gotha  as 
court-preacher  and  high  consistorial  councillor.  Gotha  has  since  then 
become  the  Gretna-Green  for  Prussian  divorced  persons,  whom  the 
native  pastors  supposed  they  were  required  to  deny  re-marriage.  The 
civil  marriage  now  legalized  there  will  make  a  change  in  this  matter. 

3.  In  Hanover  the  Union  met  with  no  favor,  although  Union  theology 
ruled  in  the  national  university  after  Rationalism  had  disappeared. 


PROTESTANT    ESTABLISHED     CHURCHES.         331 

Nevertl  eless,  the  most  of  the  clergy  of  the  country  have  been  tho- 
roughly penetrated  by  confessional  Lutheranisni.  The  preachers'  con- 
ference at  Stade  (1854)  called  the  attention  of  the  government  to  the 
"crying  incongruity"  which  existed  between  the  Union  theology  of 
the  national  university  and  the  legal  as  well  as  actual  Lutheran  con- 
fession of  the  established  church,  and  urged  the  appointment  of  Lu- 
theran teachers.  The  faculty,  on  the  other  hand,  published  a  circular 
to  preserve  "liberty  in  teaching,"  and  the  curatorium  again  filled  the 
vacancies  which  had  occurred  with  Union  theologians.  Dr.  Petri  now 
declared  the  rupture  to  be  complete.  —  Oldenburg,  that  in  1849  was 
really  favored  with  a  democratic  church  government  separate  from  the 
State,  permitted  a  new  government  to  be  chartered  without  any  oppo- 
sition in  1853,  which  restored  the  chief  episcopacy  to  the  ruler  of  the 
country,  and  transferred  the  government  of  the  church  to  a  High- 
consistory  and  ecclesiastical  legislation  to  a  national  synod  (composed 
of  12  clerical  and  17  temporal  members  who  were  elected  by  the  dis- 
trict synods,  and  5  members  appointed  by  the  grand-duke). — Mecklen- 
burg possesses  a  strict  Lutheran  church  government  under  Kliefoth's 
direction,  and  its  national  university  decidedly  Lutheran  professors.  The 
withdrawal  of  Prof.  M.  Baumgarten  of  Rostock  from  his  professorship, 
in  Jan.  1858,  caused  a  great  excitement.  A  trial  theme  written  by  him 
on  2  Kings  11,  in  which  he  "  aimed  at  procuring  a  Scriptural  doctrine 
to  authorize  violent  revolution,"  gave  the  government  an  opportunity 
already  in  1856  to  remove  him  from  the  theological  examination  com- 
mission. At  the  same  time  his  provoking  polemics  against  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Mecklenburg  Catechism,  especially  with  reference  to  the 
sanctification  of  the  Sabbath,  at  a  pastoral  conference  at  Parchim,  in- 
creased the  distrust  with  which  the  Lutheran  clergy  of  the  country 
regarded  his  theological  position.  The  government  finally  (Jan.  6, 
1858)  dismissed  him  from  his  theological  professorship  at  the  univer- 
sity, though  allowing  him  his  full  salary,  on  the  basis  and  through 
the  publication  of  a  consistorial  decision,  prepared  by  Krabbe  and 
subscribed  by  Wiggers  and  Meyer,  which  charged  him  with  heretical 
alteration  of  all  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  the  Christian  faith  and 
of  the  Lutheran  confession,  and  established  this  charge  from  his  wri- 
tings. As  was  expected,  this  step  was  followed  by  a  loud  cry  of  pas- 
sion in  all  the  newspapers,  and  even  Lutherans  (v.  Hofmann,  v.  Scheurl, 
Luthardt)  emphatically  disapproved  of  the  conduct  of  the  government 
as  departing  from  the  way  prescribed  by  the  church-order,  and  the 
consistorial  decision  as  being  based  on  misinterpretation,  arbitrary 
supposition  and  inference;  whilst  the  apologists  justified  the  conduct 
of  the  government  as  a  mere  administrative  measure,  and  endeavored 
to  prove  that  the  argument  of  the  decision  was  well  grounded  in  the 
principal  points.  —  In  the  Electorate  of  Hessia  the  high  ecclesiastical 
authority  reduced  in  1838  the  obligation  of  the  clergy  at  ordination  to 
conscientiously  regarding  the  confessions  of  faith.     The  distinguished 


d32       SECTION    III. FOURTH    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.  1  9    A.  D.) 

professor  of  law,  Bickell  of  Marburg,  saw  in  this  a  violation  of  eccle« 
siastical  right,  even  an  endangering  of  the  evangelical  church,  against 
which  the  advocate  HenJcel  in  Cassel  as  popular  agitator  protested,  and 
demanded  from  the  government  a  national  synod,  which  should  for- 
mally abolish  all   symbolical  books.     The  government  ignored   both 
demands,   and    the  violent  controversy  gradually   subsided.      Within 
a  few  years  the  question  of  confessions  entered  upon  a  new  stage.    It 
was  violently  disputed  as  to  which  confession  the  country  belonged. 
The  Landgrave  Moritz,  it  is  true,  forced  a  diluted  Calvinism  upon  the 
province  (<j  34,  1);  but  still  a  Lutheran  basis,  with  Lutheran  views, 
arrangements,   and    laws,   remained,    and    the   Lutheran  reaction  has 
never  been  entirely  subdued.     Only  the  province  Hanau  accepted  the 
Union   (1818).     Since  then  the  government  has  appointed   preachers 
and  professors  without  asking  about  their  creed.    The  ministry  of  Has- 
senvlug  (since  1850)  regarded  the  country  as  of  right  Lutheran,  and 
organized  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  this  sense.     The  consistorial  coun- 
cillor, Dr.  Vilmar,  was  the  right  hand  of  the  minister  in  this  matter. 
The  elector,  however,  was  not  very  friendly  to  this  movement  from  the 
beginning.     In   1855  the  ministry  was  overthrown,   and  Vilmar  was 
transferred  to  Marburg  as  professor  of  theology.  —  The  Grand-duchy 
of  Hessia  is  the  only  country  in  Germany  that  yet  possesses  a  rational- 
istic faculty  of  the  purest  water,  for  even  Jena  is  evidently  behind 
Giessen  in  this  respect.     But  a  decidedly  Lutheran  reaction  has  com- 
menced among  the  younger  clergy,  which  is  growing  in  strength  and 
extent.     The  High-consistory  is  active  in  promoting  peace  by  media- 
tion.    In  Reformed  Lippe  Detmold,  as  late  as  in  1844,  five  preachers, 
who,  becoming  tired  of  the  Illumination  Catechism  of  the  established 
church,  again  used  the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  and  protested  against 
the  abolition  of  swearing  adhesion  to  the  symbols,  were  punished  as 
disturbers  of  the  peace  of  the  church.     The  democratic  form  of  church 
government  of  1851  was  already  abolished  in  1854,  and  the  old  Re- 
formed church-order  of  1684  took  its  place.     At  the  same  time  reli- 
gious freedom  and  equality  were  guaranteed  to  the  Roman  Catholics 
and  Lutherans. 

4.  There  existed  in  Protestant  Wurtemberg  an  activity  of  the  religious 
spirit  in  the  national  life,  as  nowhere  else.  Pietism,  Chiliasm,  Sepa- 
ratism, the  conventicle  system,  etc.,  assumed  powerful  forms;  solid 
scientific  knowledge,  philosophical  culture,  and  lately  also  philosophical 
and  critically  destructive  tendencies,  forced  themselves  upon  the  clergy 
of  the  country  from  Tubingen.  The  dissatisfaction  with  many  of  the 
innovations  in  the  liturgy,  hymn-book,  etc.,  drove  many  from  the  esta- 
blished church.  After  the  adoption  of  forcible  measures  had  proven 
fruitless,  the  government  allowed  those  dissatisfied  to  establish  the 
congregation  at  Kornthal  with  a  peculiar  (ecclesiastical  and  civil)  con- 
Btitution  after  apostolic  example  (1818).  Others  emigrated  to  Southern 
Russia  or  to  North  America  (of.  \  GO,  concerning  the  Harmonites). 


PROTESTANT     ESTABLISHED     CHURCHES.  333 

Lately  a  society  for  the  gathering  of  the  people  of  God  in  Palestine  has 
been  formed  on  the  Salon  near  Ludwigsburg.  Its  object  is  to  gather  an 
emigration  of  believers  from  all  nations  (about  10,000  families)  for  the 
Holy  Land,  to  constitute  there  anew  a  people  of  God,  which,  upon  the 
foundation  of  the  prophets  and  apostles,  of  which  Christ  is  the  corner- 
stone, will  bring  into  full  authority  the  divine  law  of  the  old  covenant 
in  all  the  relations  of  life.  A  general  meeting  in  1854  in  order  to 
realize  this  plan,  appointed  a  committee,  published  a  programme  (in 
its  organ:  der  siiddeutschen  Warte),  and  requested  the  German  diet 
to  obtain  for  it,  from  the  Sultan,  permission  to  settle  in  the  Holy  Land 
with  self-government  and  religious  freedom.  Christopher  Hoffmann, 
brother  of  the  Prussian  general  superintendent  and  inspector  of  the 
institution  for  Home  Missions  at  St.  Chrisona  near  Basle,  was  the  head 
of  this  movement.  (He  wrote:  Gesch.  d.  Volkes  Gottes  als  Antwort 
auf  die  sociale  Frage.  Stuttg.  1855).  The  educational  institute  upon 
the  Salon  was  conducted  by  his  brother-in-law  Paulus,  nephew  of 
Paulus  at  Heidelberg.  The  committee,  instructed  to  wait  patiently, 
purchased  in  April  185G  the  estate  of  Kirsehenhardthof  near  Marbach, 
in  order  to  found  here  on  a  small  scale  a  preparatory  social  state  in 
strict  accordance  with  the  Mosaic  law.  At  the  beginning  of  1858  a 
commission  with  Chr.  Hoffmann  at  its  head,  went  to  Jerusalem,  to  re- 
connoitre the  country  for  the  speedy  colonization  of  the  people  of  God. 
But  the  results  were  so  unsatisfactory  that  they  were  compelled  for 
the  present  to  abandon  the  idea  of  emigrating  to  the  Holy  Land. — The 
gift  of  healing  the  sick  by  absolution  and  the  laying  on  of  hands  in 
connection  with  believing  prayer,  was  developed  out  of  the  pietistic 
and  earnest  pastoral  care  of  preacher  Blumhardt  of  Mottlingen,  in 
connection  with  the  healing  of  a  demoniac,  which  was  followed  by  a 
great  revival  in  the  congregation.  Blumhardt,  in  order  to  give  free 
scope  to  this  gift,  lately  purchased  the  bathing  establishment  at  Roll 
near  Gbppingen,  where  he  now  officiates  as  pastor  and  miraculous  phy- 
sician.— In  the  Grand-duchy  of  Baden  the  union  of  the  Lutheran  and 
Reformed  Church  was  accomplished  in  1821.  It  grants  normative  au- 
thority to  the  Augustana  (as  also  to  the  Lutheran  and  Heidelberg 
Catechism),  in  so  far  as  by  it  the  free  investigation  of  the  Scriptures, 
as  the  only  source  of  Christian  faith,  is  openly  demanded,  affirmed, 
and  applied.  A  synod  of  1834  provided  the  established  church  with 
union  rationalistic  principles  in  the  liturgy,  hymn-book,  and  catechism. 
When  at  the  beginning  of  1850  a  confessional  Lutheranism  began 
again  tc  manifest  itself  here  also,  the  united  church  combated  it  with 
gens-d;armes,  imprisonment,  and  fines.  The  preacher  Eichhorn,  and 
later  also  the  preacher  Ludivig,  seceded  from  the  established  church 
with  a  part  of  their  congregations,  and  connected  with  the  church 
college  of  Breslau,  but  were  only  able  to  serve  their  people  as  clergymen 
amid  unspeakable  vexations  on  the  part  of  the  police.  After  repeated 
rufusals,  the  grand-duke  finally,  in  1854,  granted  to  the  seceders  the 


334     SECTION    III. FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.   19  A    D.). 

permission  to  elect  a  Lutheran   pastor,  but  perseveringly  refused  to 
acknowledge  Eichhorn  as  such.     Preacher  Raag,  who  would  not  aban- 
don the  Lutheran  formula  of  distribution  at  the  Lord's  Supper,  was 
deposed  (1855)' after  earnest  warning.    On  the  other  hand,  the  positive 
churchly  movemen'  also  grew  stronger  in  the  established  church.     In 
1854  the  old  rationalistic  members  of  the  High-consistory  were  silenced, 
and  Ullmann  of  Heidelberg  became  its  head.     Under  his  auspices  a 
general  synod  (1855)  adopted  resolutions  to  introduce  new  church  and 
school-books  in  the  sense  of  the  Consensus-Union,  endeavoring,  at  the 
same  time,  to  accommodate  them  in   a  measure  to  Lutheran  views. 
The  grand-duke  confirmed  the  resolutions,  and  the  country  remained 
silent.     But  when  in  1858  the  High-consistory,  on  the  basis  of  the 
synodal  resolutions  of  1855,  promulgated  a  new  "  Kirchenbuch"  for 
general  introduction,  the  new  liturgical  innovations  which  it  contained 
(enlargement  of  the  liturgy  by  the  confession  of  sin  and  of  faith,  col- 
lects, responses,  lessons,  kneeling  at  the  Lord's  Supper,  assent  to  the 
confession  of  faith  by  sponsors),  aroused  a  violent  opposition  in  the 
country,  at  the  head  of  which  was  the  faculty  of  Heidelberg,  with  Dr. 
Schenkcl  as  leader.     The  grand-duke  decided  that  the  new  liturgy 
should  not  be  forced  upon  any  congregation  in  the  country;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  shorter  and  simpler  form  of  the  same  was  to  be  intro- 
duced when  it  could  be  done  then  or  later  without  force,  whilst  the 
larger  form  was  only  to  be  nsed  by  congregations  which  expressly  de- 
sired it. — In  Nassau  also,  which  also  accepted  the  Union,  a  Lutheran 
movement  of  emancipation  has  manifested  itself  within  the  last  few 
years,  but  it  has  been  repressed  by  police  measures. 

5.  In  Protestant  Switzerland  there  existed,  in  addition  to  the  luxu- 
riant growth  of  rationalistic  Illumination  and  radical  Liberalism,  a 
soil  receptive  for  Separatism  and  religious  fanaticism,  whose  first 
cultivation  has  been  attributed,  perhaps  not  unjustly,  to  Lady  von 
Krildener.  The  French  philosophy  of  the  18th  century  gave  the  Re- 
formed Church  of  Geneva  a  rationalistic  tendency,  and  the  venerable 
Compagnie  of  the  Genevan  clergy  could  venture  in  1817  to  impose 
upon  candidates  at  ordination  the  obligation  not  to  preach  on  the 
natures  in  Christ,  original  sin,  predestination,  etc.  But  this  state  of 
things  was  opposed  by  a  Methodism  (in  Geneva,  especially  also  in 
Lausanne)  transported  from  England,  whose  adherents,  nicknamed 
the  Momiers,  rebuked  the  apostacy  from  the  church  by  word  and  deed. 
In  Waadtland  the  Helvetic  Confession  was  abolished  in  1839  by  a  reso- 
lution of  the  chief  council,  and  in  1845,  when  a  radical  revolutionary 
government  got  possession  of  the  helm  of  State,  the  refusal  of  many 
clergymen  to  read  a  political  proclamation  of  the  government  furnished 
occasion  for  a  schism,  inasmuch  as  all  the  offending  clergymen  were 
dismissed  from  the  established  church.  Since  then,  in  addition  to  the 
established  church,  a  free  Waadtlandish  Church  has  existed  under  the 
oppression  and  persecution   if  the  radical  government.     In  the  chief 


PROTESTANT     ESTABLISHED     CHURCHES.         ooO 

council  of  Geneva  the  resolution  was  offered  in  1855,  to  separate  the 
church  entirely  from  the  State,  for  which  Al.  Vinet  (ob.  1847  as  pro- 
fessor at  Geneva)  contended  with  glowing  eloquence  during  his  whole 
life.  The  resolution  is  still  favored  by  many  earnest  Christians,  but 
it  has  finally  been  rejected  by  a  majority.  —  Among  the  German  Re- 
formed cantons  only  Basle  has  been  able  to  resist  the  introduction  of 
Rationalism  ;  but  that  the  people  also  in  other  cantons  are  not  willing 
to  give  up  the  faith  of  the  fathers  so  easily,  was  shown  in  1839,  when 
the  chief  council  of  Zurich  called  Dr.  David  Strauss  as  professor  of 
theology.  The  people  rose  as  one  man  against  this  measure  ;  the  ap- 
pointment failed  ;  the  chief  council  was  overthrown,  and  Zurich  even 
yet  pays  a  pension  to  Strauss.  A  similar  occurrence  took  place  in 
Berne,  upon  the  calling  of  Dr.  Zeller  to  the  theological  professorship 
there  in  1847.  The  opponents  of  this  movement  only  gained  insult 
and  persecution.  But  as  Zdler  even  was  not  radical  enough  for  the 
Radicals,  he  accepted  in  1849  a  professorship  of  philosophy  at  Mar- 
burg. In  Basle  the  exclusion  of  the  radically  infidel  candidate  Rumpf 
from  the  list  of  the  candidates  for  the  ministry  in  1858,  caused  a  great 
noise.  His  endeavor  to  be  restored  has,  meanwhile,  failed  in  the  chief 
council. 

6.  Only  the  name  of  a  protector  of  the  papal  chair  and  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  remained  to  the  Emperor  of  Austria  from  the  Roman 
empire.  The  remnants  of  the  church  government  of  Josephine  have 
since  her  time  been  gradually  removed,  and  Roman  Catholicism  has 
been  retained  as  the  State  religion ;  nevertheless,  the  government  of 
the  State  preserves,  in  opposition  to  all  hierarchical  claims,  its  inde- 
pendence, and  grants  toleration,  though  of  a  very  limited  kind,  to 
Protestantism.  The  storm  of  1848  first  removed  the  hated  name  of  the 
non-Catholics,  obtained  permission  to  place  bells  and  steeples  upon 
Protestant  houses  of  worship,  and  the  compliant  guarantee  of  many 
rights,  the  realization  of  which,  meantime,  has  been  greatly  hindered 
by  the  opposition  of  Roman  Catholic  magistrates  and  priests.  After 
that  the  government,  by  its  concordat  with  the  Pope  (1855),  granted 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  almost  unlimited  power  to  protect  and 
uphold  the  Roman  Catholic  established  church,  it  appeared  for  a  time 
a.s  if  it  was  honestly  disposed  to  protect  Protestantism  in  its  rights  of 
existence,  and  to  promote  its  progress.  In  fact  also  much  was  done  to 
promote  and  support  evangelical  churches  and  schools.  Even  the 
festival  of  the  Preformation  on  Oct.  31  was  allowed  to  be  publicly 
celebrated  in  Vienna.  But  the  repeated  refusal  to  permit  the  forma- 
tion of  branch  unions  of  the  Gustave-Adolphus  Society  (although  the 
acceptance  of  support  from  the  same  is  now  granted) — the  mainte- 
nance of  the  law,  that  Roman  Catholic  priests,  even  after  they  have 
formally  become  Protestants,  dare  not  marry,  because  the  character 
indelebilis  of  consecration  to  the  priesthood  still  adheres  even  to  apos- 
tates— and  many  other  things,  show  that  the  government  is  yet  far  from 


336     SECTION    III. FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.  19  A.  D.). 

placing  Protestants  on  an  equality  with  the  Roman  Catholics.  In  the 
Tyrolese  Zilicrthal  evangelical  truth  has  found  its  way  into  many 
families  through  Protestant  books  and  Bibles.  When  the  Roman 
Catholics  drew  the  reins  tighter  (1826),  these,  appealing  to  Joseph's 
edict  of  tolerance,  petitioned  for  permission  to  join  the  evangelical 
church.  The  Emperor  Francis  I.  promised  them  tolerance.  But  the 
Tyrolese  deputies  protested,  and  the  official  decree  which  finally  fol- 
lowed (1834)  commanded  them  to  emigrate  to  Transylvania  or  return 
to  the  Catholic  Church.  The  petitioners  now  sought  aid  through 
a  deputation  to  the  King  of  Prussia,  who  directed  them  to  colonize 
on  his  domain  of  Erdmannsdorf  in  Silesia.  Thither  399  of  the  exiles 
emigrated  in  1837  and  founded  a  new  Zillerthal,  richly  aided  by  royal 
munificence.  In  Bohemia  there  was  awakened,  with  the  enthusiasm 
for  the  national  institutions,  also  patriotic  religious  sympathies  for  the 
old  Hussiteism,  connected  with  many  transitions  to  the  Protestant 
Church.  In  Hungary  the  Diet  had  obtained  since  1833  full  equality 
for  the  Protestants  with  the  Roman  Catholics,  when,  in  consequence 
of  the  military  rule  of  the  Protestant  Haynau,  all  independent  life 
and  action  of  both  Protestant  churches  was  fettered  again  in  1850. 
Haynau's  decree,  it  is  true,  was  abolished  in  1854,  but  still  the  com- 
plete return  to  the  former  autonomy  of  the  churches  has  not  been 
secured  in  spite  of  all  petitions  and  deputations ;  and  the  difficulty  in 
the  way  has  been  increased  by  the  Hungarians  refusing  in  a  rough 
way  to  accept  the  plan  of  a  constitution  proposed  by  the  government 
in  1856.  In  Transylvania,  on  the  other  hand,  at  least  the  evangelicals 
of  the  Augsburg  Confession  rejoice  in  the  possession  of  perfect  eccle- 
siastical equality  and  independence  —  a  favor  which  has  but  lately 
been  conferred  on  the  Reformed  living  there. 

7.  Bavaria  under  King  Louis  was  the  shield  of  Roman  Catholicism 
in  its  extreme  ultramontane  form.  The  constitutionally  guaranteed 
religious  freedom  of  the  Protestants  was  in  many  ways  embarrassed 
and  limited  ;  and  great  as  were  the  necessities  of  the  Protestants  in 
Southern  Bavaria,  the  government  most  strictly  prohibited  them  from 
receiving  any  aid  from  the  Gustave-Adolpbus  Society.  King  Louis 
saw  even  in  the  name  of  this  society  a  reproach  of  the  German  name, 
and,  besides,  he  was  offended  at  its  vague,  negative  confessional  posi- 
tion. Nevertheless,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  give  a  peaceful  asylum  in 
Roman  Catholic  Bavaria  to  Scheibel,  who  was  driven  out  of  Lutheran 
Saxony  by  Prussian  diplomacy,  —  and  permitted  the  university  of 
Erlangen  (after  its  dead  spiritual  life  had  been  reawakened  by  the 
excellent  Reformed  preacher  Erafft  [ob.  1845]  )  to  become  the  centre 
of  a  strict  Lutheranisin  both  in  practical  life  and  in  science  for  all 
Germany.  The  kneeling  order  of  1838,  which  also  imposed  kneeling 
before  the  sanctissimum  upon  the  Protestant  soldiery  as  a  military 
salutation,  caused  great  dissatisfaction  among  the  Protestant  popula- 
tion, and  provoked  many  controversial  treatises  from  both  sides.   When 


PROTESTANT     ESTABLISHED     CHURCHES.        337 

finally  the  Diet  made  the  grievance  of  the  Protestant  delegates  its  own 
(1845),  a  royal  declaration  was  issued,  by  which  the  previously  exist- 
ing purely  military  salutation  was  restored.     After  that  the  ultramon- 
tane party  had  fallen  into  disfavor  by  its  honorable  course  in  the  Lola 
Monies  scandal  of  1847,  and  the  revolution  of  the  following  year  com- 
pelled King  Louis  to  abdicate,  the  Protestant  Church  of  Bavaria,  at 
the  head  of  which  Harless  stands  since  1852,  attained  to  the  full,  un- 
limited, and  undisturbed  enjoyment  of  its  rights,  under  the  reign  of 
the  noble  and  just  King  Maximilian.     The  general  synod  of  1853  (at 
Baireuth)  manifested,  under  Harless'  presidency,  a  thorough  earnest- 
ness in  the  work  of  reorganizing  the  established*  church.    On  the  basis 
of  its  transactions  the  High-consistory  ordered  the  introduction  of  a 
new  and  excellent  hymn-book.     This  already  caused  great  dissatisfac- 
tion among  the  unchurchly  Liberals,  but  was  at  length  carried  out. 
But  when  in  185G  the  High-consistory  published  a  series  of  ordinances: 
1.  An  instruction  concerning  the  order  of  worship  with  a  provisional 
liturgy;  2.  A  direction  concerning  the  restoration  of  church  discipline; 
3.  A  decree  concerning  the  regulation  of  the  confessional,  with  a  view 
to  the  reintroduction  of  private  confession  ;  4.  A  decree  to  guarantee 
the    clergy   against    improper    demands    in    reference    to    baptismal 
sponsors,    marriages,    funerals,    etc.  ;    and,    5.    finally    a    regulation, 
according  to  which  the  parties  to  be  married  were  required  to  appear 
personally  before  the  preacher  for  proclamation  of  the  bans,  —  then  a 
terrible  storm,  starting  at  Numberg,  broke  loose,  which  raged  through 
the  entire  country.     The  king  was  overwhelmed  with  petitions,  and 
the  High-consistory  went  so  far  in  almost  timorous  compliance  as  to 
make  the  acceptance  or  non-acceptance  of  its  regulations  optional  to 
the  congregations.     Meanwhile  the  time  for  holding  a  new  general 
synod  approached  (1857).     A  decree  of  the  royal  high-episcopate  abo- 
lished the  union  of  the  two  national  synods  into  one  general  synod, 
and  prohibited  all  discussion  concerning   church  discipline.     Conse- 
quently, instead  of  one  synod  two  assembled,  the  one  in  October  at 
Anspach,  the  other  in  November  at  Baireuth.     Both,  composed  of  an 
equal  number  of  temporal  and  spiritual  delegates,  took  a  very  honor- 
able and  moderate  course,  by  which  they  neither  prejudiced  the  rights 
of  the  church  nor  the  honor  of  the  High-consistory.     The  storm  has 
since  then  subsided  very  rapidly,  and  the  hopes  of  a  prosperous  pro- 
gress in  church  affairs  have  brightened. — An  imminent  division  of  the 
Lutheran  established  church  by  the  hyper-Lutheran  party  of  Lohe  in 
Neudettelsau  was   fortunately  averted  by  the  action  of  the  general 
synod  of  1853.     Lohe  and  his  party,  although  somewhat  sulky,  yet 
hoping  the  best  from   a  development  begun  so  vigorously,  retraced 
their  steps,  and  the  High-consistory  continued  its  indulgence  towards 
Lohe.     Finally,  however,  in  1858  it  quite  unexpectedly  set  bounds  to 
him  by  inflicting  on  him  a  sharp  reprimand  in  a  threefold  form  :  first, 
that  he  administered  the  annointing  with  oil,  although  not  as  a  sacra- 
72 


338 


SECTION    III. FOURTH    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.    19    A    D) 


ment,  to  a  sick  young  laiiy  staying  with  him,  yielding  to  her  appeals 

to  James  5  and  Mark  10;  —secondly,  on  account  of  introducing  auri> 
cular  confession  and  absolution  among  non-confirmed  youth;  —  and, 
finally,  on  account  of  an  instruction  concerning  the  exercise  of  church 
discipline,  which  he  himself  devised  and  carried  out  in  his  congreea- 
tion  on  his  own  authority.  Whether  the  rupture  which  has  long  been 
impending  will  finally  be  consummated  in  consequence  of  this,  is  yet 
to  be  seeu. 

The  government  has  also  acted  justly  towards  the  Reformed  and 
united  churches  of  the  country  by  appointing  a  Reformed  professor 
of  theology  in  the  Protestant  national  university.  The  Union  was 
accomplished  in  1818  in  the  Bavarian  Palatinate  of  the  Rhine,  with 
the  agreement  to  hold  the  symbolical  books  of  both  churches  in  proper 
esteem,  but  to  acknowledge  no  other  doctrinal  rule  than  the  Scriptures. 
Hereby,  it  is  evident,  the  door  was  opened  to  the  most  boundless  Ra- 
tionalism. The  general  synod  of  Anspach  in  1849  favored  the  country 
with  a  new  democratic  church  organization;  but  a  reaction  took  place 
here  also.  Since  1853,  the  consistory  of  Spire,  under  Ebrard's  leader- 
ship, brought  to  pass  the  meeting  of  a  general  synod  in  the  autumn 
of  this  year,  which  raised  the  Augustana  Variataof  1540,  as  embodying 
the  consensus  between  the  Augustana  of  1530  and  the  Heidelberg,  as 
also  the  Lutheran  Catechism,  as  the  banner  of  the  Palatinate  church. 
Since  then  the  consistory  has  proceeded  with  police  force  against  all 
those  preachers  who  preach  and  teach  the  Lutheran  doctrine  of  the 
Lord's  Supper;  and  when  Dr.  Hengstenberg  of  Berlin  opened  the 
columns  of  his  K-Zeitung  to  the  indignant  assaults  of  the  Lutherans 
on  this  despotic  union,  the  court  of  assizes  in  Zweibrucken  condemned 
him  in  contumaciam  (1854)  to  an  imprisonment  of  3  months  or  a  fine 
of  50  fl. ;  —  but  even  in  Zweibrucken  they  do  not  hang  a  culprit  until 
they  catch  him.  When  the  consistory,  in  pursuance  of  the  action  of 
the  general  synod  of  1853,  laid  the  plan  of  a  new  hymn-book  before 
the  diocesan  synods  (185G),  the  universal  indignation  of  the  liberal 
inhabitants  of  the  Palatinate  broke  out  in  a  terrible  storm,  on  account 
of  the  doctrines  imputed  to  them  in  it.  The  diocesan  synods,  however, 
acknowledged  the  necessity  of  a  new  hymn-book  and  the  appositeness 
of  the  plan  in  general,  but  they  recommended  another  revision  of  the 
same  and  the  addition  of  150  new  hymns.  The  radical  agitation  con- 
tinues to  the  present  time:  the  petition  to  the  king  to  annul  the  syno- 
dal resolutions  with  regard  to  it  has  been  denied  (1858). 

8.  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  (Cf.  II.  F.  Widen,  d.  Zust'ande  d. 
anglik.  K.  Lpz.  1843.  —  M.  Petri,  Beitr.  zur.  Wurdig.  d.  Puseyismus. 
Gottg.  18-13.  —  II.  R.  Weaver,  d.  Puseyism,  aus  d.  Engl.  v.  C.  Author. 
Lpz.  1844.  — .4.  F.  Gemberg,  die  schott.  Nationalk.  Ilamb.  1828.— 
K.  II.  Sack,  d.  K.  v.  Schottl.  Heidlb.  1844-48,  2  Bde.  — /.  Kbstlin,  d. 
schott.  K.  Hamb.  1852.  — PA.  Schqf,  Zust'ande  u.  Parteien'd.  engi. 
Staatskirche.     In  d.  deutsch.   Ztschr.  fur  chr.  Wsch.  u.  chr.  Leben, 


PROTESTANT     ESTABLISHED     CHUIiCHES.         331^ 

1855-53.) — A  Reformed  Protestant  and  a  Roman  Catholic  element 
have  been  combined  in  the  established  Church  of  England.  The  former 
appears  especially  in  the  doctrines  of  the  church,  the  latter  in  the  doc- 
trine concerning  the  church,  and  from  this  also  in  the  form  of  govern- 
ment (episcopal  succession  and  hierarchical  organization),  as  also  in 
the  worship  (liturgy  abundant  in  ceremonies).  Where  both  elements 
have  been  really  united  and  reconciled,  i.  e.,  where  the  one  has  pene- 
trated the  other,  an  internal  affinity  with  the  Lutheran  Church  lias 
been  manifested.  But  because  tliis  union  has  not  been  actualized 
fully  and  harmoniously  in  every  part,  the  two  elements  having  been 
rather  kept  asunder,  an  exclusive,  extreme  divergence  on  both  sides 
was  unavoidable,  as  was  also  the  result  very  soon,  on  the  one  side  re- 
presented in  the  Dissenters,  on  the  other  in  the  Romanizing  tendency 
of  the  Stuarts.  Since  the  political  parties  of  the  Tories  and  Whigs 
have  been  formed,  two  corresponding  parties  have  also  appeared  in 
the  established  church.  The  high-church  party,  which  has  its  influen- 
tial representatives  among  the  aristocracy,  detests  the  tendency  of  the 
Dissenters,  seeks  to  preserve  the  most  intimate  connection  between 
State  and  Church,  and  carefully  watches  over  the  preservation  of  all 
churchly  forms  and  institutions  in  government,  worship,  and  doctrine. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  evangelical  (or  low-church)  part;/,  which  is 
more  or  less  Methodistic,  sustains  the  most  active  intercourse  with  the 
Dissenters  (co-working  in  Home  and  Foreign  Missions,  etc.),  and  re- 
presents in  various  degrees  (even  to  the  extreme  of  Dissenters)  the 
claims  of  progress  against  those  of  stability ;  the  independence  and 
self-dependence  of  the  Church  against  identification  with  the  State ; 
evangelical  freedom,  and  the  universal  priesthood  of  Christians,  against 
orthodoxy  and  hierarchy.  The  active  life  of  the  Dissenters  and  the 
increasingly  close  connection  of  the  episcopal  evangelical  party  with 
them,  incited  also  in  modern  times  the  high-church  party  to  a  more 
powerful  protection  of  its  interests,  and  impelled  it  to  a  one-sided 
intensification  of  the  Roman  Catholic  element.  The  centre  of  this 
Romanizing  tendency  since  1833  is  the  university  of  Oxford.  The 
heads  of  this  movement  were  the  Professors  Pusey,  Newman,  etc. ;  its 
literary  organ  were  the  Tracts  for  the  Times  (whence  the  party  is  also 
called  Tractarians),  a  series  of  treatises  in  defence  of  Anglo-Catholi- 
cism, which,  in  adhesion  to  the  39  articles,  as  decidedly  defends  genuine 
Protestantism  against  the  Roman  papacy,  as  it  defends  genuine  Catho- 
licism against  every  kind  of  ultra  Protestantism  in  the  weight  which 
it  attaches  to  the  apostolical  succession  of  the  bishopric  and  priesthood, 
and  to  apostolical  tradition  in  behalf  of  exegesis.  In  this  way  also 
yvery  doctrine  was  approximated  to  those  of  the  Roman  Catholic  sys- 
tem, so  far  as  the  39  articles  would  possibly  allow  it.  This  tendency, 
called  Puseyism,  met  with  much  sympathy,  especially  among  the  higher 
clergy.  But  the  "No  popery"  principle  is  too  deeply  rooted  in  the 
English  nation,   not  tt    meet  Puseyism  with  great  indignation  and 


340       SECTION    III. FOURTH    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.  1 .    A.  D.)  . 

strong  opposition.     The  most  of  the  English  bishops  opposed  it  in 
pastoral  letters ;  Pusey  and  Newman  were  dismissed  From  their  posi- 
tions, but  the  university  still  adheres  to  its  tendency.     In  1845  New- 
man went  over  to  the  Romish  Church,  and  crowds  of  Puseyites,  espe- 
cially from  the  higher  aristocracy  and  clergy,  have  since  then  followed 
his  example.     But  this  apostaoy  only  served  to  increase  the  aversion 
of  the  English  people  to  Puseyism  and  Popery.     When  the  Vicar  Gor- 
Tiam  was  promoted   in  1847  to  a  bettor  position  by  the  crown,  the 
Puseyite  Bishop  of  Exeter  protested  against  it,  because  Gorham  dis- 
puted  the  doctrine  that  regeneration  takes  place  in  baptism.     The 
privy-council,  however,  as  the  highest  ecclesiastical  court,   declared 
him  to  be  orthodox,  and  appointed  him  in  spite  of  all  opposition.    This 
gave  the  episcopal  clergy  an  opportunity  to  urge  the  restoration  of  the 
Convocation,  a  kind  of  spiritual  parliament.     This  object  was  gained 
in  1854;  but  the  convocation  has  as  yet  been  able  to  accomplish  but 
little.    In  addition  to  the  pressure  to  obtain  the  recognition  of  baptism 
as  the  vehicle  of  regeneration,  the  zeal  of  the  high-church  clergy  for 
the  introduction  of  private  confession,   or  as   its  opponents   say,  of 
auricular  confession,  has  also  given  occasion  for  offence  and  contro- 
versy.   A  London  clergyman  named  Poole  was  deposed  on  this  account 
in  1858  by  his  bishop  ;  a  Vicar  West,  on  the  other  hand,  of  the  diocese 
of  Oxford,  was  acquitted  for  the  same  offence.  —  Besides  the  high-  and 
the  low-church  party,  a  third  one,  the  so-called  broad-church  party, 
has  made  itself  felt  within  a  few  decades.     It  traces  its  origin  to  the 
celebrated  philosopher  and  poet  Coleridge  {ob.  1834),  and  numbers  in 
its  ranks  many  of  the   most  respectable  and  learned  of  the  present 
clergy,  who  are  also  specially  distinguished  by  their  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  German  theology  and  philosophy.     They  do  not  form  an 
organized  church  party,  as  the  evangelicals  and  high-churchmen,  and 
do  not  propose  anything  of  the  kind  ;  nevertheless,  their  tendency  is 
directed  towards  removing  the  narrow-mindedness  and  exaggeration 
of  the  other  parties,  and  furnishing  a  broader  basis  and  clearer  horizon 
both   for   theology  and  the  church,  without  prejudicing  in   any  way 
either  the  authority  of  the  Scriptures  or  the  doctrines  of  the  Church. 
Lord  Russell's  university  bill  (1854)  opened  also  the  university  of  Ox- 
ford to  Dissenters  by  restricting  the  obligation  of  the  39  articles  to  the 
students  of  theology.     In  1857  the  introduction  of  a  new  divorce  bill, 
which  established  a  new  court  for  divorces,  granted  the  wife  the  right 
to  apply  for  divorce  in  case  of  incestuous  adultery,  bigamy,  and  mali- 
cious abandonment,  and  unconditionally  allowed  the  re-marriage  of 
those  divorced,  created  great  excitement  among,  and  called  forth  much 
opposition  from  the  high-church  party,  but,  nevertheless,  passed  both 
Houses  without  amendment.    The  admission  of  Jews  to  parliament  was 
also  accomplished  in  1858,  after  a  contest  extending  through  12  years, 
by  granting  to  both  Houses  the  right  to  admit  a  member  who  took  the 
oath  "  on  the  true  faith  of  a  Christian."     In  opposition  to  high-church 


PROTESTANT     ESTABLISHED     CHURCHES.         3 11 

Oxford  Rationalism  gained  ascendency  more  and  more  in  Cambridge, 
and  even  the  labors  of  the  Tlibingen-Baur  School  (§  56,  4)  find  enthu- 
siastic eulogists  in  the  Westminster  Review. 

The  Church  of  Scotland,  from  the  beginning  strictly  Calvinistic  in 
customs,  government,  and  doctrines,  has  also  preserved  this  character 
unimpaired  to  the  present  time.  The  difference  between  the  moderates 
and  the  evangelical  party  does  not  refer  to  doctrine,  but  only  to  govern- 
ment. The  latter  are  strict  Presbyterians,  and  opponents  of  the  right 
of  patronage.  Besides  the  Presbyterian  form  of  government,  there 
existed,  namely,  of  old  a  right  of  election  by  the  land  proprietor,  which 
was  often  exercised  to  intrude  obnoxious  clergymen  upon  the  congre- 
gations. The  General  Assembly  of  1834  granted  the  veto-power  to  the 
congregations,  but  the  civil  courts  protected  the  patrons  in  their  here- 
ditary rights.  At  a  meeting  of  the  General  Assembly  in  1843  about 
200  members  withdrew  on  this  account  from  the  Established  Church 
of  Scotland  as  Non-intrusionists,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  the  Free 
Church  of  Scotland,  which,  with  Br.  Chalmers  (ob.  1847)  at  its  head, 
has  exhibited  great  zeal  and  self-denial  in  establishing  parishes,  etc., 
and  is  now  in  a  prosperous  condition.  The  large  mass  of  the  people 
belong  to  it,  whilst  the  established  church  is  mainly  composed  of  the 
rich  landed  proprietors.  In  addition  to  these  two,  there  exists  also  a 
United  Presbyterian  Church,  which  is  supported  by  the  wealthy  middle 
class,  and  insists  upon  the  separation  of  the  Church  from  the  State.  A 
controversy  concerning  the  introduction  of  organs  into  the  churches 
has  been  carried  on  in  this  church  since  1856.  Three  churches  in 
Glasgow  have  received  permission  from  the  synod  to  introduce  organs 
under  certain  limitations.  More  important  is  the  controversy  concern- 
ing the  Lord's  Supper,  which  broke  out  in  the  established  church  of 
Scotland  in  1857.  Bishop  Forbes  of  Brechin,  in  an  address  to  his 
clergy,  which  was  published  later,  insisted  upon  the  necessity  not  only 
of  acknowledging  the  real  presence  of  the  true  body  and  blood  of 
Christ  in  the  Holy  Supper,  but  also  of  the  participation  of  the  same 
by  the  unbelieving.  The  other  bishops,  however,  at  a  synod  at  Edin- 
burgh, pronounced  this  doctrine  of  their  colleague  to  be  anti-Scriptural 
and  anti-Anglican,  against  which  55  presbyters  protested.  One  of 
these,  Patrick  Chei/ne  of  Aberdeen,  who  was  charged  with  holding  the 
doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  has  been  deposed  by  the  episcopal 
General  Synod,  because  he  would  not  rotract. — In  Ireland,  whose  Ro- 
man Catholic  population  has  been  greatly  decreased  by  constant  emi- 
gration, the  work  of  evangelization  prospers  without  interruption.  In 
England  and  Scotland  not  less  than  16  societies  exist,  which  labor  in 
this  work  by  missionaries,  itinerant  preachers,  colporteurs,  and  school- 
teachers, and  expend  yearly  $500,000  upon  it. 

9.  In  the  Netherlands  (cf.  A.  Kbhler,  die  niederl'andisch-reform.  K. 
Erig.  1856),  Rationalism  and  latitudinarian  Supranaturalism  have  so 
far  moderated  the  hostilities  existing  between  Reformed,  Remonstrants, 

72* 


342       SECTION    III. —  FOURTH    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.  19    A.  D.) 

MennonitcS,  and  Lutherans,  that  the  clergy  of  one  party  were  allowed 
to  preach  in  the  churches  of  the  other.     There  the  poet   William  Bil- 
derdijk,  driven  from  political  to  religious  patriotism,  arose  in  glowing 
anger  against  the  general  apostacy  from  Dort  orthodoxy.     Two  Jews 
converted  by  him,  Is.  da  Costa  and  the  physician  Cappadose,  power- 
fully supported  him.     A  young,  fiery  clergyman,  Henry  de  Cock,  be- 
came the  theological  spokesman  of  the  party.     Because   he  violated 
ecclesiastical  order  by  ministering  in  congregations  belonging  to  other 
clergymen,  he  was  suspended  and  finally  deposed  (1834).     The  largest 
portion  of  his  congregation,  and  with  him  four  other  preachers,  now 
solemnly  declared,  that  their  secession  from  the  apostatized  church  was 
a  return  to  the  orthodox  Reformed  Church.     They  were  punished  by 
fines  and  imprisonment  as  Separatists  and  disturbers,  and  were  finally 
satisfied  with  being   recognized,  by  royal  favor,  as  a  separate  Christian 
church  (1839).    It  was  composed  at  this  time  of  30  congregations.    The 
established  church,  on  the  other  hand,  perseveres  in  its  latitudinariau 
tendency.     There  exists  since  1850  a  free  synodal  system,  by  which 
the  church  is  governed.     The  general  synod  is  held  yearly  at  Hague. 
The  one  of  1853  declared  that  the  Netherland  Preformed  Church  did 
not  demand  from  its  teachers  agreement  with  all  the  doctrines  of  the 
symbolical  books,  but  only  with  their  spirit  and  essence.    The  so-called 
Grbninger    (humanistic)    school,   with    Schleiermacher's    fundamental 
tendency,  reigns  at  the  universities.     Its  chief  representative  is  Hof- 
stede  de  Groot.     The  largest  portion  of  the  clergy  still  belong  to  the 
old  moderate  rationalistic  tendency.     Theological  learning,  especially 
that  of  a  philologieo-historical  character,  still  flourishes  in  Holland. 

Subsequent    to    1790    Rationalism    has    also    prevailed    in    Den- 
mark.    In   1828  Professor  Clausen,  a  moderate  disciple  of  Neology, 
identified  Rationalism  and  Protestantism,  in  a  learned  work  ("  Katho- 
licism  u.  Protestsm."     Translated  from  the  Danish  by  Fries.     Latest 
edition  1828,  3  Bde.)     On  the  other  hand,  Pastor  Grundtvig,  "a  man 
of  poetical  talents,  and  learned  in  the  ancient  history  of  the  country," 
entered  the  lists,  equally  enthusiastic  for  the  Lutheranism  of  the  fathers 
and  for  patriotic  Daneism,  with  powerful  eloquence  and  with  the  charge 
of  apostacy  from  Christianity  and  the  Church.     He  was  condemned 
by  the  courts  as  an  injurer,   having  resigned  his  pastoral  office  while 
the  trial  was  in  progress.    The  same  fate  befel  the  orientalist  Lindberg, 
who  charged  Clausen  with  breaking  the  oath  of  his  office.    Grundtvig's 
adherents  worshipped  in  conventicles  until  he  obtained  permission  in 
1832  again  to  hold  public  worship.     The  Dano-mania,  which  increased 
beyond  measure  in  1848  and  1849  (during  the  warlike  conflicts  with 
Germany),  reconciled  enemies  and  alienated  friends.     Grundtvig  espe- 
•iallv  raged  senselessly  against  everything  German,  and  of  the  two 
'actors,  which  he  at  one  time  regarded  as  the  poles  of  the  world's  his- 
tory   ("  Weltchronik,"    transl.    by    Volkmar,    N'urnb.    1837),   namely 
Daneism  and  Lutheranism,  he  lately  abandoned  the  latter  as  being  of 


PROTESTANT    ESTABLISHED    CHURCHES.  343 

German  origin,  in  that  ho  desired  to  remove  the  German  Lutheran 
special  confession  of  faith,  placed  the  Apostle's  creed  before  and  above 
the  Scriptures,  and  wished  to  introduce  Scandinavian  mythology  into 
the  schools  as  Christian  propaedeutics.  The  Schleswig-Holsiein  rebel- 
lion of  1848  was  followed  by  a  boundless  distraction  and  destruction 
of  ecclesiastical  affairs  there.  More  than  100  German  pastors  were 
dismissed,  and  4G  Schleswig  parishes  were  deprived  of  the  use  of  the 
German  language  in  church  and  school.  All  efforts  of  the  states  to 
remove  the  prescription,  served  only  to  call  forth  new  brutality.  In 
1864  the  long  misused  provinces  were  released  from  Danish  authority 
by  the  allied  Austrians  and  Prussians,  and,  in  consequence  of  the 
German  war  of  18G0,  fell  to  the  domain  of  Prussia.  The  Baptistic 
movement,  which  is  continually  gaining  strength  in  Denmark,  was 
greatly  promoted  (1857)  by  a  law  which  abolished  the  compulsion  to 
baptism  in  the  established  church,  and  only  requires  that  all  children 
be  registered  in  the  church  register  within  a  year. 

In  Sweden  since  1803  a  quiet  and  useful  religious  communion  haa 
existed,  in  opposition  to  the  stiff  and  dead  orthodoxy  of  the  established 
church,  which,  if  characterized  by  pietistic  one-sidedness,  is  not  guilty 
of  a  heretical  departure  from  orthodox  doctrines.  Because  its  mem- 
bers diligently  read  the  Bible  and  the  works  of  Luther,  they  have  re- 
ceived the  name  Readers,  and  have  been  persecuted  by  the  established 
church,  by  virtue  of  the  old  law  against  conventicles  (172G),  with  im- 
prisonment and  fines,  and  by  the  mob  with  insult  and  abuse.  Although 
the  constitution  of  1809  guarantees  freedom  of  worship,  nevertheless 
the  old  rigid  laws  still  exist  in  full  authority  and  power,  according  to 
which  the  secession  of  subjects  from  the  Lutheran  established  church 
is  punished  with  imprisonment  and  exile,  with  the  loss  of  civil  reputa- 
tion and  of  the  right  of  inheriting.  Nevertheless,  within  several  years 
the  transitions  to  Roman  Catholicism,  to  the  Baptists,  and  even  to 
Mormonism,  have  greatly  increased.  Even  in  1858  six  women,  who 
were  converted  to  Roman  Catholicism,  were  mercilessly  banished  from 
the  country.  In  1857  the  king  laid  a  tolerance-act  before  the  Diet, 
which,  although  intolerant  enough  (excluding  all  converts  from  all 
civil  offices  and  reserving  their  children  for  the  established  church), 
was,  nevertheless,  rejected  by  the  states.  Religious  freedom  was 
proclaimed  by  law  in  18G9,  and  in  1870  admission  to  all  offices 
of  state  was  granted  to  Dissenters,  even  the  Jews  included.  — 
In  Norway,  where  the  State  is  much  less  identified  with  the  Church 
than  in  Sweden,  the  movement  among  the  people  started  by  the  farmer 
Niels  Hauge  (#  51,  4),  has  by  no  means  died  out.  But  with  Scandina- 
vian hatred  of  everything  German,  Grundtvig's  bran-new  theology  has 
also  been  imported  from  Denmark,  and  has  met  with  great  favor.    The 


814       SECTION    III. —  FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.  19    A.  D.) 

theological  faculty  at  Christiana,  however,  which  represents  in  scienc* 
and  practical  life  a  rigid  and  living  Lutherauism  of  the  German  stamp, 
is  opposing  it  with  energy  and  effect. 

10.  France  and  Belgium.  (Cf.  H.  Beuchlin,  d.  Christth.  in  Fr.  Hamb. 

1837. A.  Mader,  d.  prot.  K.  Frankreichs.  published  by  Gieseler.  Lpz. 

1848.  2  Bde.  —  Agenor  de  Gasparin,  Les  interets  generaux  du  Protes- 
tantisme  franc.    Par.   1843.     Transl.   by   Bunkel,   Essen,  1843.  —  A. 
Damnum,  d.  prot.  K.  in  Fr. ;  in  the  Ztschr.  fur  hist.  Theol.  1850.  I. 
E.  S.  die  rel.  Zusfande  in  Fr. ;  in  Gelzer's  Monatsblatt.  1853.)  —  The 
constitution  of  the  Restoration  in  France  (1814)  guaranteed  to  Boman 
Catholicism  the  authority  of  the  established  religion,  and  to  the  other 
confessions  the  protection  and  toleration  of  the  State.     But  Ultramon- 
tanism  of  the  most  violent  kind  began,  with  the  favor  of  the  govern- 
ment, to  oppress  Protestantism  in  every  way.     In  South  France  the 
hatred  of  the  Roman  Catholic  mob  broke  out  against  the  Reformed 
already  (1815)   in  bloody  persecution.      The  government  was   silent 
about  it  until  the  indignation  of  all  Europe  compelled  it  to  check  the 
evil ;   but  the  perpetrators  of  it  were  unpunished.     By  the  revolution 
of  July,  1830,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  again  lost  the  privileges 
of  the  established  church,  and  the  Protestants  obtained  the  same  rights 
with  the  Roman  Catholics.      But  also  under  the  new  constitutional 
government  Ultramontanism  again  made  itself  felt  with   effect;    the 
Protestants  complained  of  many  injuries  and  violations  of  rights  by 
Roman  Catholic  prefects;  and  under  the  Protestant  minister  Guizot 
France  assumed   the  protectorate  of  Roman  Catholicism   throughout 
the  whole  world.    Meanwhile,  the  Reformed  French  Church  nourished, 
even  though  placed  between  methodistic  one-sidedness  ami  rationalis- 
tic superficiality,  and  the  scattered  Lutheran  congregations  (in  Paris, 
etc.)  outside  of  Alsace,  also  prospered.    After  the  revolution  of  February, 
1848,  the  Lutherans   deliberated   on  a  new  organization    of  church 
affairs  at  a  general  synod  at  Strasburg,  and  the  Reformed  also  at  a 
council  at  Paris.     But  when  the  latter,  in  order  to  preserve  unity  of 
government  amid  diversity  of  doctrine,  resolved  to  disregard  symbol 
and  doctrine  in  the  matter,  Fr.  Monod  and  Count  Gasparin,  the  noble 
representative  of  French  Protestantism,  protested  against  such  a  course, 
and  formed,  with  about  30  congregations  of  stricter  views,  at  a  new 
council  in   Paris    (1849),  a  union  of  evangelical  congregations  with 
biennial  synods.     Louis  Napoleon,  by  the  decree  of  March  26,  1852, 
granted  to  the  Reformed  Church  a  central  council  at  Paris,  with  con- 
sistories and  presbyteries;  and  to  the  Lutheran  a  yearly  High-consistory 
as  legislative,  and  a  standing  directory  as  executive  council.     The  Lu- 
theran theological  faculty  at  Strasburg  represents  the  western  section 
of  Schleiermacher's  school.     The  academy  at  Montauban,  with  Adolf 
Monod  at  its  head,  represents  Reformed  orthodoxy— nevertheless,  with- 
out strict  confessionalism  and  with  a  piety  of  a  methodistic  type;  and 
C'oquerel  in  Paris  is  the  head  of  the  rationalistic  party  in  the  Reformed 


PROTESTANT  ESTABLISHED  CHURCHES.    345 

established  church.  The  reaction  against  Rationalism  was  led  since 
1830  by  the  "  Societe  Evangelique"  in  Paris,  which  in  addition  has 
assumed  the  work  of  protestantizing  France,  and  has  labored  quietly 
and  very  successfully  in  this  direction  by  colportage,  circulation  of 
tracts,  sending  forth  evangelists,  school  instruction,  etc.  It  has  been 
powerfully  supported  in  this  work  by  the  evangelical  society  of  Geneva. 
The  number  of  Protestant  clergymen  in  France  has  increased,  within 
50  years,  from  200  to  800 ;  and  every  year  new  evangelical  congrega- 
tions are  established,  in  spite  of  the  endless  difficulties  which  Roman 
Catholic  authorities  place  in  the  way.  Manifold  violations  of  right 
and  oppressions  are  still  practised.  In  Strasburg  (1854)  the  Jesuits 
prevailed  upon  the  Roman  Catholic  prefect  to  reclaim  and  take  pos- 
session of  the  revenues  of  the  former  Thomas  foundation,  which  had 
been  appropriated  since  the  Reformation  to  the  support  of  the  Protes- 
tant gymnasium.  However,  the  prefect  was  directed  from  Paris  to 
desist  from  his  claims.  In  his  address  from  the  throne  in  1858,  the 
emperor  declared  that  the  government  guaranteed  full  freedom  of 
worship  to  the  Protestants,  without,  however,  forgetting  that  Roman 
Catholicism  was  the  religion  of  the  majority;  and  the  Moniteur  ex- 
plained this  declaration  so  plainly  in  the  sense  of  the  Univers,  that  the 
prefects  could  not  be  in  doubt  how  to  understand  it.  Through  General 
Espinasse, — who,  after  the  unsuccessful  attempt  on  the  life  of  the  em- 
peror (Jan.  14,  1858),  officiated  for  a  time  as  Minister  of  the  Interior, 
—  the  prefects  were  expressly  directed  to  extend  their  watchfulness 
over  the  press  also  to  the  labors  of  the  evangelical  societies,  and  to 
prohibit  the  colportage  of  Protestant  Bibles.  However,  the  latter  was 
recalled  by  a  change  of  ministry,  and  permission  was  only  denied  to 
the  agents  of  foreign  Bible  societies.  —  In  Belgium  the  work  of  evan- 
gelization advanced  rapidly,  not  only  among  the  Walloons,  but  also 
among  the  Flemish  population,  so  that  from  year  to  year  new  evange- 
lical congregations  are  established,  in  spite  of  all  agitation  and  popular 
instigation  on  the  part  of  the  Ultramontane  clergy. 

11.  In  Italy  immigrant  Protestants  have  formed  evangelical  congre- 
gations at  Milan  and  Florence,  without  restriction  on  the  part  of  the 
government.  From  regard  to  diplomatic  intercourse  with  Prussia, 
England,  and  North  America,  Rome  and  Naples  have  also  permitted 
Protestant  embassy  chapels  to  be  built.  When  in  1848  the  hopes  of 
young  Italy,  which  were  built  on  Pius  IX. 's  national  sympathies,  were 
dissipated,  Protestant  sympathies,  nourished  by  English  travellers, 
Bibles,  and  tracts,  began  to  be  manifested  far  and  wide  in  Italy, 
which,  although  repressed  by  penalties  of  imprisonment,  are  still  in- 
creasing and  strengthening.  —  In  the  valleys  of  Piedmont  lived  the 
remnants  of  the  Waldenses  ($33,  2),  about  20,000  souls,  under  con- 
stant oppressions  and  persecutions,  which  were  only  restrained  by 
Prussian  and  English  intervention.  They  regarded  themselves  as 
being  a  branch  of  the  Reformed  Church;  and  having  been  enriched 


346   SECTION  III. FOURTH  PERIOD  (CENT.  19  A.  D.) 

since  the  Reformation  by  the  spirit  of  the  Genevan  Church,  they  de- 
signated themselves  as  eglise  evangelique  Vaudoise  at  a  synod  (1839), 
When  in  1848  the  crown  of  Sardinia  placed  itself  at  the  head  of  Ita- 
lian Liberalism,  religious  freedom  was  also  granted  to  them  with  all 
civil  rights.     Now   a  large  Waldensian  congregation  was  formed  in 
the  midst  of  the  city  of  Turin,  which  grew  rapidly  by  the  addition  of 
numerous  fugitives  from  the  rest  of  Italy.     But  in  1854  already  a 
division  took  place  between  the  elements  of  which  it  was  composed. 
Waldensian  orthodoxy  was  too  narrow-minded  for  the  liberalistic  Ita- 
lians.    A  former  Romish  priest,  Dr.  de  Sanctis,  took  the  lead  of  the 
discontents,  was  deposed  from  his  office  by  the  Waldenses,  and  formed 
an  independent  evangelical  Italian  congregation  with  a  rationalizing 
confession  of  faith.     But  in  spite  of  this  division  the  evangelization 
of  the  country  went  forward,  and  now  evangelical  congregations  exist 
in  all  the  principal  cities,  from  whence  also  a  number  of  rural  congre- 
gations have  already  been  established.— In  Tuscany,  where  in  a  liberal 
spirit  the  legislature  even  allowed  transition  to  Protestantism,  in  1852 
Francesco  and  Rosa  Madiai  were  compelled  to  atone  for  the  crime  of 
having  read  the  Bible  by  severe  punishment  in  a  house  of  correction. 
The  intervention  of  evangelical  unions  was  in  vain ;  equally  so  even 
the  intercession  of  the  King  of  Prussia.     Finally,  the  English  premier, 
Lord  Palmerston,  stimulated  by  the  public  opinion  of  England,  spoke 
an  earnest  word,  which  even  promised  in  the  worst  case  to  place  seve- 
ral ships-of-war  at  the  disposal  of  the  demands  of  Christian  humanity. 
The  grand-duke  now  rid    himself  of  the  two  martyrs  by  banishing 
them  from  the  country  in  1853  ;   and  Lord  Shaftesbury  organized  a 
society  at  Edinburgh,  the  object  of  which  is  to  prevent  the  occurrence 
of  similar  cases  by  all  means  allowed  by  the  Gospel.  —  In  Spain  also, 
where  a  large  number  of  Bibles,  tracts,  and  a  religious  paper  in  the 
Spanish  language  ("El  Alba"),  have  been  distributed  from  Gibraltar, 
Protestant  sympathies    are   not   wanting.— The  Lutheran  Church  of 
Russia,  embracing  about  2,500,000  souls,  received  a  common  church- 
order  and  liturgy :   the  latter  on  the  basis  of  the  old  Swedish  liturgy  ; 
the  former  with  the  requisition  that  all  teachers  of  religion  in  church 
and   school  adhere  to  the  Formula  of  Concord.  —  In  Poland  the  Re- 
formed and  Lutheran  Churches  were  united  since  1828  under  a  com- 
bined consistory.     The  independent  existence  of  both  churches  was 
restored  by  an  imperial  ukase  of  1849.     Protestants  as  well  as  Roman 
Catholics  rejoice  in  the  full  enjoyment  of  all  civil  rights,  and  in  the 
unlimited  freedom  of  worship,  although  they  deny  themselves  bells  on 
their  ohurch.es  in  inner  Russia;  and  children  of  mixed  marriages,  in 
which  one  party  belongs  to  the  orthodox  church,  are  adjudged  to  the 
latter  by  the  law.     The  Lutheran  Church  in  Livonia  (with  the  islam! 
of  Oesel)  sustained  an  important  and,  according  to  the  laws,  irrevoca- 
ble loss  in  IS  15  and  1846  by  the  large  transition  (60,000  to  70,000  souls) 
of  the  Lettonian  and  Esthonian  natives  to  the  orthodox  established 


PROTESTANT     ESTABLISHED     CHURCHES.        347 

church.  The  movement  did  not  extend  to  the  neighboring  provinces 
of  Courland  and  Esthonia.  In  order  to  remove  the  pressing  want  of 
churches  and  schools,  of  preachers  and  teachers,  existing  in  the  evan- 
gelical Lutheran  congregations  in  Russia,  an  Aid-society,  modelled 
after  the  Gustave-Adolphus  Society,  has  lately  been  formed  (1858) 
with  imperial  approbation,  under  the  direction  of  the  general  consis- 
tory at  St.  Petersburg;  which,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  will  not  fail  to  receive 
the  willing  and  hearty  co-operation  of  congregations  more  favorably 
circumstanced.  The  theological  faculty  of  Dorpat  has  been  allowed 
(1858)  to  publish  a  journal  for  theology  and  the  church,  which  is 
exempt  from  spiritual  and  temporal  censorship. —  In  Turkey,  English 
and  North  American  missionaries  labor  among  the  Armenians,  Maro- 
nites,  Greeks,  and  Jews.  Among  the  Armenians  in  Asia  Minor  there 
are  already  12  Protestant  congregations  ;  3  in  the  chief  city.  In  Con- 
stantinople there  are  10  Protestant  preachers  and  14  Protestant  schools, 
and  in  tlie  whole  empire  about  50  Protestant  congregations. 

12.  North  America*  The  United  States  of  North  America,  which 
demands  no  other  religious  guarantee  from  its  citizens  than  faith 
in  a  God,  embraces  the  most  heterogeneous  religious  tendencies 
churches,  and  sects ;  as  could  not  be  otherwise  from  the  peculiar 
origin  of  the  population.  As  the  settlers  frequently  left  their  native 
countries  from  religious  motives,  the  most  diverse  religious  parties 
were  gathered  here,  which,  especially  on  account  of  the  existing  de- 
fective theological  culture  and  the  sense  for  the  practical,  made  the 
country  the  theatre  of  religious  excitements  of  all  kinds;  among 
which  the  Revivals,  which  are  systematically  carried  on  by  many 
denominations,  play  so  prominent  a  part.  The  State  does  not  con- 
cern itself  at  all  about  religious  affairs,  and  permits  every  congre- 
gation to  care  for  itself.  Consequently  the  preachers  are  entirely  de- 
pendent on  the  congregations,  and  are  frequently  employed  by  the 
year.  Still  they  constitute  a  most  highly  respected  order,  and  churchly 
feeling  and  churchly  piety  are  nowhere  in  the  world  so  highly  and 
universally  valued  as  here.  About  800  new  Protestant  churches  are 
formed  on  an  average  every  year.  The  support  of  the  same  is  for  the 
most  part  provided  for  by  annual  fiee  contributions;  the  foundation 
of  a  permanent  church  property  is  pretty  generally  regarded  as  inex- 
pedient. Educational  affairs,  likewise  dependent  on  voluntary  co-ope- 
ration, are  in  general  still  very  defective  and  unsatisfactory.  The 
future  preachers  received  their  education  at  the  colleges  (higher  edu- 
cational institutions  of  a  more  general  tendency)  and  the  numerous 
theological  seminaries.  To  check  the  spread  of  intemperance,  which 
has  become  so  great  an  evil  through  immigrant  Irishmen  and  Germans, 

*  It  will  be  noticed  that  Dr.  Kurtz  is  hardly  correct  in  some  statements 
regarding  America,  e.  g.,  the  first  sentence  in  this  paragraph.  No  religious 
faith  is  required  for  citizenship. 


348         SECTION    III.  —  FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.  19  A.  D.) 

peveral  States  have  prohibited  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors,  even  of 
beer.  To  prevent  the  spread  of  Popery,  as  also  the  flooding  of  the 
country  by  Irishmen  and  wild  German  demagogues,  the  widely  rami- 
fied and  powerful  order  of  Know-Nothings  [now  entirely  defunct  in 
1861 — T r.]  has  been  formed  among  the  native  Anglo-Americans,  which 
proposes  to  deprive  Papists  and  foreigners  of  all  participation  in  the 
affairs  of  the  government.  Meanwhile,  the  party  has  divided  on  the 
Slavery  Question.  The  Southern  States  made  every  effort  to  preserve 
slaverj-,  which  is  so  indispensable  to  them,  and  succeeded  in  gaining  a 
brilliant  victory  through  the  Nebraska  bill  (1854).  "Within  the  last 
ten  years  a  crazy  belief  in  spirits  and  wonders  connected  with  table- 
turnings,  spiritual-knockings,  citation  of  spirits  and  miraculous  cures 
by  means  of  Magnetism  and  Somnambulism,  has  spread  in  an  epidemic 
way  under  the  name  of  Spiritualism.  A  multitude  of  journals  and 
books  serve  to  propagate  this  Spiritualism,  which,  with  its  three  mil- 
lions of  believers,  lias  almost  assumed  the  character  of  a  new  religion, 
with  new  revelations  far  exceeding  those  of  the  Prophets  and  Apostles. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  monetary  and  mercantile  crisis  towards  the 
close  of  1857  produced  a  religious  excitement  such  as  had  never  before 
been  experienced  even  in  America.  It  was  the  golden  age  of  Revivals, 
in  which  certainly  not  everything  that  glittered  was  gold. 

The  numerous  Protestant  denominations  may  be  divided  into  two 
chief  groups,  the  one  English,  the  other  German.  The  most  important 
of  the  first  group  are:  1.  The  Congregationalists  (Puritans,  Inde- 
pendents, cf.  |  19,  4).  Founded  by  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,  who  emigrated 
from  England  (1G20),  they  now  number  about  2,000,000.*  They  adhere 
to  the  Westminster  Confession  of  1042,  with  the  Calvinistic  doctrine 
of  predestination,  and  the  Zwinglian  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
German  orthodox  theology,  which  is  regarded  by  them  as  poorly  dis- 
guised Rationalism,  on  account  of  its  lax  principles  concerning  inspira- 
tion and  the  canon,  has,  nevertheless,  exerted  a  not  insignificant  influ- 
ence in  its  most  celebrated  seminary  at  Andover  through  Prof.  Moses 
Stuart.  2.  The  Presbyterians,  of  Scotch  origin,  numbering  about 
2,500,000  souls,  agree  with  the  Congregationalists  in  doctrine  and  con- 
fession, but  are  distinguished  from  them  by  a  common  church  govern- 
ment of  a  synodal  and  presbyterial  character.  Since  1837  they  have 
been  divided  into  an  Old  and  New  school ;  the  latter  of  which,  charged 
with  apostacy  from  strict  Calvinistic  orthodoxy,  does  not  hesitate  to 
co-operate  with  other  denominations  in  promoting  Christian  objects, 
whilst  the  former  is  more  exclusive.  The  principal  seminary  of  the 
latter  is  in  New  York,  that  of  the  former  at  Princeton.  Here  Dr.  Alex- 
dnder  taught,  a  man  well  acquainted  with  German  theology.  3. 
The  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  established  by  colonists  from  Hol- 
land, who  settled  on  the  Hudson  in  1609,  and  founded  New  York. 
It  is  closely  allied  with  the  Presbyterians.  It  has  long  since  per- 
mitted the  Dutch  lansniairc  and  Dutch  customs  to  fall   into  disuse:   on 

*  These  and  other  figures  are  incorrect,  unless  including  the  families  of  the 
church  members. 


PROTESTANT     ESTABLISHED     CHURCHES.  349 

the  other  hand,  it  adheres  with  great  tenacity  to  the  articles  of  the 
Synod  of  Dort.  It  numbers  130,000  members.  4.  The  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  (1,000,000  souls)  is  distinguished  in  general  by  a 
prudent  and  solid  churchliness.  Puseyism  has  also  crept  in  here,  and 
contributed  a  number  of  proselytes  to  the  Romish  Church.  5.  The 
Methodists  (about  2,000,000)  stood  also  here  in  a  connection  of  corres- 
pondence with  the  episcopal  mother-church.  But  when  the  country 
was  distracted  by  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  Wesley  (1784)  himself 
ordained  a  bishop  for  his  Methodist  societies  in  North  America,  which 
since  then  have  been  organized  as  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  into 
an  independent  denomination.  Their  influence  on  the  religious  life  of 
America  has  been  very  great.  They,  above  all  others,  have  displayed 
the  greatest  skill  in  Revivals,  but  the  excess  connected  with  them  from 
the  beginning  has  here  increased  to  an  almost  incredible  degree  through 
the  so-called  New  Measures  (protracted  meetings,  enquiry  meetings, 
camp-meetings,  etc.)  It  reached  its  height  in  the  so-called  camp-meet- 
ings,  which  are  frequently  held  by  itinerant  Methodist  preachers  in 
forests  under  the  free  heavens,  to  awaken  the  masses  of  the  people  who 
flock  to  them.  Day  and  night,  without  interruption,  they  pray,  sing, 
preach,  and  exhort ;  all  the  terrors  of  hell  are  evoked,  the  excitement 
increases  with  every  moment;  conflicts  of  repentance,  connected  with 
sighs,  sobs,  groans,  convulsions  and  spasms,  make  their  appearance ; 
divine  grace  finally  is  experienced ;  loud  rejoicings,  embracings,  and 
benedictions  of  the  converts,  mingle  with  the  groanings  of  those  still 
wrestling  for  grace  at  the  anxious  bench.  The  Methodists  themselves 
have  come  to  see  that  more  can  be  accomplished  by  the  old  measures 
than  by  the  new.  Since  1847  the  Methodist  Church  has  been  divided 
into  two  hostile  camps,  a  Southern  and  a  Northern  one.  The  first- 
named  tolerates  slavery,  whilst  the  latter  are  decided  abolitionists, 
and  excommunicate  every  slaveholder  as  an  unbeliever.  Another 
party,  the  Protestant  Methodists,  have  separated  on  account  of  the 
hierarchy  of  the  mother-church,  and  have  exchanged  the  episcopal 
form  of  government  for  a  congregationalistic  one.  6.  The  Baptists  * 
which  have  been  much  divided  among  themselves  by  sects,  number  in 
all  about  4,000,000  of  souls.  The  most  numerous  by  far  are  the  Cal- 
vinistic  Bajjtists.  Their  proselytism  is  as  great  as  their  zeal  in  heathen 
missions.  In  opposition  to  them  the  Free-will  Baptists  represent  Ar- 
minian  principles,  and  the  Christian  Baptists  or  Campbellites  have 
embraced  Unitarian  doctrines. 

The  German  emigration  to  North  America  began  even  in  Penn's 
time.  In  1742  there  were  already  100,000  Germans  in  Pennsylvania. 
In  addition  to  Zinzendorf  and  the  Moravian  missionaries,  the  Lutheran 
preacher  Dr.  Melchior  Muhlenberg  (ob.  1787),  a  pupil  of  A.  H.  Francke, 
and  the  Reformed  preacher  Michael  Schlatter  of  St.  Gallen  (the  former 
sent  out  by  the  Orphan's  House  at  Halle,  the  latter  by  the  Church  of 

*  There  is  not  and  never  has  been  anymore  connection  between  the  Regular 
Baptists  and  those  here  associated  with  them,  than  with  the  Methodists  or 
Lutherans.  The  first  are  the  most  numerous  of  all  Christian  denominations 
in  America,  save  the  Methodists. 


350      SECTION   III.  —  FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.    19    A.  D.) 

Holland),  labored  with  great  success  in  organizing  churches  among  these 
Germans.  The  Orphan's  House  sent  out  many  other  zealous  preachers, 
until  the  prevalence  of  Rationalism  also  broke  this  bond.  As  at  the  same 
time  also  the  stream  of  German  emigration  was  interrupted  in  its  flow, 
and  in  consequence  all  influence  from  the  mother  country  was  suspended, 
crowds  of  Germans,  carried  away  with  the  Revivals,  connected  themselves 
with  the  Anglo-American  denominations;  and,  besides,  with  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  English  language,  English  Puritanic  or  Methodistic  doctrines 
and  customs  were  also  introduced  into  the  German  denominations.  Since 
1815  German  emigration  again  commenced  and  increased  from  year  to  year. 
The  Lutheran  Church  in  the  United  States  numbers  (1876)  about  5000 
churches,  2500  preachers,  600,000  communicants,  and  55  synods.  A 
great  diversity  of  sentiment  exists,  particularly  regarding  the  authority 
of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  in  all  its  details.  During  the  last  ten  years 
the  chureh  has  been  divided  into  four  general  organizations,  representing, 
to  a  large  degree,  the  difference  of  doctrinal  views.  Some  ten  district 
synods  still  remain  unconnected  with  either  of  these. 

1.  The  General  Synod  (mainly  English),  organized  1820,  is  the  oldest 
general  organization  of  the  American  Lutheran  Church.  It  comprises 
twenty-three  synods,  in  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska;  with  1200  churches, 
800  preachers,  and  112,000  communicants.  As  to  doctrine,  the  General 
Synod  adheres,  in  the  main,  to  the  Augsburg  Confession,  permitting,  how- 
ever, diversion  in  what  are  considered  points  of  minor  importance.  The 
so-called  "  New  Measures  "  are  in  general  practice.  The  tendency  is  to  hold 
in  light  esteem  any  sacramental  efficacy  of  the  ordinances.  A  divinely  ap- 
pointed ministry  is  recognized,  which  is  regarded,  however,  in  no  sense  a 
hierarchy.  Members  of  Non-Lutheran  Churches  are  invited  to  the  com- 
munion table, and  Non-Lutheran  pastors  are  not  excluded  from  their  pulpits. 

2.  The  General  Council,  (English,  German,  and  Scandinavian)  was, 
formally  organized  at  Fort  Wayne,  Ind.,  1867.  As  early  as  1840  an  ener- 
getic movement  appeared  against  New  and  in  favor  of  Old  Lutheranism. 
This  movement  culminated  in  the  withdrawal  of  the  Old  Lutherans  from 
the  General  Synod,  who,  in  1867,  constituted  The  General  Council,  com- 
prising (1876)  some  ten  synods  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Michigan,  Texas,  Tennessee,  and  Canada;  with  1000  churches,  500 
preachers,  and  150,000  communicants.  As  to  doctrine,  the  members  of 
this  branch  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  America  cling  to  the  ".unadulterated 
Augsburg  Confession  in  its  original  meaning,"  recognizing  its  complete 
harmony  with  the  Word  of  God.  They  reject  unionism  and  the  "New 
Measures"  in  every  form. 

3.  The  General  Synod  in  North  America  (South),  (English,)  was  organized 
in  1863,  shortly  after  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war.  It  comprises  (1876) 
five  synods  in  Virginia,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Mississippi ;  with 
200  churches,  100  preachers,  and  12,000  communicants.  It  accepts  the 
Augsburg  Confession,  and  is  confessionally  somewhat  in  advance  of  the 
General  Synod,  from  which  it  separated. 


PROTESTANT   THEOLOGY   IN   GERMANY.  351 

4.  The  Synodical  Conference  was  organized  in  1872,  and  comprises  six 
synods  in  Missouri,  Ohio,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota;  with  1500 
churches,  900  preachers,  and  240.000  communicants.  It  accepts  all  the 
Symbolical  Books  of  the  Lutheran  Church. 

5.  The  Unorganized  Synods  are  ten  in  number,  viz. :  German  Synod  of 
Iowa,  Tennessee  Synod,  Synod  of  North  Carolina,  Hauge's  Norw. 
Synod  in  America,  Buffalo  Synods  (two),  Concordia  Synod,  Va.,  Confer- 
ence for  Nor.  Dan.  Lutheran  Church  in  America,  Swedish  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Mission  Synod  (North-West),  Norwegian  Danish  Aug'stana 
Synod  (North-West). 

The  German  Reformed  Church,  embracing  about  1,000,000*  souls,  has  its 
principal  seminary  at  Mercersburg  in  Pennsylvania.  Its  confession  of  faith 
is  the  Heidelberg  Catechism;  its  theology  at  this  time  a  sprout  of  German 
evangelical  Union  theology,  but  of  a  positive  character.  Mercersburg  theology 
has  lately  been  charged  by  Anglo-Americans  with  being  of  a  Romanizing 
tendency,  because  one  of  its  most  able  teachers,  Dr.  John  W.  Nevin,  a 
born  Anglo-American  and  Presbyterian,  defended  the  Calvinistic  doctrine 
concerning  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  since  then  he  has  certainly  fallen 
into  a  Puseyistic  current  through  patristic  studies,  and  regards  North 
American  sectarianism  as  the  Protestant  Antichrist.  Having  been  several 
times  complained  of  before  the  synod,  he  resigned  his  office  in  1851,  and 
there  is  great  anxiety  to  see  whether  he  will  follow  Newman's  example. 
Although  accordingly  the  Union  theology  is  predominant  as  well  among 
the  Reformed  as  among  the  Lutherans,  still  a  "  German  Evangelical  Union 
of  the  West "  was  formed  at  St.  Louis  in  1841,  which  would  dispense 
with  the  names  Reformed  and  Lutheran.  It  has  established  a  seminary 
at  Marthasville  in  Missouri.  — Besides  these,  there  are  represented  in 
North  America  of  the  older  German  sects,  the  Moravians,  the  Mennonites, 
the  Dunkers,  and  the  Swedenborgians.  Of  more  modern  date  are  several 
German  Methodist  sects:  1.  The  "  United  Brethren  in  Christ"  with  500 
preachers,  originated  by  a  Reformed  preacher,  W.  Oiterbein  (ob.  1813). 
2.  The  "  Evangelical  Society,'"  commonly  called  Albrights,  originated  by 
Jacob  Albright,  originally  a  Lutheran  layman,  who  was  ordained  (1803) 
by  his  own  adherents,  with  200  or  300  Methodistic  preachers.  3.  The 
German  Methodists,  an  integral  member  of  the  Episcopal  Methodist  Church. 
At  its  head  stands  Dr.  Nast  of  Cincinnati;  they  possess  an  active  mis- 
sionary for  Germany  in  L.  S.  Jacoby  in  Bremen.  4.  The  Winebrennaria?is, 
or  the  Church  of  God,  established  by  an  excommunicated  German  Reformed 
preacher  of  this  name  (18o9).  They  run  the  Methodistic  per  force  method 
of  conversion  into  the  wildest  extravagances,  and  are  besides  fanatical 
opponents  of  infant  baptism.  *See  note  p.  348. 

I  56.  PROTESTANT  THEOLOGY  IN  GERMANY. 
Cf.  Kahnis  u.  Ficker,  11.  cc.  at  \  50.     K.  Schwarz,  zur  Gesch.  d.  neuest. 
Theol.     Lpz.  1856. 

The  proper  founder  of  modern  Protestant  theology,  an  Origen 
of  the  19th  century,  was  Sddelermacher.  His  influence  was  so 
manifold,  far-reaching,  and  lasting,  that  it  not  only  extended 


352       SECTION    III. FOURTH    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.      9    A.D.) 

over  his  own  school,  which  even  yet  gives  character  to  theological 
science,  but  also  over  all  other  tendencies  and  schools  even  into 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  ;   and  that  in  him,  as  once  in  Origen, 
almost  all  distinctive    and    constructive   tendencies  which    have 
since  then  been  unfolded,  were  originally  comprehended.    By  the 
side  of  the  old   unbelief,  which  is  now  characterized  as   vulgar 
nationalism,  which  still  possesses  its  renowned  representatives, 
Be  Wete  established   the  new  school   of  historico-critical  na- 
tionalism, and  A.  Neander  the  pietistic  supranaturalistic  school, 
which  soon  surpassed  both  of  the  older  schools  of  rational  and 
of  suprarational  supranaturalism.    This  modern  pietistic  school 
received  a  theosophic  complexion  through  the  senator  John  Fred, 
von  Meyer  of  Frankfort.     But  the  Union  became  for  it  a  rock 
of  offence,  against  which  it  railed,  and  upon  which  it  broke  to 
pieces.     K.  Hase  represented  a  philosophico-cesthetical  Ration- 
alism, which,  it  is  true,  did  not  establish  a  school  of  its  own,  but 
nevertheless  exerted  a  great  influence  in  ennobling,  deepening, 
and  quickening  the  religious  consciousness  of  the  German  nation. 
K.  Daub  established   on   the   basis   of  Schilling's   and   Hegel's 
philosophy  a  flourishing   school   of  speculative  theology  of  an 
orthodox  tendency.     But  soon  after  Hegel's  death  it  was  divided 
into  a  right  and  left  wing.39  The  former  was  not  able  to  maintain 
itself,  and  its  disciples  connected  themselves  with  other  schools ; 
the  latter,   laying  aside  speculation  and  dogmatics  for  a  time, 
applied  itself  to  the  critical  investigation  of  the  early  history  of 
Christianity,   and   established   the   new   Tiibingen-Baur  school. 
Schleiermacher's  school  was  also  divided  into  a  right  and  left 
wing.      Both  took  the  Union  for  their  banner  ;   the  right  wing, 
however,  which  claim  the  exclusive  right  of  being  "German" 
and  "  modern"  theology,  wished  to  have  a  Consensus  Union  with 
a  Consensus  symbol ;  the  left,  on  the  other  hand,  a  Union  with- 
out a  confession.     Finally,  within  the  last  thirty  years,  a  strict 
Lutheran  tendency,  incited  by  Pietism  to  piety,  forced  by  the 
Union  to  the  consciousness  of  the  high  significance  of  the  speci- 
fically Lutheran  confession,  and  qualified  by  scientific  culture  for 
the  conflict,  also  made  itself  felt  in  theological  science.     The 
•   task  which  was  proposed  to  this  tendency,  was  nothing  less  than 
again  to  connect  the  development  of  Lutheran  theology  where 
after  Bengel  and  Crusius  it  had  been  broken  off  by  Rational- 
ism, and  to  improve  it  further  in  the  spirit  of  Luther,  J.  Ger- 
hard and  Bengel,  with  the  abundant  means  of  modern  science. 


PROTESTANT    THEOLOGY    IN    GERMANY.  353 

The  centre  of  this  tendency  is  the  university  of  Erlangen. — 
Outside  of  Germany  theological  science  is  in  a  far  lower  con- 
dition. All  able  theological  contributions  have  received  their 
nourishment  from  German  science. 

1.  The  Founders  of  the  Theology  of  the  Nineteenth  Century. — Schleier- 
macher  (ob.  1834),  who  was  independent  of  every  philosophical  school 
then  existing,  and  thoroughly  educated  in  philosophy,  stands  forth  in 
the  first  third  of  this  century  as  the  renewer  and  prince  of  theological 
science.  He  received  from  the  Moravian  Church,  under  whose  influ- 
ence he  was  educated,  a  deep  and  personal  devotion  to  the  Saviour, — ■ 
although  he  was  repelled  by  Moravian  narrow-mindedness  ; — and  from 
the  Reformed  Church,  in  which  he  was  horn,  a  clear  and  sharp  intel- 
lectual tendency  for  science  and  practical  life.  Fred.  Ernst.  Ditn. 
Schlelermacher  (since  1810  Prof,  at  the  newly  established  university 
of  Berlin)  entered  upon  his  high  career  already  in  1799,  by  the  publi- 
cation of  his  five  "  Reden  iiber  die  Religion  an  die  Gebildetcn  unter 
ihrer  Yer'achtern".  It  is  true,  he  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  the 
barbarous  lamentations  with  which  the  fanatics  of  the  old  faith  would 
again  cry  up  the  fallen  walls  of  their  Jewish  Zion  ;  and  he  made  no 
objection  that  his  hearers  rejected  the  doctrines  and  dogmas  of  reli- 
gion, and  would  not  believe  in  miracles,  revelation,  and  inspiration  ; 
but  he  would  have  them  to  offer  reverently  with  him  an  offering  to  the 
manes  of  the  rejected  Holy  One,  who  stood  forth  full  of  religion  and 
of  the  Holy  Ghost; — in  short,  it  is  not  Biblical,  and  much  less  churchly 
Christianity,  which  he  would  preach  into  the  heart  of  the  German 
nation  with  glowing  enthusiasm,  hut  Spinozian  Pantheism.  The  fun- 
damental idea  of  his  life,  that  God,  "  the  absolute  unity,"  could  nei- 
ther be  comprehended  in  thought  nor  seized  hold  of  by  the  will,  but 
could  be  apprehended  only  by  feeling  as  direct  self-consciousness,  and 
consequently  that  feeling  was  the  proper  seat  of  religion,  was  even 
then  the  essence  of  his  doctrines.  In  the  following  year  (1800)  he 
proposed  his  moral  stand-point  in  five  "  Monologues."  Every  man 
should  represent  humanity  in  his  own  way,  in  his  own  blending  of  its 
elements,  in  order  that  it  might  manifest  itself  in  every  manner,  and 
everything  become  real  in  the  fulness  of  space  and  of  time,  that  can 
proceed  as  heterogeneous  out  of  its  bosom.  At  the  same  time,  but 
anonymously,  appeared  also  his  "Vertrauten  Briefe  uber  (SchlegeFs 
notorious)  Lucinde,"  which  Gutzkow  republished  (1835)  as  a  prophecy 
of  the  carnal  religion  of  young  Germany,  with  scoffing  leers  at  Schleier- 
macher's  pious,  white-clothed  subjects  for  confirmation.  The  study 
and  translation  of  Plato,  in  which  Schleiermacher  was  now  engaged 
for  several  years,  exerted  a  mighty  influence  on  the  form  and  contents 
of  his  thinking.  He  approached  nearer  and  nearer  to  positive  Onris- 
tianity.  In  his  "Weihnachtsfeier  1806,"  an  imitation  of  the  Platonic 
banquet,  Christ  is  represented  as  the  heavenly  centre  of  all  faith.  In 
73* 


354      SECTION    III  —FOURTH   PERIOD    (CENT.    19   A.  D.) 

1811  appeared  the  "  Kurze  Darstellung  des  theol.  Studiums,"  in  whicli 
he  organizes  theological  science  with  a  master's  hand,  according  to  his 
fundamental  religious  views.  When  in  1817  the  King  of  Prussia  raised 
the  banner  of  the  Union,  Schleiermacher  stood  in  the  front  rank  of  its 
champions.  In  1821  he  published  finally  the  chief  treatise  of  his  life: 
"  Der  chr.  Glaube  nach  den  Grundsatzen  der  evang.  K.  im  Zusammen- 
hange  dargestellt.  3.  A.  1835.  2  Bde."  That  feeling  is  the  seat  of  all 
religion,  is  also  the  fundamental  thought  of  this  important  treatise; 
but  religious  feeling  is  for  him  not  merely  sense  and  taste  for  the  infi- 
nite, hut  the  immediate  consciousness  of  absolute  dependence  on  God. 
Jesus  Christ,  the  original,  pattern  man,  in  whom  the  consciousness  of 
God  resided  in  absolute  power,  redeemed  the  world  by  the  life  which 
proceeded  from  him,  in  that  he  liberates  the  God-consciousness  of  his 
believers,  who  are  enslaved  by  the  sensual  consciousness  and  therefore 
stand  in  need  of  redemption.  It  is  consequently  the  work  of  dogma- 
tics to  explain  scientifically  the  Christian  consciousness  as  it  exists  as 
a  fact  in  the  life  of  the  believer ;  it  is  not  its  work  to  prove,  to  esta- 
blish, but  only  to  unfold  and  to  explain  what  exists  as  a  fact  in  the 
soul  in  its  connection  with  the  entire  spiritual  life  ;  Avherefore  dogma- 
tics have  nothing  at  all  to  do  with  philosophy.  lie  demonstrated  the 
evangelical  Protestant  character  of  the  doctrines  of  faith  thus  deve- 
loped, by  citations  from  the  confessional  works  of  both  churches.  But 
notwithstanding  the  assurance  that  his  dogmatics  were  independent 
of  every  system  of  philosophy,  his  contemporaries  thought  they  disco- 
vered therein  a  large  portion  of  Spinozian  pantheistic  leaven ;  and  it 
can  scarcely  be  denied  that  strong  sympathies  with  the  stand-point  of 
his  earlier  years  exist  in  them.  But  by  the  side  of  his  profound  theo- 
logy of  feeling  there  resided  in  Schleiermacher  also  another  mental 
tendency,  namely,  that  of  a  sharp,  analyzing  intellectual  criticism, 
to  which  he  subjected  not  only  single  dogmatic  tenets  of  the  Church 
(concerning  the  difference  between  the  Sabellian  and  Athanasian  view 
of  the  Trinity:  concerning  the  doctrine  of  election,  etc.),  but  also  the 
canon  of  the  Scriptures,  as  also  the  evangelical  accounts  of  the  begin- 
ning and  end  of  Christ's  life,  birth,  and  ascension  (Ucber  d.  s.  g. 
ersten  Brief  des  Paulus  an  d.  Timoth.,  1807;  Ueber  die  Schriften  dea 
Lukas,  ein  krit.  Yersuch,  1817).  His  lectures,  which  embraced  almost 
all  branches  of  theology  and  philosophy  (Dialectics,  Ethics,  Politics, 
^Esthetics,  Pedagogics,  etc.),  and  his  other  posthumous  writings,  as 
also  his  sermons,  have  been  collected  in  his  "  S'ammtlichen  Werke, 
1835  ff." 

By  the  side  of  Schleiermacher  in  Berlin,  and  in  various  ways  incited 
and  enriched  by  him,  labored  Aug.  Neander  since  1812 ;  who  exerted, 
it  is  true,  a  much  less  intensive,  but  a  much  greater  extensive  influence 
than  he,  for,  since  the  times  of  Luther  and  Melanchthon,  no  theologi- 
cal teacher  had  more  devoted  and  reverent  pupils  than  Neander.  He 
entered  into  Schleiermacher's  theology  of  feeling,  and  transformed  it 


PROTESTANT    THEOLOGY    IN    GERMANY.  355 

into  a  theology  of  the  heart  ("Pectus  est,  quod  theologum  facit").  By 
his  subjective  theology  of  the  heart  he  became  the  progenitor  of  modern 
scientific  Pietism ;  but  it  also  incapacitated  him  from  understanding 
the  pressure  of  the  age  to  regain  an  objective  and  firm  basis.  At  the 
same  time,  also,  the  philosophy  of  conception,  which  spread  so  power- 
fully immediately  around  him,  was  not  less  odious  to  him,  than  the 
Confessionalism  which  in  part  proceeded  from  his  own  school ;  and  the 
less  he  was  able  to  retard  its  progress,  the  more  his  peculiar  tendency 
of  mind  inclined  to  morbid  irritation  and  austere  exclusiveness,  even 
to  the  "fanaticism  of  mildness  and  the  intolerance  of  tolerance".  Ho 
was  so  entirely  a  Pectoralist,  that  even  his  criticism  was  only  a  criti- 
cism of  feeling ;  and  this  was  manifested  nowhere  more  arbitrarily 
than  with  regard  to  the  historical  books  of  the  New  Testament,  where 
he  wavers  continually  between  authenticity  and  non-authenticity,  be- 
tween history  and  myth  (Gesch.  d.  Pflanzung  u.  Seitung  der  K.  durch 
die  Apostel.  1832.  A.  A.  1837.  2  Bde.;  most  of  all  in  the  "Life  of 
Christ."  1837.  4.  A.  1845).  Concerning  the  most  important  work  of 
his  life,  the  "History  of  the  Church."  cf.  g4,  4.  Vol.  I.  He  has  also 
acquired  great  reputation  through  monographic  investigations  in  the 
sphere  of  church  history  (Kaiser  Julian  a.  s.  Zeitalter,  1812;  der  h 
Bernhard  u.  s.  Zeitalt.  1813.  2.  A.  1848  :  Genetische  Entwickl.  d.  vop 
nemst.  gnost.  Systeme,  1818  ;  Der  h.  Chrysostomus  u.  d.  K.  sr.  Zeit 
1821.  3.  A.  1848.  2  Bde.;  Antignostikus  od.  Geist,  des  Tertullian 
1826.  2.  A.  1849  ;  Denkwurdigkk.  aus.  d.  Gesch.  d.  Christth.  u.  d.  chr 
Lebens.  1822.  3  Bde.  Kl.  Gelegenheitsschriften.  3.  A.  1825  ;  Wissen 
schaftl.  Abhandl.  1851).  Neander  died  in  1850,  and  F.  W.  Krumma- 
cher  laments  at  his  grave  the  "  last  church-father"  ;  whilst  K.  Scliwarz 
characterized  him  as  a  Protestant  monk,  whose  cloister  was  the  world 
of  the  inner  man.  His  lectures  on  the  history  of  doctrines  were  pub- 
lished by  J.  L.  Jacobi.  2  Bde.  1857  f.  (Cf.  0.  Erabbe,  A.  N.  Hamb. 
1852.) — The  noble  senator  John  Fred.  v.  Meyer  is  worthy  of  a  place 
here  as  the  originator  of  a  theosophic  current  in  pietistic  and  even 
confessional  Lutheran  theology.  He  repeatedly  filled  the  office  of  a 
president  of  the  civil  court,  as  also  that  of  the  first  burgomaster  of 
Frankfurt-on-the-Maine,  and  Erlangen  conferred  upon  him,  in  1821, 
the  honorary  title  of  D.D.  He  died  in  1849.  He  owes  his  theosophio 
tendency  especially  to  the  study  of  the  Kabbala.  He  also  published 
"The  Book  of  Jezira,  in  Heb.  and  Ger.,  1830."  His  principal  work 
is  :  "  Die  h.  Schrift  in  berichtiger  Uebers,  mit  kurzen  Anmerkk.  1819" 
(3d  edition,  1855,  edited  by  R.  Steir).  He  is  pretty  reserved  with  his 
theosophic  views  in  his  "  Inbegriff  der  chr.  Glaubenslehre,  1832"; 
less  so  in  his  "  Blattern  fur  hohere  Wahrheit,  11  Bde.  1820-32". 

An  important  influence  was  exerted  on  the  development  of  modern 
theology,  especially  critical  theology,  by  William  Mart.  Lebr.  de  Wette. 
He  was  called  (1810),  at  the  same  time  with  Schleiermacher,  to  the 
newly  founded  university  of  Berlin;    but  a  letter  of  consolation  to 


356         SECTION    III. —  FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.  19    A.  D.). 

Sand's  mother,  which  was  regarded  as  an  apology  for  assassination, 
oaused  his  removal  from  Berlin  in  1810.  Since  1822  he  labored  un- 
weariedly  to  his  death,  at  Basle  (1849).  His  theological  views  were 
rooted  in  the  philosophy  of  his  friend  Fries,  to  which  he  adhered  until 
his  death.  Still,  Schleiermacher's  friendship  also  exerted  an  important 
influence  upon  him  He  also  placed  the  essence  of  religion  in  feeling, 
which  he.  moreover,  connected  mo~e  closely  with  knowledge  and  the 
will.  He  recognized  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  an  important  sym- 
bolical investiture  of  religious  truth,  on  which  account  he  was  decried 
for  a  long  time  by  the  Rationalists  as  a  mystic.  His  great  strength, 
however,  consisted  in  the  sharp,  analyzing  criticism  with  which  he 
treated  the  biblical  canon  and  the  biblical  history  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament;  his  commentaries  on  the  whole  of  the  New  Testament,  to 
which  he  devoted  the  latter  years  of  his  life,  are  of  permanent  worth 
(Exeget.  Handbuch  zum  N.  T.  3  Bde.)  At  this  period  also  he  approxi- 
mated nearer  and  nearer  to  positive  Christianity,  attaining  even  to 
greater  prudence  in  the  sphere  of  criticism.  He  was  exceedingly  fruit- 
ful as  an  author,  and  his  works  are  upon  various  subjects.  He  began 
his  career  as  an  author  with  the  "  Krit.  Yersuche  Ii.  d.  Glaubwiirdigk. 
d.  Bd.  d.  Chronik  mit  R'ucksicht  auf  die  mosaischen  Bd.  1806."  Then 
followed:  "Die  Kritik.  d.  israel.  Gesch.  1807;  Der  Comment,  zu  d. 
Psalmen.  1811,  u.  o  ;  Die  Bibelubersetzung  (at  first  in  connection  with 
Augusti,  the  2d  edition  by  himself  alone)  ;  De  morte  Christi  expiatoria, 
1813  ;  Lehrb.  d.  chr.  Dogmatik.  1813,  2  Bde.  ;  Lehrb.  d.  hebr.  jlid. 
Arch'aologie,  3  A.  1842 ;  Ueber  Religion  und  Theologie,  2  A.  1821 : 
Christi.  Sittenlehre,  1819  ff.  3  Bde. ;  Lehrb.  d.  Einl.  ins  A.  3  A.  1845, 
and  ins  N.  T.  4  A.  1848  ;  Theodor,  od.  des  Zweiflers  Weihe,  2  A.  1828," 
and  many  others.  —  The  mental  tendency  of  Charles  Hase  is  related 
with  that  of  De  Wette,  although  less  critically  analyzing,  more  aesthe- 
tically trained,  and  less  one-sided  as  regards  philosophy.  His  connec- 
tion Avith  the  Burschenschaft  led  to  an  imprisonment  of  five  months  in 
the  castle  of  Hohenasperg  (1822).  He  labored  since  1830  in  Jena.  He 
was  also  incited  by  Fries'  philosophy,  but  Fichte,  Schelling,  and 
Schleiermacher,  as  well  as  Romantic  national  literature,  exerted  a 
strong  influence  upon  his  rich  spirit.  He  regarded  Christ  as  the  ideal 
man,  sinless,  endowed  with  the  fulness  of  all  love  and  with  the  power 
of  pure  humanity,  as  having  truly  risen  from  the  dead,  and  as  the  be- 
ginner of  the  new  life  in  the  kingdom  of  God,  whose  entire  character 
is  most  purely,  profoundly,  and  truly  represented  in  the  gospel  of  John, 
who  reclined  on  the  Master's  bosom.  He  unfolded  his  religious  views 
in  the  treatise  :  "  Des  alten  Pfarrers  Testament,"  1822  ;  further,  in  his 
"Gnosis,  1826,  3  Bde.,"  calculated  for  the  learned,  in  his  "Lehrb.  d. 
ev.  Dogmatik,  1825,  4.  A.  1850,"  and  in  his  "  Leben  Jesu,  1829,  3.  A. 
1853."  His  "  Ilutterus  redivivus,  1828,  9.  A.  1858,"  in  which  he  en- 
deavors to  exhibit  old  Protestant  (Luth.)  dogmatics,  as  Ilutterus,  if  he 
now  lived,  would  have  done  it,  provoked  the  most  violent  attacks  from 


PROTESTANT     THEOLOGY     IN     GERMANY.  357 

Rbhr  and  his  clique,  and  led  him  to  publish  the  "  Theologischen 
Streitschriften,  3  Hefte,  1834-37,"  by  which  vulgar  Rationalism  received 
its  death-blow.  (Concerning  Hase's  Church  History,  cf.  \  4,  4,  Vol.1.) 
Equally  fresh,  spirited,  and  attractive,  are  his  monographs  from  Church 
History  ("  Neue  Propheten :  die  Jungfrau  v.  Orleans,  Savonarola,  die 
munsterschen  Wiedertaufer,  1851 ;  Franz  von  Assisi,  ein  Ileiligenbild, 
1855;  Diebeiden  Erzbischofe,  1839;  D.  geistl.  Schauspiel,  1858,"  etc.) 
In  his  letter  to  Baur  concerning  the  Tubingen  School  (1855)  he  en- 
deavors to  mediate,  with  a  full  acknowledgment  of  the  efforts  of  Tubin- 
gen, and  labors  to  save  at  least  the  authenticity  and  credibility  of  the 
fourth  Gospel. 

2.  Rationalistic  Theology.  — Its  principal  organs  were  Bohr's  Krit. 
Predigerbibliothek  since  1820,  and  Ernst  Zimmermann's  Allgem. 
(Darmst'adter)  Kirchenzeitung  since  1822.  The  former  adhered  to  its 
end  to  the  imperfectibility  of  the  nationalism  of  the  ancien  regime ; 
the  latter  became  continually  more  orthodox  within  the  last  40  years 
(since  Charles  Zimmermann  alone  edited  it,  the  ambiguous  vignette 
of  the  three  clasped  hands  with  the  motto  "We  all  believe  in  one  God" 
also  received  a  decidedly  Christian  definiteness  by  the  addition  of  the 
crucifix.  It  is  at  this  time,  under  Schenkel's  editorship,  the  organ  of  a 
Melanchthonianism  zealous  for  the  Union).  The  rationalistic  theology 
of  this  period,  however,  divides  into  an  old  and  a  new  school.  The 
former,  to  which  Bheinwald  gave  the  classic  name  of  Rationalismus 
vulgaris,  is  characterized,  on  the  one  hand,  by  the  unimprovableness, 
with  which  it  permitted  all  the  currents  of  the  new  spirit  in  philosophy 
and  theology,  in  science  and  national  literature  to  pass  by  Avithout 
having  its  poverty  enriched  the  least  thereby  or  being  in  the  least- 
disturbed  in  its  self-sufficiency, — and  on  the  other  hand,  by  the  naive 
conviction  that  its  water  of  illumination  was  identical  with  the  genuine 
water  of  life  of  the  holy  Scriptures,  on  which  account  it  continued 
with  touching  perseverance  to  distil  the  spirit  out  of  it  by  exegetical 
arts,  and  to  offer  the  remaining  phlegma  for  sale  as  the  tincture  of  life. 
Its  contributions  consequently  have  only  worth  at  present  for  a  cabinet 
of  antiquities  or  of  curiosities.  The  new  school,  on  the  contrary,  which 
we  may  designate  as  historico-critical  Rationalism,  is  characterized  by 
a  more  objective  investigation  of  the  Bible  and  of  history,  and  does  not 
conceal  from  itself  or  from  others  the  exclusive  antithesis  existing  be- 
tween Biblical  and  its  rational  theology,  and  it  even  takes  pleasure  in 
making  this  antithesis  appear  as  glaring  and  sharp  as  possible.  As 
besides,  its  investigations  are  conducted  in  part  at  least  with  distin- 
guished knowledge  of  language  and  of  history,  with  great  penetration 
and  thoroughness,  many  of  its  theological  contributions  have  a  perma- 
nent worth. 

The  father  of  the  Vulgar  Rationalism  of  this  period  was  John  Fred. 
Bohr,  general  superintendent  at  Weimar  [ob.  1848).  His  "  Brief'e  liber 
Rationalismus  (1813)  "  laid  down  the  famous  doctrine,  that  "  the  wealth 


358       SECTION    III. —  FOURTH    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.  Id    A.  D.) 

of  a  farmer-general "  was  necessary,  in  order  to  resign  an  office  incon- 
sistent with  one's  own  conviction.    In  the  "  Grund-und  Glaubens-s'atzeu 
der  ev.  prot.  K."  lie  sketched  a  new  symbol,  with  the  sweet  hope  of 
thereby  supplanting  the  old  ones,  and  he  contended  with  great  enthu- 
siasm for  "  The  good  cause  of  German  Catholicism  (184(5)."     Eberh. 
Gottl.  Paulus  (ob.  1851,  aged  90  years)  contended  by  his  side  to  his  last 
breath  for  the  sole  supremacy  of  intellectual  faith,  which  Marheineke 
defined  as  a  faith  which  believes  that  it  thinks  and  thinks  that  it  be- 
lieves, but  is  equally  unable  to  do  either.  His  "  Philol.  krit  Commentar 
zum  N.  T."  interpreted  all  the  accounts  of  the  miracles  of  the  N.  T.  with 
incredible  ingenuity,  as  being  merely  misunderstood  narrations  of  per- 
fectly natural  events.     He  also  was  enthusiastic  for  German  Catholi- 
cism.    Jul.  Aug.  Ludw.  Wegscheider  of  Halle  (ob.  1849)  dedicated  his 
"  Institutiones  theol.  christ.  dogmaticae  ( 1815,  8.  A.  1844),"  which  treated 
the  dogmatic  proof-texts  of  the  Bible  as  Dr.  Paulus  treated  the  mira- 
cles, to  the  piis  Manibus  Lutheri.    Charles  Gottl.  Brefschneider,  general 
superintendent  of  Gotha  [ob.  1848)  began  as  a  moderate  supranaturalist 
(Entwickl.  aller  in  d.  Dogm.  vorkommenden  Begrifle  1805),  but  ad- 
vanced in  the  various  editions  of  his  "  Handb.  d.  Dogmatic  (1814,  4.  A. 
1838)  nearer  and  nearer  to  Vulgar  Rationalism,  wdiose  perfection  is 
already  represented  in  his  "  Grundlage  des  ev.  Pietismus,  oder  Lehre 
von  Adam's  Fall."  etc.  etc.  (1833).     He  also  wrote  several  poor  ration 
alistic  romances  (Heinrich  u.  Antonio  od.  d.  Proselyten  ;  der  Freiherr 
v.  Sandan  od.  d.  gemischten  Ehen  ;  Clementine  oder  die  Frommen  u. 
Altgl'aubigen  unsrer  Tage).     He  also  rendered  important  service  by 
his  "Corpus  Reformatorum,"  which  thus  far  (Bd.  26)  only  embraces  Me- 
lanchthon's  works.      Ghristoph.  Fred.  v.  Ammon,  Reinhard's  successor 
at  Dresden  [ob.  1850),   also  followed  in  the  same  way  from  rational 
Supranaturalism    (Summa  theologian ;    Bibl.   Theol.;    Handb.  d.  chr. 
Sittenlehre,  etc.  etc.)  through  all  possible  deviations  to  Vulgar  Ration- 
alism (Fortbildung  des  Christenthums  zur  Weltreligion,  4  Bde.)     In 
his  "  Leben  Jesu,"  however,  he  has  finally  placed  himself  on  D.  Strauss' 
stand-point.     But  on  the  other  hand  also,  when  Harms  published  his 
theses  (1817),  he  commended  them  "as  a  bitter  medicine  for  thoso 
weak  in  faith  of  our  time,"  for  which  he  was  compelled  to  hear  hard 
words  from  Schleiermacher. 

Next  to  De  Wette  among  the  representatives  of  historico-criiical  Ra- 
tionalism stands  G.  Bened.  Winer  of  Leipsic  (ob.  1858),  the  founder  of 
the  "Grammatik  des  N.  T.  Sprachidioms"  (6.  A.  185G),  by  which  phi 
lological  thoroughness  and  acumen  were  first  brought  to  the  interpre- 
tation of  the  N.  T.  His  "  Handb.  der  theol.  Literature,"  and  especially 
his  "  Real-lexicon"  (3.  A.  1847)  are  master-pieces  of  true  German  indus- 
try combined  with  admirable  acuteness.  K.  Fr.  Aug.  Fritzche  of  Giessen 
pushed  the  philological  acuteness  of  interpreting  the  N.  T.  to  the  most 
extreme  one-s'.dedness  (Commentare  zum  Matth.,  Mark,  u.  Romerbr.). 
K.  A.  Credner  of  Giessen  (ob.  1857)  contributed  much  that  was  excel- 


PROTESTANT  THEOLOGY  IN  GERMAN*.    359 

lent  to  the  isagogics  of  the  N.  T.     David  Schulz  of  Breslau  (ob.  1854), 
a  violent  opponent  of  the  evang.  Kirchenzeitung  and  of  the  Silesian 
Lutherans,  to  whom  their  persecution  is  in  great  part  chargeable,  de- 
fends  his   superficial   Rationalism   in   the  "  Christl.   Lehre  vom   heil. 
Abendm.,"  and  in  the  "  Christl.  Lehre  vom  Glauben  ; "  his  colleague,  D. 
G.  C.  v.  Colin  (ob.  1833)  elaborated  Munscher's  "  Dogmengeschichte,"  and 
left  behind  a  "  Bibl.  Theologie"  (edited  by  D.  Schulz,  1836).      William 
Gesenius  of  Halle  (ob.  1842)  acquired  a  high  reputation  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  philological  study  of  the  O.  T.  by  his  Hebrew  grammars 
and  lexicons.     His  commentary  on  Isaiah  (3  Bde.  1821)  contains  able 
historical  studies.  —  From  his  school  proceeded  Ft.  Tuck  of  Leipsic 
(Comment,  zur  Genesis)  and  Aug.  Knobel  of  Giessen  (der  Prophetismus 
der  Ilebriter ;  Coram,   zum  B.  Koheleth,   zur  Genesis,   zum  Exod.  u. 
Leviticus;  die  Volkertafel).     Ilerm.  Hup/eld  of  Marburg  and  Halle, 
although  contending  on  Bickell's  side  in  the  controversy  about  symbols 
in  the  electorate  of  Hesse  ( 1838,  cf.  §  55, 3),  nevertheless,  fell  into  the  toils 
of  Rationalism  through  his  seienceoftheO.T.(Kritikd.  Genesis;  defesto- 
rum  apud  Hebr.  ration* ;  Coram,  zu  d.  Psalmen,  2  Bde.  etc. )  Fred.  Hilzig 
of  Zurich  excels  them  all  in  boldness  of  criticizing  acuteness  and  conform- 
ing with  the  spirit  of  the  rationalistic  interpretation  (BegriffderKritik 
am  A.  T.  errbtert,  1831 ;  Urgesch.  u.  Mythologie  der  Philisfaer,  1845; 
Commentare  zum  Isaiah,  d.  Psalmen,  d.  12  kl.  Proph.,  Jer.,  Ezech.,' 
Daniel,  Pred.  Sal.;  John,  Marcus  u.  s.  Schriften,  1843,  etc. ).-!-. Henry 
Eioald  of  Gottingen,  whose  hand  is  against  every  man,  and  every  man's 
hand  against  him,  is  the  acknowledged  dictator  in  the  sphere  of  Hebrew 
grammar,   practises  on  the  Biblical  books  a  criticism  arbitrary  and 
subjective  beyond  description,  but  not  on  this  account  with  the  less 
presumption  of  being  omniscient  and  infallible ;  holds  yearly  in  his 
*.'  Jahrbuchern  der  bibl.  Wissenschaft"  an  auto-da-fe  over  the  collected 
theological  and  biblical  literature  of  the  departed  year ;  and  issues  — 
being  a  prophet  as  well  as  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah— in  every  preface  a 
prophetical  burden  against  the  theological,  ecclesiastical,  or  political 
mischief-makers  of  our  times.     He  has  acquired  a  high  reputation  in 
the  virtuosoship  of  low  abuse  and  slander,  and  the  old  saying  of  the 
Caliph  Omar  "  either— or  "  is  actualized  annually  in  his  "  Jahrhlicher". 
It  is  a  pity  that  a  moral  earnestness  so  able  has  evaporated  in  the  most 
boundless  pride ;  that  a  spirit  so  powerful,  rich,  and  noble,  has  gone 
to  ruin  in  the  most  fathomless  subjectivism.     His  works  (Composition 
d.  Genesis,  1823  ;  Hebr.  Grammatik,  1827,  6.  A.  1856  ;  Hohelied,  1826; 
Comm.  in  Apocalypsin,  1828 ;  Die  poetischen  Bb.  d.  A.  T.  4  Bde.  2.  A.' 
1840 ;  Die  Propheten  d.  A.  Bundes,  2  Bde.   1840 ;  Gesch.  d.  Volkes 
Israel  bis  auf  Christus,  7  Bde.,  2.  A.  1851  ff. ;  Gesch.  Christus  u.  si\ 
Zeit.  2.  A.  1857  ;   Gesch.  des  apost.  Zeitalter,   1858  ;  Die  drei  ersten 
Evangelien,  1850  ;  Die  Sendschreiben  des  Ap.  Paulus,  1857  ;  Das  Buch 
Henoch,  1854;  Die  sibyllinischen  Blicher,  1859)  nevertheless,  contain 
much  that  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  is  suggestive  and  full  of  spirit 


3G0      SECTION    III. —  FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.   19    A.  D.) 

More  judicious  arc  the  contributions  of  his  disciple  Ernst  Bertheau  of 
Gottingen  (Zur  Gesch.  d.  Israeliten,  1842;  Comment,  zu  den  Spruchen 
Sal.,  zur  Chronik.  zu  den  Richtern,  etc.)  Ccesarv.  Lengerke  of  Konigs- 
berg  also  (ob.  1855),  who  experienced  the  pain  of  being  compelled  to 
withdraw  from  the  professorship  of  the  literature  of  the  Old  Testament 
in  favor  of  his  antipode  H'avernick,  and  of  retiring  into  the  philoso- 
phical faculty,  connected  himself  in  his  later  writings  with  Ewald,  but 
also  did  not  disdain  in  his  eompilatory  way  to  use  with  rare  candor 
even  Hengstenberg's  writings  (Comment,  zum  Daniel,  1835  ;  Kenaan 
oder  Gesch.  Israels,  Bd.  I.  1843  ;  Comment,  zu  d.  Psalmen,  2  Bde. 
184G).  Otto  Thenius  has  also  made  himself  known  as  an  able  inter- 
preter of  the  Old  Testament  (Die  Bb.  Sam.  u.  d.  Konige,  1842-49). 
Olto  Fridolin  Frifzsche  of  Zurich  has,  in  connection  with  William 
Grimm  of  Jena,  rendered  important  service  in  the  interpretation  of 
the  Apocrypha  of  the  0.  Test.  (Exeg.  Handb.  1851  ff.).  Yet  worthy 
0^  special  mention  as  interpreters  of  the  0.  Test,  are  Gust.  Baur  of 
Giessen  (Amos,  1847)  and  Aug.  Simsou  of  Konigsberg  (Hosea,  1851). 
To  the  Church  historians  in  this  rubric  belong  /.  E.  Chr.  Schmidt  of 
Giessen  (ob.  1831),  Leber.  Danz  of  Jena,  and  above  all  J.  C.L.  Gieseler 
of  Gottingen  [ob.  1855).     (Cf.  §  4,  Vol.  I.) 

3.  The  Supranaturalistic  Schools.  —  So-called  Rational  Supranatu- 
ralism  is  characterized  by  the  acknowledgment  of  supernatural  reve- 
lation in  the  Scriptures,  but  regards  reason  as  being  a  source  of  reli- 
gious knowledge  of  equal  authority  with  it,  and  consequently  asserts 
the  rationality  of  the  contents  of  revelation.  Its  chief  representatives 
are:  H.  Gottl.  Tzchimer  of  Loipsic  (ob.  1828),  (Briefe  liber  Reinhard's 
Gesfandnisse ;  Katholicismus  u.  Protestantismus  vom  Standp.  d.  Poli- 
tik;  Forts,  von  Schroekh's  K.  G. ;  Gesch.  d.  chr.  Apologetik,  Bd.  I.; 
Der  Fall  des  Hcidth,  Bd.  I.,  published  by  Niedner;  Vorless  liber  d. 
GlaubensL,  published  by  Hase),  /.  Aug.  Heinr.  Tittmann  of  Leipsic 
(ob.  1831),  (Pragmat.  Gesch.  d.  Theol.  u.  Rel.  since  1750;  Ueber  Su- 
pranaturalism.,  Rationalism,  u.  Atheism.),  E.  Fred.  Charles  Rosen~ 
mutter  of  Leipsic  (ob.  1835),  (Scholia  in  V.  T.  23  Bde.  ;  altes  u.  nenes 
Morgenland  :  Handb.  d.  bibl.  Allerthuinsk.,  etc.),  Chr.  Fr.  Ulgen  Of 
Leipsic  (ob.  1834),  (Founder  of  the  hist,  theol.  Ztschr.),  L.  Fr.  Otto 
Baumgartcn-Crusius  of  Jena  (ob.  1843),  (Grundzlige  d.  bibl.  Theol.  ; 
Lehrbuch  u.  Compendium  d.  Dogmengesch. ;  Ueber  Gewissensfreiheit, 
Lehrfreih.  u.  ii.  d.  Ratlsm.  u.  s.  Gegner ;  Theol.  Comment.  Zum  Ev. 
Joh.,  etc.)     Amnion  can  also  be  classed  with  these. 

Supranaturalism  proper  (suprarational)  was  also  represented  by 
Starr,  Reinhard,  Planck,  Staiidlin  (§  50,  G).  Storr's  school  prevailed 
in  Wurtemberg  for  30  years.  Its  organs  were  :  Bengel's  Archiv.  1816— 
26;  klaiber's  Studien  d.  ev.  Geistlk.  Wlirtb.  1827-35,  and  Steudel's 
Tlibinger  Ztschr.  f.  Theol.  1828-35  ;  its  most  distinguished  representa- 
tives were:  /.  Fr.  v.  Flatt  (ob.  1821),  (opponent  of  Kant's  philosophy)  ; 
E.  Gottl.  v.  Bengel  (ob.  182G) ;  /.   Christ.   Fred.   Sleudel  (ob.  1837), 


PROTESTANT     THEOLOGY     IN     GERMANY.  361 

(Glaubenslehre;  Bibl.  Theol.  d.  A.  T.,  etc.)  The  excellent  II.  Leonh. 
Heubner,  director  of  the  seminary  at  Wittenberg  (06.  1853),  was  Rein- 
hard's  disciple,  and  he  was  also  the  most  able  and  churchly  of  the 
older  Supranaturalists.  /.  Chr.  William  Augusti  of  Bonn  (ob.  1841), 
at  first  a  Rationalist,  also  declared  later  in  favor  of  the  old-church 
system,  and  opposed,  when  occasion  afforded,  the  Prussian  Union  in 
favor  of  unconditional  territorial  privilege  (Kritik  d.  preuss.  Kirchen- 
agende,  1824)  ;  he  acquired  the  greatest  reputation  in  the  sphere  of 
ecclesiastical  archeology  (Denkwiirdigkk.,  12  Bde.  1817,  Handbuch,  3 
Bde.  1836)  ;  Aug.  Halm,  general  superintendent  of  Breslau,  made  a 
great  stir,  when  he  was  called  to  Leipsic,  by  defending  his  treatise  De 
rationalism  'vera  indole,  and  by  the  "Offene  Erkfarung  an  die  evang. 
K.,"  which  followed  it,  by  which  he  called  upon  the  Rationalists  to 
leave  the  Church  (1827).  His  own  system  (Lehrb.  d.  Christl.  Glaubens. 
1828),  however,  not  only  lacks  the  firm  and  sure  consistency  of  the  old 
system,  but  also  weakens  it  in  not  quite  unessential  points.  The  second 
edition  (2  Bde.  1857  ff.)  has  overcome  these  weak  points  and  defects  iu 
great  part,  George  Will.  Bud.  Bbhmer  of  Breslau  has  written  works 
in  a  difficult  and  diffuse  style,  on  almost  all  theological  subjects,  with 
spirit  and  solid  learning.  His  chief  works  are:  Die  Christlich-kirchl. 
Alter-thumswissensch.,  2  Bde.,  1836  ff. ;  Die  chr.  Dogmatik  u.  Glau- 
benswissensch.,  2  Bde.  1840  ff. ;  Theolog.  Ethik.  2  Bde.  1848  ff. ;  Die 
Lehrunterschiede  der  katholl.  u.  evangell.  Kk.  Bd.  I.  1857  ;  Comment. 
zum  Colosserbr.  1835,  etc. 

The  leaders  of  pietistic  Supranaiuralism,  next  to  A.  Neander,  are 
before  all  others  Tholuck  and  Hengstenberg ;  the  organ  of  the  former 
was  the  "  Literarischer  Anzeiger"  (1830-49),  and  that  of  the  latter, 
the   "Evang.   Kirchenzeitung."     Aug.   Tholuck,   since   1826   Prof,   at 
Halle,  at  first  devoted  himself  to  oriental  studies,  but,  being  scientifi- 
cally incited  by  Neander,  and  practically  by  Baron  von  Kottwitz  of 
Berlin  (the  patriarch  of  his  "  Wahren  Weihe  des  Zweiflers"),  he  ap- 
plied himself  with   glowing  enthusiasm   to  theological  studies.     He 
possessed  a  versatile  and  highly  gifted  mind,  which  was  highly  culti- 
vated, and  he  led  many  thousands  to  Christ,  or  established  them  in 
Him  by  writings,  lectures,  sermons,  and  intercourse, — he  also  trained 
up  many  youths  in  the  confessional  Lutheran  tendency,  whilst  he  him- 
self, otherwise  adhering  to  no  important  tendency  in  science,  art,  and 
practical  life,  and  receptive  for  all  the  currents  of  the  age  of  whatever 
kind,  entirely  avoided  this  one  current.    His  scientific  theology  became 
since  then  more  and  more  latitudinarian,  even   almost  to   an  entire 
rejection  of  the  idea  of  miracles  and  of  inspiration  ;  but  he  has  never- 
theless preserved  the  pietistic  characteristic  of  his  inner  life,  and  with 
it  the  entire  warmth,  depth,  and  freshness  of  a  mind  thoroughly  pene- 
trated by  Christ.    He  is  most  important  as  an  interpreter  and  apologist 
of  the  New  Testament,  especially  since  violent  attacks  drove  him  to 
greater  philological  acuteness.     Here  belong  the  Comment,  zum  Ro- 
74 


3G2  SECTION    III. FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.   i9    A.  D.) 

merbrief,  1824,  5  A.  1855  ;  Ev.  Johannis,  7  A.  1857  ;  Hebraerbrief,  5 
A.  1850;  Bergpredigt,  4  A.  185G  ;  Psalmen,  1843 ;— Wahre  Weihe  den 

Zweiflers  od.  die  Lelire  von  d.  Siinde  u.  d.  Versohner  [the  counterpart 
of  De  Wette's  "  Theodor,  etc."]  1823,  7  A.  1851;  Glaubwiirdigkeit  d. 
evang.  Gesch.  [against  D.  Strauss]  2  A.  1838.     Fruits  of  his  oriental 
studies  are :  Ssufisnms  s.  theosophia  Persarum  pantheist.,  1821 ;   Bl'u- 
thensamnil.  orient.  Mystik,   1825  ;  Speculative  Trinit'atslehre  d.  split. 
Orients.  1826.     Of  a  historical   and  apologetical   character  are:  Ver- 
mischten  Schriften,  2  Bde.  1839.     In  his  "  Vorstudien  zu  einer  Gesch. 
des  Rationalism"    (Der  Geist   d.    Luth.    Theologen  Wittenb.    im   17 
Jahrb.  1852  ;  Das  akad.  Leben  des  17  Jahrb.  1853)  he  almost  loses  out 
of  view  his  real  object  through  his  thorough  investigation  of  the  curiosi- 
ties and  scandals  of  private  and  student  life.     Of  a  practical  character 
are  his  "  Stunden  der  Andacht.,  4  A.  1847,"  and  his  Sermons,  G  Bde. 
1838  ff.    Ernst  William  Hengsfenbcrg,  since  1826  Prof,  at  Berlin,  passed 
through  an  entirely  opposite  process  of  development.     Being  hardened 
by  numerous  conflicts,  in  none  of  which  he  yielded  a  hair's  breadth, 
he  stood  in  science  as  also  in  practical  life  like  a  brazen  wall  and  an 
iron  pillar  against  the  whole  land,  and  against  the  kings  of  Judah,  and 
against  their  priest,  and  against  the  people  in  the  land,  mistrustful  of 
the  gifts  of  science,  but  also  adhering  with  almost  unparalleled  obsti- 
nacy to  his  views  in  spite  of  all  counter-arguments,  and  tracing  back 
all  diverging  views  and  theories,   even  those  of  decidedly  churehly 
theologians,  to  Rationalism  and  Naturalism.     Born  in  the  Reformed 
Church,  and  even  yet  more  attached  to  Calvinistic  Spiritualism  than  to 
Lutheran  Realism  in  his  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures,  and  often 
even  rationalizing  in  the  most  striking  way  with  the  scriptural  accounts 
of  miracles,  which  do  not  correspond  with  his  idea  of  what  is  worthy 
of  God,  he  must  nevertheless  be  reckoned  among  the  confessional  Lu- 
therans within  the  Union  according  to  his  then  dogmatical  conviction, 
and  on  account  of  his  energetic  opposition  to  the  anti-Lutheran  prac- 
tice of  the  Union.     Moreover,  to  him   belongs  the  honor  of  first  re- 
awakening, reviving,  and  fostering  the  taste  and  zeal  for  the  study  of 
the  Old  Testament,  and  also  of  having  vindicated  the  genuineness  of 
those  books  of  the  0.  T.  which  were  most  assailed:    (Christologie  des 
A.  T.  3  Bde.  1829  ff.,  2  A.  1854  ff. ;  Beitrage  zur  Einl.  ins  A.  T.  3  Bde. 
1831  ff. ;    Die  Bb.  Mose's  u.   iEgypten.    1841 ;    Gesch.   Bileams  u.  s. 
Weissagungen.  1842;  Comment,  zu  d.  Psalmen,  2  A.  1849  ff.  4  Bde. ; 
Coram,  u.  d.  Offenb.  Jota.  2  Bde.  1850  ff.  ;  Die  Opfer  d.  h.  Schr.  1852; 
Der  Tag  des  Ilerrn.  1852;  Auslegung  d.  Ilohenliedes.  1853  ;  Continen- 
tal-  mm    Prediger  Sal.   1858).     Herm.    OlsJiavsen  of  Konigsberg  and 
Erlangen  (ob.  1839)  opposed  the  rationalistic  superficializing  of  exegesis 
with  "  Einem  Worte  liber  tieferen  Schriftsinn,  1824,"  and  greatly  pro- 
moted the  religious  elevation  of  the  last  thirty  years  by  his  own  spirited, 
fresh,  and  suggestive,  but  as  regards   philology  unsatisfactory,  com- 
mentary (Bibl.  Commentar  zum  N.  T.  1830  ff.  4  Bde.  3  A.  1837,  con- 


PROTESTANT     THEOLOGY     IN     GERMANY.  363 

r.inued  by  Wiesinger  and  Ebrard).  He  also  felt  himself  called  (Ueber 
die  neuesten  kirchlichen  Ereignisse  in  Schlesien,  1835)  to  bear  testi- 
mony against  the  persecuted  Lutherans  in  Silesia.  Bud.  Stier,  super- 
intendent at  Schkeuditz,  incited  by  Fr.  v.  Meyer,  and  receiving  from 
him  a  theosophic  element,  has  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  profound 
and  thorough  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures,  which  was  compelled  to 
lay  under  the  ban  of  undeserved  neglect  for  a  long  time  ( Andeutungen 
fur  glaubiges  Schriftverst'andniss,  4  Bde.  1824  ff.  ;  Siebzig  ausgew'ahlte 
Psalmen  ;  Jesaias,  nicht  Pseudsjesais ;  Hebr'aerbrief ;  Br.  Jud'a  ;  Ephe- 
serbrief;  Die  Reden  Jesu,  etc.)  In  "  Unlutherischen  Thesen,  deutlich 
fur  Jedermann,"  1854,  he  so  powerfully  opposed  the  actions  of  confes- 
sional Lutheranism,  that  the  "beams  cracked."  J.  Andr.  Gasp.  Ha- 
ver nick  of  Konigsberg  (ob.  1845),  a  disciple  of  Hengstenberg  and  of 
Tholuck,  was  torn  away  by  death  in  the  midst  of  his  theological  career 
(Einl.  ins  A.  T.  3  Bde.  1836;  Coram,  zum  Proph.  Daniel,  1832,  zum 
Proph.  Ezechiel,  1843  ;  Vorless.  ii.  d.  bibl.  Theol.  d.  A.  T.  1848).  A  yet 
briefer  period  of  life  was  granted  to  his  promising  friend  and  former 
codaborer  at  the  newly  established  theological  school  at  Geneva,  Wil- 
liam Steiger  (ob.  1836)  (Kritik  des  Rationalismus  in  Wegscheider's 
Dogmatik.  1830,  Comment,  zu  I.  Petri  and  Colosser).  Bunsen  (sec.  5) 
and  Gqschel  (sec.  6)  also  belong  here  according  to  their  first  predomi- 
nant pietistic  stadium  of  experience. — This  school  was  shipwrecked  on 
the  question  :  either  Union  or  Confession.  The  chiefs  themselves,  who 
survived  the  crisis  of  the  forty  years,  advanced  on  the  right  and  left 
beyond  it;  they  and  their  disciples  connected  themselves  partly  with 
modern  "  German  theology,"  and  partly  crowded  around  the  banner 
of  Lutheran  Confessionalism.  Stier  alone  scorned  to  connect  himself 
with  either. 

4.  The  fathei  of  modern  speculative  theology  was  Charles  Daub, 
Prof,  at  Heidelberg  (since  1794),  where  in  1836  he  was  snatched 
away  by  death.  He  did  not  permit  all  the  phases  of  philosophy  to 
pass  him  by  untouched,  but  both  he  and  his  theology  were  penetrated 
by  them.  He  wrote,  from  Kant's  stand-point,  a  work  on  Catechetics 
(1801)  ;  then  he  inclined  to  Fichte  and  then  to  Schelling  (Theologu- 
mena,  1806 ;  Einleitung  in  die  Christl.  Dogmatik,  1809,  and  Judas 
Ischarioth  od.  Betrachtungen  u.  d.  Bose  im  Verb,  zum  Guten,  1816). 
In  Judas,  where  he  acknowledges  Satan  as  his  own  creator,  as  the  most 
wonderful  monster  of  nature,  whom  God  tolerates  from  love,  and  finds 
in  him  the  original  cause  of  evil,  he  reached  the  summit,  but  also  the 
limits  of  his  Schellingian  process  of  thinking.  In  the  "  Dogmatischen 
Theologie  jetziger  Zeit,  oder  die  Selbstsucht  in  d.  Theol.,  1833,"  he 
stands  in  the  atmosphere  of  Hegelian  philosophy.  He  powerfully  at- 
tracted and  stimulated  the  youth  who  sat  at  his  feet;  his  works, 
written  in  "the  language  of  the  Olympians,"  were,  however,  too  little 
understood,  to  enable  the  grand  objectivity,  the  moral  energy,  the 
power  of  faith,  the  depth  and  richness  of  thought,  which  they  con 


364       SECTION    III. FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.    19    A.  D  ) 

tained,  to  be  felt  far  and  wide.  His  lectures  were  published  in  8  vols. 
by  Marheiueke.  Nearest  to  him  stands  Phil.  Marheineke  of  Berlin 
(ob.  1846).  The  first  edition  of  his  dogmatics  (1819)  is  based  on  Schel- 
lingian  principles;  in  the  second,  Lutheran  orthodoxy,  in  the  form  of 
the  Hegelian  idea,  predominates.  Of  much  greater  significance,  and 
truly  breaking  the  way,  is  his  Christl.  Symbolik  (1810  ff.  3  BJc).  The 
most  valuable  of  his  works  is  the  "  Reformationsgeschichte"  (4  Bde. 
1816  ff.  2  A.  1831  ft'.),  a  genuine  popular  work  in  the  noblest  sense  of 
the  word. — After  Hegel's  death  (1831)  the  older  of  his  disciples  en- 
deavored to  assert  the  orthodox  tendency  of  his  philosophy.  Charles 
Rosenkranz  organized  according  to  it  the  "  Encj^klop'adia  der  theol. 
Wissenschaften,  1831,"  and  Goschel  continued  to  theologize  in  his 
spirited  way  in  Hegelian  forms.  The  faith  in  the  orthodoxy  of  the 
system  received  its  first  blow  through  Fr.  Richter,  who  in  his  work 
"Die  Lehre  von  den  letzen  Dingen,  1833,"  rejected  the  idea  of  immor- 
tality in  the  sense  of  the  continuance  of  personal  existence;  Goschel 
undertook  its  vindication  with  doubtful  result.  Billroth,  himself  still 
adhering  to  the  orthodox  current,  made  it  the  task  of  scientific  exegesis 
to  develop  the  ideas,  which  unconsciously  constituted  the  basis  of  the 
Biblical  representations,  and  exemplified  this  in  the  "  Korintherbriefen" 
(1833).  But  this  principle  was  soon  seriously  applied  in  quite  a  dif- 
ferent way.  David  Strauss,  namely,  applying  it,  represented  the 
"  Leben  Jesu"  (1835)  as  a  product  of  purposeless  poetical  tradition, 
and  then  attempted  to  prove  in  his  "  Glaubenslehre"  (1840),  that  all 
Christian  doctrines  were  made  null  and  void  by  modern  science.  But 
openly  as  he  also  taught  that  Pantheism  was  "that  which  was  im- 
perishable in  Christianity;"  nevertheless,  his  successors  went  far 
beyond  him.  Bruno  Bauer  declared,  after  he  had  passed  over  from 
the  right  wing  of  the  Hegelian  school  to  the  extreme  left,  that  the 
gospels  were  the  product  of  a  deception  as  crude  and  spiritless  as  it 
was  clearly  designed;  and  Ludivig  Feuerbach  maintained,  that  the 
new  gospel  of  self-worship  was  "  the  essence  of  Christianity."  The 
rupture  of  the  school  was  now  complete.  What  Rosenkranz  and 
Seh alter  contributed  from  the  centre,  what  Goschel  and  G.  Andr. 
Gabler  (de  verae  philosophise  erga  pietatem  amore)  contributed  from 
the  right  wing  to  vindicate  the  system,  was  not  able  to  restore  the 
illusion,  destroyed  for  ever,  of  its  fundamentally  Christian  character. 
The  right  wing  of  the  Hegelian  school  was  dissolved,  its  adherents 
fleeing  partly  to  the  camp  of  the  "German"  theologians,  and  partly 
under  the  banner  of  the  Lutheran  confession  ( Goschel,  Kleifoth, 
Kahnis). 

But  David  Strauss  with  his  "  Life  of  Jesus"  was  only  the  advance 
skirmisher  of  a  school,  which  was  engaged  in  casting  critical  artillery 
of  the  heaviest  calibre  under  the  direction  of  a  great  master.  Ferd. 
Christian  Baur  of  Tubingen,  a  man  who  was  equalled  by  but  few  of 
his  contemporaries  in  penetrating  acuteness,  and  by  none  in  gigantio 


PROTESTANT     THEOLOGY     IN     GERMANY.  365 

industry  and  astounding  learning,  can  be  called  as  well  a  disciple  of 
Sehleiermacher  as  of  Hegel.     He  inherited  from  Schlciermacher  his 
sharply   analyzing  criticism,   from    Hegel,   the  view  of  history,    that 
always  and  everywhere  the  imperfect,  the  elementary,  and  the  rude, 
was  the  point  of  departure  of  historical  development.    He  had  acquired 
a  reputation  (Mythol.  u.  Symbolik  d.  Naturrel.  d.  Alth.  182-1  f.  3  Bde.), 
before  Hegelian  philosophy  exerted  an  influence  on  him.     But  since 
then  his  activity  and  reputation  increased  in  a  truly  brilliant  manner 
(Das  manich.  Religionssystern,  1831 ;  Die  christl.  Gnosis,   1835  ;  Die 
chr.  Lehre  v.  d.  Versijhnung,  1838 ;  Die  chr.  Lehre  v.  d.  Dreieinigk. 
u.  Menschwerdung,  1841  if.  3  Bde. ;  Der  Gegensatz  des  Protestsm.  u. 
Katholicism,  gegen  Mohler,  1836 ;  Lehrb.  d.  Dogmengesch.  2.  A.  1857  ; 
Die  Epochen  der  kirchl.  Geschichtschreibung,  1852,  etc.)     His  studies 
were  confined  for  the  most  part  to  the  primitive  history  of  the  church, 
and  he  held  a  view  with  regard  to  it  which  reversed  everything  that 
was  supposed  to  be  known  about  it.    According  to  this  view,  primitive 
Christianity  was  nothing  but  shallow  Ebionitism,  and  all  the  writings 
of  the  New  Testament,  with   the  exception   of  the   Epistles   to  the 
Romans,   Corinthians,  and  Galatians,  as   also   the   Apocalypse,   were 
originated  late   in   the  second   century  for  the  purpose  of   covering 
and    harmonizing  the   conflict  between   Petrine  Jewish   and   Pauline 
Gentile    Christianity,    which    had    been    raging    up    to    this    time. 
The   master  himself   made   public    only   the  first  rudiments  of   this 
doctrine,  which,  however,  scarcely  permitted  its  comprehensive  exten- 
sion and  grand  articulation  to  be  anticipated  from  afar,  in  his  work : 
"Die  s.  g.  Pastoralbriefe  d.  A.  Paulus,"  1835.     Ed.  Zeller  established 
(1842)  the  Tiibinger  theol.  Jahrbucher  as  the  organ  of  this  school,  and 
Baur  unfolded  the   results   of  his   restless   investigations  partly  in  a 
multitude   of  treatises  in   this  journal,    and   partly  in   special  works 
(Paulus,  d.  Ap.  J.  Chr.  1845  ;  Der  Kritiker  u.  der  Fanatiker  gegen 
Thiersch.  1846 ;  Krit.  Unterss.  ii.  d.  kanon.  Erv.  1847  ;  Die  ignatianis- 
chen  Briefe  gegen  Bunsen,  1848  ;  Das  Markus-Ev.  1849 ;  Das  Chi-istlth. 
u.  d.  chr.  K.  d.  drei  erst.  Jahrh.  1853).     He  was  emulated  by  his  dis- 
ciples: A.  Schwegler  {ob.  1856)  (der  Montanismus  u.  d.  K.  d.  2.  Jahrh. 
1841 ;  Das  nachapost.  Zeitalt.  1846,  2  Bde.)  ;  Ed.  Zeller  of  Berne  (Die 
Apostelgesch.  krit.  unters.  1854;  Das  theol.  System  Zwingli's,  1853), 
the  talented  Albr.  Ritschl  of  Bonn  (Entstehung  der  altkath.  Kirche, 
1850,  2.  A.  1857,  etc.),  the  indefatigably  and  inexhaustibly  fruitful  A. 
Hilgenfeld  of  Jena,  and  many  others.    Closely  united  as  the  school  was 
in  the  beginning,  still  dissensions,  retractions,  and  retrograde  move- 
ments were  not  wanting  on  account  of  the  indefatigableness  with  which 
always  the  same  subjects  were  investigated,  and  always  the  same  masses 
of  rock  were  tossed  hither  and  thither.     Hilgenfeld  and  Ritschi  espe- 
cially made  concessions  in  favor  of  orthodoxy.    The  latter  in  particular 
may  be  regarded  as  a  complete  apostate  of  the  school,  inasmuch  as  ho 
has  appeared  as  the  decided  opponent  of  almost  all  of  its  peculiar  doo- 
74* 


3G6         SECTION    III. FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.  19    A.  D.) 

trines  in  the  second  edition  of  his  principal  work.  Even  with  the 
master  and  his  disciples  of  the  stricter  class,  a  certain,  it  may  he 
weariness  or  resignation,  seems  to  have  found  place.  But  the  perma- 
nent gain  of  new  information  and  of  clearer  insight  into  the  develop- 
ment of  the  primitive  Church,  which  was  partly  obtained  by  this  school, 
partly  by  its  opponents,  is  very  great  and  worthy  of  acknowledgment. 
Eilgenfeld,  after  the  "  Tubinger  Jahrbb."  were  no  longer  published, 
made  a  new  organ  for  himself  in  the  "  Zeitschrift  fur  wissensch.  Theo- 
logie"  (1858),  which,  however,  seems  to  have  a  wider  horizon  than  the 
"  Jahrblicher."40 

5.  The  right-wing  school  of  Schleiermacher  forms  the  trunk  of 
"modern"  or  "German"  theology.  Still  many  adherents  of  the  pie- 
tistic  and  speculative  schools  also  connected  themselves  with  it,  after 
the  dissolution  and  dismemberment  of  their  schools.  It  passed  beyond 
Schleiermacher  in  various  ways.  In  the  first  place,  it  became  more 
positive  in  its  dogmatics,  and  more  conservative  in  its  criticism  ;  it 
emancipated  itself  from  the  Spinozian  elements  in  the  view  taken  of 
the  world  by  the  master,  and  endeavored  to  combine  modern  specula- 
tion with  Schleiermacher's  theology  of  feeling.  It  shows  its  descent 
from  Schleiermacher  especially  in  its  affection  for  the  Union.  It,  how- 
ever, desires  not  merely  a  church-governmental,  but  also  a  confessional 
Union  on  the  basis  of  the  consensus  of  both  confessions,  and  strives 
after  establishing  a  consensus  symbol,  although  its  subjective  dogmatics 
reserves  to  itself  the  freedom  of  more  or  less  material  departures  from 
single  consensus  doctrines  as  founded  in  "  the  liberty  of  teaching."  It 
cultivates  systematic  theology  with  special  predilection,  without,  mean- 
while, neglecting  too  much  the  other  sciences.  Schleiermacher's  dis- 
regard of  the  Old  Testament,  nevertheless,  seems  still  to  operate,  inas- 
much as  this  school  has  scarcely  any  distinguished  Old  Testament 
theologians,  who  are  to  be  found  at  this  time  only  among  the  Ration- 
alists lind  Lutherans.  The  scientific  organs  of  this  school  are:  the 
"Theol.  Studien  und  Kritiken"  of  TJllmann  and  Vmbreit  since  1828 ; 
the  "  deutsche  Zeitschr.  fur  chr.  Wissensch.  u.  chr.  Lcben,"  established 
by  J.  Muller,  Nitzsch,  and  Neander,  edited  by  Th.  Schneider  since 
1850  (since  1858  edited  by  W.  A.  Hollenberg),  and  the  "Jahrbb.  fur 
deutsche  Theologie"  of  Dorner  and  Liebner  since  185G.  The  "  Reper- 
torium  fur  theol.  Literatur  und  Kirchliche  Statistik,"  established  by 
Rheinwald  (1831),  now  edited  by  Herm.  Benter  of  Breslau,  also  belongs 
essentially  to  this  tendency ;  although  often  decided  representatives  of 
churchly  Confessional  ism  also  speak  through  it.  The  "  neue  evange- 
lische  Kirchenzeitung,"  edited  since  1859  by  II.  Messner,  announces 
itself  as  the  organ  of  the  German  branch  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance 
('i  54,  5),  and  almost  all  of  the  distinguished  representatives  of  the 
Union  are  its  contributors. 

Although  "German"  theology  would  have  all  special  ecclesiastical 
differences  eradicated  and  obliterated  from  principle,  nevertheless,  the 


PROTESTANT     THEOLOGY     IN     GERMANY.  367 

descent  from  the  one  or  the  other  church  has  not  been  entirely -without 
influence  upon  the  collective  mental  tendency  of  its  adherents.  Its 
principal  representatives  from  the  Reformed  Church  are:  Alex.  Schwei- 
zer  of  Zurich,  the  one  of  all  Schleiermacher's  disciples  who  has  pre- 
served the  negative  critical  tendency  of  the  master  in  its  purest  form, 
and  continued  to  cultivate  it  with  the  most  acuteness  ("  Ueber  die 
Dignifat  des  Religionsstifters,"  "  Glaubenslehre  der  ev.  reform.  K. 
1844;"  "Gesch.  d.  protest.  Centraldogmen,  1853;"  "  Krit.  Unters.  d. 
Ev.  Joh.  1841").  Nearest  to  him  stood  Matth.  Schneckenberyer  of 
Berne  (ob.  1849),  an  acute  and  independent  investigator  (Beitr,  zur 
Einl.  ins  N.  T.  1832;  zur  kirchl.  Christologie,  1848 ;  Vergleichende 
Darstelluug  d.  luth.  u.  ref.  Lehrbegriffs,  published  by  Glider,  1855). 
K.  Bemh.  Hundeshagen  of  Berne  and  Heidelberg,  is  the  author  of  the 
spirited  treatise  :  "  Der  deutsche  Protestsm.,  s.  Vergangenh.  u.  s.  heutige 
Lebensfrage,  von  e.  deutschen  Theologen.  1847."  Charles  Henry  Sack, 
formerly  Prof,  in  Bonn,  now  consistorial  councillor  at  Magdeburg,  is 
one  of  the  oldest  and  at  the  same  time  most  positive  disciples  of 
Schleiermacher  (Christl.  Apologetik.  1829,  2.  A.  1841 ;  Christl.  Pole- 
mik,  1838).  John  Peter  Lange,  originally  a  Pietist,  is  a  man  most 
highly  gifted  with  imaginative,  poetic,  and  speculative  talents,  a 
dilettant  in  all  sciences,  a  pyrotechnist,  who  lets  his  mental  fire  shine, 
sparkle,  and  flash  continually,  in  all  colors  and  forms  in  his  writings 
(Vermischte  Schriften,  4  Bde.  ;  Das  Land  der  Herrlichkeit ;  Leben 
Jesu,  4  Bde. ;  Dogmatik,  3  Bde.;  Gesch.  d.  apost.  Zeitalters,  2  Bde. ; 
Theologischdiomiletisches  Bibelwerk,  1858  ff.)  Charles  JRnd.  Hagen- 
bach  of  Basle  wrote  besides  his  Church  History  ($  4,  Vol.  I.)  "  Lehrbb. 
der  Dogmengeschichte,"  4.  A.  1857,  which  is  much  used,  and  the 
"  Theolog.  Encyklopadie,"  5.  A.  1858.  Zealous  Melanchthonians  are: 
Daniel  Schenkel  of  Heidelberg  (Das  Wesen  des  Protestantismus  aus 
den  Quellen  des  Reformations-zeitalters,  3  Bde.  1845  fi7.  ;  Princip  des 
Protestantism,  1851 ;  Gespr'ache  liber  Protestantism,  u.  Katholicism, 
2  Bde.  1852  f.  ;  Der  Unionsberuf  des  Protestantism,  1855  ;  Die  Christl. 
Dogmatik  vom  Standpunkt  des  Gewissens,  Bd.  I.  1858). — Henry  Heppe 
of  Marburg,  a  diligent  and  careful,  but  one-sided  investigator  into  the 
sources  of  the  period  of  the  Reformation  (Gesch.  des  deutschen  Pro- 
testantism, 4  Bde.  1852  ff.  ;  Die  confessionelle  Entwickl.  der  altprotest. 
K.  Deutschl.  1854;  Bekenntnissschriften  der  altprotest.  K.  Deutsch- 
lands,  1855  ;  Dogmatik  des  deutschen  Protestantism,  im  16.  Jahrh.  3 
Bde.  1857  ;  Gesch.  des  deutschen  Volksschulwesen,  3  Bde.  1858) — and 
John  Henry  Aug.  Ebrard,  consistorial  councillor  at  Spire,  a  spirited, 
devout,  and  versatile  theologian  (Wissensch.  Kritik.  der  evang.  Gesch. 
2.  A.  1850:  Christl.  Dogmatik,  2  Bde.  1851  f . ;  Vorless.  u.  d.  prakt 
Theol.  1854;  Commentare  zur  Hebr'aerbr.  u.  zur  Apok.,  etc.) 

Among  the  disciples  of  Schleiermacher  from  the  Lutheran  Church, 
Fred.  Lilcke  of  Gottingen  (ob.  1855)  is  to  be  mentioned  first.  He  was 
the  first  who,  even  before  Tholuck,  manifested  a  spirited,  fresh,  and 


3(58         SECTION    III. FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.  19    A.  D.). 

devout  exegesis;  but,  like  Tholuck,  he  became  more  and  more  free- 
thinking  and  latitudinarian  in  his  relation  to  the  Scriptures  and  to  the 
faith  of  the  Church  (Grundriss  d.  neutest.  Hermeneutik,  1822;  Comin. 
li.  d.  Schrifteu  d.  Johannes,  1820  ff.,  4  Bde.  3.  A.  1843  ff.).  Charles 
Iiiun.  Nitzsch  of  Bonn  and  Berlin,  a  profound  thinker,  is  next  to  Jul. 
Muller  the  most  influential  and  respected  of  the  Consensus  theolo- 
gians (System  d.  chr.  Lehre,  G.  A.  1852;  Protest.  Beantw.  d.  Symbolik 
Miihler's,  1834;  Prakt.  Theol.  1847  ff.,  3  Bde.;  Urkundenbuch  d.  ev. 
Union,  1853,  etc.)  Jul.  Muller  of  GiJttingcn  and  Halle  is,  apart  from 
the  strange  reception  of  an  antemundane  fall,  and  notwithstanding  hifl 
inflexibility  in  favor  of  an  actual,  not  merely  church  governmental, 
but  also  confessioual  Union  ("Die  ev.  Union,  ihr  AVesen  u.  ihre  gottl. 
Rechte,  1854"),  the  most  deeply  and  firmly  grounded  of  all  the  Con- 
sensus theologians  in  the  Lutheran  faith.  His  principal  work  ("Die 
Christl.  Lehre  von  der  Siinde."  4.  A.  1858,  2  Bde.)  is  an  unsurpassed 
model  of  careful,  profound,  and  thorough  investigation.  Charles  Ull- 
mann  {ob.  18G4),  prelate  of  Karlsruhe,  a  noble,  lovely,  ireuical  and  mild 
person,  laveers  between  all  the  rocks  and  sand -bars  with  his  equili- 
brium-theology, and  has  also  distinguished  himself  by  thorough  histo- 
rical investigations  (Gregor  von  Nazianz.  1825  ;  Reformatoren  vor  der 
Reformation,  1841  ff.,  2  Bdo. ;  Ueber  die  S'undlosigkeit  Jesu,  G.  A. 
1853  ;  Wesen  des  Christl.  4.  A.  1855  ;  Historisch  oder  mythisch?  gegen 
D.  Strauss,  1838  ;  Ueber  d.  Cultus  des  Genius,  1840,  etc.).  Aug.  Detleo 
Christ.  Twesten,  Schleiermacher's  successor  at  Berlin,  did  not  carry 
his  lectures  on  the  dogmatics  of  the  evangelical  Lutheran  Church  be- 
yond the  doctrine  of  God  (Bd.  I.  II.  1826,  4.  A.  1838).  He  holds  theo- 
logy and  philosophy  apart  more  decidedly  than  the  other  disciples  of 
Schleiermacher,  and  has  placed  himself  upon  the  extreme  right  wing 
of  the  school  towards  the  Lutheran  Church.  So  much  the  more  deci- 
dedly, however,  has  /.  A.  Dorner  of  Berlin  permitted  philosophical 
speculation  to  influence  his  dogmatics.  His  investigations  and  specu- 
lations have  been  applied  especially  to  the  christological  dogma,  and 
in  his  principal  work  (Die  Lehre  von  d.  Person  Christi.  2  A.  1845  ff.,  2 
Bde.  in  6  Abtheill.)  he  has  contributed  a  dogmatico-historical  master- 
piece, whose  dogmatic  conclusion  is  still  wanting.  The  fundamental 
thoughts  of  his  Christology  are  the  so  generally  popular  doctrines 
among  the  "German"  theologians,  concerning  the  necessity  of  the  in- 
carnation of  Christ  even  apart  from  the  fall  (which,  however,  Jul. 
Mliller  has  decidedly  opposed),  and  concerning  the  prototypal  character 
of  Christ,  the  God-man,  as  the  totality  of  humanity,  in  which  "  all  the 
single  individualities  gather  prototypes."  Nearest  to  him  is  Th.  Alb. 
Liebner,  Harless'  successor  at  Leipsic  and  Dresden,  holding  kindred 
christological  views  (Hugo  v.  St.  Victor  u.  d.  theol.  Richtungen  sr. 
Zeit.  1832;  Der  chr.  Dogniatik  aes  dun  christolog.  Princip  dargestellt. 
Bd.  I.  1849).  An.  eminently  speculative  potency,  with  decided  ap- 
proximation to  Lutheran  churchly  doctrines,  and  not  entirely  within t 


PROTESTANT     THEOLOGY     IN     GERMANY.  369 

theosophic  coloring,  is  unfolded  in  H.  Martensen,  bishop  of  Copenhagen 
("Die  Autonomie  des  Selbstbewusstseins,  1837;"  Meister  Ekkart 
1842 ;  Die  chr.  Taufe  u.  die  baptistische  Frage,  1843  ;  Christl.  Doo-ma- 
tik,  185G).  ° 

Although  he  likewise  passed  through  Schleiermacher's  and  Hegel's 
school,  nevertheless  Rich.  Rolhe  of  Heidelberg,  a  thinker  equalled  by 
none  of  his  contemporaries  in  power,  depth,  richness,  and  originality 
of  speculation,  withdrew  himself  like  an  anchorite  from  the  loud  tur- 
moil of  the  theological  and  philosophical  market-place,  and  assigned 
himself  a  place  in  the  closet  of  the  theosophists,  quite  near  to  Oetino-er. 
He  possesses  in  common  with  the  latter  an  aversion  to  Spiritualism, 
an  energetic  striving  after  massive  ideas,  and  the  Christian  Realism, 
which  recognizes  the  end  of  the  ways  of  God  in  corporeity.  This 
Realism  already  shows  itself  in  his  first  important  treatise  (Die  Au- 
fange  der  chr.  Kirche,  1837,  Bd.  I.)  in  the  proposition,  that  the  Church 
must  in  the  future,  in  the  state  of  perfection,  be  absorbed  in  the  State ; 
—  more  comprehensively  in  his  "  Theolog.  Ethik.  3  Bde.  1845  ff."  a 
work  with  which  no  other  of  the  present  time  is  comparable  in  depth, 
originality,  and  logical  connection  of  thought,  and  which  is  full  of  the 
profoundest  Christian  views,  in  spite  of  its  numerous  heterodoxies. 
Equally  isolated,  but,  nevertheless,  ranking  among  the  greatest  of  the 
theologians  of  the  present  day,  is  /.  Tob.  Beck.  He  did  not  proceed 
from  Schleiermacher's  or  from  any  other  school  of  theologians  or  phi- 
losophers, but,  a  Wurtemberger  by  birth,  constitution,  and  education, 
he  represents  in  his  spirited,  theosophico-realistic,  biblico-puristic 
theology,  which  also  ignores  church  and  dogma  history,  together  with 
the  confession,  a  blooming-period  of  specifically  Wlirtemberger  Chris- 
tianity in  scientific  form  (Einl.  iu  d.  System  d.  chr.  Lehre.  od.  prop'a- 
deut.  Entw.  d.  chr.  Lehrwissensch.  1838  ;  Christl.  Lehrwissensch.  nach 
den  bibl.  Urkunden.  Bd.  I.  1841 ;  Umriss  d.  bibl.  Seelenlehre.  1843). 
He  is  also  characterized  by  his  openly  expressed  indifference  to  and 
undervaluation  of  all  the  efforts  and  "institutions"  of  this  present 
restless  age  in  favor  of  Home  and  Foreign  Missions,  Union,  Confedera- 
tion, and  Alliance;  in  favor  of  liturgy,  constitution,  church  discipline, 
and  confession  ;  in  all  of  which  he  sees  only  a  movement  mistaken  in 
form  and  contents,  forsaken  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  and  therefore  entirely 
fruitless.  The  improvement  of  the  desolate  state  of  affairs  can  only 
be  hoped  for  through  the  direct  interposition  of  God.  Beck  has  also 
ceased  for  many  years  from  publishing  anything.  But  his  influence 
from  the  rostrum  is  only  so  much  the  greater  and  more  far-reaching, 
and  already  a  large  number  of  his  disciples  are  working  in  the  minis- 
try according  to  his  principles  and  views.  On  this  account  Liebetrut 
opened  a  warm  contest  in  1857  from  North  Germany  against  his  de- 
structive tendency. — Charles  Aug.  Auberlen  of  Basle  is  a  disciple  of 
Beck's.  He  shared  his  teacher's  limitation  to  Biblical  theology,  but 
not  his  undervaluation  of  all  churchly  practical  movements,  whereby 


370      SECTION    III. —  FOURTH   PERIOD    (CENT.  19   A.  D.) 

he  approximated  to  R.  Rothe,  without,  however,  giving  himself  up  to 
his  heterodox  speculation.     The  history  of  salvation  and  of  the  king- 
dom of  God  (especially  its  escliatological  development)  is  the  favorite 
object  of  his  biblico-theological  investigation,  whereby  he  comes  into 
contact  with  the  modern  Erlangcn(v.  Hoffman)  school  (Die  Theosophie 
Oettinger's,  1848.     Der  Proph.  Daniel  u.  d.  Offb.  Joh.  2.  A.  1856).— 
The  three  last  named  do  not  properly  belong  to  the  soi-disant  German 
theology  ;  they  lack  the  Schleiermacherian  coloring,  the  peculiar  spe- 
culation, and  the  character  of  the  equilibrium  or  Consensus  theology, 
inasmuch  as  they  ignore  more  than  level  the  churchly  confession.    Yet 
it  is  more  difficult  to  classify  them  elsewhere.     In  Fr.  W.  Charles  Vni- 
breit's  writings  (since  1823  at  Heidelberg)  Herder's  spirit  manifests 
itself  more  than  Schleiermacher's.     In  the  course  of  time  his  merely 
sesthetical  enthusiasm  for  the  Old  Testament  was  changed  more  and 
more  into  an  acknowledgment  of  the  supernatural,  and  especially  of 
the  Messianic  contents  of  Revelation  (Lied  der  Liede,  das  Ulteste  und 
schb'nste  aus  dem  Morgenlande,  1820 ;  Commt.  zum  Hiob.  2.  A.  1831, 
and  to   the   Sprlichen    Salomo's,    1826 ;    Christl.    Erbauung   aus    dem 
Psalter,  1835,  Grundtone  d.  A.  T.  18-43  ;  Prakt.  Comment,  u.  die  Proph. 
d.  A.  T.  4  Bde.  1841  ff.  ;  Die  Sunde,  ein  Beitr.  zur  Theol.  d.  A.  T., 
1853  ;  Ausleg.  d.  Romerbr.  auf  d.  Grund  d.  A.  T.  1855).— On  the  other 
hand,  Fred.  Blcekof  Bonn,  a  sharp  critic  and  distinguished  interpreter 
(Hebraerbrief,  2  Bde.  1828-40),  who  never  expressed  himself  concern- 
ing his  dogmatic  position,  but  betrays  a  strong  rationalistic  tendency 
in  his  works  on  the  Bible,  is  a  direct  disciple  of  Schleiermacher.     Ed. 
Reuss  of  Strasburg,  the  acute  and  spirited  reformer  of  biblical  isago- 
gics,  occupies  a  somewhat  similar  position  (Gesch.  d.  h.  Schriften  des 
N.  T.  2.  A.  1853.     Hist,   de  la  theol.  chrit.   an  sieele  apost.,  against 
Baur,  1852,  2  Bde.,  etc.).     To  be  added  here  yet  is  Henry  Aug.  Will. 
Meyer,  superintendent  of  Hanover,  who  occupies  one  of  the  first  places 
among  the  interpreters  of  our  day.     Starting  from   Rationalism,  he 
advanced  to  the  stand-point  of  a  solid,  biblical  Supranaturalism  (Krit. 
exeg.  Commentar  zur  N.  T.  1832  ff.).     John  Ed.  Huther  is  also  an  able 
interpreter  and  co-laborer  on  Meyer's  Commentary.     His  first  produc- 
tion was  a  commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians,  1841.    Charles 
Wieseler  of  Kiel  has  acquired  a  high  reputation  in  the  department  of 
the  Chronology  and  History  of  the  N.  T.  (Chronol.  Synopse  der  4  Evv. 
1843  ;   Chronologie  d.  apost.   Zeitalt.   1848  ;    Die  70  Wochen  Daniels, 
1839).     The  most  able  investigator  in  the  sphere  of  the  criticism  of  the 
biblical  text  is   L.  Fr.  Konstantin   Teschendorf  of  Leipsic,  who  has 
searched  through  Europe  and  the  Orient  with  unwearied  zeal  in  this 
work.     The  publication  of  several  old  codices  of  the  Bible,  a  number 
of  excellent  editions  of  the  New  Testament,  a  new  edition  of  the  LXX., 
the  most  complete  collection  of  the  apocryphas  and  pseudepigraphfl 
of  the  New  Testament,  are  the  rich  fruits  of  his  investigations. 
Essentially  distinguished  from  "German"  theology,  as  the  Schleier 


PROTESTANT    THEOLOGY    IN    GERMANY.  371 

machcrian  right  wing,  was  the  theology  of  the  Schleiermacherian  lefl 
wing,  as  it  is  especially  represented  by  the  protest-theologians  of  184-5 
(|  54,  1) :  Pischon,  Jonas,  Sydow,  Eltester,  Schweder,  Krause.  They 
are  the  fanatics  of  the  absorbtive  Union,  who  hate  and  oppose  Con- 
sensus theology  and  the  confederative  Union  not  less  than  union-hostile 
Lutheranism.  With theDissensus they  wouldalsocastoverboardtheCon- 
sensus  of  the  symbolical  books,  and  only  retain  the  naked  Shibboleth, 
"  Christ,  the  same  yesterday,  to-day,  and  forever,"  with  which  Ra- 
tionalism of  all  shades  is  compatible.  No  theological  contributions  of 
importance  have  proceeded  from  this  school.  Nevertheless,  they  also 
established  in  1854  a  "  Protest.  Kircheuzeitung,"  edited  by  H.  Krause, 
with  which  everything  that  is  not  Tiibingish-critical,  German-theolo- 
gical, and  Lutheran-confessional,  especially  the  scattered  and  indivi- 
dual representatives  of  historico-critical,  aesthetieal,  and  philosophical 
Rationalism  (Credner,  Knobel,  Hitzig,  Gieseler,  Gass,  Redepenning, 
Ewald,  Riickert,  Hase,  Weisse,  Gervinus),  has  connected  itself. 

Of  congenial  spirit,  and  possessing  the  same  hatred  towards  churchly 
confession,  especially  the  "Lutheran,"  is  the  modern  "Japhetic" 
theology  of  the  Chevalier  Christ.  Charles  Josias  v.  Bunsen,  by  royal 
friendship  also  a  baron,  as  also  a  doctor  of  theology  through  the  Got- 
tingen  faculty,  formerly  Prussian  ambassador  at  Rome,  then  at  Lon- 
don, then  resident  at  Heidelberg  (ob.  18G0).  There  was  a  time  when 
Bunsen  stood  in  the  front  rank  of  those  who  cultivated  and  promoted 
the  newly  awakened  Christian  feeling  and  life.  From  this  period  pro- 
ceed his  excellent  "Allg.  Gesang-und  Gebetbuch,  1833,"  and  his  litur- 
gico-critical  work  "Die  heil.  Leidensgeschichte  u.  d.  stille  Woche,  2 
Bde.  1841."  Since  then,  however,  the  salt  "  has  lost  its  savor,"  inas- 
much as  his  theology  declined  rapidly  and  steeply  to  its  present 
Japhetic  perfection,  which,  with  its  transposition  of  the  contents  of 
biblical  revelation  from  the  "Semitic"  to  the  "Japhetic"  mode  of 
thinking  and  of  expression,  with  its  destructive  criticism,  its  pantheis- 
tic view  of  the  world,  and  its  democratic  ideals  of  church  government, 
with  its  glowing  hatred  towards  churchly  confession  and  churchly 
dogmatics,  and  with  its  fierce  wrath  against  the  "  old-granny  preju- 
dices of  Christian  Rabbis,"  is  not  far  removed  from  common  critical 
Rationalism,  though  it  professes  to  be  Christian,  pious,  and  believing. 
The  downward  way  began  with  the  treatise :  Die  Verfassung  der 
Kirche  der  Zukunft.  1845.  Then  followed,  to  eradicate  especially 
churchly  Christology  and  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  the  works :  Igna- 
tius v.  Antiochien  u.  s.  Zeit.  1847  ;  Die  drei  echten  u.  d.  vier  unechten 
Briefe  des  Ignatius,  1847  ;  Hippolyt.  u.  s.  Zeit.  2  Bde.  1852  ff.  Ilia 
destructive  tendency  in  the  sphere  of  the  0.  Test,  is  exhibited  in  his 
work :  iEgyptens  Stelle  in  der  Weltgesch.  5  Bde.  1847-57,  in  which 
he  assures  us,  quackishly  enough,  that  he  for  the  first  time  placed  the 
ancient  history  of  the  Jews  in  its  proper  position  in  the  history  of  the 
world,  by  his  restoration  of  Egyptian  chronology  ;  but,  in  fact,  has  dig- 


372      SECTION   III. —  FOURTH   PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.  19   A.  D.) 

loco  ted  all  the  members  of  history  with  the  crudest  arbitrariness,  and 
has  cut  out  chronology  with  the  wildest  phantastery.  The  "  Zeichen 
der  Zeit.  3  A.  185G,"  are  a  raging  phillippic  against  the  hierarchical 
aspirations  of  the  Papists,  and  of  the  almost  more  dangerous  "Lu- 
therans." His  "  Gott  in  der  Geschichtc,  Bd.  I.  1857,"  discloses  to 
adepts  his  pantheistic  view  of  the  world  and  of  history ;  but  his 
"  Bibelwerk  fur  die  Gemeinde,"  began  in  1858,  is  the  self-made  grave 
of  his  theological  fame. 

6.  Lutheran  Confessional  Theology.  —  Its  original,  powerful,  and 
spirited  patriarch  was  Claus  Harms  (ob.  1855),  as  high-consistorial 
councillor  at  Kiel,  cf.  $  54,  1  (95  Theses,  1817  ;  Dass  es  mit  der  Ver- 
nunftrel.  nichts  ist.  1819;  Winter- und  Sommerpostille,  1808,  5.  A. 
1836  ;  Pastoral  theologie  in  Reden  an  Theologie-Studirende,  3  Bde. 
1830  if.,  etc.) — J.  Gottfr.  Scheibel  (since  1811  Prof,  and  preacher  in 
Breslau,  deposed  from  both  offices  in  1832,  died  at  Nuremberg,  1843), 
also  from  the  beginning  adhered  to  Lutheran  orthodoxy  ("  Das'  Abend- 
ma  hi  des  Herrn.  1821;"  Actenm'assige  Gesch.  der  Union  in  Preussen, 
2  Bde.  1833,  etc.) — Ernst  W.  Christ.  Sartorius,  general  superintendent 
in  Konigsberg,  fought  himself  through  Rationalism  in  fresh  and  bold 
attacks  (Die  Religion  ausserh.  d.  Grenzen  der  blossen  Vernunft.  1822; 
Beitr'age  zur  Vertheid.  d.  ev.  Rechtglaubigk.  1825  f.  etc.)  to  Lutheran 
orthodoxy  ;  but  he  also  defended  the  Prussian  Union  with  enthusiasm, 
because  Lutheranism  was  in  itself  already  the  "  true  medium,"  in  the 
assurance,  that  on  this  account  all  Union  must  issue  in  it  (Vertheid.  d. 
luth.  Abendmahlslehre,  u.  Die  luth.  Lehre  v.  d.  Communicatio  idioma- 
tum  ;  in  the  Dorpt'schen  Beitr'agen,  1832 ;  Die  Lehre  von  Christi  Per- 
son u.  Werk,  1831,  5.  A.  1845  ;  Die  Lehre  v.  d.  heil.  Liebe.  3  Bde. 
1840  if. ;  Apologie  der  Augsb.  Confession,  2.  A.  1853  ;  Ueber  alt-u. 
neutest.  Cultus,  1852 ;  Meditationen  d.  heil.  Liebe,  1840  ff. ;  Medita- 
tionen  ii.  d.  Ofl'enb.  d.  Herrlichk.  Gottes  in  d.  K.  u.  im  Abendm.  1855, 
etc.)  On  the  other  hand,  Andr.  Gottl.  Rudelbach  (born  and  educated 
in  Denmark,  from  1829-45  superintendent  in  Glauchau,  then  provost 
in  Copenhagen)  was  led  in  the  same  way  to  become  the  most  decided 
opponent  of  the  Union.  Next  to  Fred.  Baur,  Rudelbach  is  perhaps 
the  most  learned  theologian  of  the  present  time  ("Ilier.  Savonarola 
u.  s.  Zeit."  1835  ;  Die  Sacramentsworte,  hist.  krit.  dargest.  1837  ;  Re- 
formation, Lutherth.  und  Union,  1839;  Hist.  krit.  Einl.  in  d.  Augsb. 
Conf.  1841;  Ueber  d.  Bedent,  d.  apost.  Symb.  1844;  Christliche  Bio- 
graphie,  Bd.  I.  1850,  etc.) — Henry  Ernst  Fred.  Guerickc,  Prof,  at  Halle 
since  1829,  at  first  a  Pietist,  then  changed  by  the  Union  to  a  confessor 
of  Lutheranism,  wrote:  De  schola,  quce  Alexandrine  floruit,  cateche- 
tica,  1824  f. ;  Aug.  Derm.  Francke,  1827  ;  Beitr'age  zur  hist.  krit.  Einl. 
ins  N.  T.  1828  ff. ;  Handb.  d.  K.  G.  1833,  8.  A.  1855  ;  Allg.  chr.  Sym- 
bolik.  2.  A.  1846  ;  Lehrb.  d.  kirchl.  ArchUologie,  1847  ;  Gesammtgesch. 
d.  N.  Test.  2.  A.  1854.  He  established  in  connection  with  Rudelbach, 
1840,  the  "Zeitschrift  fur  luth.  Theol.  und   Kirche."     Beside  these 


PROTESTANT    THEOLOGY    IN    GERMANY.  313 

older  representatives  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy,  a  second  generation  was 
formed  into  several  groups  between  1840  and  1850.  At  the  head 
of  the  first  which  adhered  to  the  old  Protestant  idea  of  the  ministry 
and  of  the  Church,  and  defended  the  old  Protestant  doctrines  with  all 
the  means  of  modern  science,  stood  Gottl.  Clvristoph.  Adolf,  v.  Heirless, 
Prof,  in  Erlangen  and  Leipsic,  then  high-church  officer  in  Dresden, 
now  in  Munich.  He  established  his  theological  calling  by  his  superior 
Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  1835,  his  "  Theologische 
Encyklopadie,"  and  especially  by  his  "  Christ!.  Ethik.  5.  A.  1853." 
In  1838  he  established  the  "  Zeitschr.  fur  Protestantsm.  u.  Kirche,"  at 
first  in  opposition  to  Bavarian  Dltramontanism.  By  his  side  in  Erlan- 
gen labored  /.  Will.  Fred.  Hofling  (ob.  1853),  (De  Symbolorum  natura, 
1853  ;  Die  Composition  des  chr.  Gemeindegottesdienstes,  1837  ;  Das 
Sacrament  der  Taufe,  2  Bde.  1840  f. ;  Grundsatze  ev.  luth.  Kirchen- 
verfassung,  3.  A.  1853  ;  Die  Lehi-e  d.  altest.  K.  vom  Opfer  irn  Leben  u. 
Cultus  d.  Chris^n.  1851),  and  Goif.fr.  Thor^aoii^  (Origenes.  1837; 
Das  Bekenntniss  J.  luth.  K.  in  der  Consequ.  ss.  Princips.  1848  ;  Christi 
Person  u.  Werk.  od.  ev.  luth.  Dogmatik.  Bd.  I.  II.  2.  A.  1856  ff.)— 
Fred.  Adolf.  Phihppi  of  Dorpat,  then  of  Rostock,  wrote  "  Ueber  den 
th'atigen  Gehorsam  Christi,"  1841,  a  coucise  Commentary  on  the  Epis- 
tle to  the  Romans,  2.  A.  1856,  and  a  "  Kirchliche  Dogmatik."  Bd.  I.  II. 
1854—57.  From  Theodosius  Hai-aack  of  Erlangen  we  have:  "Jesus 
der  Christ,  d.  Erfliller  d.  Gesetzes  und  die  Prophetic,"  1842 ;  Der  chr. 
Gemeindegottesdienst  im  apost.  u.  altkath.  Zeitalt.  1854.  —  K.  Fred. 
Aug.  Kahnis  of  Leipsic,  wrote  a  Gesch.  d.  Lehre  vom  h.  Geiste,  Bd.  I. 
1847  ;  Die  Lehre  vom  Abendmahl.  1851,  and  Der  innere  Gang  des 
deutschen  Protestsm.  since  1750;  and  Aug.  William  Dieckhof  of  Got- 
tingen  ;  Die  Waldenser  im  M.  A.  1851,  and  Die  ev.  Abendmahlslehre 
im  Ref.  Zeitalt.  Bd.  I.  1854. — At  the  head  of  the  second  group,  which 
is  characterized  by  a  Romanizing  tendency  with  regard  to  the  idea  of 
the  Church  and  of  the  ministry,  stands  William  Lblie,  preacher  in 
Neudettelsau  in  Bavaria  ("Drei  Bd.  v.  d.  Kirche,"  2.  A.  1852;  Apho- 
rismen  li.  d.  N.  Th.  Aemter ;  Kirche  u.  Amt. ;  Agende  ;  Der  ev.  Geist- 
liche).  Next  to  him  stands  Aug.  Fred.  Christ.  Vilmar,  who  began, 
1856,  his  academical  labors  in  Marburg  with  "  Theologie  der  Thatsa- 
chen  gegen  die  Theol.  der  Rhetorick  ;  "  Otto  Krabbe  of  Rostock  ("  Die 
Lehre  von  d.  Siinde  u.  d.  Tode,"  1838  ;  Vorless.  ii.  d.  Leb.  Jesu.  1839  ; 
Die  ev.  Landeskirche  Preussens,  1849)  ;  and  Theod.  Klicfoth,  member 
of  the  high-consistory  in  Schwerin  ("  Einl.  in  die  Dogmengesch,  1839;" 
Die  ursprungl.  Gottesdienstordnung  d.  luth.  K.  1847  ;  Acht.  Bd.  v.  d. 
Kirche,  Bd.  I.  1854;  Liturgische  Abhandll.  3  Bde.  1854  ff.)  He 
founded  (1854)  the  "Kirchliche  Zeitschrift"  in  connection  with  the 
jurist  Otto  Mejer  in  Rostock  ("Die  Propaganda  u.  ihre  Provinzen,  2 
Bde.  1853").  —  At  the  head  of  a  third  group,  which  harmonized  with 
the  first  in  the  idea  of  the  ministry,  but  was  peculiarly  characterized 
by  the  historical  tendency  of  its  theology,  constituting  a  pewerful 
75 


314     SECTION    III. —  FOURTH    PERIOD    (CEN  T.  19  A.  D.). 

biblical  chiliasm  in  most  emphatic  antithesis  to  Hengstenberg's  Spirit- 
ualism, and  connecting  itself  again  on  this  side  with  Chr.  A.  Crusiua 
and  A.  Bengel,  stands  J.  Chr.  K.  v.  Hofmann  of  Ei\:,ngen,  a  theologian 
of  o-reat  significance,  possessing  a  dialectic  talent,  an  acuteness,  a  con- 
sistency of  system  and  logical  development  of  the  same,  such  as  has 
not  been  possessed  by  any  other  since  Schleiermacher.     In  his  "  Weis- 
sagung  und  Erf'ullung  (1841)"  he  appeared  first  as  the  antipode  of 
Hengstenberg's  apprehension  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  that  he  places 
history  and  prophecy  in  the  most  vital  and  mutually  conditioning  rela- 
tion to  each  other,  interprets  both,  as  against  the  usual  Spiritualism, 
in  a  literally  realistic  sense  with  regardless  energy,  and  especially 
seeks   to   understand   prophecy  out  of  its   historical   basis.     In    his 
"Schriftbeweise"   (3  Bde.  2.  A.  1857  ff.)  he  attempted  to  produce  a 
scientific  regeneration  of  the  contents  of  the  faith  of  the  Church  and 
of  Christianity  out  of  the  Scriptures,  but  he  gave  the  same  a  form, 
which  widely  departed  from  the  established  view  of  the  most  important 
fundamental  doctrines,  especially  the  doctrine  of  the  atonement,  and 
defended  it  as  a  "  Neue  Weise,  alte  Wahrheit  zu  lehren  "  (1856)  against 
the  attempt  made  by  Philippi  to  prove  its  unchurchliness.    Thomasius 
and  Harnack  also  testified  against  his  alteration  of  the  churchly  doc- 
trine of  the  atonement.     Ilofmann's  theology,  without  its  dogmatic 
singularities,  found  an  enthusiastic  adherent  and  co-laborer  in  Franz 
Delitzch  of  Erlangen,  the  most  thorough  connoisseur  of  rabbinical 
literature  of  all  the  Christian  literati,  as  rich  in  spirit  as  in  many-sided, 
exquisite  learning,  who,  in  opposition  to  Ilofmann's  sober  intellectual 
tendency,  opened  his  theology  to  theosophic  influences,  and  also  com- 
bated his  unchurchly  doctrine  of  the   atonement   (Die   bibl.   proph. 
Theologie,  1845;  Vier  Bd.  von  der  Kirche,  1847;   Auslegungen  des 
Propheten  Ilabakuk,  des  Ilohenliedes,  der  Genesis,  des  Hebraerbriefes  ; 
System  d.  bibl.  Psychologie,  1855  ;  a  commentary  on  the  Psalms  is  in 
view) — further  in  Michael  Baumgarten  of  Rostock  (unwillingly  silenced 
in  1858,  I  55,  3),  who  certainly  pushed  Ilofmann's  historical  views  of 
redemption,   especially  in  reference  to  the  future  position  of  Israel, 
even  to  caricature,  and  supplanted  them  with  politico-liberalistic  and 
mystico-fanatical  elements.     He  wrote :  Theol.  Comment,  zum  Pentat. 
2  Bde.  1843  f. ;  Die  Apostelgesch.  od.  Entwicklungsgung  der  K.  von 
Jerusalem  bis  Rom.  2  Bde.  2.  A.  1859  ;  Die  Nachtgesichte  Sacharja's. 

2  Bde.  1854,  and  a  large  number  of  controversial  writings.  Chr.  Ernst 
Luthardt  of  Leipsic  applied  and  developed  Ilofmann's  views  in  the 
province  of  the  New  Testament,  with  much  spirit  (Das  johanneische 
Evang.  nach  sr.  Eigenthumlichk.  geschild,  u.  erkl.  2  Bde.  1853). 

Allied  to  this  tendency,  but  much  more  conservative  and  more 
closely  touching  the  first  group,  are:  Moritz  Drechsler  of  Erlangen 
(ob.  1849),  (Einheit  u.  Echtheit  der  Genesis,  1838:  Der  Prophet  Jesaia, 

3  Bde.  1845);  —  Paul  Caspari  of  Christiauia  (Der  Proph.  Obadja, 
1.842;  Bcitr.  zur  Einl.  in  das  Buch  Jesaia,  1848;  thber  don  Proph. 


PROTESTANT    THEOLOGY   IN    GERMANY.  375 

Micha  u.  s.  proph.  Schrift,  1852);  —  Gust.  Friedr.  Oehler  of  Tubingen, 
in  spirit,  learning,  and  independence,  one  of  the  first  among  the  theo- 
logians of  the  Old  Testament,  on  which  account  it  cannot  be  sufficiently 
regretted  that  he  did  not  complete  before  his  death  (1872)  his  "  Prolego- 
menen  zur  Theol.  des  A.  T.  1845,"  to  an  exposition  of  the  science  itself. — 
The  theologians  of  Dorpat  established  in  1859  a  "Dorpater  Zeitschrift 
fur  Theol.  u.  Kirche,"  conducted  in  this  spirit.  From  their  midst  has 
gone  forth  Karl  Friedr.  Keil  (now  private  resident  at  Leipsic),  who  of 
all  Hengstenberg's  disciples  has  remained  most  faithful  to  the  tendency 
and  to  the  results  of  the  master  in  general.  He  wrote :  Apolog.  Ver- 
such  u.  d.  Bd.  d.  Chronik.  1833  ;  Der  Tempel  Salomo's,  1839  ;  Com- 
ment, zu  d.  Bd.  d.  Konige,  1846,  u.  z.  B.  Josua,  1847  ;  Lehrb.  d.  hist, 
krit.  Einl.  ins  A.  T.  2.  A.  1859 ;  Fortsetzung  u.  Neubearbeitung  der 
H'averneck'schen  Einleit,  ins  A.  T.  1855  f. ;  Bibl.  Arch'aologie,  Bd.  I. 
1858.  (A  condensed  exegetical  Handbook  to  the  entire  Old  Testament 
is  awaited  from  him). — Still  another  important  theologian  may  also  be 
mentioned  here,  who  was  at  first  a  Lutheran,  but  then,  resigning  his 
professorship  at  Marburg,  embraced  Irvingianism,  viz.  H.  Wilh.  Josias 
Thiersch  (Vorless.  ii.  Protestsm.  u.  Katholicism,  2.  A.  1848;  Versuch 
zur  Herstellung  des  hist.  Standpunktes  fur  die  Kritik  d.  N.  Th.  Schrif- 
ten,  gegen  Baur,  1845  ;  Die  Kirche  im  apost.  Zeitalter,  2.  A.  1858). 
As  Irvingite  he  was  invested  with  the  office  of  an  angel ;  but  when  it 
was  endeavored  to  promote  him  to  the  office  of  an  apostle,  he  was  not 
able  to  decide  to  accept  this  honor. 

The  Lutheran  confession  and  Lutheran  theology  also  found  important 
representatives  in  distinguished  jurists  possessing  theological  author- 
ship. Here  belongs  first  of  all:  Karl  Friedr.  Guschel  (#  53,  1,  2;  54, 
6 ;  56,  3,  4),  privy  councillor  at  Berlin,  then  consistorial  president  at 
Magdeburg,  from  which  position  he  was  forced  by  the  revolution  of 
March  1848.  His  oldest  work,  published  anonymously  by  Tholuck : 
"  Cacilius  u.  Octavius,  1828,"  is  of  an  apologetical  character.  He 
appears  as  a  disciple  of  Hegel  in :  Aphorismen  liber  Nichtwissen  u. 
absol.  Wissen,  1829;  Der  Monismus  des  Glaubens,  1832;  Hegel  u.  s. 
Zeit  mit  R'dcksicht  auf  Gothe,  1832.  After  Hegel's  death  he  defended 
the  Christian  character  of  his  philosophy  in  several  treatises.  Directed 
against  Dav.  Strauss  is:  Beitr'age  zur  specul.  Theol.  v.  Gott,  d.  Men- 
schen  u.  d.  Gottmenschen,  1838.  His  Christian  juristic  stand-point 
is  expressed  in  the  "  Zerstreuten  Blattern  as  den  Hand-ut  H'dlfs-acten 
eines  Juristen,  3  Bde.  1832  ff."  and  "Der  Eid  nach  s.  Princip,  Begirff 
u.  Gebrauche,  1837."  He  also  endeavors  to  develop  deep  Christian 
views  out  of  Gothe's  writings  in  his  "  Unterhaltungen  zur  Schilderung 
Gothescher  Dicht-und  Denkweise,  3  Bde.  1834."  He  devoted  the  same 
talent  with  more  objective  truth  to  Dante's  poems  :  "  Ans  Dante  Aligh. 
gottl.  Kom.  1834;  Dante's  Unterweisung  liber  Weltschoppung  u. 
Weltordnung,  1842,"  etc.  To  his  specifically  Lutheran  period  belong: 
v  Ueber  die  Bedentung  der  luth.  K.  u.  ihr  Verhaltn.  zur  allg.  K.  u. 


&7Q     SECTION    III. —  FOURTH   PERIOD    (CENT.  19    A   D.) 

zum  Staate,  1849  ;  Zur  Lehre  von  d.  letzen  Dingen,  1850 ;  Der  Duaha 
mus  evang.  Kirchenverfass,  1652  ;  Der  Mensch  nach  Leib,  Seele  u. 
Geist,  185G  ;  Der  Concordienformel  nach  Gesch.,  Lehre  u.  Bedeut, 
1858."  —  Fried  r.  Jul.  Stahl,  born  of  Jewish  parents  at  Munich,  Prof, 
of  law  at  Erlangen  and  Berlin,  since  1852  member  of  the  Berlin  high- 
consistory,  from  whose  transactions,  however,  he  voluntarily  withdrew 
in  1857  ;  since  1849,  in  connection  with  Ernst  Ludw.  v.  Gerlach,  leader 
of  the  high-church,  aristocratic  reaction  party  in  the  Prussian  cham- 
bers, and  its  eloquent  orator ;  also  permanent  vice-president  of  the 
evangelical  church  diet.  His  chief  work :  "  Philosophie  des  Rechts, 
3  Bde.  1830  ff.  3.  A.  1854  ff."  endeavors  to  build  a  system  of  law  and 
of  the  State  upon  the  basis  of  the  Christian  revelation.  Schelling'a 
philosophy  exerted  a  great  influence  upon  the  form  of  the  first  edition, 
but  none  at  all  upon  the  later  ones.  In  his  treatise:  "Die  Kirchen- 
verfassung  nach  Lehre  und  Recht  der  Protest.  1840,"  he  declares  the 
episcopal  system  to  be  the  only  authorized  one.  Distinguished  among 
his  later  church-political  writings  are:  "  Ueber  den  christl.  Staat  u.  s. 
Yerhaltn.  zum  Dcismus  und  Judenth,  1847  ;  Der  Protestantism,  ala 
politisches  Princip.  4.  A.  1854;  Wide"  Bunsen,  1. — 3.  A.  1856." 


III.  ROMAN  CATHOLICISM. 

£57.  ROMAN  CATHOLICISM  IN  GENERAL." 

The  Papacy,  which  was  trampled  into  the  dust  but  not  hum- 
bled by  Napoleon  I.,  was  restored  (1814)  by  the  allied  princes 
of  all  confessions,  and  since  then  the  popes  have  maintained  the 
hierarchical  principle  for  the  most  part  with  power  and  dignity. 
JVlany  deep  wounds,  it  is  true,  have  been  inflicted  upon  the 
papacy,  but  new  hopes  and  new  prospects  have  been  opened  to 
it.  But  while  on  the  north  side  of  the  Alps  Utramontaniam 
won  victory  after  victory,  the  papacy  suffered  in  Italy  one  de- 
feat after  another.  And  during  the  sessions  of  the  Vatican 
Council  which  completed  its  deification,  the  entire  glory  of  its 
worldly  power  fell.  The  States  of  the  Church  were  stricken  from 
the  roll  of  the  European  nations,  and  Home  became  the  capital 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  now  united  under  the  Sardinian 
sceptre.  Home  3Iissions  developed  an  activity  rich  in  efforts 
and  results  under  the  revival  of  the  orders  devoted  to  this  ser- 
vice and  through  the  establishment  of  new  unions  to  this  end. 
The  zeal  for  Heathen  Missions  was  also  rekindled.     The  only 


ROMAN     CATIIOLIC1SM    IN    GENERA',.  377 

thing  to  be  lamented  in  this  is  the  ultramontaLs  narrow-hearted- 
ness,  which  preferred  to  force  itself  with  its  missions  in  a  dis- 
turbing- way  just  where  Protestant  missions  had  already  put  in 
the  sickle  to  cut  the  harvest.  Roman  Catholicism  made  the 
greatest  and  most  successful  efforts  to  establish  itself  in  Protestant 
territory  in  England,  North  America,  and  in  the  South  Sea. 
Roman  Catholic  theology  made  great  advances  in  France,  and 
especially  in  Germany  (where  Protestant  science  exerted  an  in- 
fluence on  its  development). 

1.   The  Papacy.  —  Napoleon  concluded,  as  first  consul  of  the  French 
republic,  a  concordat  (1801)  with  Pius  VII.  (1800-23),  who  had  been 
elected  pope  at  Venice  under  Austrian  protection,  according  to  which 
the  church  property  reverted  to  the  State,  the  sworn  priests  (although 
again  eligible)  resigned,  the  pope  again  resumed  his  ecclesiastical  and 
temporal  rights,  but  no  papal  bull  could  be  published  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  government  in  France,  and  the  bishops  were  to  be  nomi- 
nated by  the  government.     The  pope  crowned  the  consul  as  emperor 
of  France  (1804),  but  as  he  still  continued  to  adhere  to  his  hierarchical 
principles,  the  emperor  again  (1808)  took  possession  of  the  papal  terri- 
tory, and  declared  that  the  donation  of  his  predecessor  Charles  was 
taken  back  (1809).     The  pope  rejected  the  proffered  annuity  of  two 
millions  francs  as  an  insult,  placed  the  emperor  under  the  bann,  and 
was  taken  as  a  prisoner  to  Fontainebleau.     A  National  Council  at 
Paris  (1811)  was  wrecked  on  the  obstinacy  of  the  pope.     He  made,  it 
is  true,  concessions  in  a  new  concordat  (1813),  but  he  immediately  re- 
gretted them  and  took  them  back.     He  was,  finally,  in  1814,  restored 
by  the  allied  princes  to  the  full  possession  of  his  spiritual  and  temporal 
rights,  and  in  May  of  the  same  year  he  returned  to  Rome.     One  of  the 
first  of  his  official  acts  was  the  restoration  of  the  Jesuits  by  the  bull 
Sollicitudo  omnium,  as  occasioned  by  the  almost  unanimous  request 
of  entire  Christendom.     In  1815  he  formally  protested  against  the  acts 
of  the  congress  of  Vienna,  especially  against  the  dissolution  of  the 
German   empire,   which   had  been   determined  on   there,   because  it 
abolished  the  previously  existing  spiritual  principalities.     His  protest 
against  the  refusal  of  Ferdinand  IV.  (I.)  of  Naples,  to  continue  to  pay 
the  usual  tribute,  was  equally  without  effect,   because  generally  all 
relations  of  tribute  had  ceased  to  exist  (181G).     In  the  same  year  fol- 
lowed a  condemnation  of  the  Bible  societies  as  a  pest  of  Christendom, 
and  a  prohibition  of  translations  of  the  Bible.     He  was  succeeded  by 
Leo  XII.  (1823-29).     Being  more  rigid  in  his  administration  of  the 
government  than  his  predecessor,  he  also  condemned  the  Bible  socie- 
ties, re-established  the  prisons  of  the  inquisition,  and  celebrated  the 
year  of  jubilee  (1825)  with  a  much  larger  indulgence,  because  the 
celebration  of  the  year  1800  had  been  neglected.     After  Puis  VIII  'a 
75* 


378       SECTION    III. —  FOURTH    PERIOD      CEJTT.   19    A.  D.) 

reign  of  eight  months,  Gregory  XVI.  (1831-46)  ascended  the  papal 
throne,  and  endeavored  to  maintain  the  hierarchical  idea  with  earnest- 
ness and  honor  amid  the  disorders  at  home  and  the  distractions  abroad. 
The  spreading  Liberalism  of  the  Carbonari  revolt  was  suppressed  by 
Austrian  military  intervention,  but  the  liberalistic  fermentation  of 
young  Italy  continued.  Pius  IX.  ascended  the  papal  chair  in  1846, 
the  259th  pope  according  to  Roman  reckoning.  Whilst  he  seemed  to 
wish  that  in  church  affairs  everything  should  remain  as  it  had  been, 
and  also  as  occasion  offered  pronounced  against  the  Bible  societies,  he 
began  a  thorough  reformation  of  the  affairs  of  the  government  in  a 
liberal  sense,  and  nourished  the  hope  of  young  Italy,  that  by  his  me- 
diation the  national  independence  and  political  unity  of  Italy  would 
be  restored.  Thus,  however,  he  only  increased  the  storm  that  soon 
burst  upon  his  own  head.  The  endless  huzzah  "  Erviva  Pio  nono  ! " 
ended  with  the  flight  of  the  pope,  which  was  soon  followed  (1849)  by 
the  proclamation  of  a  Roman  republic,  in  spite  of  bann  and  interdict. 
The  arms  of  the  young  French  republic  disturbed  the  short  dream  by 
the  conquest  of  Rome  in  behalf  of  the  restoration  of  the  temporal 
power  of  the  pope,  and  the  Austrians  occupied  the  legations.  But  on 
account  of  the  inextricable  distractions  of  Italy,  the  pope  was  not  able 
to  return  to  the  eternal  city  until  April,  1850.  Since  then  the  papacy, 
although  it  has  been  supported  at  its  own  hearth  only  by  French 
and  Austrian  bayonets,  and  has  suffered  new  defeats  in  old  Catholic 
countries,  like  Sardinia  and  Spain,  has,  nevertheless,  gained  a  signifi- 
cance and  influence,  especially  in  Germany,  such  as  it  had  not  had  for 
centuries.  Already,  during  the  time  of  his  exile  at  Gaeta,  Pius  pub- 
lished a  solemn  declaration  concerning  the  immaculate  conception  of 
the  virgin  Mary,  to  whose  mighty  protection  he  attributed  his  deliver- 
ance, and  after  his  return  the  realization  of  this  declaration  lay  nearest 
to  his  heart.  To  convene  a  general  council,  to  which  would  have 
worthily  belonged  the  honor  and  task  of  determining  and  establishing 
a  dogma  emphatically  rejected  by  St.  Bernhard  and  St.  Thomas, 
seemed,  it  is  true,  even  to  the  romantic  Pius,  as  too  hazardous.  It  was 
supplied  by  a  conference  of  bishops  especially  invited  for  the  purpose, 
and  on  the  8th  December,  1854,  the  pope  proclaimed,  after  the  solemn 
celebration  of  the  mass  in  the  Sixtine  chapel,  with  a  loud  voice,  the 
great  joy  which  was  bestowed  upon  Christendom,  and  placed  a  costly 
brilliant  diadem  upon  the  head  of  the  image  of  the  queen  of  heaven. 
The  disciples  of  St.  Thomas  remained  silent  at  this  practical  imputa- 
tion of  heresy  cast  upon  their  master,  a  few  single  voices,  which  pro- 
tested, were  not  heard,  the  bishops  of  all  Roman  Catholic  countries 
proclaimed  the  new  dogma,  the  theologians  defended  it,  and  the  fond- 
ness of  the  people  for  spectacles  rejoiced  in  pompous  festivals  in  honor 
of  Mary.42 

2.  The  Society  of  Jesus,  after  its  abolition  by  Clemens  XIV.,  con- 
tinued to  exist  partly  in  secret,  partly  finding  a  refuge  in  the  order  of 


ROMAN     CATHOLICISM    IN     GENERAL.  379 

the  Liguarians  or  Redemptwnists.  This  order  ($  44,  2)  obtained  thereby 
an  importance,  which  it  was  not  able  formerly  to  acquire,  but  which 
it  has  since  known  how  to  preserve,  especially  through  zealous  instruc- 
tion of  the  young.  The  restored  order  of  the  Jesuits,  however,  carried 
with  it  the  inheritance  of  bitter  hatred  and  suspicion  from  the  past 
into  the  present.  Besides,  it  was  not  able  to  regain  the  scientific  im- 
portance of  former  ages,  and  it  also  was  deficient  in  eminent  men. 
But  these  deficiencies  were  compensated  by  an  indestructible  perse- 
verance and  elasticity,  combined  with  unwearying  activity.  Neverthe- 
less, it  seemed  not  to  be  a  match  for  the  storm  of  Liberalism,  which 
broke  upon  it  from  all  sides,  in  spite  of  all  the  praise  of  ultramontane 
theologians,  bishops,  and  statesmen.  The  revolution  of  July  1830 
forced  the  Jesuits  first  out  of  France,  and  when  they  still  continued  to 
exist  there  under  the  protection  of  the  bishops,  the  chambers  and  the 
government  united  against  them,  and  Gregory  XYI.  was  compelled  to 
influence  their  general  voluntarily  to  abolish  all  their  colleges  in 
France.  The  chief  seat  of  the  order  was  in  Roman  Catholic  Switzer- 
land, but  the  unfortunate  issue  of  the  war  of  1847  drove  them  also  out 
of  this  fastness,  and  Pius  IX.  was  compelled  even  to  approve  of  their 
banishment  from  the  States  of  the  Church.  The  revolutionary  year  of 
1848  threatened  the  order  with  entire  extinction,  forced  it  out  of  Ba- 
varia and  Austria,  and  only  allowed  it  to  be  undisturbed  in  Belgium. 
But  the  restoration  of  1850  secured  for  it  the  return  into  all  the  Roman 
Catholic  counties  excepting  Sardinia.  Since  then  the  disciples  of  St. 
Loyola  have  been  renewed  "  as  eagles,"  and  they  now  travel  through 
the  countries,  laboring  by  preaching  to  Roman  Catholic  Ultramontan- 
ists  their  faith,  and  to  convert  Protestants.  Pius  IX.  also,  under  whose 
auspices  Augustine  Theiner  (Gesch.  d.  Pontificates  Clemens  XIV.  2 
Bde.  Par.  1853)  directed  the  heavy  artillery  of  history  taken  "from 
the  secret  archives  of  the  Vatican"  against  them,  surrendered  public 
instruction  to  them  again. 

The  other  orders  also  succumbed,  at  least  for  a  time,  in  most  of  the 
States,  to  the  storms  of  the  revolution.  Joseph  II.  made  the  beginning 
by  secularizing  more  than  500  monasteries,  and  by  condemning  the 
remainder  to  a  slow  extinction.  France  decreed,  Nov.  2,  1789,  the 
abolition  of  all  orders  and  monasteries,  and  in  1802  almost  all  monas- 
teries were  dissolved  under  Napoleon's  auspices  also  in  the  German 
empire.  However,  Napoleon  restored,  from  motives  of  expediency,  the 
institute  of  the  merciful  sisters,  whose  scattered  remnants  he  collected 
under  the  superintendence  of  the  empress-mother  into  a  general  chap- 
ter in  Paris  (1807).  In  Portugal  and  Spain  also,  as  lately  in  Sardinia, 
the  death-penalty  has  been  pronounced  upon  all  monasteries  (cf.  $.  58, 
1,  2).  New  monasteries  arose  only  in  France,  Bavaria,  as  also  in  Eng- 
land and  North  America. 

Worthy  yet  of  special  mention  is  the  restoration  of  the  Order  of 
Trappists.     When  the  brothers  were  driven  from  La  Tr  vppe  in  1791, 


380        SECTION    III. —  FOURTH   PERIOT    (CENT.  19   A.  D.; 

the  canton  Freiburg  offered  them  an  asylum.     The  then  master  of 
novices,  Augustine  [Henry  de  Lestrange),  established  now  a  new  monas- 
tery at  Valsairite  (which  Pius  VI.  raised  to  an  abbey  in  1794),  and  in 
Wallis  even  a  nunnery,  into  which,  among  others  also,  the  princess 
Louise  de  Conde  was  received.     The  order  flourished  again  here,  and 
had  several  colonies  also  outside  of  Switzerland.     But  through  the  in- 
vasion of  the  French  in  1798  it  was  also  driven  out  of  Valsainte.    Au- 
gustine now  obtained  permission  from  the  Russian  emperor  Paul  I.  for 
his  brethren  to  emigrate  to  West  Russia,  Poland,  and  Litthauen.     But 
they  were  compelled  already  in  1800  to  leave  Russia.     Augustine  tra- 
velled through  Europe  and  even  America,  enduring  unspeakable  hard- 
ships, in  order  that  he  might  provide  for  his  associates.     After  the  fall 
of  Napoleon  he  purchased  again  the  nunnery  of  La  Trappe,  and  or- 
ganized it  as  the  mother-monastery  of  a  multitude  of  new  settlements 
in  and  outside  of  France,  so  that  the  order  spread  through  him  as  it  had 
never  before  (ob.  1827).    The  Trappists  have  even  colonized  in  Algiers. 
Very  numerous,  even  numberless,  are  the  Brotherhoods  and  Sister- 
hoods, which  have  been  formed  since  the  restoration  of  1814.     France 
especially  has  exhibited  in  this  sphere  an   unparalleled  fruitfulness 
and  a  wonderful  inventive  faculty  in  abstruse  names  for  the  same. 
Worthy  of  special  distinction  is  the  Congregation  of  the  poor  School- 
sisters  in  Bavaria,  which  was  formed  (1834)  through  the  efforts  of 
Bishop  Mich.  Wiltmann  of  Regensburg,  a  pupil  and  friend  of  Sailer. 
This  congregation  has  not  only  founded,  during  the  brief  time  of  its 
existence,  about  40  settlements  with  numerous  female  schools  in  Bava- 
ria, but  it  has  also  already  established  itself  in  other  German  Roman 
Catholic  countries  (W'urtemberg,  Silesia,  Bohemia),  and  even  in  North 
America  (Baltimore). 

3.  Prosclytism.  (Cf.  Hceninghaus,  chronol.  Verzcichniss  d.  denkw. 
Bekehrungen  zur  kath.  K.  Aschaffb.  1837. — Nitzsch,  Ursachen,  etc.,  in 
the  deutsch.  Ztschr.  1851,  Nr.  29.)  — In  the  twilight  of  Romanticism 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  appeared  as  the  crystallized  middle  ages 
clothed  with  fresh  glory,  whilst  the  unpretentious  character  of  the 
Protestant  Church,  especially  in  its  then  prevailing  rationalistic  garb, 
was  offensive  to  imaginative  minds.  Transition  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  lay,  therefore,  in  the  current  of  the  spirit  of  the  age.  which 
carried  away  many  of  the  noblest  contemporaries.  The  most  distin- 
guished converts  of  this  century  are,  besides  Stolberg  (#  44,  5),  Fr. 
Schlegel,  who  was  influenced  by  romantic  poetry  as  unfolded  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  (1808)  ;  Adam  Midler,  who  was  led  to  take 
the  same  step  by  romantic  poetry  in  connection  with  romantic  views 
of  the  State  (1805)  ;  further,  K.  L.  v.  Holler,  the  restorer  of  the  science 
of  politics  according  to  medioeval-feudalistic  and  territorialistio  princi- 
ples (1820)  ;  Jarcke  and  Phillips,  who  walked  in  his  footsteps  (1S24)  ; 
Friidr.  Rurter,  the  biographer  of  Innocent  III.,  formerly  superin- 
tendent at  Zurich  (1844) ;  the  biased  novelist  Ida,  Countess  Hah  n-Hahn  ; 


ROMAN    CATHOLICISM    IN     GENERAL.  381 

the  publicist  Frans  von  Florencourt ;  the  Church  historian  Gfrorer 
(1853)  ;  the  radical  Hegelian  Daumer  (1858)  ;  and  the  Berlin  licentiate 
Hugo  Ldmmcr.—On  the  other  hand,  concern  for  the  salvation  of  the 
soul,  which  found  no  satisfaction  in  Roman  Catholic  self-righteousness, 
led  a  number  of  pious  men  {Martin  Boas,  Gossrter,  Henhofer,  etc.)  to 
embrace  the  Protestant  doctrine  concerning  the  Bible  and  justification, 
and  from  here  in  part  into  the  Protestant  Church.  Still  greater  was 
the  number  of  proselytes,  who  were  led  into  the  Protestant  Church  by 
Rationalism  :  their  names  have  already  passed  into  forgetfulness.  In 
later  times  the  proselytism  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  been 
most  successful  in  North  America  and  in  England.  On  the  other  hand, 
she  has  continually  sustained  the  greatest  losses  in  France,  Ireland, 
Bohemia,  and  Sardinia,  and  is  only  able  to  suppress  Protestant  sym- 
pathies in  Italy  by  the  use  of  the  prison,  house  of  correction,  and 
police. 

The  decision  of  the  Church  in  the  Mortara  affair  (1858)  created  a 
great  excitement.  The  eight  year  old  son  of  the  Jew  Mortara  of  Bo- 
logne  was  forcibly  torn  from  his  parents  by  the  bailiffs  of  St.  Ufficio, 
and  taken  to  Rome,  because  his  Christian  nurse  had  said  that  she  had 
baptized  him  two  years  before,  when  he  was  dangerously  sick.  In 
vain  were  the  prayers  and  tears  of  the  parents  ;  in  vain  the  cry  of  in- 
dignation, which  was  raised  in  all  Europe;  in  vain  all  intercession; 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  gives  baptism  the  character  indelebilis, 
and  the  pope  declared  that  he  could  not  change  the  laws  of  the  Church. 
The  pious  nurse,  however,  who  knew  so  well  how  to  proselytize,  was 
not  censured  by  the  laws  of  the  Church. 

4.  Ultrainontanism.—  The  mild,  irenical,  and  profound  mysticism 
of  the  noble  Bishop  Sailer  (ob.  1832)  met  with  a  warm  reception  at 
the  beginning  of  this  period  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  of  Ger- 
many. But  the  indifference  of  this  school  towards  ecclesiastical  works, 
its  deep  affinity  with  Protestant  Pietism,  and  the  undisguised  procli- 
vity of  some  of  its  adherents  to  the  Protestant  principle  of  the  Bible 
and  of  justification,  brought  it  into  discredit  with  the  hierarchy  and 
its  representatives,  and  called  forth  the  antithesis  of  an  Ultramontanism 
ever  becoming  more  sharp.  The  master  humbled  himself  like  Fenelon ; 
the  disciples  withdrew  into  the  quiet  closet,  and  gradually  became  ex- 
tinct. Greater  favor  was  shown  by  the  Ultramontanes  to  another  form 
of  mysticism,  which  expressed  itself  in  the  miraculous  cures  of  the 
Prince  Hohenlohe  (since  1820)  and  in  the  scars  of  the  nun  Anna 
Catharine  Emmerich  in  the  monastery  at  Diilmen  in  Westphalia  {ob. 
1824).  In  her  latter  years  the  poet  Clemens  Brentano  sat  at  her  feet, 
reverencing  her  as  a  saint,  listening  to  her  revelations  concerning  the 
life  and  sufferings  of  the  Saviour  and  his  mother,  about  which  she  was 
able  to  give  the  most  exact  information  as  to  time  and  place,  day  and 
hour,  as  also  the  most  unessential  particulars  (ex.  gr.  the  fashion  and 
color  of  the  clothes  of  the  co-workers).     Brentano  published  from  hia 


382       SECTION    III. FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.    19    A.  D"" 

notes  of  those  visions  taken  down  with  great  care,  "  Das  bittere  Leideu 
unseres  Ilcrrn  J.  Chr.  1833,  6.  A.  1842."  The  whole  of  the  remainder 
is  now  being  published  under  the  supervision  of  a  "pious  and  learned 
monk."  —  In  the  third  decade  of  this  century  the  opposition  of  the 
Ultramontane  party  was  directed  especially  against  the  liberal  and 
noble,  but  certainly  latitudinarian,  Baron  v.  Wesseriberg,  the  friend 
and  successor  of  the  celebrated  E.  v.  Dalberg.  in  the  bishopric  of  Con- 
stance. Pius  VII.  decidedly  refused  to  give  his  sanction.  The  govern- 
ment of  Baden,  however,  protected  him  in  the  exercise  rf  his  office,  until 
1827,  when,  in  consequence  of  a  concordat  with  the  pope,  the  bishopric 
of  Constance  was  abolished.  Since  then  Wessenberg  has  lived  as  a 
private  citizen  in  Baden,  and  has  offended  the  Ultramontanes  by  pub- 
lishing a  profound  "  Geschichte  der  groszen  Kirchenversammlungen 
des  15.  u.  1G.  Jahrh.  Konst.  1840,  4  Bde."  Ultramontanism  also  at- 
tempted to  crush  the  excellent  Hirscher  in  Freiburg,  but  the  noble  and 
also  churchly  conduct  of  the  man  put  their  efforts  to  shame.  Within 
the  last  decades  Ultramontanism  has  gained  in  power,  and  possesses 
also  able  scientific  representatives.  Its  chief  seat  was  Bavaria,  its 
chief  champion  the  always  armed  Jos.  von  Gorres  of  Munich,  who 
once  apotheosized  the  revolution,  then  mediaeval  feudalism,  hierarch- 
ism,  and  mysticism,  and  bewailed  the  Reformation  as  a  second  fall 
(ob.  1848).  He  established  (1838)  the  "  Ilistorisch-politischen  Blatter," 
at  whose  command  (especially  under  Edm.  Jong's  present  direction) 
stands  an  unsurpassed  versatility  sparkling  with  spirit,  wit,  and  ridi- 
cule. The  most  celebrated  organs  of  Ultramontanism  next  to  it,  are 
the  Paris  Univers  by  Veuillot,  and  the  Civilta  Cattolica.  edited  by  the 
Jesuits  at  Naples,  then  at  Home.  The  talented  Count  Jos.  de  Maistre, 
Sardinian  ambassador  at  St.  Petersburg  (ob.  1821),  recognized  in  the 
infallibility  of  the  pope  the  life-principle  of  all  history  (Du  Papa;  De 
l'eglise  Gallicane ;  Soirees  de  St.  Petersb.).  The  gigantic  lie,  that 
Protestantism  is,  in  its  inmost  essence,  not  only  ecclesiastically,  but 
also  politically  revolutionary,  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  Roman  Catho- 
licism is  the  only  defence  of  States  against  revolution  and  democracy, 
is  still  dished  up  anew  with  unblushing  audacity,  in  spite  of  the  thou- 
sand-fold testimony  of  history  against  it,  and  (so  true  is  the  old  pro 
verb:  Calumniare  audacter,  etc.)  it  is  also  believed. 

5.  National  Religious  Liberalism. — Whilst  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  on  the  one  hand,  Ultramontanism  was  continually  intensified 
and  spread,  on  the  other,  anti-hierarchical  Liberalism  mad"  itself  felt 
more  and  more.  Unions,  of  clergymen  were  formed  in  Silesia  (since 
1826)  and  in  South  Germany  (1830),  which  agitated  the  abolition  of 
celibacy  without  result.  The  priest  Lamennais  in  Paris,  formerly  a 
zealous  adherent  of  the  restoration  and  of  absolutism,  became  in  July 
1830  the  enthusiastic  apostle  of  Liberalism.  A  preacher  of  universal 
numan  rights,  he  would  have  transplanted  political  radicalism  into  the 
heart  of  Christianity,  aud  surrounded  it  with  the  halo  of  Roman  Ca- 


ROMAN     CATHOLICISM     IN     GENERAL.  383 

tholicism.  The  journal  l'Avenir  became  the  orgai  &f  a  school  formed 
around  him,  and  his  Paroles  d'un  croyant  (1834),  according  to  the  judg- 
ment of  the  pope  a  book  "  small  in  compass,  but  enormous  in  wicked- 
ness," written  in  the  most  exalted  prophetic  style,  created  a  great 
excitement.  But  the  unnatural  union  of  that  which  was  absolutely 
irreconcilable,  could  not  continue.  His  school  gradually  became  ex- 
tinct, and  Lamennais  himself  continually  approached  the  principles 
of  modern  Socialism  (ob.  1854).  Likewise  as  a  result  of  the  revolution 
of  July  (1830)  the  Abbe  Chatel  of  Paris  established  a  so-called  French 
Catholic  Church,  whose  rationalistic  poverty  only  survived  to  1842. 
Nobler  and  more  earnest,  but  equally  without  result,  was  the  anti- 
hierarchical  efforts  of  the  Abbe  Helsen  in  Brussels.  His  apostolic 
Catholic  Church  was  dissolved  (1837)  ;  its  remnants  embraced  Pro- 
testantism. Of  a  more  threatening  character  were  the  founding  of  a 
German  Catholic  Church  in  1844.  In  August  of  this  year  Bishop  Ar- 
noldi  of  Treves  exhibited  the  holy  seamless  coat  of  Christ  preserved 
there  (cf.  J.  Gildemeister  u.  II.  v.  Sybel;  Dcr  h.  Rock  zu  Trier  und  die 
20  audern  h.  ungen'ahten  Rocke.  Diisseld.  2.  A.  1844)  for  the  adoration 
of  the  faithful,  and  thereby  attracted  hundreds  of  thousands  of  pilgrims 
to  Treves.  A  suspended  priest,  John  Range,  at  that  time  family  tutor 
at  Laurah'dtte  in  Silesia,  published  in  October  a  letter  to  Arnoldi  in 
the  Saxon  journals,  in  which,  under  sparkling  and  empty  phrases,  he 
denounced  the  trade  in  relics  like  a  Luther  of  the  19th  century. 
Earlier  already,  preacher  John  Czerski  of  Schneidemuhl  in  Poland  had 
renounced  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  (1844),  and  now,  still  indepen- 
dent of  the  Rongean  movement,  he,  with  his  congregation,  published 
a  "  Christian-apostolic-Catholic '"  confession  of  faith,  which  agrees  in 
its  negations  with  the  principles  of  the  evangelical  Church,  without, 
however,  acknowledging  its  affirmation  (the  doctrine  of  justification), 
but,  nevertheless,  for  the  rest,  wishing  to  hold  fast  to  the  fundamental 
truths  of  Christianity.  Meanwhile,  Ronge's  letter  was  discussed  in 
all  the  journals,  and  since  the  beginning  of  1845  German  Catholic 
congregations  were  formed  throughout  Germany  (except  in  Bavaria  and 
Austria),  which  became  the  rendezvous  of  all  kinds  of  religious  Liber- 
alism (in  part  also  from  the  Protestant  Church).  A  so-called  general 
convocation  at  Leipsic  in  March  1845,  which  Avas  to  give  a  constitution 
and  confession  to  the  new  church,  brought  to  light  its  lamentable  reli- 
gious Nihilism.  Czerski,  who  at  least  would  not  reject  the  divinity  of 
Christ,  repudiated  the  Leipsic  resolutions.  Ronge,  however,  marched 
in  triumph  through  Germany,  whereby  his  hollowness  and  communis- 
tic tendency  was  revealed  more  and  more.  The  better  portion  of  his 
adherents  began  to  be  ashamed  of  their  enthusiasm  for  the  new  re- 
former. His  congregations  in  great  part  divided  among  themselves, 
many  were  dissolved,  many  of  the  leaders  cast  off  the  religious  mask, 
and  endeavored  to  regain  their  lost  respect  amid  the  revolutionary  dis- 
orders of  1848  as  communistic  and  republican  reformers.    T'je  restora 


384      SECTION    III. —  FOURTH   PERIOD   (CENT.    19   A.  D.) 

tion  which  followed  put  an  end  to  its  needy  remnants.  (Cf.  Edwin 
Bauer,  G^sch.  d.  deutsch-kath.  K.  Meiss.  1845. —  W.  A. Lampadius,  d. 
deutsch-kath.  Bewegung.     Lpz.  184G.) 

G.  The  Unions. — The  stormy  years  of  1848  and  1849  brought  great 
hopes  and  great  dangers  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  of  Germany, 
especially  the  hope  of  entire  emancipation  from  the  State  and  the 
danger  of  enslavement  to  the  despotism  of  a  Liberalism  hostile  to  the 
Church.  But  its  representatives  knew  how  to  steer  skilfully  between 
Scylla  and  Charybdis.  To  secure  the  first,  they  negotiated  with  the 
democracy ;  to  avoid  the  last,  with  the  reaction  ;  and  they  were  sue 
cessful  in  (mining  advantages  from  both.  In  Nov.  1848  the  German 
bishops  assembled  at  Wurzburg  to  consult  together  concerning  the  best 
way  to  proceed  in  this  critical  period.  Unchangeable  faithfulness  to 
Koine  was  the  first  point  settled ;  voluntary  co-operation  with  the 
"political  regeneration"  of  the  fatherland,  the  second;  thankful  ac- 
ceptance of  the  promise  of  unconditional  freedom  of  conscience  (in 
the  fundamental  rights  of  the  Frankfurt  parliament)  in  order  to  ac- 
complish the  most  complete  independence  of  the  Church  and  absolute 
control  of  national  education  from  the  elementary  to  the  high-schools, 
the  third.  They  recognized  the  restoration  of  diocesan  synods  as  an 
important  means  to  elevate  the  clergy  and  to  restore  church  discipline  ; 
but  the  holy  Father  considered  the  means  as  at  that  time  doubtful. 
Shortly  before  this,  however,  an  institute  of  far-reaching  significance 
had  been  founded,  in  which  also, — and  prominently, — the  laity  were  to 
co-operate,  viz.  the  Pius-union,  a  Roman  Catholic  counterpart  of  the 
Protestant  Church  Diet.  Soon  after  the  days  of  March,  unions  were 
formed  at  several  places  in  Germany,  having  for  their  object  the  pro- 
tection and  advancement  of  Roman  Catholic  interests.  At  the  next 
anniversary  of  the  building  of  the  Cathedral  at  Cologne  (Aug.  1848), 
the  members  of  several  of  these  unions  met  together  and  resolved 
upon  a  general  convocation  in  Oct.  1848  at  Mayence,  where  the  first 
union  of  this  kind  was  formed  under  the  name  of  Pius-union.  Here 
all  the  single  unions  were  formed  into  a  great  collective  union  under 
the  name  of  "  Catholic  Union  of  Germany ;"  although  in  practice  the 
shorter  name  of  Pius-union  has  been  preferred.  To  direct  the  business 
of  the  collective  union,  one  of  the  single  unions  was  to  be  chosen  every 
time  from  the  annual  general  convocation,  which  was  called  "Vorart." 
The  object  of  the  union  was:  the  obtaining  and  maintaining  of  the 
freedom  of  the  Church  and  control  of  the  same  over  the  schools;  na- 
tional culture  in  the  Roman  Catholic  spirit  and  practice  of  Christian 
mercy  ;  as  fundamental  law  obedience  to  the  pope  and  to  the  episco- 
pate ;  pacific  posture  towards  the  State  and  towards  every  existing 
form  of  government,  so  far  as  the  rights  of  the  Church  were  not  thereby 
prejudiced;  and  defensive,  not  aggressive  posture  towards  the  non- 
Catholic  confessions.  The  mother  of  God  was  chosen  to  be  the  patroness 
vf  the  union.     Every  member  bound  himself  to  repeat  a  daily  Pater- 


ROMAN     CATHOLICISM    IN     GENERAL.  385 

noster  and  Ave  Maria  to  further  the  objects  of  the  union.  At  the  se- 
cond meeting  at  Breslau  a  letter  was  received  from  the  pope,  in  which 
he  gave  his  approbation  and  blessing.  The  meeting  at  Vienna  (1853), 
however,  had  to  acknowledge,  that  it  had  not  succeeded  in  attracting 
the  masses,  for  only  the  same  faces  were  present.  The  meeting  at 
Cologne  (1854)  became  discordant,  because  the  Comite  refused  to  give 
the  Prussian  government  a  guarantee  of  abstinence  from  political 
utterances  and  confessional  polemics.  The  ninth  general  meeting  at 
Salzburg  (1857)  was  a  living  testimonium  paupertatis,  which  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  world  exhibited  to  the  union.  Little  was  felt  here  of 
important  men,  deeds,  and  speeches.  The  cathedral  capitular  Himio- 
ben  of  Mayence,  the  "real  miles  gloriosus  of  the  meeting,"  uttered 
hectoring  fanfaronades  about  the  glorious  victories  of  Roman  Catholi- 
cism in  Germany,  and  expressed  the  confident  hope,  in  regard  to  the 
40  new  Protestant  churches  built  by  the  Gustave-Adolphus  union, 
that  these  would  shortly  again  be  cast  out  into  the  garden  of 
rejected  stones.  Harlequinades  were  also  not  wanting:  Prof.  Kreu- 
zer  of  Cologne  ex.  gr.  comforted  those  present,  in  regard  to  the  charge 
of  Ultramontanisni,  with  the  proverb :  "  There  stands  the  ox  at  the 
mountain,"  from  which  it  follows  incontestably,  that  the  oxen  are  the 
real  Cismontanes,  because  they  are  not  able  to  pass  over  the  mountain; 
and  as  regards  the  papacy,  it  is  evident,  that  Christ  himself,  who  called 
upon  his  father  on  the  cross,  was  a  papist ;  indeed,  every  man  is  a  born 
papist,  because  the  child  lisps  "  Papa"  already  in  the  cradle,  and  other 
such  comical  things.  As  a  change,  it  was  also  greatly  lamented,  that 
207  large  and  1234  small  journals  were  in  the  service  of"  the  Protestants 
of  Germany,  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Roman  Catholics  had  only 
0  large  and  81  small  ones.  The  tenth  meeting  (1858)  was  held  at 
Cologne.  Its  deportment  was  in  general  more  dignified,  the  contents 
of  its  speeches  more  important,  than  those  of  the  previous  year.  Still 
the  jester  Himioben  was  not  wanting  this  time  also.  He  exhorted  the 
women  to  form  Parament-uuions,  and  informed  them,  that  the  first 
union  of  this  kind  was  formed  in  the  year  33  after  Christ,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  first  secularization,  when  the  soldiers  cast  lots  for  the 
garment  of  the  Saviour,  which  he  had  worn  the  evening  previous  as  a 
chasuble  at  the  first  celebration  of  the  mass.  Indeed,  we  can  even  go 
further  back  than  this:  Mary,  who  made  swaddling-bands  for  the  child 
Jesus,  was  the  proper  originator  of  the  union.  After  being  edified  with 
such  trifles,but  also  hearing  many  importanttruths.especially  concerning 
the  study  of  history  and  the  musical  culture  of  the  young,  the  meeting 
was  closed  by  consecrating  the  pillar  of  Mary,  built  at  Cologne  in 
honor  of  the  immaculate  conception. — The  individual  unions  pursued 
various  objects.  The  Bonifacius-unions  ex.  gr.  supported  needy  Ro- 
man Catholic  congregations  in  Protestant  Germany  (also  an  imitation 
of  the  Gustave-Adolphus  union)  ;  the  Clcarles  Boromeo-unions  spread 
good  Roman  Catholic  writings ;  the  Vincentlus  and  Elizabeth-unions 
76 


386      SECTION    III. —  FOURTH    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.  19    A.  D.) 

had  for  its  object  the  visiting  of  the  sick  and  the  care  of  the  poor;  the 
Journeymen-unions  (already  founded  by  Kolping of  Elberfeld,  1840)  tho 
spiritual  and  temporal  sustenance  of  journeymen  ;  the  Unions  of  the 
holy  childhood  of  Jesus  is  composed  chiefly  of 'children,  who  contribute 
monthly  five  pennies  fur  the  salvation  of  exposed  heathen  children 
(especially  in  China),  and  daily  pray  an  Ave  Maria  for  them.  The 
Union  has  also  got  control  of  the  political  daily  press,  and  established 
(1855)  a  "  Katholische  Literaturezeitung,"  edited  by  J)r.  Brischar  of 
Vienna,  Besides,  the  founding  of  a  Roman  Catholic  university  in 
Germany  (at  Salzburg)  by  art-unions,  etc.,  is  discussed. 

To  advance  Roman   Catholic  Missions  among  heathens  and  unbe- 
lievers, there  exist  at  Rome,  in  addition  to  the  Propaganda,  fourteen 
other  educational  institutions  (the  German-Hungarian,  English,  Scotch, 
Irish,  Greek,  etc.  college)  ;  in  Paris  three ;  in  the  whole  of  Roman 
Catholic   Christendom,    thirty.     The  Picpus-association  in   Paris   (so 
called  after  its  central  establishment  in  Picpus  street  in  Paris),  serving 
the  same  end,  lias  acquired  a  wide  reputation.     The  founder  of  this 
union  was  the  deacon  Peter  Coudrin,  a  pupil  of  the  priest's  seminary 
at  Poitiers.     Amid  the  cruelties  of  the  revolution  against  the  church 
and  the  priests,  he  received  in  concealment,  through  divine  inspiration, 
the  call  to  found  a  society,  having  for  its  object  "  to  atone  for  the  ex- 
travagances, crimes,  and  desecrations  of  all  kinds,   by  devoting  one 
day  and  night  to  the  adoration  of  the  most  holy  sacrament  of  the  altar," 
to  instruct  the  youth  in  Roman  Catholicism,  to  educate  priests,  and  to 
carry  the  gospel  to  the  heathen.     He  actually  founded  such  a  union  in 
1805,  and  Pius  VII.  confirmed  it  in  1817.     The  founder  died  in  1837, 
after  the  association  had  already  spread  over  all  the  five  parts  of  the 
globe.     Its  chief  object  now  is  heathen  missions.— Whilst  the  Picpus- 
union,  as  also  the  other  seminaries  and  monastic  orders,  furnished  an 
inexhaustible  supply  of  missionaries,  other  unions  were  formed  to  pro- 
cure the  necessary  supplies  of  money  and  of  prayer,  among  which  the 
Lyons-union  for  the  spread  of  the  faith  is  by  far  the  most  important 
since  1S22.     The  weeklv  pecuniary  contribution  of  each  member  is  one 
sou,  the  daily  contribution  of  prayer  a  Paternoster,  and  English  salu- 
tation  and   a  "  Holy  Francis   Xavier,  pray  for  us."     Its  fanatically 
ultramontane  "Jahrbiicher  zur  Vorbreitung  des  Glaubens  in  beiden 
Welten"  is  spread  yearly  in  almost  200,000  copies  (in  almost  every 
European  language)  among  the  people.     Its  yearly  income  amounts 
to  almost  four  million  francs.     The  popes  have  overwhelmed  the  mem- 
bers of  the  union  with  rich  indulgences.     Roman  Catholic  missions  are 
most  active  in  China,  Japan,  North  America,  and  the  Levant,     They 
have  also  acquired  greater  importance  since  1837,  through  a  measure 
of  violence  on  the  part  of  the  French  marine  in   the  South  Sea,  and 
through   French   colonization  in  Algiers  in  North  Africa.     A  bloody 
persecution   raged  against   Roman   Catholic  Christians   (1837-39)  in 
Tonkin  and  Cochin  China,  by  which  many  priests  and  Christians  suf- 
fered martyrdom. 


ROMAN     CATHOLICISM     IN     GENERAL.  387 

7.  Roman  Catholic  Theology. — A  biblically  orthodox,  but  churcbly 
latitudinarian  school,  which  had  its  chief  representative  in  Jahn,  was 
transplanted  from  the  former  to  this  period.  To  it  belong  also  the 
excellent  Leonh.  Hug  of  Freiburg,  ob.  1846,  (Einl.  in  die  Schriften  d. 
N.  T.  1808,  3.  A.  1826,  2  Bde. ;  Gutachten  ii.  d.  Leben  Jesu  v.  Strauss). 
Sailer's  mystico-pietistic  school  ($44,  11)  gradually  died  out  without 
having  contributed  anything  of  importance  to  theology.  The  Arch- 
bishop Wessenberg,  of  importance  also  as  a  Christian  poet  and  con- 
noisseur, represents  practically  and  scientifically  a  liberal  Roman 
Catholicism,  certainly  not  without  rationalizing  elements  (Die  Christl. 
Bilder,  2  Bde.  1826  ;  Die  gr.  Kirchenversamll.  d.  15.  16  Jahrh.  1840, 
4  Bde.)  Baron  Itekhh 'n-Meldegg ;  the  friend  and  biographer  of  Dr. 
Paulus  of  Heidelberg  (K.  G.  I.  1830),  taught  a  superficial  Rationalism, 
and  in  1832  he  joined  the  Protestant  church.  The  learned  Movers  of 
Breslau  (ob.  1856),  a  Richard  Simon  of  this  age,  practised  a  boldness 
of  destructive  criticism  on  the  canon  and  history  of  the  0.  T.  that 
amazed  even  the  father  of  Protestant  hyper-criticism,  De  Wette  (De 
utviusque  recensionis  Vaticiniarum  Jeremise  indole  et  origine,  1837  ; 
Die  Phonizier,  1841  ff.  4  Bde.)  —  The  noble  John  Bapt.  von  Hirscher 
of  Freiburg,  whom  the  Liberals  too  willingly  reckoned  among  them- 
selves, and  the  ultramontane  fanatics  condemn  as  a  heretic,  contri- 
buted towards  an  irenical  and  genial  Roman  Catholicism,  which  was 
as  free  from  ultramontane  as  from  rationalistic  tendencies,  and  preju- 
diced Roman  Catholic  doctrines  in  nothing  that  was  essential  (Christl. 
Moral.  5.  A.  1850,  3  Bde. ;  Katechetik.  4.  A.  1845  ;  Die  kath.  Lehre 
vom  Ablass.  5.  A.  1844,  etc.)  George  Hermes,  Prof,  at  Bonn,  whose 
youth  was  not  uninjured  by  critical  philosophy,  permitted  the  Roman 
Catholic  dogmas  of  the  Council  of  Trent  to  pass  through  the  fire  of 
doubt  and  rational  investigation,  with  the  confidence  that  they  would 
endure  the  trial,  because  only  what  survived  this  trial  was  scientifically 
right  and  true.  He  died  (1831)  and  left  behind  a  school  named  after 
him,  which  has  established  itself  especially  in  Treves,  Bonn  (Braun  u. 
Achterfeld)  and  Breslau  (Elvenich  and  Baher),  and  has  created  a 
scientific  organ  in  the  "Bonner  Zeitschrift  fur  Philosophie  u.  kath. 
Theologie,  1833."  Gregory  XVI.  condemned  his  writings  (1835)  (Einl. 
in  d.  Christkath.  Theologie,  1819,  2.  A.  1831;-  Christkath.  Dogmatik, 
herausg.  v.  Achterfeld,  1824,  3  Bde.)  ;  and  the  new  Archbishop  of 
Cologne,  Drosfe-ViscJiering,  prohibited  the  students  of  Bonn  from  at- 
tending the  lectures  of  the  Ilermesians.  These  made  every  effort  to 
obtain  the  recall  of  the  papal  censure.  Braun  and  Elvenich  went  to 
Rome  for  this  purpose  ;  but  their  assertion  that  Hermes  had  not  taught 
that  which  the  pope  condemned  was  as  little  regarded  as  it  had  been 
previously  in  the  case  of  the  Jansenists.  A  controversy  now  arose, 
which  was  carried  on  by  both  sides  with  great  passion,  and  which  re- 
ceived new  fuel  through  the  Prussian-Cologne  church  controversy 
(§  58,  7).     Finally,  in  1844,  the  professors  Braun  and  Achterfeld  of 


388         SECTION    III. —  FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.   19  A.  D.) 

Bonn  were  deposed  from  their  professorships  hy  the  Arch-episcopal 
coadjutor  Geissel.  The  professors  of  the  Treves  seminary,  as  also 
Balzcr  of  Breslau  (Beitr.  zur  Vermittelung  ernes  richtigen  Urtheila 
iiher  Katholicism,  u.  Protestsm.  1840)  retracted.  (Cf.  Elvenick,  Acta 
Hermesiana,  Gottg.  1836,  and  Acta  Romana,  llanu,  1838.  J.  Perrone 
(Jesuit  at  Borne),  Gesch.  d.  Hermesianismus.  From  the  Italian,  Be- 
gensb.  1839;  on  the  other  side:  Perronius,  theologus  Bomanus  vapu- 
laus.  Col.  1840 ;  Chr.  Gu.  Niedner,  philosophise  llermesii  explicatio 
et  existimatio.  Lpz.  1838  ;  Elvenich,  der  llermensianismus  u.  Perrone. 
Berl.  1844.)  —  A  year  before  Hermes'  condemnation,  the  same  pope 
condemned  the  doctrine  directly  contrary  to  the  Hermesian,  taught  by 
the  Abbe  Bautain  of  Strasburg,  that  the  Christian  dogmas  cannot  be 
proven,  but  must  be  believed,  and  therefore  every  application  of  the 
reason  in  the  appropriation  of  saving  truth  is  entirely  excluded. 
Bautain  immediately  recanted  as  an  obedient  son  of  the  Church. 

Roman  Catholic  theology  disregarded  the  development  of  German 
philosophy  for  a  long  time.  Only  since  Schelling,  whose  philosophy 
had  more  points  of  contact  with  Roman  Catholic  views  than  any  pre- 
vious system,  was  a  general  and  active  interest  awakened  for  philoso- 
phical studies  and  speculative  confirmation  and  development  of  Roman 
Catholicism.  Franz  v.  Baader,  Prof,  of  speculative  dogmatics  in  Mu- 
nich (although  not  a  theologian  by  profession,  but  rather  a  physician 
and  metallurgist,  ob.  1841),  embraced  the  theosophy  of  the  shoemaker 
of  Gorlitz.  The  most  important  among  his  numerous  writings  are: 
Vorlesungen  uber  die  specul.  Dogmatik,  1828  ff.  5  Hefte,  and  Fermenta 
Cognitionis,  1822  If.  G  Hefte.  In  his  last  years  he  broke  entirely  with 
Ultramontanism  ("  Ueber  die  Thunlichkeit  od.  Unthunlichkeit  einer 
Emancipation  von  der  rom.  Dictatur,  1839;"— "Per  morgenl'andische 
und  abendlandische  Katholicismus,  1841.")  A  collective  edition  of 
his  Avritings  (1851  ff.)  was  published  in  connection  with  other  friends 
by  the  late  Franz  Hoffmann  of  Wurtemburg,  whose  "  Vorhalle  zur 
specul.  Lehre  Fr.  Baaber's,  1836,"  was  declared  by  the  latter  to  be 
the  purest  and  clearest  exhibition  of  his  doctrines.  His  doctrines 
were  accepted  by  the  Roman  Catholic  theological  faculty  of  Giessen, 
whose  destruction  was  certainly  thereby  hastened  ($  58,  6),  — espe- 
cially by  Leop.  Schmid  (Geist  des  Katholicismus  od.  Grundlegung 
der  chr.  Irenik.  4  Bd.  1848  ff.)  and  G.  A.  Lutterbeeh  (die  neutest. 
Lehrbcgriffe,  2  Bde.  1853  ff.)  A  tendency  closely  related  to  that  of 
Baader,  although  more  closely  allied  with  the  Kabbala,  was  pursued 
by  the  talented  Molitor  of  Frankfurt  (Philos.  d.  Gesch.  od.  u.  d.  Tra- 
dition, 4  Bde.  1827  ff.)  —  Beconcilableness  towards  Protestantism  cha- 
racterizes all  the  Roman  Catholic  adherents  of  this  tendency. 

A  speculative  theology  of  at  least  equally  important  speculative 
power,  and  in  any  case  of  purer  Christian  and  more  decided  Roman 
Catholic  contents,  was  developed  by  the  secular  priest  Anton  Gtonther 
of  Vienna,  in  connection  with  his  friend  Henry  Pabst  and  the  beloved 


ROMAN     CATHOLICISM    IN    GENERAL.  889 

preacher  Emmanuel  Peith  of  "Vienna.  Gi'mther,  a  deep,  original 
thinker,  with  combative  humor,  sparkling  wit,  and  withal  a  roughness 
of  expression  bordering  on  burlesque,  recognized  the  necessity  of  going 
back  again,  with  philosophical  and  theological  speculation,  to  Carte- 
sius,  who  in  his  Cogito  ergo  sum  yet  held  fast  to  the  dualism  of  God 
and  creature,  absolute  and  finite,  spirit  and  nature,  whilst  all  philoso- 
phy after  him  has  fallen  into  pantheistic  monism.  Proceeding  from 
Belf-consciousness,  the  human  spirit,  it  is  true,  recognizes  itself  as  free, 
but  yet  limited,  which  must,  therefore,  of  necessity  have  an  absolute 
substance  before  and  besides  itself,  whilst  it  at  the  same  time  knows 
itself  as  in  unity  with  and  yet  different  from  nature.  For  in  it  the 
union  of  nature  and  spirit  is  completed ;  both  principles  are  combined 
in  it  as  in  a  Communicatio  idiomatum.  Accordingly  man  has  two 
souls,  one  rational,  the  spirit, — and  another  sensuous,  the  psyche, 
which  is  one  substance  with  the  body,  and  has  as  the  plastic  principle 
of  the  body  its  own  will  and  consciousness,  but  is  connected  with  the 
spirit  in  a  formal  unity.  From  this  fundamental  view  he  endeavored 
to  solve  the  two  problems  of  Christian  speculation :  Creation  and  in- 
carnation, and  undertook  a  war  of  annihilation  against  all  monism 
and  semimonism,  idealistic  and  realistic  Pantheism,  humpbacked  and 
non-humpbacked  Semipantheism  among  Protestants  and  Roman  Ca- 
tholics. His  first  great  work  was  the  "  Vorschule  zu  specul.  Theol." 
(Bd.  I.:  Creationslehre,  1828,  Bd.  II.  Incarnationstheorie,  1829,  2.  A. 
1846).  Then  followed:  Peregrin's  Gastmahl.  1830;  Siid-u.  Nordlich- 
ter  am  Horizonte  specul.  Theologie,  1832;  Januskopfe,  1832  (in  con- 
nection with  Pabst)  ;  Der  letzte  Symboliker,  1834  (participation  in  the 
controversy  between  Mohler  and  Baur)  ;  Thomas  a  Scrupulis,  zur 
Transfiguration  der  Persiinlichkeits-Pantheismen  neuester.  Zeit,  1835  ; 
Die  Juste-melieu's  in  d.  deutsch.  Philos.  1838;  Eurystheus  und  Hera- 
kles,  1842;  Lydia,  ein  philos.  Taschenbuch  since  1849  (in  connection 
with  Veith).  Although  Gi'mther  never  ascended  a  rostrum,  he  never- 
theless soon  gathered  around  him  a  great  crowd  of  enthusiastic  disci- 
ples;  J.  H.  Pabst,  doctor  of  medicine  in  Vienna  (ob.  1838),  translated 
the  master's  dark,  aphoristic,  almost  dithyrambic  effusions  of  mind 
and  heart  into  luminous  and  spirited  philosophical  prose  ("Der 
Mensch  u.  s.  Geschichte,  1830 ;  Giebt  es  eine  Philos.  des  positiven 
Christenthums  ?  1832  ;  Adam  u.  Christus,  zur  Theorie  der  Ehe,  1835,") 
and  John  Eman.  Veith  popularized  them  in  sermons  and  devotional 
works  (Das  Vaterunser,  1831;  Der  heil.  Berge,  1833,  etc.,  2  Bde.) 
Many  of  the  former  adherents  of  the  condemned  Hermes  also,  among 
others  also  Baltzer,  became  his  disciples.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
"  Hist,  polit.  Blatter"  charged  him  with  annihilating  all  mystery  in 
Christianity,  with  contradicting  traditional  churchly  theology,  etc., 
and  a  private  docent  of  Philosophy  at  Bonn,  F.J.  Clemens  (Die  specul. 
Theol.  A.  Gunther's  u.  die.  kath.  Kirchenlehre,  1853)  became  the 
6pokesman  of  this  party  Thus  a  violent  controversy  arose,  of  which 
16* 


390      SECTION    III. —  FOURTH   PERIOD    (CENT.  19   A.  D.)  . 

notice  must  also  be  taken  at  Rome.  The  disposition  here  was  from 
the  beginning  to  doom  Glinther  to  the  same  fate  that  befell  Hermes  20 
years  before ;  yet  it  was  a  matter  of  long  deliberation,  for  intercession 
from  those  high  in  authority  at  Vienna  was  made  in  his  behalf.  Finally 
in  1857  the  formal  reprobation  of  Glinther' s  philosophy  was  announced, 
and  all  his  works  were  placed  in  the  Index  prohibitorum.  Glinther 
submitted  most  humbly  as  an  obedient  son  of  the  Church  ;  likewise 
Utilizer,  who  had  earlier  experience  in  such  matters. 

But  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  of  Germany  also  possessed  specula- 
tive powers  of  great  importance  outside  of  these  two  schools,  so  that, 
when  necessary,  it  was  able  boldly  to  measure  its  strength  with  Pro- 
testant theology.  The  most  important  of  these  is  Francis  Anthony 
Staudenmeier  of  Freiburg  (ob.  1856),  (Joh.  Scot.  Erigena  u.  die.  Wsch. 
sr.  Zeit,  Bd.  I.  1840  ;  Encykl.  d.  theol.  Wsch,  2.  A.  1840,  2  Bde. :  Der 
Geist  d.  gottl.  Offenb.  od.  Wsch.  d.  Geschichts-principien  d.  Christth. 
1837  ;  Die  Pb.ilosopb.ie  des  Christth.  od.  Metaphysik  d.  h.  Schr.  Bd.  I. ; 
Geist  d.  Christth.  3.  A.  1842,  2  Bde. ;  Krit,  d.  HegePschen  Systems 
vein  Standp.  d.  chr.  Philos.  1844;  Die  chr.  Dogmatik,  1844  ff.  4  Bde. ; 
Der  Protestsm.  in  s.  Wesen  u.  sr.  Entw.  1845  if.  3  Bde.  Bd.  III.;  Die 
Grundfragen  der  Gegenwart,  1850).  Next  to  him  were  distinguished: 
J.  Kuhn  of  Tubingen  (Das  Leben  Jesu,  wissensch.  bearb.  1838;  Ueber 
Glauben  u.  Wissen,  1839  ;  Ueber  Princip  u.  Methode  d.  specul.  Theol. 
1841;  Kathol.  Dogmatik,  Bd.  I.  II.  184G-57),  Karl.  Werner  (System 
d.  chr.  Ethik.  3  Bde.  1850;  Grundlinien  d.  Phil.  1855  ;  Der  h.  Thomas 
v.  Aquin,  3  Bde.  1858),  Mart.  Deutinger  (Princip  d.  Philos.  u.  chr. 
Wsch.  1857),  H.  Denzinger  (4  Bb.  v.  d.  rel.  Erkenntn.  2  Bde.  1857), 
/.  N.  Oischinger  (Philos.  u.  Relig.  1849  ;  System  d.  chr.  Glaubenslehre, 
Bd.  I.  1858,  etc.)  ;  J.  Sengler  (Ueber  d.  Wesen  u.  die  Bedeutung  d. 
specul.  Philos.  u.  Theol.  1837;  Die  Idee  Gottes.  1845  ff.  3  Bde.),  Seb. 
v.  Drey  of  Tubingen  (Die  Apologetik  ala  Wsch.  Nachweis  v.  d.  Gott- 
lichk.'des  Christth.  1838  ff.  3  Bde.),  and  others.— R.  Klee  of  Munich 
(Die  Beichte,  1827;  Kath.  Dogm.  3.  A.  1839,  2  Bde. ;  Dogmengesch, 
1837,  2  Bde. ;  Kath.  Moral.  1843,  etc.),  and  Zav.  Dieringer  of  Bonn 
(Lehrb.  d.  kath.  Dogmatik,  3.  A.  1853  ;  System  d.  gottl.  Tliaten  d. 
Christen thums,  2.  A.  1857)  belong  more  to  the  Positivists  of  the  old 
school. 

None  of  all  the  Roman  Catholic  theologians  of  modern  times  has 
reached  the  importance  and  influence  which  John  Adam  Mohler 
attained  in  a  life  of  but  40  years.  Having  been  brought  to  a 
high  scientific  culture  especially  by  the  study  of  Schleiermacher's 
writings  and  of  other  Protestants,  and  devoting  all  the  rich  gifts  of  his 
heart  and  mind  to  the  service  of  his  Church,  he  won  for  it  as  great  and 
even  greater  significance,  than  Schleiermacher  before  him  did  for  the 
Protestant  Church.  His  first  treatise  already  :  "  Die  Einhcit  der  Kirche 
od.  das  Princip  des  Katholicismus,  "1825,"  attested  and  guaranteed 
this.     It  was  followed  by  his  "Athanasius  d.  Gr.  u.  die  K.  sr.  Zeit. 


ROMAN    CATHOLICISM    IN    GENERAL.  391 

1827,"  and  this  by  his  principal  work,  "Symbolik,  1832,  5.  A.  1838," 
which  combats  Protestant  doctrines  with  the  weapons  of  Protestant 
science,  and  silently  ennobles  and  exalts  those  of  the  Roman  Ca- 
tholic Church.  Did  the  Protestants  up  to  this  time  generally  despise 
or  ignore  the  contributions  of  Roman  Catholic  theologians,  here  a 
scientific  power  of  the  highest  significance  approached  them,  to  despise 
which  would  have  been  a  sign  of  weakness.  And  in  fact,  long  as  was 
the  opposition  which  existed  between  both  churches,  no  work  from  the 
camp  of  the  Roman  Catholics  produced  as  much  agitation  and  excite- 
ment in  the  camp  of  the  Protestants  as  this,  at  least  none  with  more 
reason.  Of  the  Protestant  rejoinders,  those  by  Nitsch  and  Bauer  were 
the  most  important.  Mohler  replied  to  that  of  the  latter,  who  labored 
with  him  at  the  same  university,  in  his  "  Neuen  Unters.  d.  Lehrgegen- 
s'atze  zw.  d.  Kath.  u.  Prot.  1834,  2.  A.  1835."  The  lukewarmness  oc- 
casioned thereby  rendered  his  residence  at  Tubingen  unpleasant,  and 
led  him  to  accept  a  call  to  Munich.  But  increasing  illness  interfered 
with  his  scientific  labors,  and  did  not  permit  him  to  execute  the  great 
scientific  works  which  he  had  made  the  task  of  his  life.  For  already 
in  1838,  in  the  vigor  of  his  manhood,  he  was  torn  by  death  from  his 
church  and  from  science  generally,  which  was  justified  in  expecting 
from  him  still  something  great.  But  he  sent  rays  of  his  spirit  deep 
into  the  hearts  and  minds  of  hundreds  of  his  enthusiastic  pupils  by 
his  writings,  addresses,  and  by  his  intercourse  with  them  ;  and  what 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  of  the  present  possesses  of  living  scientific 
impulse  and  feeling  was  implanted,  or  at  least  revived  and  excited  by 
him.  His  posthumous  smaller  works  were  collected  by  Dollinger 
(1839  f.  2  Bde.),  and  Kheitmayr  published  from  his  papers  the  first 
volume  of  a  Patrology  in  1839.  His  lectures  on  Church  History  con- 
stitute the  basis  of  Alzog's  text-book.  Staudenmaier  and  Kuhn  are 
the  most  important  of  his  disciples  in  the  sphere  of  dogmatics, — Ign. 
Dollinger  of  Munich  (Die  Reformation,  ihre  Entwickl.  und  Wirkung 
im  Umfange  des  luth.  Bekenntnisses,  1846  ff.  3  Bde. ;  Hippolyt.  u. 
Kallistus  od.  d.  riim  K.  im  3  Jahrh.  1853  ;  Heidenth.  u.  Judenth.,  als. 
Vorhalle  zur  Gesch.  d.  Christenth.  1857),  K.  Jos.  Hefele  of  Tubingen 
(Einfiihr.  d.  Christth.  im  s'udwestl.  Deutschl.  1837;  Der  Kardinal 
Ximenez  u.  d.  kirchl.  Zustande  Spaniens,  2.  A.  1851 ;  Concilienges- 
chichte,  Bd.  I.  III.  1855  ff.)  in  the  sphere  of  Church  History.  Roman 
Catholic  learning  (so  far  as  ultramontane  virulence,  or  historical 
concealment  and  bungling  did  not  exert  a  baneful  influence)  has  con- 
tributed many  important  works  in  the  sphere  of  Church-historical 
monographs.  Relatively  weak  and  unimportant,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  its  biblico-critieal,  diistorical  and  -exegetical  contributions,  most  of 
all  in  the  sphere  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  contributions  of  Berij. 
Welte  of  Tubingen  (Nachmosaisches  im  Pentat.  1841 ;  Buch  Job.  1849  ; 
Herausgabe  u.  Fortsetz.  d.  Einl.  ins  A.  T.  v.  J.  H.  Herbst.  3  Bde. 
1840  ff.) ;  of  Pet.  Schegg  (Die  kl.  Proph.  2  Bde  1854 ;  Die  Evangelien, 


392         SECTION    III. FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.  19    A.  D.) 

2  Bde.  185G;  Die  Psalmen,  3  Bde.  1857) ;  Adalb.  Maier  (Einl.  ins  N 
T.  1852;  Korintherbr.  1857),  are  relatively  of  the  most  importance. 
A  compilatory  copious  author  is  Lor.  Retake  (Beitr.  zur  Erkl.  des  alt. 
Test.  4  Bde.  1851  if. ;  Malachi,  185G  ;  Me^sianische  Psalmen,  1857,  etc.) 


I  58.  THE  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  NATIONAL  CHURCHES. 

The  restoration  of  1814  again  introduced  a  rigid  ultramon- 
tanism  into  most  of  the  purely  Roman  Catholic  States.  But  the 
overbent  bow  broke  now  here,  now  there.  The  Papacy  expe- 
rienced the  deepest  humiliations  and  the  greatest  dangers  just  in 
the  original  Roman  Catholic  States  of  Romanic  descent :  in 
Spain,  Portugal,  France,  and  Sardinia.  In  consequence  of  the 
first  French  revolution  the  imperial  rights  and  privileges  of  the 
German  clergy  were  annihilated,  its  possessions  were  secularized, 
and  the  prelates  were  salaried  as  servants  of  the  State,  by  the 
chief  decree  of  the.  imperial  deputation  (1803).  Only  the  prince- 
primas  of  the  Rhine  league  and  archbishop  of  Mayence,  Baron 
von  Dalberg,  retained  for  a  time  his  spiritual  principality,  whose 
seat  was  transferred  to  Regensburg,  and  received  as  indemnifica- 
tion the  temporal  principality  of  Frankfurt,  which  he  resigned 
in  1813.  A  large  number  of  Roman  Catholic  countries  came 
under  the  rule  of  Protestant  princes  through  the  new  division 
of  territory  made  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  (1814).  But  as, 
besides,  most  of  the  bishoprics  became  vacant  during  the  politi- 
cal complications  of  the  previous  decade,  the  governments  now 
were  active  in  bringing  to  pass  an  orderly  state  of  ecclesiastical 
affairs  through  alliance  with  the  papal  chair,  whereby  many  mis- 
takes were  made,  and  many  vital  questions  concerning  the  rela- 
tion of  Church  and  State  yet  remain  unsolved. 

1.  In  Italy  the  old  state  of  things  returned  after  the  restoration  of 
1814.  But  Liberalism  with  its  strivings  after  the  freedom  and  unity 
of  Italy  increased  mightily,  and,  because  mental  bondage  and  Papism 
were  identical,  it  worked  to  effect  an  uncatholization  which  was  only 
too  frequently  also  an  unchristianization  of  the  land.  Where  Liberalism 
was  for  a  time  victorious,  there  the  Jesuits  were  driven  out,  and  the 
power  of  the  clergy  restricted ;  where  it  was  defeated,  there  both  re- 
turned in  increased  strength.  The  arms  of  Austria,  and  later  also  of 
Prance,  suppressed  the  revolutionary  movements  everywhere.  Pius 
IX.,  who  at  first  was  not  averse  to  placing  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
national  movement,  opposed  as  it  was  to  all  the  traditions  of  the  papacy, 
was  compelled  bitterly  to  atone  for  this  connection  with  Liberalism 


ROMAN     CATHOLIC     NATIONAL     CHURCHES.        393 

(§  57,  1).  Sardinia,  Modena,  and  Parma,  drew  the  bow  of  restoration 
most  tightly,  whilst  Parma  and  Tuscany  were  distinguished  for  a  rela- 
tive kind  of  liberality.  But  when  in  1848  Lombardy,  in  consequenco 
of  the  French  revolution  of  February,  rose  against  Austrian  dominion, 
King  Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia  placed  himself  as  the  sword  of  Italy 
at  the  head  of  the  liberal  national  movement.  He,  however,  was  de- 
feated, and  was  compelled  to  abdicate  (1849).  Victor  Emmanuel  has 
permitted  the  liberal  constitution  of  his  father  to  exist,  and  even  first 
gave  it  its  full  validity.  The  minister  of  justice,  Siccardi,  proposed  a 
new  act  of  legislation,  according  to  which  all  spiritual  jurisdiction  in 
civil  and  criminal  matters,  as  well  as  the  privilege  of  asylum  and  of 
tithes  (the  latter  with  partial  indemnification),  was  to  be  abolished. 
The  parliament  approved,  and  the  king  signed  it  (1850).  But  the 
clergy,  with  the  Archbishop  Fransoni  of  Turin  at  their  head,  protested 
most  vehemently  against  this  sacrilegious  attack  on  the  rights  of  the 
church.  Fransoni  was  compelled  to  atone  therefor  by  one  month's 
imprisonment,  and,  because  he  refused  the  last  sacrament  to  a  dying 
minister,  he  was  condemned  by  a  regular  sentence  to  deposition  and 
exile.  The  pope,  Pius  IX.,  declined  every  overture  for  a  new  concordat. 
The  government,  nevertheless,  went  forward  only  the  more  regardlessly. 
As  Fransoni  kept  up  a  continual  agitation  from  his  exile  in  France, 
all  the  possessions  of  the  archepiscopal  foundation  were  sequestered 
in  1854,  and  a  number  of  monasteries  were  confiscated.  Soon  there- 
upon all  penalties  in  the  statute-books  concerning  the  spread  of  anti- 
Catholic  doctrines  were  erased,  and  the  non-Catholic  military  were 
exempted  from  compulsory  presence  at  the  mass  on  Sundays  and  holy- 
days.  The  heaviest  blow  followed,  March  2,  1855,  in  the  form  of  the 
monastery-law,  according  to  which  all  the  orders  and  monasteries  not 
devoted  to  preaching,  to  instruction,  and  to  the  care  of  the  sick,  were 
abolished  (of  G05  monasteries,  331  fell  under  this  law).  As  this  act, 
of  the  chamber  of  deputies  was  in  danger  of  failing  in  the  Senate,  the 
people  rose  in  its  favor  in  several  cities.  The  pope  did  not  omit  to 
condemn  all  these  sacrilegious  measures,  and,  as  his  threats  were  dis- 
regarded, he  pronounced  in  July,  1855,  the  great  bann  upon  all  origin- 
ators, favorers,  and  executors  of  the  same.  This,  it  is  true,  caused 
some  agitation  among  the  common  people,  which,  however,  exploded 
nowhere.  The  government  has  been  victorious  up  to  this  time,  and 
goes  boldly  forward  in  carrying  out  its  measures. 

2.  Into  Spain  also  the  restoration  of  1814  again  introduced  Ultra- 
montanism,  but  the  triumph  of  the  Liberals  overthrew  the  hierarchical 
clergy  after  the  death  of  Ferdinand  VII.  (1833).  The  revolution  esta- 
blished its  inquisition  against  monks  and  priests,  and  also  celebrated 
its  auto-da-fe's.  All  monastic  orders  were  atolished,  all  monasteries 
were  confiscated,  the  possessions  of  the  Church  were  declared  (1835-37) 
to  be  national  property,  and  the  papal  nuncio  was  led  across  the  bor- 
ders.    Since  the  accession  to  the  throne  of  the  present  Queen  Isabella 


394         SECTION    III. —  FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.  19    A.  D.) 

(1844)  a  beginning  has  been  made  in  re-establishing  a  Roman  Catholic 
Church  in  Spain.  After  many  negotiations  and  fluctuations,  amidst 
constant  change  of  ministers,  a  Concordat  was  finally  agreed  upon 
(1851),  according  to  which  the  church  and  monastery  property  not  yel 
sold  was  restored,  an  indemnification  given  for  that  already  sold,  the 
number  of  former  bishoprics  reduced  about  six,  instruction  and  censor- 
ship of  books  committed  to  the  supervision  of  the  bishops,  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion  declared  to  be  the  only  one  to  be  tolerated. 
These  terms  were  enlarged  in  the  year  following  by  an  anti-Protestant 
alien-law.  But  although  in  March  23,  1854,  the  holy  Virgin  was  chosen 
to  be  the  generalissimo  of  the  valiant  army,  and  her  image  at  Atocha 
decorated  by  the  queen  with  a  ribbon  of  the  order  of  the  Golden  Fleece, 
nevertheless,  a  revolution  broke  out  soon  after  from  the  ranks  of  the 
army,  which  threatened  to  destroy  ultramontane  Roman  Catholisrn. 
Meanwhile,  the  republican  party  was  not  entirely  successful.  The 
motion  in  favor  of  the  unconditional  freedom  of  all  religions  failed  by 
a  small  minority,  and  the  new  constitution  of  March  1,  1855,  obligates 
the  Spanish  nation  to  preserve  and  to  protect  the  Roman  Catholic  re- 
ligion, to  which  the  Spaniards  belong;  nevertheless,  no  Spaniard  was 
to  be  persecuted  on  account  of  his  faith,  so  long  as  he  abstained  from 
acts  contrary  to  religion.  A  new  law  of  May  3,  1855,  ordained  the  sale 
of  all  church  and  monastery  property,  and  compensation  for  the  same 
by  yearly  rents  according  to  the  measure  of  the  existing  concordat. 
Several  bishops  were  banished  for  obstinate  opposition  ;  the  pope  pro- 
tested, and  recalled  his  legates.  Meanwhile,  the  clerical  party  soon 
regained  influence  with  the  queen.  The  sale  of  church  and  monastery 
property  was  arrested, — that  already  sold  was  compensated  for  by  the 
restoration  of  former  possessions.  The  matter  Avas  not  brought  to  a 
definite  conclusion,  on  account  of  the  frequent  change  of  ministers. 
The  sale  of  church  property  already  commenced  was  suspended,  until 
the  Cortes  had  determined  upon  a  proper  indemnification. 

In  Portugal  the  experience  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  not 
better.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  Cathedral  of  Miguel  by  the  liberal 
Cortes,  all  the  monastic  orders  were  abolished,  the  property  of  the 
monasteries  was  appropriated  by  the  State,  and  the  spiritual  rights  of 
patronage  were  assumed  by  the  civil  government.  However,  since 
1841  a  union  with  Rome  has  again  been  brought  about  under  Donna 
Maria.  The  government  negotiated  with  regard  to  a  concordat,  but  it 
has  not  up  to  this  time  been  obtained.  All  papal  decrees  need  royal 
confirmation.  But  the  Codigo  penal  of  1852  also  menaced  every  sub- 
ject, who  went  over  to  one  of  the  non-Catholic  confessions,  with  the 
loss  of  civil  rights. 

The  liberal  movements  extended  also  to  South  and  Central  America. 
and  also  called  forth  there  similar  revolutionary  attempts  in  the  sphere 
of  the  church,  but  the  popular  faith  was  more  closely  attached  to  the 
chair  of  Peter  here  than  even  in  the  mother-countries. 


ROMAN    CATHOLIC    NATIONAL    CHURCHES.      395 

3.  The  charte  of  restoration  in  France  (1814)  secured  for  Roman 
Catholicism  the  character  of  the  established  religion,  for  the  other 
confessions  only  tolerance  and  protection.  But  Ultramontanism  in  its 
worst  form  soon  prevailed  among  the  clergy  to  such  a  degree,  that 
every  mention  of  (Jallican  church-freedom  was  regarded  as  heresy. 
The  support  of  this  tendency  by  the  State  led  to  its  overthrow  in  the 
second  French  revolution  of  1830.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  thereby 
again  lost  the  privileges  of  an  established  or  State  religion,  and  the 
Protestants,  who  had  been  persecuted  and  oppressed  up  to  this  time, 
obtained  equal  rights  with  the  Roman  Catholics.  But  Ultramontanism 
again  became  ascendant  even  under  the  new  constitutional  govern- 
ment, and  France  assumed  the  protectorate  of  Roman  Catholicism 
throughout  the  world.  In  the  revolution  of  February  the  Roman  Ca- 
tholic clergy  willingly  permitted  themselves  to  be  absolved  from  obe- 
dience to  the  citizen-King  Louis  Philippe,  and  they  did  not  hesitate, 
because  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  compatible  with  every  form  of 
civil  government  which  only  allows  freedom  of  the  Church,  to  bless 
the  trees  of  liberty,  together  with  the  sovereign  people  on  the  barri- 
cades. Napoleon  III.  seemed  at  first  disposed  to  regard  the  concordat 
of  1801  as  existing  by  law,  and  jealously  to  guard  the  liberties  of  the 
Gallican  Church.  And  although  his  bayonets  made  it  possible  for  the 
pope  to  return  to  Rome  and  still  uphold  his  temporal  authority  there, 
the  latter  has  not  yet  fulfilled  the  chief  desire  of  his  heart,  by  placing 
the  imperial  crown  upon  his  head.  Still  the  Ultramontanes  have  grown 
in  favor  with  him,  at  least  in  appearance.  On  a  journey  through  Roman 
Catholic  Bretagne  (1858)  he  most  emphatically  declared  the  necessity 
of  a  strong,  monarchical,  and  Roman  Catholic  government.  And 
Veuillot,  the  editor  of  the  Univers,  had  an  audience,  at  which  he  laid 
before  the  emperor  a  memorial  concerning  strict  measures  that  ought 
to  be  adopted  against  books  hostile  to  religion,  among  which  the 
minister,  General  Espinasse,  reckoned  in  the  sense  of  the  Univers, 
especially  Protestant  bibles  (g  55",  10).  But  notwithstanding  all  the 
manifestations  of  favor,  which  the  leaders  of  the  Ultramontane  party 
receive  at  the  present  time,  it  is  evident  that  the  advancement  of  their 
interest  is  not  an  object,  but  only  a  means,  which  can  be  cast  aside 
and  supplied  by  its  opposite  at  any  moment,  when  it  becomes  useless 
or  hindering.  —  The  attempt  (1858)  to  sequester  the  property  of  the 
hospitals  and  benevolent  institutions,  and  to  compensate  for  it  by  go- 
vernment rents,  called  forth  so  great  an  opposition  through  the  whole 
country,  that  the  plan  had  to  be  abandoned. — For  the  rest,  there  is  no 
country  in  the  whole  Roman  Catholic  world  that  is  at  the  present  day 
so  highly  favored  with  visions  and  miracles,  as  Roman  Catholic 
France.  —  In  Belgium,  Ultramontanism  connected  itself  with  political 
Liberalism  against  the  Protestant  government,  but  after  the  separa- 
tion from  Holland  became  a  fait  accompli  (1830),  the  two  parties 
separated  and  opposed  each  other,  and  are  represented  especially  iq 


396        SECTION    III.  —  FOURTH   PERIOD    (CENT.  19   A.  D.) 

the  Liberal  university  at  Brussels,  and  the  Ultramontane  one  at  Lou- 
vain.  The  latter,  for  the  prize  of  the  complete  and  unconditional  in- 
dependence of  the  Church  of  the  State,  submitted  to  the  election  of 
another  Protestant  king. — In  Holland,  the  organic  law  of  1848  guaran- 
teed complete  freedom  of  religion.  Taking  advantage  of  this,  the 
pope,  in  1853,  organized  a  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy  in  the  country, 
with  four  bishops  and  an  archbishop,  at  Utrecht.  The  Protestant 
population  was  greatly  agitated  by  this  action.  The  liberal  ministry 
was  compelled  to  resign,  but  the  chambers  nevertheless  finally  per- 
mitted the  papal  arrangement  to  continue,  securing  the  Protestant 
established  Church  only  against  abuses  and  encroachments  from  it. 
The  Holland  Jansenists  (g  44,  6)  have  been  again  excommunicated  by 
the  pope  on  account  of  their  protestation  against  the  doctrine  of  the 
immaculate  conception  of  the  virgin  Mary. 

4.  The  Roman   Catholic   population  of  Ireland,  under   Protestant 
land-proprietors,  and  with  the  obligation  to  pay  tithes  to  the  Protestant 
clergy,  is  still  destitute  of  civil   rights.     Since  1809,    O'Comiell,  an 
agitator  of  captivating  eloquence,  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
oppressed  people,  in  order  to  obtain  for  them  religious  and  political 
equality  in    a    legal   way.     Finally,    in   1829,    the  Emancipation-bill, 
which  granted  to  Roman  Catholics  admission  to  parliament  and  to  all 
civil  offices,  was  passed,  being  supported  by  Peel  and  Wellington.    But 
the  odious  tithes  remained,  and  were  collected  wherever  resisted  by 
military  power.     After  many  contests  in  both  houses  of  parliament, 
the  tithe-bill,  which  laid  the  tithes  as  ground-rent  of  the  tenant  on  the 
land-proprietor,  was   passed  (1838),  whereby  the   question  was  only 
postponed.     O'Connell  so  regarded  it.     He  declared  that  justice  and 
deliverance  for   Ireland  was  only  to  be  obtained  by  abolishing  the 
legislative  union  with   Great  Britain,  which  existed  since  1800,  and 
by  re-establishing  an  independent  parliament ;  and  he  organized  the 
Repeal  Association  to  this  end.     Since  1840  another  not  less  powerful 
popular  agitator,  the  Irish  capuchin  Matthew,  the  apostle  of  temper- 
ance, labored  with  unparalleled  success,  leading  many  thousands  of 
drunkards  to  sign  the  pledge  of  total  abstinence  from  all  spirituous 
liquors  (tee-totallers).     He  abstained  from  all  political  agitation,  but 
the  fruits  of  his  labors  nevertheless  contributed  towards  it.     O  '  Council 
began  his  monster-meetings  in  1843,  to  which  hundreds  of  thousands 
crowded.     The  government  impeached  him,  the  jury  pronounced  him 
guilty,  but  the  court  of  peers  declared  the  proceedings  null  and  void, 
and  released  him  from  prison  (1844).     Peel's  ministry,  to  conciliate, 
carried  the  legacy-bill,  which  permitted  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to 
receive  property  in  its  own  name,  and  the  Maynooth-bill,  by  which  the 
theological  seminary  at  Mainooth  was  richly  endowed  by  the  State 
(1845).     Long-continued  famine,  and,  as  a  consequence,  the  emigra- 
tion of  many  hundred  thousands  to  America  and   Australia,  almost 
depopulated  Ireland  within  the  last  few  years,  whilst  Protestant  mis- 


ROMAN   CATHOLIC   NATIONAL   CHURCHES.  397 

sions  have  labored  successfully  at  the  evangelization  of  the  remainder 
through  Bibles,  tracts,  and  schools.  On  the  other  hand,  on  the  5th 
Nov.  1855,  on  the  anniversary  of  the  Gunpowder  plot,  the  Redemp- 
tionists  of  Kingston  near  Duhlin  collected  a  large  number  of  Bibles 
and  burned  them  on  the  public  street,  and  the  Primate  of  Ire- 
land referred,  in  a  pastoral  letter  on  the  occasion,  to  the  example  of 
believers  at  Ephesus  (Acts  19  :  19).  Collections  for  the  founding  of 
a  Roman  Catholic  university  in  Ireland,  independent  of  the  State,  are 
still  taken. — Encouraged  to  entertain  the  strongest  hopes  by  the  numer- 
ous transitions  of  Puseyites  in  England  ($  55,  8),  the  pope  issued  in 
September,  1850,  a  bull,  by  which  the  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy  in 
England  was  re-established  in  twelve  suffragan  bishoprics  under  an 
archbishop  of  Westminster  (Cardinal  Wiseman).  The  bull  created  the 
greatest  excitement  among  the  Protestant  population  (anti-papal  aggres- 
sion), and  the  ecclesiastical  title-bill  forbade  the  use  of  ecclesiastical 
titles,  not  conferred  by  the  laws  of  the  land.  But  these  measures  by 
no  means  cut  off  the  roots  of  the  Romish  aggression  ;  conversions  espe- 
cially from  the  higher  classes  are  still  reported.  The  Roman  Catholic 
prelates  soon  again  used  their  repudiated  titles  without  suffering 
punishment.  Within  six  years  not  less  than  54  splendid  Roman  Ca- 
tholic churches  in  Gothic  style  have  been  erected.  In  North  America 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  increased  with  like  rapidity,  although 
less  by  conversions  than  by  the  emigration  of  Irish  and  German  Ro- 
man Catholics.  Their  number  here  is  reckoned  at  present  as  being 
two  millions  souls.  So  much  the  greater  is  the  violent  excitement  of 
the  Natives,  and  especially  of  the  Know-nothings  ($  55,  12).  In  any 
case,  however,  both  in  North  America  and  in  England,  the  accounts 
of  the  progress  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  are  greatly  exaggerated 
by  both  parties. 

5.  The  Emperor  of  Austria  retained  from  the  Roman  empire  only 
the  name  of  an  advowee  of  the  papal  chair  and  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  The  remnants  of  the  church-constitution  of  Joseph  have 
been  since  then  gradually  destroyed,  and  Roman  Catholicism  has  been 
retained  as  the  established  religion,  although  the  government  preserves 
its  independence  over  against  all  hierarchical  claims.  The  government, 
since  the  restoration  from  the  revolutionary  disorders  of  1848,  has  been 
much  more  compliant  to  the  demands  of  the  hierarchy.  Already  in 
April,  1850,  an  imperial  patent  exempted  the  papal  and  episcopal  de- 
crees from  the  necessity  of  imperial  approbation,  and  on  Aug.  18th, 
1855,  a  concordat  with  the  pope  was  signed,  by  which  the  hierarchy 
in  Austria  obtained  unprecedented  power  and  independence.  The  first 
article  guarantees  to  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  in  the  whole  empire 
all  the  rights  and  privileges  to  which  it  had  claim  according  to  divine 
institution  and  canon  law.  In  the  other  articles,  the  intercourse  of  the 
bishops  with  Rome  is  granted  unconditionally;  no  papal  decree  re- 
quired in  future  the  placet  of  the  emperor ;  the  prelates  are  unre- 
st 


398     SECTION    III. —  FOURTH    PERIOD   (CENT.  19  A.  D.). 

stricted  in  the  exercise   of  their  hierarchical   duties;    the  religious 
instruction  of  all  the  schools  is  placed  under  their  supervision  ;  no  one 
is  permitted  to  teach  religion  or  theology  without  their  approbation  ; 
none  hut  Roman  Catholic  teachers  need  be  in  Roman  Catholic  schools; 
they  have  the  right  to  prohibit  all  books  that  might  he   injurious 
to  the  faithful;    all  ecclesiastical  cases  at  law  belong  to  their  forum, 
although  the  apostolic  chair  did  consent  that  the  purely  temporal  legal 
affairs  of  the  clergy  be  decided  before  the  civil  courts ;  the  right  of 
nomination  to  vacant  episcopal  .chairs  is  granted  to  the  emperor,  etc. 
The  lower  orders  of  the  clergy,  which  are  without  any  rights  over 
against  the  prelates  according  to  the  concordat,  have  shown  themselves 
to  be  not  especially  pleased  with  it,  and  the  joy  over  it  has  also  not 
been  very  great  among  the  Roman  Catholic  laity.     Even  the  govern- 
ment seems  to  entertain  well-grounded  apprehensions  concerning  its 
unlimited  operation. — Bavaria  was  the  first  German  State  which,  after 
the  Congress  of  Vienna,  concluded  (1817)  a  concordat  with  Rome,  by 
which  all  the  prerogatives  demanded  by  canonical  law  were  guaranteed 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  ;  besides,  two  archbishoprics  with  six 
bishoprics  were  organized,  the  re-establishment  of  several  monasteries 
permitted,  the  right  of  prohibiting  books  granted  to  the  bishops,  the 
annates  restored,  the  election  of  bishops  transferred  to  the  king,  their 
confirmation  to  the  pope,  etc.     The  excitement  of  the  Protestant  popu- 
lation concerning  this  concordat  was  allayed  by  a  new  organic  law 
(1818),  by  which  perfect  freedom  of  conscience  to  all  subjects,  and 
equal  civil  rights  to  the  three  Christian  confessions,  was  most  solemnly 
guaranteed.     The  inconsistency  of  this  law  with  the  concordat  was 
apparent,  but  the  government  permitted  the  forme-  to  prevail  over  the 
latter,  even  under  the  Ultramontane  rule  of  King  Louis  (§  55,  7).     In 
1850,  it  is  true,  the  assembled  bishops  at  Freising  demanded  the  final 
and  full  realization  of  the  existing  concordat,  but  they  obtained  only 
small  concessions  through  a  rescript  of  1852,  which  were  somewhat 
enlarged  on  renewed  complaints  in  1854.     The  Ultramontane  party 
took  special  offence  at  the  circumstance  that  King  Maximilian  called 
so  many  distinguished  learned  Protestants  to  Munich.     Dr.  Ringseis 
gave  public  expression   to  this  indignation   in  a  university  address, 
which  represents  Protestant  science  as  a   confused  chaos  (1855). — 
Hanover  concluded  a  concordat  with  the  papal  chair  in  1824,  by  which 
the  bishoprics  of  Hildesheim  and  Osnabrlick  were  re-established. 

6.  The  Protestant  governments  of  the  South  German  States  having 
Roman  Catholic  subjects  assembled  at  Frankfurt  in  1818,  to  form  in 
common  a  concordat  with  Rome.  But  on  account  of  the  great  contra- 
riety of  claims,  nothing  other  was  attained  than  a  new  circumscription 
of  the  bishoprics  in  the  so-called  Upper  Rhine  Church  province  (1821) 
(the  archbishopric  of  Freiburg  for  Baden  and  the  two  Hohenzollorn 
principalities,  the  bishopric  of  Mayence  for  Hesse-Darmstadt,  of  Fulda 
for  Hesse-Cassel,  of  Roltenberg  for  Wiirtemberg,  of  Limburg  for  Nassau 


BJMAN    CATHOLIC    NATIONAL    CHURCHES.      399 

and  Frankfurt) ;  and  this  also  was  only  realized  in  1827  after  many 
mistakes,  with  the  understanding  that  the  election  of  bishops  was  to 
proceed  from  the  chapters,  but  that  the  sovereign  could  strike  off  the 
obnoxious  names  from  the  list  of  candidates  which  was  to  be  submitted 
to  him  before  the  election.  What  the  pope  would  not  admit  into  the 
concordat  was  proclaimed  in  1830  by  the  princes,  in  behalf  of  the  real 
equalization  of  Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics,  to  be  the  law  of  the 
land ;  papal  and  episcopal  decrees  require  approbation  before  their 
publication ;  taxes  dare  not  be  levied  by  any  ecclesiastical  court ;  ap- 
peal from  the  abuse  of  spiritual  power  to  the  civil  courts ;  the  future 
priests  to  receive  their  scientific  education  at  universities ;  their  prac- 
tical training  at  the  theological  seminaries,  etc.  The  pope  issued  a 
breve,  in  which  he  designates  these  arrangements  as  a  scandal  of  in- 
novations, and  reminds  the  bishops  of  what  is  said  (Acts  5  :  29.)  But 
only  the  Bishop  of  Fulda  heeded  this  admonition,  and  succeeded  in 
abolishing  the  Roman  Catholic  theological  faculty  at  Marburg  after  a 
brief  existence,  and  in  committing  the  education  of  priests  alone  to 
the  seminary  at  Fulda.  Hesse- Darmstadt  founded  a  theological  faculty 
at  Giessen  (1830)  ;  Baden  had  a  Roman  Catholic  university  already  at 
Freiburg  ;  and  W'urtemburg  had  also  already  in  1817  connected  the 
faculty  at  Ellwangen  with  the  university  of  Tubingen,  and  richly  en- 
dowed it  with  a  refectory.  There  reigned  in  all  these  faculties,  in 
addition  to  a  scientific  spirit,  a  noble  liberality  without  perversion  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  basis  of  faith.  Some  priests,  who  refused  in 
Wiirtemberg  to  perform  mixed  marriages,  were  punished  by  the  State ; 
and  when  the  aged  Bishop  Keller  of  Rottenburg,  hitherto  peaceable 
and  submissive  to  the  government,  complained  before  the  chambers 
about  the  violations  of  the  rights  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and 
demanded  the  release  of  the  same  from  the  guardianship  of  the  State, 
his  motion  failed  in  both  chambers  (1811).  The  revolutionary  year  of 
1848  first  gave  the  bishops  prospect  of  the  success  of  a  contest  for  the 
unconditional  freedom  of  the  church.  When  in  1849  the  bishopric  of 
Mayence  became  vacant,  Rome  rejected  Prof.  Leopold  Schmid  of  Gies- 
sen ($  57,  7),  who  had  been  desired  by  Darmstadt  and  regularly  elected 
by  the  chapter.  The  government  permitted  itself  to  be  satisfied  with 
the  induction  of  the  Ultramontane  Baron  von  Ketteler,  who  did  not 
rest  until  he  had  entirely  desolated  the  Roman  Catholic  faculty  of 
Giessen,  and  until  the  last  student  had  removed  from  here  to  the  newly 
established  seminary  at  Mayence  (1851).  At  the  same  time  the  five 
bishops  (Feb.  1851)  published  a  joint  memorial,  in  which  they  de- 
manded free  intercourse  with  Rome,  abolition  of  the  sovereign  placet, 
independent  administration  of  church-property,  abrogation  of  the  exa- 
mination of  young  priests  by  the  State,  unhindered  exercise  of  episco- 
pal power  of  punishment,  abrogation  of  appeal  to  the  State,  change 
of  academical  studies,  establishment  of  episcopal  seminaries,  supervi- 
sion of  schools,  investiture  of  all  spiritual  offices  alo:  e  by  the  bishops, 


400      SECTION    III. —  FOURTH   PERIOD    ({ENT.    19    A.  D.) 

etc.     As  the  government  delayed  its  answer,  they  declared,  in  1852, 
that  they  would  from  this  time  forward  proceed  as  if  everything  had 
been  conceded  to  them  ;  and  when  the  answer  finally  came,  refusing 
what  they  demanded  in  most  things,  that,  obeying  God  rather  than 
man,  they  would   proceed  quite  according  to  canonical  law  (1853). 
Baden,  where  the  revolution  shook  the  foundations  of  the  State  most 
of  all,  and  where  besides  a  young  regent  just  at  this  time  took  hold 
of  the  reins  of  government,  seemed  best  adapted  to  a  dictatorial  at- 
tempt.    The  eighty  years  old  Archbishop  of  Freiburg,  Hermann  von 
Vicari,  began  it  by  prohibiting  the  mourning  for  the  deceased  (hereti- 
cal) grand-duke,  which  had  been  appointed  by  the  Roman  Catholic 
high-consistory  of  Karlsruhe  according  to  an  old  custom,  and  by  con- 
demning more  than  a  hundred  priests,  who  nevertheless  observed  it, 
to  penances  (1852).     In  the  following  year  he  publicly  declared  that 
he  would  for  the  future  proceed  according  to  the  demands  of  the  epis- 
copal memorial,  and  he  did  it  at  once  by  appointing  priests  on  his  own 
authority,  and  by  delaying  the  examination  of  seminaries  without  con- 
sulting the  commissioner  of  the  government.     As  a  warning  was  dis- 
regarded, the  government  issued  an  order  that  all  episcopal  decrees 
until  further  notice  must  be  subscribed  by  a  grand-ducal  special  com- 
missioner thereto  appointed  before  their  publication.     The  archbishop 
at  once  pronounced  the  bann  upon  him,  as  well  as  upon  the  entire 
high-consistory,  published  a  fulminating  pastoral  letter,  which  was  to 
be  read  with  excommunication  in  all  the  churches,  and  commanded 
that  the  priests  should  preach  for  four  weeks  to  instruct  the  people 
concerning  this  matter.   He  at  the  same  time  solemnly  protested  against 
all  rights  of  sovereignty  on  the  part  of  the  State.     The  government 
banished  the  Jesuits,  prohibited  the  reading  of  the  pastoral  letter,  and 
punished  the  disobedient  clergy  with  fines  and  imprisonment.     Enthu- 
siastic letters  from  foreign  bishops  and  large  collections  of  money  were 
received  ;  on  the  other  hand,  in  1854,  both  chambers  gave  the  govern- 
ment a  vote  of  confidence  in  regard  to  this  matter.     The  archbishop, 
meanwhile,  proceeded  still  more  boldly  and  regardless  of  consequences. 
In  May,  1854,  the  government  began  a  criminal  prosecution  against 
him,  during  which  he  was  guarded  in  his  own  house  as  a  prisoner. 
The  efforts  of  his  party  to  excite  the  Roman  Catholic  population  by 
demonstrations,  were  fruitless.     After  the  close  of  the  investigation, 
the  archbishop  was  released  from  durance,  and  he  proceeded  again  in 
his  former  way.     But  the  government  was  also  firm,  and  proceeded 
against  all  refractoriness  with  punishment  and  reprisals.     In  June, 
1855,  finally,  a  provisional  agreement  was  arrived  at  in  Rome.     It 
consists  in  this,  that  all  prosecutions  be  abandoned,  and  th«  archbishop 
fill  all  vacant  benefices  provisionally  with  vicars,  until  a  concordat  is 
obtained, — which  has  not  yet  happened. — On  the  other  hand,  W'urtem- 
berg  concluded  a  concordat  with  the  pope  in  1857,  by  which  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  has  also  become  the  established  church  of  this  country. 


ROMAN    CATHOLKJ     NATIONAL    CHURCHES.      401 

The  bishop  alone  disposes  of  all  vacant  benefices;  he  has  further  the 
risrht  to  introduce  religious  orders  and  congregations  without  inter- 
ference. The  government  renounced  the  right  of  having  a  commis- 
sioner at  the  examination  of  seminaries,  and  the  bishop  can  establish 
seminaries  where  he  pleases,  and  as  many  as  he  pleases.  The  sove- 
reign placet  is  entirely  given  up.  On  the  contrary,  the  pope  permits, 
for  a  time,  that  the  purely  temporal  legal  matters  of  the  clergy  be 
transacted  before  the  civil  courts. 

7.  Prussia  concluded  a  concordat  with  Rome  already  in  1821,  ac- 
cording to  which  six  bishoprics  and  two  archbishoprics  were  established 
in  the  land.  The  free  election  of  bishop  was  granted  to  the  chapters, 
but  in  a  secret  appendix-article  Rome  promised,  instructing  the  chap- 
ters, that  only  gratae  personas  were  to  be  chosen.  A  rupture  took  place 
in  spite  of  all  the  connivance  of  the  government  concerning  the  con- 
tradiction between  canonical  and  civil  law  in  regard  to  the  mixed 
marriages  existing  between  Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics.  The 
Council  of  Trent  absolutely  forbade  such  marriages.  A  subsequent 
papal  bull  of  1741,  however,  permitted  them  under  the  condition  of  a 
merely  passive  assistance  of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  at  the  marriage, 
and  of  an  obligation  on  the  part  of  those  thus  marrying  to  educate 
their  children  in  a  Roman  Catholic  way.  The  Prussian  law  of  1803 
enacted,  on  the  contrary,  that  in  doubtful  cases  all  the  children  should 
adopt  the  religion  of  the  father.  But  as  this  law  also  became  valid 
since  1825  for  the  Rhine  provinces,  and  the  bishops  here  on  this  ac- 
count made  inquiry  of  the  pope,  Pius  VIII.  issued  a  breve  (1830), 
which  allowed  the  priest  to  solemnize  marriages  only  in  those  cases 
where  the  instruction  of  the  children  in  Roman  Catholicism  was 
guaranteed  ;  in  all  other  cases  only  a  passive  assistance  was  declared 
permissible.  The  government,  however,  received  from  the  priests  con- 
cerned, at  a  secret  private  convention  (1834),  the  promise  that  they 
would  not  refuse  to  officiate  in  other  cases ;  and  the  Archbishop  of 
Cologne,  Count  Spiegel,  who  was  both  a  friend  and  patron  of  Herme- 
uian  theology,  gave  ecclesiastical  legislative  authority  to  this  conven- 
tion. Spiegel's  successor  was  Clemens  Droste  of  Vischering  (1836), 
after  that  he  had  given  his  adhesion  formally  to  the  convention,  be- 
cause he,  as  he  later  excused  himself,  had  not  called  into  question  the 
agreement  affirmed  by  the  government  with  the  breve.  So  soon,  how- 
ever, as  he  obtained  a  clearer  insight  into  their  contradictory  charac- 
ter, he  strictly  forbade  his  clergy  to  solemnize  any  marriage  without 
the  guarantee  required  by  the  breve.  At  the  same  time  he  endeavored 
to  give  force  to  the  papal  condemnation  of  Hermesian  theology  by  for- 
bidding the  studjnts  of  Bonn  in  the  confessional  from  attending  the 
lectures  of  the  Hermesians.  Ac  the  archbishop  could  not  be  influenced 
to  yield  his  position,  he  was  arrested  in  1837  as  faithless  to  his  word 
and  exciting  rebellion,  and  was  taken  to  the  castle  of  Minden.  Both 
of  the  powers  interested  justified  their  conduct  in  public  memorials, 
77* 


402      SECTION    III. —  FOURTH    PERIOD    (C  E  N  T.  1  9    A.  T>.) 

with  which  was  connected  an  immense  number  of  controversial  trea- 
tises from  both  parties.  Go'rres  called  the  archbishop  the  "  Athanas'.us" 
of  the  19th  century.  The  example  of  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne  also 
emboldened  the  Archbishop  Dunin  of  Gnesen  and  Posen  to  issue  a 
secret  pastoral  letter,  in  which  every  priest  of  his  diocese  was  threat- 
ened with  suspension  who  did  not  unconditionally  obey  the  papal 
breve  (1838).  He  was  legally  deposed  therefor,  and  condemned  to  a 
half  year's  imprisonment,  but  the  king  prevented  the  execution  of  the 
penalty.  Dunin,  however,  fled  from  Berlin  to  Posen,  and  was  now 
taken  to  the  castle  of  Colberg  (1839).  Amid  such  complications  Frede- 
rick William  IV.  ascended  the  throne  (1840).  Dunin  was  restored  to 
his  office  in  magnanimous  confidence.  Droste  also  was  released  from 
his  imprisonment  with  public  apology,  and  received,  with  his  approba- 
tion and  that  of  the  pope,  a  coadjutor  in  the  hitherto  Bishop  of  Spire, 
Geissel,  who  administered  the  archbishopric  in  his  name  and  with  the 
right  of  succession  (1842).  The  government  let  the  Hermesiaus  fall  ; 
the  law  in  regard  to  mixed  marriages  remained  in  force,  although  so 
that  the  conscience  of  the  lloman  Catholic  clergy  was  to  be  spared 
under  all  circumstances  (cf.  K.  Rase,  die  beiden  Erzsbischbfe.  Lpz. 
1839).  After  the  year  of  revolution  the  Prussian  bishops  also  presented 
a  memorial  containing  the  well-known  Ultramontane  demands.  The 
organic  law  of  Jan.  31.  1850,  guaranteed  free  intercourse  with  Rome, 
and  a  Roman  Catholic  faction  was  formed  in  the  chambers  which  voted 
at  one  time  with  the  right  wing,  then  with  the  left,  as  Ultramontane 
interests  demanded.  The  government  granted  many  things,  although 
it  in  a  measure  forbade  the  studying  in  foreign  Jesuit  institutions  and 
limited  Jesuit  missions  (1852).  When  in  March,  1853,  the  Bishop 
Amoldi  of  Treves  commanded  his  clergy  only  then  to  allow  mixed 
marriages,  when  by  an  oath  the  education  of  the  children  in  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  faith  was  granted  by  both  parties,  a^d  even  then  also  to 
refuse  them  ecclesiastical  solemnization,  the  king  declared  that  he 
would  immediately  dismiss  any  officer  from  his  army  who  would  sub- 
mit to  so  shameful  a  condition.  The  prince-regent,  at  his  accession  to 
the  throne  (1858)  declared,  that  the  utmost  parity  must  exist  between 
both  confessions.  For  the  rest,  how  just  the  complaints  of  the  Ultra- 
montanes  concerning  slights  are,  appears  from  the  fact  that  the  State 
has  only  appropriated  §400,000  annually  to  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of 
its  ten  millions  of  Protestants,  whilst  it  permits  the  worship  of  six 
millions  of  Roman  Catholics  to  cost  it  three  times  as  much.  To  this 
must  be  added  yet  for  extraordinary  objects  $10,000  for  the  former, 
but  $50,000  for  the  latter.  —  In  Mecklenburg- Sckwer  in  the  Chamberlain 
von  Kettenburg  went  over  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  appointed 
a  Roman  Catholic  priest  on  his  estate.  The  government,  however, 
banished  this  priest,  because  the  laws  of  the  country  did  not  permit 
any  Human  Catholic  worship  which  went  beyond  simple  family  wor- 
ship. A  compliant  on  this  account  brought  before  the  federal  diet, 
then  before  the  German  diet,  was  disregarded  by  both. 


THE  ORTHODOX  GREEK  CHURCH.        403 

fe'.  The  ecclesiastical  chief  administration  of  Roman  Catholic  Swit- 
zerland belonged  formerly  to  the  bishoprics  of  Constance,  of  Milan, 
and  of  Besancon.  But  soon  after  the  Reformation  already  the  Roman 
court  established  a  nunciature  (at  Lucerne)  for  the  direct  maintenance 
of  the  papal  interests  in  Switzerland.  When  now  in  1814  the  liberal 
Wessenberg,  for  a  long  time  already  suspected  of  heresy  (§  57,  4),  was 
called  as  coadjutor  to  Constance  (without  papal  confirmation),  the 
nuncio  of  Lucerne  intrigued  among  the  confederates  until  these  peti- 
tioned the  pope  for  the  establishment  of  an  independent  and  national 
bishopric.  Pius  VII.  hastily  tore  the  bond  hitherto  existing.  But  as 
every  canton  laid  claim  to  the  episcopal  seat,  a  papal  grand-vicar  was 
appointed  at  Lucerne  instead  of  a  national  bishopric.  At  the  same 
time  the  Jesuits  made  their  appearance.  Thereby  Roman  Catholic 
Switzerland,  and  Lucerne  at  the  head,  became  a  chief  home  of  Ultra- 
montanism.  The  Jesuistic  party,  however,  was  also  opposed  by  a 
radical  liberal  one,  which  attempted  to  overthrow  the  Ultramontane 
government  in  1845,  but  was  suppressed.  As,  meanwhile,  the  diet 
meddled  in  these  internal  affairs  of  the  Roman  Catholic  cantons,  the 
latter  formed  a  separate  league  to  maintain  and  protect  their  faith  and 
their  rights  of  sovereignty.  This  led  to  the  civil  war.  The  special 
league  was  defeated  ;  the  Jesuits  and  the  Ultramontane  government 
must  disappear  (1847).  In  the  new  federal  constitution,  which  Swit- 
zerland made  in  1848,  the  unconditional  freedom  of  conscience  and  the 
civil  equality  of  all  Christian  confessions  is  guaranteed,  and  the  banish- 
ment of  the  Jesuits  is  renewed.  A  law  of  1850  places  the  religious 
education  of  children  of  mixed  marriages  absolutely  under  the  will  of 
the  father.  Since  this  time,  however,  both  Ultramontanism  and  Je- 
suitism have  again  celebrated  great  triumphs  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
cantons. 

I  59.  THE  ORTHODOX  GREEK  CHURCH. 

The  orthodox  Church  of  Russia  has  elevated  itself  more  and 
more,  especially  since  Alexander  I.  Theological  learning  was 
not  rare  among  the  higher  clergy,  and  the  government  also  pro- 
vided for  the  better  intellectual  culture  of  the  lower  clergy.  The 
Greeks  in  the  West  Russian  provinces,  who  have  been  united 
with  Rome  since  1594,  expressed  the  wish  at  the  Synod  of  Polozk 
to  return  to  the  bosom  of  the  orthodox  church,  and  they  were 
accordingly  again  received  at  the  command  of  the  Emperor. — 
The  orthodox  church  in  the  Turkish  provinces  stood  under  the 
patriarch  of  Constantinople  and  its  holy  synod.  Disappointed 
in  their  expectations  from  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  the  Greeks 
arose  in  their  own  strength  against  Turkish  tyranny.  In  1814  a 
new  Hetairia  was  formed,  which  soon  spread   over  the  whole 


404      SECTION    III. —  FOURTH   PERIOD    (CENT.  19   A.  D.) 

country,  and  nurtured  thoughts  of  freedom  among  the  people. 
The  war  of  freedom  broke  out  in  1821.  The  first  consequence 
of  it  was  a  fearful  massacre,  especially  in  Constantinople.  The 
patriarch  Gregorius,  together  with  his  entire  synod  and  about 
30,000  Christians,  were  murdered  within  three  months  with  terri- 
ble cruelty  by  the  Turks.  Finally,  in  1830,  the  London  Confer- 
ence declared  Greece  to  be  an  independent  State,  and  a  meeting 
of  bishops  at  Nauplia  in  1833  emancipated  the  Greek  Church 
from  the  patriarch,  who  stood  under  Turkish  arbitrariness.  The 
chief  supervision  of  the  church  was  committed  to  a  permanent 
holy  synod  at  Athens,  which  was  established  by  the  king,  but 
was  entirely  independent  in  all  internal  affairs. — But  in  1840, 
Christian  princes  of  all  confessions  reconquered  the  holy  land  for 
the  Turks  from  the  hands  of  a  rebellious  vassal,  and  the  political 
interests  of  the  Christian  States  of  Europe  are  so  complicated 
in  regard  to  the  Orient,  that  in  1854  it  could  be  affirmed  in  the 
English  Parliament,  that  Turkey,  even  with  its  putrefaction  and 
weakness,  if  it  were  not  in  existence  would  have  to  be.  The 
Turco-Russian  war,  which  was  closed  at  the  beginning  of  1856, 
therefore,  made  no  material  change  in  the  condition  of  the 
Christians.  For  even  though  the  Haiti,  Humayun  of  Feb.  18, 
1856,  granted  them  equal  civil  rights  with  the  Moslems,  espe- 
cially also  ability  to  bear  arms  and  equality  before  the  courts, 
still,  well-meant  as  it  may  be  by  the  Sultan,  it  is  scarcely  any 
longer  regarded  in  practice,  as  formerly  the  also  well-meant 
Hatti-scheriff  of  Gu'lhane  (1839). 

Whilst  Protestant  (especially  North  American)  missionaries  are 
unweariedy  active  in  evangelizing  the  schismatic  churches  of  the 
Orient  (Nestorians,  Armenians,  Maronites)  through  distribution  of 
Bibles  and  school-instruction,  Rome  also  does  not  spare  any  labor  in 
endeavoring  to  bring  back  these  as  well  as  the  orthodox  church  itself 
into  the  bosom  of  the  only  saving  church,  but  certainly  without  any 
apparent  success.  Only  a  short  time  ago  (1855)  the  converted  Greek 
Pitzipios  of  Scio  founded  an  oriental  Christian  society  at  Rome,  which 
has  this  object  alone  in  view.  Its  leading  thought,  which  Pitzipios  has 
developed  in  a  special  treatise  (L'eglise  orientale,  Rome,  1855,  in  Ger- 
man, by  H.  Shiel,  Vienna,  1857),  is  this,  that  the  oriental  church  is 
Roman  Catholic  of  right  and  of  God  since  the  council  of  Florence,  and 
it  is  only  the  lust  of  power  and  selfishness  of  the  clergy  which  will  not 
permit  the  historically  grounded  and  lawfully  exiting  unity  to  come 
to  a  manifestation. 


SECTS    AND    FANATICS.  405 


IV.  ANTI-CHRISTIANITY. 

I  CO.  SECTS  AND  FANATICS. 

The  proper  home  for  the  formation  and  gathering  of  sects  in 
this  period  is  North  America.  Here  Unitarians  from  England 
found  entrance,  whilst  in  return  the  Methodists  and  Baptists 
from  America  sent  missionaries  back  to  Europe.  But  in  Eu- 
rope also  fanatical  phenomena  made  their  appearance  here  and 
there,  which  were  in  part  guilty  of  frantic  outrages.  Even 
Gnosticism,  with  intellectual  aud  moral  errors,  showed  itself 
again  in  several  societies.  Tbe  Harmonites  in  North  America 
represented  a  combination  of  communism  with  religious  fanati- 
cism. The  Darbyites  constituted  the  saints  of  the  last  times 
upon  independent  foundation,  whilst  on  the  other  hand,  the 
Irvingites  and  their  caricature,  the  Mormons,  represented  the 
revival  of  the  apostolic  offices  and  charisma,  —  the  latter  with 
the  addition  of  socialistic  and  gnostic  tendencies. 

1.  The  Propagation  of  the  Older  Sects.  —  Baptistic  doctrines  and 
practice  proceeded  often  spontaneously  in  Germany  from  unchurchly 
Pietism  and  Mysticism.  Besides,  the  English  missionary  Oncken  of 
Hamburg  worked  towards  the  same  end  since  1834.  Thus  gradually 
from  30  to  40  small  baptistic  congregations  arose,  especially  in  East 
Prussia  (where  Memel  is  their  chief  seat),  in  Westphalia  and  the 
Rhine  Provinces,  in  Wurtemberg  and  Hesse,  etc.  Prussia  granted 
them  limited  tolerance  in  1843  ;  also  Wurtemberg  and  Hesse.  Meck- 
lenburg warded  them  off  by  fines  and  imprisonments.  But  Denmark, 
which  proceeded  against  them  even  more  sharply,  was  finally  com- 
pelled to  permit  the  organization  of  a  congregation  at  Fredericia(  1842). 
Since  then  the  number  of  their  adherents  has  increased  on  the  conti- 
nent from  year  to  year.  Hamburg  granted  them  full  recognition  in 
1858,  with  the  prohibition,  however,  not  to  baptize  in  the  open  air. — 
The  North  American  missionary  Jakoby  proselyted  for  Methodism  from 
Bremen. — The  Unitarians  possess  yet  in  Transylvania  of  old  a  priv- 
ileged and  organized  church  establishment.  In  England  the  law  still 
threatens  them  with  the  death-penalty,  which,  however,  has  not  been 
inflicted  for  a  long  time.  But  they  were  not  the  less  an  object  of  in- 
sult and  indignation  to  the  people.  A  popular  storm  broke  loose  in 
1791,  upon  Jos.  Priestley,  the  celebrated  chemist  and  natural  philoso- 


40fi        SECTION    III. —  FOURTH   PERIOD    (CENT.  19   A.  D.) 

pher,  who  presided  over  a  Unitarian  congregation  at  Birmingham. 
His  house,  together  with  his  scientific  collection  and  apparatus,  was 
burned;  he  only  saved  his  own  life  with  difficulty,  and  soon  after 
emigrated  to  North  America.  But  it  was  only  after  his  death  (1804) 
that  the  tendency  represented  by  him  met  with  favor  there,  and  now 
hundreds  of  Unitarian  congregations  were  formed  in  a  short  time.  Itf 
most  celebrated  apostle  was  Ellery  Charming  of  Boston  (ob.  1842), 
The  blooming  period  of  American  Socinianism,  however,  has  passed 
away  already.  Its  latest  most  important  representative  was  Theodore 
Parker  of  Boston  {ob.  1860),  who,  advancing  to  the  most  notorious 
nationalism,  also  emancipated  himself  entirely  from  the  authority  of 
the  Bible.  —  Unitarian  congregations  have  also  greatly  increased  in 
England  since  they  obtained  formal  tolerance  in  1813. 

2.  Fanatical  Phenomena. — Johanna  Sotdhcote  of  England  imagined 
that  she  was  the  woman  clothed  with  the  sun  spoken  of  in  Rev.  12,  or 
the  bride  of  the  Lamb.  She  appeared  in  1801  with  her  prophecies. 
Her  adherents,  the  New  Israelites,  built  a  chapel  in  London  for  their 
worship.  A  splendid  cradle  was  prepared  to  receive  the  long  promised 
Messiah,  but  Johanna  died  in  1814,  without  giving  birth  to  him. — 
Thomas  Poschl,  Roman  Catholic  priest  at  Ampfelwang  near  Linz,  ex- 
cited by  Sailer's  mysticism,  labored  to  awaken  and  nourish  a  more 
living  Christianity,  which  certainly  was  not  altogether  free  from  fana- 
tical excitement  (expectation  of  the  approaching  end  of  the  world)  in 
his  congregation  by  devotional  meetings  and  distribution  of  pietistic 
tracts.  When  this  district  was  again  joined  to  Austria  in  1814,  he  was 
imprisoned,  and  his  adherents  connected  themselves  with  a  farmer 
named  Jos.  Haas,  who  led  them  only  deeper  into  fanaticism.  Indeed, 
thair  fanaticism  went  finally  so  far,  that  on  Good  Friday  1817  they 
permitted  a  young  maiden  of  their  number  to  die  a  sacrificial  death 
for  her  brothers  and  sisters  after  the  example  of  Christ.  Poschl  was 
filled  with  horror  at  this  awful  deed,  which  was  charged  upon  him. 
He  died  (1837)  in  prison.  —  A  very  similar  deed  of  horror  was  perpe- 
trated a  few  years  later  in  the  village  of  Wildenspuch,  in  the  canton 
of  Zurich.  Margaret  Peter,  the  daughter  of  a  peasant,  gathered  around 
herself  a  little  crowd  of  adherents,  who  revered  her  as  a  saint.  In  her 
fanaticism  she  had  her  younger  sister  killed  and  herself  nailed  to  the 
cross  with  incredible  courage  "for  the  salvation  of  many  thousand 
souls"  (1823). — The  Jumping  sect  in  Ingermannland  (concerning  which 
C.  Ullmann  has  given  information  in  the  "  Mittheilungen  u.  Nach- 
richten  fur  die  evang.  Geistlichk.  Russl.  1857.  III.")  traces  its  origin 
to  1813.  Proceeding  from  a  religious  excitement  independent  of  the 
church,  they  came  to  the  conviction  that  every  individual  required  the 
direct  illumination  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  order  to  his  salvation  ;  they 
also  soon  believed  that  they  enjoyed  this  illumination,  and  ecstatic 
praying,  singing,  and  crying,  connected  with  clapping  of  hands  and 
jumping  at  their  meetings,  gave  evidence  of  being  possessed  by  the 


SECTS    AND    FANATICS.  407 

Holy  Spirit.  The  special  illumination  required  as  correlative  also  a 
special  holiness,  and  this  was  sought  not  only  in  despising  marriage, 
but  also  in  abstaining  from  meat,  beer,  brandy,  and  tobacco.  He  who 
applied  for  admission  into  the  sect  was  required  to  prove  nudus  super 
nuda  before  the  eyes  of  the  meeting,  that  the  old  Adam  with  his  sexual 
susceptibility  was  dead  in  him.  The  "  holy  love,"  which  they  placed 
in  the  stead  of  marriage,  also  led  here,  as  ever,  to  fleshly  errors,  and 
this  was  the  reason  why  many  of  them,  after  the  example  of  Skopzi 
(#  42,  5),  with  whom  they  probably  were  connected,  choose  the  much 
more  certain  means  of  castration.  Authors  and  chiefs  of  the  sect  were 
named,  and  were  said  to  have  been  present  here  and  there  at  the  meet- 
ings, but  the  civil  authorities  were  not  able  to  get  hold  of  them.  At 
all  events,  the  sect  is  now  near  its  end.  —  A  peculiar  phenomenon  ap- 
peared among  the  Swedish  peasants  since  1842  in  the  so-called  calling 
voices.  Uneducated  laymen,  especially  women  and  even  children, 
broke  out,  after  preceding  convulsions,  into  deeply  moving  sermons  of 
repentance  and  prophecies  concerning  the  approaching  judgment  of 
God.  The  contents  of  their  sermons  did  not  conflict  with  the  doctrines 
of  the  church. 

3.  The  Harmonites.  (Cf.  J.  Wagner,  Gesch.  d.  Harmoniegesellsch. 
Vaihingen,  1833.)  —  The  dissatisfaction  of  the  Wiirtemberg  Pietists, 
which  was  increased  by  liturgical  innovations,  caused  many  emigra- 
tions at  the  beginning  of  this  century.  The  farmer  George  Rapp,  who 
believed  himself  to  be  favored  with  divine  inspiration,  emigrated  to 
America  with  his  adherents  in  1803,  and  founded  near  Pittsburg  the 
colony  of  Harmony  with  communistic  basis,  which  he  ruled  autocrati- 
cally as  patriarch,  high-priest,  and  judge.  He  sold  the  establishment 
in  1823  to  the  Scotchman  Robert  Owen,  on  account  of  its  unhealthy 
location,  and  went  with  700  Harmonites  to  Indiana,  where  he  founded 
the  new  colony  of  Economy.  Prosperity  and  peace  reigned  in  the 
society  until  in  1831,  when  an  adventurer  named  Bernhard  Muller  en- 
tered it  as  a  troubler.  He  had  beforo  this  played  a  brilliant  part  at 
Offenbach  under  the  name  of  Proli  as  a  prophet  called  to  found  a 
spiritual  world-monarchy,  but  only  escaped  legal  proseeution  by  flight. 
He  appeared  in  the  same  character  at  Economy,  claiming  to  be  of 
princely  descent,  and  calling  himself  Count  Maxim,  v.  Leon.  Rapp 
recognized  him  as  a  prophet  Proli  caused  a  great  part  of  Rapp's  ad- 
herents to  apostatize.  Rapp  had  to  pay  them  a  large  sum  out  of  the 
common  treasury,  and  Proli  founded  with  them  the  Society  of  New 
Jerusalem  at  Philippsburg.  When  he  had  squandered  the  property  of 
his  adherents  he  abandoned  them  (1833),  leaving  them  behind  in 
great  misery,  and  soon  thereafter  he  was  drowned  in  the  Missouri 
river.     Rapp's  successor  was  a  merchant  named  Becker. 

4.  The  New  Templars.  (Cf.  Carove,  '  der  Messianismus  d.  neuen 
Templar.  Lpz.  1834.—  W.  F.  Wilcke,  die  Tempelerei.  Lpz.  1335.)— 
After  the  revolution  of  July  there  appeared  publicly  in  Paris  (1831)  a 


408       SECTION    III. —  FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.  19    A.  D.) 

eecrei  order,  professing  to  have  an  unbroken  series  of  grand-mastera 
from  the  Old  Templars,  of  whose  existence  mention  is  already  made  in 
the  middle  of  the  previous  century.  The  religion  of  these  New  Tem- 
plars, which  has  propagated  itself  as  the  primitive  revelation  through 
the  Greek  and  Egyptian  mysteries,  and  from  which  Moses  also  drew 
materials,  then  was  further  advanced  by  Christ  and  given  to  the  grand- 
masters of  the  Templars  by  John  and  his  successor  in  esoteric  tradition, 
teaches  a  divine  trinity  of  being,  deed,  and  consciousness,  an  eternity 
of  the  world  apart  from  God,  and  an  indwelling  of  God  in  man.  As  the 
only  true  Christianity  (eglise  chretienne  primitive)  it  seeks  to  over- 
throw the  Komish  Church.  The  curious  Parisians  enjoyed  themselves 
for  a  time  with  the  striking  worship  and  costume  of  the  Templars,  and 
then  forgot  them. 

5.   The  so-called  Hypocrites  [Mucker)  in  Konigsberg.  (Cf.  H.  Olshau- 
sen,  Lehre  u.  Leben  des  Konigsb.  Theosophen  J.  H.  Schoonherr.     Ko- 
nigsb.  1834,  v.  Wegnern,  Zuverl'ass.  Mittheill.  uber  Schonherr's  Leben 
u.  Lehre,  in  Illgen's  hist,  theol.  Zeitschr.  1838.  II.—  G.  H.  Diestel,  ein 
Zeugenverhor  im  Criminalprocesse  gegen  Ebel  u.  Diestel.     Lpz.  1838. 
—  G.  v.  Hahnenfeld,  die  rel  Bewegung  zu  Konigsb.  Braunsb.  1858.) — 
There  lived,  at  the  beginning  of  this  century  [ob.  1826),  at  Konigs- 
berg, a  pious  but  peculiar  theosophist,  named  John  Henry  Schdnherr, 
who,  starting  from  the  reception  of  two  primitive  beings  (Elohim), 
namely,   primitive   fire   and   primitive  water   (fire-Eloah   and  water- 
Eloah,  Gen.  1  :  2),   from  the  conjunction   and  co-operation  of  which 
creation  proceeded,— formed  a  guostic-theosophic  system,  by  which,  on 
the  basis  of  the  Scriptures,  he  imagined  that  he  had  solved  the  pro- 
blems of  theogony  and  cosmogony,  of  hamartigeny  and   soteriology. 
Of  the  small  circle  of  his  disciples,  two  preachers,  Ebel  and  Diestel, 
distinguished  themselves,  of  whom  especially  the  former  labored  with 
as  much  zeal  as  success  as  author,  teacher,  pastor,  and  preacher,  for 
the  awakening  and  revival  of  Christian  feeling  in  the  congregation. 
Their  theosophy,  which  they  inherited  from  Schonherr,  exerted  little 
or  no  influence  on  their  official  labors  in  the  congregation ;  but  they 
thought  they  must  not  withhold  their  deeper  knowledge  of  revealed 
truth  from  a  smaller  circle  of  anxious  souls  of  both  sexes.     Prof.  01' 
shausen  also,  and  v.  Tippelskirch   (then  yet  a  student),  who  became 
better  known  later  as  Romish  chaplain  to  an  embassy,  as  also  a  Count 
Firikenstein,  belonged  for  a  time  to  this  circle,  but  they  soon  withdrew 
and  publicly  combated  this   theosophy.     Soon,    however,    rumors   of 
mystico-religious  practice  of  sensuality,  which  was  based  upon  a  gnostic 
dualistic  view  of  religion  and  of  nature,  also  became  public.     Those 
belonging   to   this   circle  were  nicknamed  the  hypocrites   (Mucker). 
Already  a  garden  in  Konigsberg  was  spoken  of  as  the  "  Seraphim 
grove,"  where  they  practised- their  orgies.     Upon  the  complaint  of  a 
man  of  rank,  who  believed  that  the  morality  of  his  wife  was  endangered 
by  this  circle,  the  consistory  instituted  a  preparatory  investigation  and 


SECTS     AND     FANATICS.  409 

suspended  Ebel  and  Diestcl.  In  consequence  of  a  thorough  criminal 
investigation  in  1839,  both  were  formally  deposed  from  office,  and 
Diestel  was  besides  condemned  to  imprisonment.  Both  appealed,  and 
after  a  lengthy  investigation  they  were  finally  in  1849  found  guilty  by 
the  supreme  court  of  Berlin,  which  confirmed  the  deposition  of  both, 
but  released  them  from  any  other  punishment,  and  granted  them  the 
privilege  of  being  appointed  to  non-spiritual  offices  elsewhere.  This 
sentence  charges  them  with  spreading  a  doctrine  that  contradicts  and 
nullifies  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  the  Christian  religion,  to  which, 
moreover,  was  given  an  application  in  regard  to  sexual  relations, 
"  which,  even  though  designed  by  its  author  to  promote  holiness,  must 
be  regarded  in  truth  as  being  very  pernicious  in  its  consequences,  and 
could  be  nothing  other  in  its  nature  than  injurious  to  bodily  health 
and  provocative  of  the  worst  vices."  Ebel  was  acquitted  of  the  charge 
of  sectarianism,  because  he  neither  formally  renounced  the  church  nor 
established  a  special  worship,  although  it  is  true  that  an  exclusive  and 
closely  united  circle  of  adherents  was  formed  around  him. 

6.  The  "  Catholic  Apostolic  Church"  of  the  Irvingites.  (Cf.  M.  Hohl, 
Bruchstiicke  aus  d.  Leb.  u.  d.  Schriften  Irving's.  St.  Gallen,  1839. — 
The  article  by  Reich  in  the  Studd.  u.  Kritt.  1849,  I.,  by  Schulze,  in 
Reuter's  Report.  1849,  H.  7.  —  L.  J.  Jacobi,  die  Lehre  d.  Irvingiten. 
Berl.  1853.— .P.  V.  Schulze,  der  Irvingismus.  Berl.  1856.— J.  E.  Jbrg, 
der  Irvingianism.  Munch.  1856.  —  A.  G.  Rudelbach,  der  Irvingism. 
In  the  luth.  Zeitschrift.  1858,  II.-IV.)  —  Ed.  Irving,  a  powerful  and 
popular  preacher  of  the  Scotch  Presbyterian  Church  in  London,  ac- 
cepted the  doctrine  that  original  sin  dwelt  in  the  human  nature  of 
Christ  just  as  in  ours,  but  that  it  was  conquered  and  destroyed  by  the 
power  of  his  divine  nature.  He  at  the  same  time  came  to  the  convic- 
tion that  the  spiritual  gifts  of  the  apostolic  church  could  and  must  be 
renewed  and  revived  by  prayer  and  faith,  and  in  fact  the  presumed 
gift  of  speaking  in  unknown  tongues,  exalted  exclamations  and  prc- 
phesyings,  soon  manifested  themselves  in  some  members  of  his  congre- 
gation. The  presbyterv  of  his  church  deposed  him  in  1832,  and  the 
Scotch  general  synod  excommunicated  him  in  1833.  Rich  and  respect- 
able friends  of  the  Episcopal  Church  (among  them  especially  a  rich 
banker,  the  subsequent  Apostle  Drummond)  took  up  the  outcast,  and 
gave  him  the  means  to  build  a  new  church,  but  they  also  introduced 
into  it,  in  spite  of  Irving's  opposition  (he  died  in  1835)  a  high-church 
Puseyite  tendency,  which  soon  dislodged  the  heretical  as  well  as  the 
puritanic  element,  and  forced  in  the  enthusiastic  at  least  in  hierarchi- 
cal and  liturgical  formalism.  The  revival  of  the  apostolic  office  became 
the  centre  of  the  movement.  After  various  unfortunate  attempts,  the 
calling  of  twelve  Apostles  through  the  divinely  illumined  Prophets  was 
accomplished.  From  the  apostles  as  the  chief  rulers  and  guardians 
of  the  church  Evangelist  and  Shepherds  (or  angels  —  Rev.  2  :  1,  8,  etc.) 
were  now  consecrated  according  to  Eph.  4:11  to  each  of  the  latter 
78 


■110         SECTION    III. FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.  19    A.  D.) 

of  which  was  subordinated  six  elders  and  six  deacons,  so  that  the 
clergy  of  each  congregation  consisted  of  thirteen  persons  (a  copy  of 
Christ  and  his  twelve  disciples).  Seven  congregations  were  formed  in 
London  as  copies  of  the  seven  apocalyptic  congregations  (Rev.  1  :  20), 
which  together  in  their  seven-fold  perfection  were  to  be  the  model  and 
representative  of  the  universal  church.  The  promise  of  the  near  re- 
turn of  the  Lord  stood  in  the  fore-ground  of  their  new  revelation.  The 
Lord,  who  was  to  come  again  during  the  lifetime  of  the  first  apostles, 
and  who  was,  therefore,  expected  very  confidently  by  them,  was  com- 
pelled by  increasing  corruption  and  depravity  to  defer  his  return  inde- 
finitely, and  even  to  arrest  the  full  development  of  the  second  apostolate, 
which  was  appointed  for  the  heathen,  and  for  a  time  represented  by  Paul, 
because  the  church  was  no  longer  worthy  of  it.  But  now  finally,  after 
eighteen  centuries  of  dishonor,  during  which  the  church  unfolded  itself 
as  the  Babylon  of  the  Apocalypse  (the  Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury also  included),  and  has  become  ripe  for  judgment,  the  time  has 
come,  when  the  apostolate  has  been  restored,  to  prepare  the  way  for 
the  end  of  all  things.  It  was  assorted  at  the  beginning  with  great 
confidence,  that  none  belonging  to  them  would  die,  but  that  all  would 
survive  the  end  of  the  world.  But  since  that  death  has  torn  so  many, 
even  several  apostles  from  the  midst  of  them,  it  is  said  that  those  are 
already  born  who  shall  survive  the  dawn  of  the  consummation.  It 
may  break  every  day,  every  hour.  It  is  to  begin  with  the  first  re- 
surrection (Rev.  20  :  5)  and  with  the  simultaneous  transformation  of 
the  living  saints  (the  wise  virgins,  i.  e.  the  Irvingites),  who  will  be 
borne  up  to  the  Lord  in  the  clouds,  and  be  united  with  him  in  a  higher 
place  by  the  marriage-supper  of  the  Lamb.  They  are  concealed  in 
security,  whilst  Antichrist  persecutes  the  other  Christians  (the  foolish 
virgins),  who  can  only  be  saved  by  severe  martyrdom,  and  executes 
judgment  on  Babylon.  The  Gentile  church  is  now  at  an  end;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  conversion  of  the  Jews  has  commenced,  who,  being 
pressed  by  want  and  the  persecution  of  the  man  of  sin,  seek  and  find 
a  refuge  in  Palestine.  After  a  complete,  although  only  a  brief  victory 
of  Antichrist,  the  Lord  appears  visibly  in  the  midst  of  those  who  have 
risen  from  the  dead  and  of  the  transformed.  The  kingdom  of  Anti- 
christ is  destroyed,  Satan  is  bound,  the  sa.ints  live  and  rule  with  Christ 
a  thousand  years  upon  the  earth  delivered  from  the  curse.  After  this 
Satan  will  be  again  let  loose  for  a  short  time,  and  will  cause  a  great 
apostacy.  Finally  Satan's  overthrow  follows,  together  with  the  second 
resurrection  and  the  last  judgment.  —  In  regard  to  the  worship  of  the 
Irvingites,  their  liturgy,  professing  to  have  been  formed  by  the  apos- 
tles, is  only  a  compilation  of  Anglican  and  Roman  Catholic  elements. 
The  idea  of  a  priesthood  and  of  sacrifice  is  very  prominent,  and  splen- 
did priestly  garments  are  an  essential  requisite.  Nevertheless,  they 
rejected  the  Romish  doctrine  of  a  bloodless  repetition  of  the  bloody 
sacrifice,  as  also  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiatimi.     They,  however, 


SECTS    AND    FANATICS.  4ll 

insisted  strictly  upon  the  payment  of  tithes  as  made  a  Christian  duty 
by  Heb.  7  :  4.  Their  typical  interpretation  of  the  history  and  legisla- 
tion of  the  Old  Testament,  especially  of  the  tabernacle,  is  the  most 
abitrary  and  absurd  that  was  evet  given.  —  The  first  sending  forth 
of  the  Apostles,  only  to  reconnoitre  and  prepare  the  ground  for  future 
efforts,  took  place  in  1835.  The  first  public  demonstration  was  made 
in  1836  by  an  apostolic  "  epistle  to  the  patriarchs,  bishops,  and  over- 
seers of  the  Church  of  Christ  in  all  lands,  as  also  to  the  emperors, 
kings,  and  princes  of  all  nations  of  the  baptized,"  which  was  sent  to 
the  most  distinguished  of  those  addressed  (also  to  the  pope),  but  was 
altogether  disregarded  (printed  in  Rheinwald's  Acta  ecclst.  1837,  p. 
7U3  if.)  Since  then  they  have  carried  on  their  missionary  work  more 
publicly.  But  they  from  principle  only  direct  their  efforts  towards 
those  who  already  believe  and  take  no  part  at  all  in  heathen  missions, 
because  they  say  that  they  are  sent  forth  neither  to  the  heathen,  nor 
yet  to  unbelievers,  but  only  to  collect  and  save  believers.  In  England, 
where  they  at  first  met  with  great  favor,  their  time  seems  already  to 
have  come  to  an  end.  They  only  succeeded  in  establishing  a  few  con- 
gregations in  North  America.  Their  efforts  in  Germany  and  Switzer- 
land seem  to  promise  better  success.  They  gained  here  several  respect- 
able theologians  (Karl  Rothe,  Albert  Koppen,  and  especially  Henry  W. 
J.  Thiersch,  the  proper  Tertullian  of  this  modern  Montanism),  which 
was  so  much  the  more  important  for  them,  as  they  lacked  influential, 
at  least  scientifically  and  theologically  educated,  adherents.  Frank- 
furt-on-the-Main  became  a  chief  point  of  their  labors,  especially  through 
the  agency  of  the  book-trade  (bookseller  Zimmer).  Besides,  they  esta- 
blished congregations  at  Berlin,  Stettin,  Konigsberg,  Marburg,  and 
Basle.  They  even  found  favor  among  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy, 
especially  in  Bavaria.  But  a  series  of  depositions  and  excommunica- 
tions during  1857  suppressed  this  movement.  There  have  been  pub- 
lished of  their  theopneustic  (apostolic)  writings,  in  addition  to  the 
"  Zuschrift  an  die  Patriarchen,"  etc. ;  "  Die  Ordnung  der  Feier  der  h. 
Euchariste  und  der  h.  Communion  "  (but  only  printed  as  manuscript)  ; 
"  Die  mosaische  Stiftsuiitte  als  Vorbild  fur  die  Christl.  K.  Frankf. 
1847;"  "Die  Kirche  in  unserer  Zeit.  Diisselth.  1843;"  "Die  En- 
triickung  od.  die  Verwandlung  der  lebendigen  Heiligen  von  John 
Hooper.  Berl.  1847;"  "  Erz'ahlung  von  Thatsachen  in  Verbindung 
mit  der  jetzigen  Lage  u.  der  Zukunft  der  Kirche;"  "Die  sieben 
Sendschreiben  der  Off.  Joh.  ;"  "  Schatten  u.  Licht  in  dem  gegenwar- 
ti<ren  Zustande  der  K.  von  Charles  Bbhm,  bevorwortet  von  Thiersch. 
Berl.  1855."  Irving  himself  wrote  the  little  book:  "Die  Kirche  mit 
ihrer  Ausstattung  von  Macht  und  Heiligkeit,  aus  d.  Engl.  Stuttg. 
1841."  —  Their  missionary  representatives  in  Germany  are  distin- 
guished by  a  religious  and  moral  earnestness  joined  with  dignity, 
mildness,  and  amiableness  of  character.  Likewise,  it  cannot  be  denied 
that,  apart  from   their  groundless  apostolate  and  what  is  connected 


412       SECTION    III. FOURTH    PERIOD    (c  E  N  T.  1  9    A.  D.) 

therewith,  a  sound,  clear,  moderate,  and  genuine  churchly  feeling,  ex 
presses  itself  in  thtir  views,  in  their  judgments,  and  in  their  efforts. 

7.  The  Darby ites  or  Plymouth  Brethren.  (Cf.  J.  J.  Herzor/,  les  Frerea 
de  Plymouth.  Laus.  1855.)  —  The  Plymouth  Brethren,  related  on  the 
one  hand  with  Irvingianism  by  their  expectation  of  the  near  approach- 
ing advent  of  Christ,  and  likewise  regarding  themselves  as  the  latter- 
day  saints,  formed,  on  the  other  hand,  the  most  decided  antithesis  to 
Irvingian  hierarchism  by  their  absolute  Independentism.  John  Darby, 
at  first  advocate,  then  a  clergyman  in  the  Anglican  church,  established 
a  sectarian,  apocalyptico-independent  society  at  Plymouth,  but  he  soon 
emigrated  to  Paris,  and  from  thence  to  Vaud  (1840),  where  Lausanne 
became  the  chief  seat  of  the  sect.  They  held,  that  all  spiritual  offices, 
all  ecclesiastical  forms,  are  of  evil,  and  a  witness  of  the  secularization 
of  the  church.  There  is  only  one  office,  the  spiritual  priesthood  of  all 
believers,  and  every  believer  has  the  right  to  preach  and  to  administer 
the  sacraments.  Not  only  the  Roman  Catholic,  but  also  the  Protestant 
church  is  a  Babylon.     They  are  rigidly  Calvinistic  in  doctrine. 

8.  The  Amen  Society.  —  It  owes  its  origin  to  the  Jewish-Christian 
Israel  Pick  of  Bohemia,  who,  being  converted  by  Scotch  missionaries, 
was  baptized  Jan.  1,  1854.  In  the  conviction  that  he  did  not  thereby 
renounce  his  Judaism,  but  rather  only  first  then  became  in  truth  a  Jew, 
he  came,  through  a  one-sided  apprehension  of  the  promises  given  to 
his  nation  in  the  Old  Testament,  to  thoughts  and  plans  similar  to  those 
entertained  by  Christ.  Hoffmann  of  Wurtemberg  (g  55,  4),  only  that 
the  latter  would  accomplish  the  gathering  of  the  people  of  God  in  the 
promised  land  through  heathen-Christians,  but  Pick  through  Jewish- 
Christians.  The  entire  Mosaic  law,  including  the  observance  of  the 
Sabbath  and  circumcision,  was  to  be  (together  with  baptism  and  the 
Lord's  Supper)  there  the  foundation  of  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  or- 
ganization, and  because  the  idea  of  salvation  was  first  to  be  fully 
manifested  in  this  true  Israel,  heathen  Christianity  would  also  through 
it  first  attain  to  the  full  possession  of  the  blessings  of  grace  appointed 
for  it.  Every  effort,  therefore,  is  made  in  the  interest  of  all  heathen- 
Christians  to  prepare  the  way  for  this  colonization  of  Palestine  through 
converted  Israelites.  But  as  Pick  met  with  little  favor  among  his 
countrymen  with  such  ideas,  he  turned  to  the  Christians  converted 
from  the  heathens,  and  he  succeeded  in  here  and  there  gaining  a  few 
adherents,  to  whom  he  gave  the  name  of  the  Amen  Society,  because 
all  the  promises  of  the  old  covenant  are  yea  and  amen  in  Christ.  The 
centre  of  the  society  is  in  Munich-Gladbach. 

9.  The  Mormons  or  Latter-clay  Saints.  (Cf.  Mor.  Busch,  Die  Mcr- 
monen.  Lpz.  1855  ;  Thcod.  Olshausen,  Gesch.  der  Mormonen.  Gottg. 
1855.) — Joseph  (Joe)  Smith,  a  bankrupt  farmer  of  the  State  of  Vermont, 
who  was  engaged  in  knavish  hunting  for  hidden  treasure,  declared  in 
1825,  that,  directed  by  livine  revelations  and  visions,  he  dug  out  of  the 
hill  of  Comara  in  New  York  a  stone  chest  containing  golden  tables  in- 


SECTS     AND     FANATICS.  113 

scribed  with  holy  records.    A  pair  of  prophetical  spectacles  (Urim  and 
Thummin)  which  were  also  in  the  chest,  enabled  him  to  read,  to  un- 
derstand, and  to  translate  the  records.     He  published  the  translation 
in  the  Book  of  Mormon.  According  to  this  book,  the  Israelites  emigrated 
to  America  under  their  captain  Lehi,  after  the  destruction  of  the  king- 
dom of  the   ten   tribes.     The  nation,   however,  perished   after  many 
changes  on  account  of  its  sins.     Its  last  prophet  Mormon  wrote  his 
revelation  on  the  above-mentioned  brazen  tables,  which  he  hid  in  the 
earth  as  a  future  testimony  for  the  latter-day  saints.     Smith  now  de- 
clared that  he  was  called  of  God  to  establish  the  church  of  the  Latter- 
day  Saints  on  the  basis  of  these  records  and  the  revelations  that  were 
made  to  himself.     The  leading  tendency  of  this  sect  is  the  religious 
socialistic  establishment  of  a  theocratic  community  under  the  direction 
of  apostles  and  prophets.     Crowds  of  believers  soon  nocked  around  the 
new  prophet.    It  is  true,  the  widow  of  a  preacher  in  New  York  affirmed, 
that  the  Book  of  Mormon  was  an  almost  literal  plagiarism  from  a  his- 
torico-didactic  romance,  written  by  her  deceased  husband,   Solomon 
Spaulding.       The    manuscript  came  into   the   hands   of   the   printer, 
Sidney    Rigdon,    who   was    Smith's    right-hand,    and    after    that    it 
disappeared.     But  this  did  not  disturb  the  faithful ;  just  as  little  also 
the  circumstance,  that,  besides  Smith  and  his  associates,  no  one  could 
testify  to  the  existence  of  the  tables.    In  1830  Smith  and  his  adherents 
emigrated  to  the  State  of  Missouri.    To  escape  from  the  daily  increasing 
hatred  of  the  people  they  went  to  Illinois,  and  founded  here  the  city 
of  Nauvoo,  together  with  a  splendid  and  majestic  temple.    The  wealth, 
power,  and  extent  of  the  community  increased  rapidly  through  dili- 
gence, industry,  and  good  discipline ;  but  in  the  same  degree  also  the 
envy,  hatred,  and  wrath  of  the  people,  who  accused  them  of  the  worst 
crimes.     To  avoid  the  shedding  of  blood,  the  Governor  summoned  the 
two  chiefs,  Joseph  Smith  and  his  brother  Hiram,  to  submit  to  volun- 
tary imprisonment  for  the  purpose  of  a  judicial  investigation.     They 
obeyed.     But  an  armed  raging  mob  attacked  the  prison,  and  shot  both 
of  them  (1844).    The  mob  then  grew  into  a  great  army,  which  destroyed 
the  city  of  Nauvoo,  burned  the  temple,  and  expelled  the  inhabitants. 
These  now  numbering  15,000,  travelled  in  several  successive  companies 
"through  the  wilderness"  towards  the  West  over  the  mountains,  to 
establish  beyond  them   a   Zion.     Smith's  successor,  as  prophet  and 
hierarch,  was  Brigham  Young.     The  journey  occupied  two  full  years. 
In  the  great  salt  sea  basin  of  the  territory  of  Utah  or  Deseret  they  laid 
the  foundations  of  Salt  Lake  City,  or  New  Jerusalem,  as  the  capitol  of 
a  new  State.     The  gold  mines  of  California  did  not  entice  them  away, 
for  their  prophets  taught  them  that  it  was  better  to  pave  streets,  to 
build  houses,  and  to  cultivate  fields,  than   to  seek  for  gold.     In  this 
way  they  also  here  soon  became  a  flourishing  community.     The  ambi- 
guous book  of  Mormon  receded,  as  it  appears,  more,  and  more  into  the 
back-ground  ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  doctrines  and  prophecies  of  their 
78* 


414         SECTION    III.  —  FOURTH    PERIOD    (CENT.  19  A.  D.) 

apostles  and  pro]  liets  became  more  prominent.     The  most  talented 
among  these  is  O  son  Pratt.     To  him  chiefly  belongs  the  credit  of  de- 
veloping a  most  fantastic  system   of  religion,  which,  compiled  from 
neu-platonic,   gnostic,  and  theosophico-mystical  elements,   reveals  all 
the  mysteries  of  time  and  eternity.     They  have,  in  common  with  the 
Irvingites,  who  recognize  in  the  Mormons  their  own  demoniac  carica- 
ture,   the   revival   of  the   apostolic  and  prophetic  offices,  the  gift  of 
speaking  in  tongues  and  of  miracles,  the  expectation  of  the  near  second 
advent  of  the  Lord,  the  paying  of  tithes,  etc.     But  that  which  distin- 
guishes them  from  all  other  Christian  sects  is  the  practice  of  polygamy 
as  a  religious  duty,  inasmuch  as  only  those  women  who  are  "sealed" 
to  a  latter-day  saint  can  participate  in  the  blessedness  of  eternal  life. 
The  book  of  Mormon  prohibited  polygamy.     A  later  revelation  made 
to  Smith  allowed  it  at  least  to  the  overseers ;  nevertheless,  it  was  at 
this  time  still  concealed  from  and  denied  to  the  "  heathen.'"'     It  was 
only  openly  acknowledged  in  1852,  and  made  the  duty  of  all  "  saints." 
That    polygamy   is    allowable    they   would    prove   from    the    Old,  and 
also  from  the  New  Testament  (Matth.  19  :  29).     Ou   the  other   hand, 
the  saints  would  punish  adultery  and  prostitution  with  death.  —  Their 
missionaries  have  also  been  active  within  the  last  decade  in  spreading 
the  sect  in  Europe.    It  is  said  that  50,000  converts  have  been  baptized 
in  England  and  Scotland,  of  whom  about  20,000  have  already  emigrated 
to  Utah.     In  Denmark,  Schleswig,  in  Western  Germany,  and  in  Swit 
zerland,  their  missionaries  have  also  met  with  great  success.     They 
have  endeavored  to  draw  all  their  converts  to  Utah,  in  order  soon  to 
reach  their  first  great  object, — to  be  recognized  by  the  United  States 
as  an  independent  State,  and  to  be  freed  from  the  burdensome  obliga- 
tion of  being  ruled  by  a  governor  appointed  by  the  central  government. 
From  connivance  with  the  odd  saints  the  office  of  governor  was  at  first 
entrusted  to  the  prophet  Brigham  Young.    But  his  administration  was 
so  arbitrarily  absolute,  that  the  other  government  officers  were  com- 
pelled to  leave  Utah  to  save  their  lives.     The  newly  elected  president 
of  the  Union,  Buchanan,  fully  resolved  to  restore  the  authority  of  the 
government,  appointed  a  new  governor  in  Young's  place,  named  Gum- 
mi  ikjs  (1857),  and  sent  troops  to  Utah,  who  were  to  enforce  his  recogni- 
tion and  authority.     Young  prepared  to  resist  even  unto  death.    How- 
ever, a  compromise  was  finally  made.     A  full  amnesty  was  granted  to 
the  saints,  the  government  troops  entered  peaceably  in  June  1858  into 
Salt  Lake  City,  and  Young  iioav  lives  on  pretty  friendly  terms  with  the 
governor. 

I  61.  PRACTICAL  ANTICHRISTIANITY. 

Whilst  Antichristianity  (1  Thess.  2:11),  especially  in  the  philo- 
sophy of  self-deification,  prepared  a  way  for  itself  theoretically, 
efforts  were  also  put  forth  to  introduce  it  practically  into  the  world. 


PRACTICAL     ANTICHRISTI  ANITY.  415 

In  Germany  the  poet  H.  Heine  proclaimed  the  gospel  of  the 
rehabilitation  of  the  flesh  ;  around  him  was  gathered  in  1834  and 
1835  the  literature  of  Young  Germany  (K.  Gutzkow,  T/i.  Mundt, 
etc.),  whose  pantheistic  and  immoral  principles  called  forth  pretty 
general  indignation,  in  spite  of  their  poetic  garb.  In  France, 
St.  Simonism  flourished  only  for  a  short  time.  But  of  a  much 
more  threatening  character  was  Socialism  in  England  and  Com- 
munism in  France,  Germany,  and  Switzerland.  That  the  revo- 
lution of  1848  broke  out  so  suddenly  and  almost  at  the  same 
time  in  so  many  different  places,  that  it  was  of  a  character 
radically  destructive  of  all  order  and  all  right,  —  this  was  chiefly 
the  result  of  Communism.  Nevertheless,  it  has  not  been  able  up 
to  this  time  to  attain  its  proper  object  even  in  a  temporary  way. 
Amid  all  the  disorders  of  the  present,  the  promise  stands  still 
secure,  that  the  gates  of  hell  shall  not  prevail  against  the  Church 
of  Christ, 

1.  St.  Simonism.  (Cf.  Carovi,  d.  St.  Simonism,  u.  die  neuere  franz. 
Philos.  Lpz.  1831.  —  M.  Veit,  St.  Simon,  u.  d.  St,  Simonisten.  Lpz. 
1834.)  —  The  Count  St.  Simon  of  Paris,  impoverished  by  many  wild 
undertakings,  thought  of  establishing  a  new  blessed  order  of  the  world, 
with  pure  enjoyment  without  any  poverty  and  deprivation,  by  means 
of  a  thorough  organization  of  industry.  An  unfortunate  attempt  at 
suicide,  from  the  consequences  of  which  he  died  (1825),  made  him  a 
saviour  of  the  world  in  the  eyes  of  his  disciples.  The  revolution  of  July 
1830  gave  the  new-world  religion,  which  would  give  the  flesh  its  long 
denied  rights,  and  to  each  individual  that  position  in  the  community 
which  his  capacities  and  talents  deserved,  a  new  impulse.  The  Father 
Enfantin,  whom  his  adherents  honored  as  the  highest  revelation  of 
Deity,  contended  with  pompous  phrases  and  in  fantastic  costume  for 
the  emancipation  of  woman  and  against  the  unnature  of  marriage. 
But  St.  Simonism  was  soon  condemned  (1832)  by  the  public  as  ridicu- 
lous, by  the  courts  as  immoral,  and  the  remnants  of  its  adherents  fled 
from  the  ridicule  of  the  people  and  the  vengeance  of  the  courts  to 
Egypt,  where  they  soon  disappeared. 

2.  Socialism  and  Communism.  (Cf.  C.  B.  Hundesliagen,  der  Com- 
munismus  im  Laufe  der  Jahrhh. ;  in  the  Studd.  und  Kritt,  1845.  III. — 
L.  Reybaud,  Etudes  sur  les  reformateurs  contemporains  ou  socialistes 
modernes.  Brux.  1841.  —  H.  Gelzer,  Zur.  Gesch.  d.  modernen  Radi- 
calism, u.  Comn.unismus.  Basel.  1847.) — The  Scotchman  Robert  Owen, 
after  he  had  made  practical  experiments  on  a  small  scale  with  his 
manufactories,  addressed  himself  through  lectures  and  tracts  to  the 
working  classes  of  England,  to  win  them  to  the  idea  of  Socialism.  A 
noble  brotherhood,  having  f?r  its  object  mutual  advancement  and  en- 


416      SECTION    III — FOURTH   PERIOD    (CENT.    19   A.  D.) 

joyment  of  the  common  possessions  of  the  fraternity,  was  to  make  an 
end  of  all  the  misery  of  the  earth.  Religion,  marriage,  family,  and 
private  property,  were  to  be  abolished,  as  being  the  source  of  all  evil ; 
the  training  of  children  was  to  be  public,  etc.  To  promote  this  object 
a  socialistic  union,  with  nearly  a  half  million  members,  with  a  central 
residence  and  a  yearly  congress  at  Birmingham,  was  organized  in 
1836  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  especially  in  the  great  manufac- 
turing cities.  However,  the  danger  with  which  this  union  threatened 
Church  and  State  has  already  been  avoided  by  the  sound  sense  of  the 
English  people. — On  the  other  hand,  the  same  reformatory  ideas,  only 
in  a  more  bold  and  radical  form,  appeared  on  the  continent  as  Com- 
munism. Already  during  the  first  French  revolution  a  certain  Baboeuf 
issued  a  communistic  manifesto  (1797).  His  ideas  were  embraced  by 
Charles  Fourier,  later  by  Proudhon,  Cabet,  and  others  in  France,  and 
by  W.  Weitling,  Max  Stirner,  etc.,  in  Germany.  A  secret  communistic 
propaganda  spread  over  the  whole  of  Western  Europe.  Its  mission- 
aries were  especially  travelling  journeymen.  All  altars  were  to  be 
cast  down,  all  religion  was  to  be  exterminated,  as  being  a  pest  to 
humanity,  family  and  marriage  were  to  be  abolished,  as  being  the 
roots  of  all  selfishness,  all  goods  and  pleasures  of  the  world  were  to  be 
equally  3njoyed  ;  "war  on  the  rich"  was  the  battle-cry.  The  revolu- 
tion of  1848,  for  which  they  prepared  the  way,  compelled  them,  by  its 
results   to  flee  to  England  or  N>rth  America. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE. 


FIRST    CENTURY. 


A.  D.  Vol.  and  Paragraph. 

14-37.  Tiberius,  Emperor,  I.  23,  1. 

40.  Conversion  of  Paul,  I.  16. 

41-54.  Claudius,  Emperor,  I.  23,  1. 

44.  Martyrdom  of  James  the  Elder,  I.  17. 

45.  First  Missionary  Tour  of  Paul,  I.  16. 
50.  Apostolic  Council  at  Jerusalem,  I.  19,  1. 

50-54.  Second  Missionary  Tour  of  Paul,  I.  16. 

64-58.  Third  Missionary  Tour  of  Paul,  I.  16. 

54-68.  Nero,  Emperor,  I.  23,  1. 

64.  Persecution  of  Christians  in  Rome.     Paul,  ob.,  I.  23,  1.     James 
the  Just,  ob. 

66-70.  Jewish  War,  I.  21. 

70-100.  John  in  Ephesus,  I.  17. 

81-96.  Domitian,  Emperor,  I.  23,  1. 

SECOND    CENTURY. 

98-117.  Trajan,  Emperor,  I.  23,  2. 

107.  Simeon  of  Jerusalem,  Martyr,  I.  23,  2. 

115.  Ignatius  of  Antioch,  Martyr,  I.  23,  2. 

117-38.  Hadrian,  Emperor,  I.  23,  2.     Basilides,  Valentine,  I   28,  2,  8. 

132-35.  The  Insurrection  of  Barcochba,  I.  21. 

150.  Celsus,  I.  24,  4.     Marcion,  I.  28,  10. 

160.  Easter-controversy   between    Polycarp    and   Anicetus,    I.    31,    1 
Montanus,  I.  37,  1. 

161-80.  Marcus  Aurelius,  Emperor,  I.  23,  3. 

166.  Justin  Martyr,  ob.,  I.  39,  2. 

167.  Persecution  of  Christians  in  Smyrna,  I.  23,  3. 

168.  Martyrdom  of  Polycarp,  I.  23,  3. 

177.  Persecution  of  Christians  at  Lugdunum  and  Vienna,  I.  23,  3. 

180-93.  Commodus,  Emperor,  I.  23,  3. 

196.  Easter-controversy  between  Polycrates  and  Victor,  I.  31,  1. 

193-211.  Septimus  Severus,  Emperor,  I.  23,  4. 

(417) 


418  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 


THIRD  CENTURY. 

A.  D.  Vol.  and  Paragraph. 

'201.  Tertullian  becomes  a  Montanist,  I.  37,  2. 

202.  Pautcenus,  ob.,  I.  39,  4.     Irenseus,  ob.,  I.  39,  3. 

22U.  Clement  of  Alexandria,  ob.,  I.  39,  4.     Tertullian,  ob.  I.  39,  5. 

235.  Settlement  of  the  schism  of  Hippolytus,  I.  38,  1. 

235-38.  Maximinds  the  Thracian,  Emperor,  I.  23,  4. 

243.  Ammonius  Saccas,  ob.,  I.  24,  2. 

244.  Arabian  Synod  in  opposition  to  Beryllus,  I.  40,  5. 
249-51.  Decius,  Emperor,  I.  23,  5. 

250.  The  Schism  of  Felicissimus,  I.  38,  2. 

251.  The  Schism  of  Novatian,  I.  38,  3. 

253-56.  Controversy  about  the  Baptism  of  Heretics,  I.  32,  2. 
353-00.  Valeriancs,  Emperor,  I.  23,  5. 

254.   Origen,  ob.,  I.  39,  4. 

258.  Cyprian,  ob.,  I.  39,  5. 
260-68.  Gallienus,  Emperor,  Edict  of  Toleration,  I.  23,  5. 

262.   Synod  of  Rome  in  opposition  to  Sabelliu9  and  Dionysius  of  Alex 
andria,  I.  40,  6. 

269.  Third  Syrian  Synod  in  opposition  to  Paul  of  Samosata,  I.  40,  ? 

277.  Mani,  ob.,  I.  29,  1. 
284-305.   Diocletian,  Emperor,  I.  23,  6. 


FOURTH    CENTURY. 

303.   Commencement  of  the  Diocletian  Persecution,  I.  23,  6. 
805.   Synod  of  Elvira,  I.  35,  1. 
306.  The  Schism  of  Melitus  in  Egypt,  I.  38,  4. 
Constantius  Chlorus,  ob.,  I.  23,  7. 

311.  Galerius,  ob.,  I.  23,  6.     Mensurius,  ob.,  I.  63,  2. 

312.  Constantine's  Campaign  against  Maxentius,  I.  23,  7. 

313.  Edict  of  Milan,  I.  23,  7. 
318.   Arius  accused,  I.  50.  1. 

323-37.  Constantine  the  Great,  sole  Monarch,  I.  42,  1. 
325.  First  Oecumenical  Council  at  Nice,  I.  50,  1. 

335.  Synod  of  Tyre,  I.  50,  2. 

336.  Athanasius  deposed.     Arius,  ob.,  I.  50,  2. 
341.   Council  of  Antioch,  I,  50,  2. 

343.  Synod  of  Sardica,  I.  50,  2.     Persecution  of  Christians  under  Sha- 

pur  II.,  I.  64,  2. 
346.  Council  of  Milan  in  opposition  to  Photinus,  I.  50,  2. 
348.   Ulfilas,  Bishop  of  the  Goths,  I.  76,  1. 
350-61.  Constantius,  sole  Monarch,  I.  42.  1. 

351.   First  Council  of  Sirmium  in  opposition  to  Marcellus,  I.  50,  2. 

357.  Second  Council  of  Sirmium.     Homoiites,  I.  50,  3. 

358.  Third  Council  of  Sirmium,  I.  50,  3. 

359.  Synods  of  Seleucia  and  Rimini,  I.  50,  3. 


CHRONOLOGICAL     TABLE.  419 

A.  D.  Vol.  and  Paragraph. 

301-63.  Julian  the  Apostate,  Emperor,  I.  42,  2. 
361-413.   The  Meletian  Schism  at  Antioch,  I.  63,  1. 

362.   Synod  of  Alexandria  under  Athanasius,  I.  50,  4. 
366.   Schism  of  Damasus  and  Ursinus,  I.  63,  1. 
368.   Hilary  of  Poictiers,  ob.,  I.  47,  5. 
373.   Athanasius,  ob..  I.  47,  4. 
•  379-95.  Theodosius  I.,  Max.,  I.  42,  3. 

380.  Synod  of  Saragossa,  I.  54,  2. 

381.  Second  (Ecumenical  Council  at  Constantinople,  I.  50,  4. 
385.   Priscillian  beheaded  at  Treves,  I.  54,  2. 

390.  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  ob.,  I.  47,  4. 

391.  Destruction  of  the  Serapeion  at  Alexandria,  I.  42,  3. 
393.   Council  of  Hippo,  I.  59,  1. 

395.  Division  of  the  East  and  West  Roman  Empire. 

397.  Ambrose,  ob.,  I.  47,  5. 

*:99.  Rufinus  condemned  at  Rome  as  an  Origenist,  I.  51,  2. 

400.  Martin  of  Tours,  ob.,  I.  54,  2. 


FIFTH    CENTURY. 

402-17.  Innocent  I.  of  Rome,  I.  46,  2,  etc. 

403.  Synodus  ad  Quercium,  I.  51,  3.     Epiphanius,  ob.,  I.  47,  4. 

407.  Chrysostom,  ob.,  I.  51,  3. 

408-50.  Theodosius  II.  in  the  East,  I.  52,  3. 

411.  Collatio  cum  Donatistis,  I.  63,  2. 

412.  Synod  of  Carthage  in  opposition  to  Coalestius,  I.  53,  4. 

415.  Synods  of  Jerusalem  and  Diospolisin  opposition  to  Pelagius,  I.  53,  4. 

416.  Synods  of  Milene  and  Carthage  in  opposition  to  Pelagius,  I.  53,  4. 
418.   General  Synod  of  Carthage,  I.  53,  4. 

420.  Jevome,  ob.,  I.  47,5.    Persecution  of  Christians  under  Behram  V., 
I.  64,  2. 

428.  Nestorius  chosen  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  I.  52,  3. 

429.  Theodorus  of  Mops.,  ob.,  I.  47,  1.   Vandals  in  North  Africa,  I.  76,  3. 

430.  Cyril's  Anathemas,  I.  52,  3.      Augustin,  ob.,  I.  47,  5. 

431.  Third  (Ecumenical  Council  at  Ephesus.  I.  52,  3. 

432.  Patricius  in  Ireland,  I.  77,  2.     John  Cassianus,  ob.,  I.  53,  5. 
440-61.   Leo  I.,  Max.,  I.  46,  2,  etc. 

444.  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  ob.     Dioscurus  his  successor,  I.  52,  4. 

445.  Valentinian  III.'s  Rescript,  I.  46,  2. 

448.  Eutyches  excommunicated  at  Constantinople,  I.  52,  4. 

449.  "Robber-Synod"  of  Ephesus,   I.  52,  4.  '  Invasion  of  Britain  by 

the  Angles  and  Saxons,  I.  77,  4. 
451.   Fourth  (Ecumenical  Council  at  Chalcedon,  I.  52,  4. 
457.   Theodoret,  ob..  I.  47,  1. 

475.  Semi-pelagian  Synods  of  Aries  and  Lugdunum,  I.  53,  5. 

476.  Downfall  of  the  West  Roman  Empire,  I.  76,  6.       The  Monophy 

site  Encyclion  of  Basiliscus,  I.  52,  5. 


420  CHRONOLOGICAL     TABLE. 

A.  1).  Vol.  and  Paragraph. 

482.  Henoticon  of  the  Emperor  Zeno,  I.  52,  5.     Severinus,  ob. 

484-519.  Thirty-five  years'  Schism  between  the  East  aud  West,  I.  52,  5. 

496.  The  Battle  of  Tolbiac.     Clovis  baptized,  I.  76,  9. 

498.  The  Persian  Church  adopts  Nestorianism,  I.  52,  3. 

SIXTH    CENTURY. 

503.   Synodus  Palmaris,  I.  46,  2. 
517.   Council  of  Epaon,  I.  76,  5. 
527-65.  Justinian  I.,  Emperor,  I.  52,  6. 

529.   Synods  of  Arausis  and  Valence,  I.  53,  5. 

The  Rule  of  Monk  Benedict  of  Nursia,  I.  85. 
533.   Theopaschite  Controversy,  I.  52,  6.     Downfall  of  the  Empire  of 

the  Vandals,  I.  76,  3. 
541.   Renewed  Condemnation  of  Origen  at  Constantinople,  I.  52,  6. 
544.  Condemnation  of  the  three  Chapters,  I.  52,  6. 

553.  Fifth  (Ecumenical  Council  at  Constantinople,  I.  52,  6. 

554.  Downfall  of  the  East-Gothic  Empire  in  Italy,  I.  76,  7. 

563.   Synod  of  Braga,  I.  54,  2.     Columba  among  the  Ticts  and  Scots, 

I.  77,  3. 
568.  The  Lombards  under  Alboin  in  Italy,  I.  76,  8. 
589.   Synod  of  Toledo  under  Recared,  I.  76,  2.     Columban  and  Gallua 

among  the  Vosges,  I.  78,  1. 
590-604.  Gregory  L,  Max.,  I.  46,  2,  etc. 

595.  Gregory  of  Tours,  ob.,  I.  90,  2. 

596.  Augustine  sent  among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  I.  77,  4. 

597.  Cclumba,  ob.,  I.  77,  3.     Ethelbert  baptized,  I.  77,  4. 

SEVENTH    CENTURY. 

606.  Emperor  Phocas  acknowledged  the  Primacy  of  Rome,  I.  46,  2. 

611-41.  Heraclius,  Emperor,  52,  8. 

622.  Hejirah,  I.  65. 

636.  Isidore  of  Seville,  ob.,  I.  90,  2. 

637.  Omar  conquered  Jerusalem,  I.  65. 

638.  Monothelete  Ecthesis  of  Heraclius,  I.  52,  8. 
640.  Omar  conquered  Egypt,  I.  65. 

642-68.  Constans  II.,  Emperor,  I.  52,  8. 
646.  St.  Gallus,  ob.,  I.  78,  1. 

648.  Constans  II.'s  Typos,  I.  52,  8. 

649.  The  first  Laternn  Synod  under  Martin  I.,  I.  52.  8. 
652.   Emmeran  in  Regensburg,  I.  78,  2. 

657.  Constantine  of  Mananalis,  I.  71,  1. 

662.  Maximus,  Confessor,  ob.,  I.  52,  8. 

664.  Synod  of  Streaneshalch  (Syn.  Pharensis),  I.  77,  6. 

668-85  Constantine  Pogonnatus,  I.  52,  8;  71,  1. 

677.  Wilfrid  among  the  Frisians,  I.  78,  3. 


CHRONOLOGICAL     TABLE.  421 

A.  D.  Vol.  and  Paragraph. 

680.  Sixth  (Ecumenical  Council  at  Constantinople  (Trullanum  I.),  I. 

52,  8. 
690.  Willibrord  among  the  Frisians,  I.  78,  3. 
692.   Concilium  Quinisextum  (Trullanum  II.),  I.  63,  3. 
696.   Rupert-  in  Bavaria  (Salzburg),  I.  78,  2. 

EIGHTH    CENTURY. 

711.   The  Saracens  conquered  Spain,  I.  81. 
715-31.  Gregory  II.,  Pope,  I.  66,  1 ;  78,  4. 

716.  Winfrid  went  to  Frisia,  I.  78,  4. 

717.  Corbinian  in  Freisingen,  I.  78,  2. 
717-41.  Leo  the  Isaurian,  Emperor,  I.  66,  1. 

718.  Winfrid  in  Rome,  I.  78,  4. 

722.  Winfrid  in  Thuringia  and  Hesse,  I.  78,  4. 

723.  Winfrid  the  second  time  in  Rome.     His  consecration  as  Bishop 

(Boniface)  and  oath  of  allegiance,  I.  78,  4. 

724.  The  fall  of  the  ancient  oak  at  Geismar,  I.  78,  4. 
726.  Leo's  first  edict  against  image-worship,  I.  66,  1. 
730.   Leo's  second  edict  against  image-worship,  I.  66,  1. 

731-41.  Gregory  III.,  Pope,  I.  66,  1  ;  78,  4;  82,  1. 

732.  Boniface,  Archbishop  and  Apost.  Vicar,  I.  78,  4.     Battle  of  Poic- 

tiers,  I.  81. 

735.  The  Venerable  Bede,  ob.,  I.  90,  2. 

739.  Willibrord,  ob.,  I.  78,  3. 

741.  Charles  Marlel,  ob.,  I.  78,  4.  Gregory  III.  ob.;  Leo  the  Isaurian,  ob 
741-52.  Zacharias,  Pope,  I.,  78,  4. 

741-75.  Constantine  Copronymus,  Emperor,  I.  66,  2. 

742.  Concilium  Germanicum.     Sturm  founded  Fulda,  I.  78,  4. 

743.  Synod  at  Liptiuae. 

744.  Synod  of  Soissons,  I.  78,  4. 

745.  Boniface,  Archbishop  at  Mayence,  I.  78,  4. 
750.  John  Damascenus,  ob.,  I.  68,  4,  5. 

752.  Childeric  III.  dethroned.     Pepin  the  Short,  King,  I.  82,  1. 

754.  Iconoclastic  Synod  at  Const.,  I.  66,  2. 

755.  Boniface,  ob.,  I.  78,  4.     The  establishment  of  the  Papal  dominion 

through  Pepin's  donation,  I.  82,  1. 
760.   Canonic  Rule  of  Chrodegang  of  Metz,  I.  84,  4. 
767.  Synod  of  Gentilly,  I.  91,  2;  92,  1. 
768-814.  Charlemagne,  I.  82,  1. 
772-95.  Hadrian  I..  Pope,  I.  82,  1. 

772.   Destruction  of  Eresburg,  I.  78,  5. 

774.   Charlemagne's  donation  to  the  Papal  See,  I.  82,  1. 

785.   Widukind  and  Albion  were  baptized,  I.  78,  5. 

787.  Seventh  Oecumenical  Council  of  Nice,  I.  66,  3.     Establishment  of 

Monastery  and  Cathedral  Schools,  I.  90. 
790.  Libri  Carolini,  I.  92,  1. 

79 


422  CHRONOLOGICAL     TABLE. 

A.  D.  "Vol.  and  Paragraih. 

792.  Synod  of  Ratisbon,  I.  91,  1. 

794.  General  Synod  of  Frankfurt,  I.  91,  1 ;   92,  1. 

795-816.  Leo  III.,  Pope,  I.  82,  2. 

799.  Alcuin's  Controversy  with  Felix  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  I.  91,  1. 

800.  Leo  III.  crowns  Charlemagne,  I.  82,  2. 


NINTH    CENTURY. 

804.  Close  of  the  Saxon  War,  I.  78,  5.     Alcuin,  ob.,  I.  90,  2. 

809.  Council  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  on  filioque,  I.  91,  2. 

813-20.  Leo  the  Armenian,  Emperor,  I.  66,  4. 

814-40.  Louis  the  Pious,  I.  82,  2. 

817.  Reformation  of  Monasticism  through  Benedict  of  Aniane,  I.  85,  2. 

820-29.  Michael  Balbus,  Emperor,  I.  66,  4. 

825.  Synod  of  Paris  against  image-worship,  I.  91,  1. 

826.  Theodorus  Studita,  ob.,  I.  66,  4.    Ansgar  goes  to  Denmark,  I.  80,  1. 

827.  Establishment  of  Saracenic  dominion  in  Sicily,  I.  81. 
829-42.  Theophilus,  Emperor,  I.  66,  4. 

833.  Formation  of  the  See  of  Hamburg,  I.  80,  1. 

835.  Synod  of  Thionville,  I.  82,  2.     Pseudo-Isidore,  I.  87,  2. 

840.  Claudius  of  Turin,  ob.  ;   Agobard  of  Lyons,  ob.,  I.  92,  2. 

840-74.  Charles  the  Bald,  I.  82,  2,  5. 

842.  Feast  of  Orthodoxy,  I.  66,  4.     Theodora  ordered  the  extermina- 

tion of  the  Paulicians,  I.  71,  1. 

843.  The  Treaty  of  Verdun,  I.  82,  2. 

844.  Eucharistic  Controversy  of  Paschasius  Radbertus,  I.  91,  8. 
845-82.  Hiucmar  of  Rheims,  I.  83,  1. 

847.  See  of  Hamburg-Bremen,  I.  80,  1. 

848.  Synod  of  Mayence  against  Gottschalk,  I.  91,  4. 
850-859.   Persecution  of  Christians  in  Spain,  I.  81,  1. 

853.  Synod  of  Chiersy.     Capitula  Carisiaca,  I.  91.  4. 

855.  Synod  of  Valence  for  Gottschalk,  I.  91,  4. 

856.  Rabanus  Maurus,  ob.,  I.  90,  5. 
858-67.  Nicholas  I.,  Pope,  I.  82,  4. 

858.  Photius,  Patriarch  of  Const.,  I.  67,  1. 

859.  Synod  at  Savonnieres,  I.  91,  4. 

861.  Methodius  among  the  Bulgarians,  I.  72,  3. 

863.  Cyrill  and  Methodius  in  Moravia,  I.  79,  1. 

865.   Ansgar,  ob.,  I.  80,  1. 

867.  Encyclical  Letter  of  Photius,  I.  67,  1. 
867-86.  Basil  the  Macedonian,  Emperor,  I.  67,  1. 
867-72.  Hadrian  II.,  Pope,  I.  82,  4. 

869.  Eighth  Ecumenical  Council  (Latin)  at  Const.,  I.  67,  1. 

870.  Treaty  of  Mersen,  I.  82,  2. 

871.  Basil  the  Macedonian  conquered  the  Paulicians,  I.  71,  1. 
Borzivoi  and  Ludmilla  baptized,  I.  79,  2. 

871-901.  Alfred  the  Great,  I.  90. 


CHRONOLOGICAL     TABLE.  423 

X.  D.  Yol.  and  Paragraph. 

875.  John  VIII.  crowned  Charles  the  Bald,  Emperor,  I.  82,  5. 

879.  Eighth  (Ecumenical  Council  (Greek)  at  Const.,  I.  G7,  1. 

886-911.  Leo  the  Philosopher,  Emperor,  I.  67,  2. 

891.  Photius,  ob.,  I.  67,  1. 

TENTH    CENTURY. 

910.  Abbot  Berno  founded  Clugny,  I.  98,  I. 

911.  The  German  Carolingians  die  out,  I.  82,  5. 
911-18.   Conrad  I.,  German  King,  I.  96,  1. 
914-28.  John  X.,  Pope,  I.  96,  1. 

919-36.  Henry  I.,  German  King,  I.  96,  1. 

934.  Henry  I.  exacted  toleration  of  Christianity  in  Denmark,  I.  93,  1. 

936-73.  Otto  I.,  Emperor,  I.  96,  1. 

942.  Odo  of  Clugny  founded  the  Cluniacum-congregation,  I.  98,  1. 

950.  Gylas  of  Hungary  baptized,  I.  93,  2. 

955.  Olga  baptized  in  Const.,  I.  72,  4. 

960.  Atto  of  Vercelli,  ob.,  I.  101,  1. 

962.  Establishment  of  the  holy  Roman  German  Empire,  I.  96,  1. 

963.  John  XII.  deposed  at  a  Synod  in  Rome,  I.  96,  1. 
966.  Miecislav  of  Poland  baptized,  I.  93,  2. 

968.  Establishment  of  the  See  of  Magdeburg,  I.  93,  2. 
970.   Transportation  of  Paulicians  to  Thracia,  I.  71,  1. 
973-83.  Otto  II.,  Emperor,  I.  96,  1. 

974.   Ratherius  of  Verona,  ob.,  I.  101,  1. 
983-1002.  Otto  III.,  Emperor,  I.  96,  1. 

983.  Mistevoi  overthrew  all  Christian  Institutions  among  the  Wends, 
I.  93,  2. 

987.  Hugo  Capet  assumes  the  French  crown,  I.  96,  1. 

988.  Vladimir  christianized  Russia,  I.  72,  4. 
991.  Synod  at  Rheims,  Gerbert.,  I.  96,  1. 

992-1025.  Boleslav  Chrobry  of  Poland,  I.  93,  2. 
996-999.  Gregory  V.,  Pope,  I.  96,  1. 
997-1038.   St.  Stephen,  I.  93,  2. 

997.  Adalbert  of  Prague,  Ap.  among  Prussians,  ob.,  I.  93,  3. 
999-1003.  Sylvester  II.,  Pope,  I.  96,  1. 

1000.  Olaf  Tryggvason,  ob.,  I.  93,   1.     Christianity  in  Greenland,  I. 
93,  1.     Stephen  of  Hungary  obtained  the  crown,  I.  93,  2. 

ELEVENTH    CENTURY. 

1002-24.  Henry  II.,  Emperor,  I.  96,  2. 
1005.   Monk  Nilus,  ob. 

1008.  Olaf  Skautkonung  of  Sweden,  ob.,  I.  93,  1. 

1009.  Bruno  martyred,  I.  93,  3. 
1012-24    Benedict  VIII.,  Pope,  I.  96,  2. 
1014-36    Canute  the  Mighty,  I.  93,  1. 


424  CHRONOLOGICAL     TABLE. 

A.  D.  Vol,  and  Paragraph. 

1018.  Romuald  founded  the  Camaldolite  Order,  1.  98,  1. 

i024-39.  Conrad  II.,  Emperor,  I.  96,  2. 

1030.  Olaf  the  Fat  of  Norway,  ob.,  I.  93,  1. 

1031.  Downfall  of  the  Oininiyah  in  Spain,  I.  95,  2. 
1039-56.  Henry  III.,  Emperor,  I.  96,  2. 

1046.   Synod  of  Sutri,  I.  96,  2. 

1018.   Bruno  of  Cologne  founded  the  Carthusians,  I.  98,  3. 
1048-54.   Leo  IX.,  Pope,  I.  96,  3. 

1050.   Synod  of  Rome.     Vercelli  against  Berengar,  I.  102,  2. 

1053.  Synodal  Letter  of  Michael  Cerularius,  I.  67,  3. 

1054.  Excommunication  of  the  Greek  Church  through  the  Papal  Legates, 

I.  67,  3. 
1056-1106.   Henry  IV.,  Emperor,  I.  96,  3. 

1059.  Nicholas  II.,  Pope,  conferred  the  election  of  Pope  on  the  College 

of  Cardinals,  I.  96,  3. 

1060.  Robert  Guiscard  established  the  Norman  rule  in  Italy,  I.  95,  1. 
1066.   Assassination  of  Gottschalk,  King  of  the  Wends,  I.  93,  2. 

1073-85.  Gregory  VII.,  Pope,  I.  96,  4. 

1077.  Henry  IV.,  a  penitent  at  Canossa,  I.  96,  4. 

1079.  Berengar  at  Rome  avers  Transubstantiation,  I.  102,  2. 
1081-1118.  Alexius  Comnenus,  Emperor,  I.  71,  1,  3. 

1088-99.  Urban  II.,  Pope,  I.  96,  5. 

1095.  Councils  of  Piacenza  and  Clermont,  I.  94. 

1096.  First  Crusade.     Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  I.  94,  1. 

1098.  Synod  at  Bari.      Anselm  of  Canterbury,  I.  67,  4. 
Robert  of  Citeaux  founded  the  Cistercian  Order,  I.  98,  2. 

1099.  Conquest  of  Jerusalem,  I.  94,  1. 
1099-1118.  Paschal  II.,  Pope,  I.  96,  5. 

TWELFTH    CENTURY. 

1106-25.  Henry  V.,  Emperor,  I.  96,  5. 
1106.  Michael  Psellus,  ob.,  I.  68,  3. 
1109.  Anselm  of  Canterbury,  ob.,  I.  102,  1,  3. 
1115.  Bernard,  Abbot  of  Clairvaux,  I.  103,  1;  98,  2. 

1118.  Founding  of  the  Order  of  Templars.     Knights  of  St.  John 

I.  98,  6. 
1119-24.  Calixtus  II.,  Pope,  I.  96,  5. 

1119.  Basil,  Head  of  the  Bogomiles,  died  at  the  stake,  I.  71,  3. 

1121.  Norbert  founds  the  Order  of  Remonstrants,  1.  98,  3. 

1122.  The  Concordat  of  Worms,  I.  96,  5. 

1123.  Ninth  CEcumenical  Council  (I.  Lateran)  II.  6,  3. 

1124.  Peter  de  Bruya  burned,  I.  108,  3. 
Tanchelm  killed,  I.  108,  4. 

First  Missionary  Tour  of  Otto  v.  Bamberg,  I.  93,  2. 
1128.  Second  Missionary  Tour  of  Otto  v.  Bamberg,  I.  93,  2. 
1130-43.  Innocent  II.,  Pope,  I.  96,  6. 


CHRONOLOGICAL     TABLE.  425 

A.  D.  Vol.  and  Paragraph. 

1135.  Rupert  of  Deutz,  ob.,  I.  103,  3. 

1139.  Tenth  (Ecumenical  Council  (II.  Lateran),  I.  96,  6. 

1140.  The  Synod  of  Sens  condemns  Abelard's  writings,  I.  103,  1. 

1141.  Hugo  St.  Victor,  ob.,  I.  103.  2. 

1142.  Abelard,  ob.,  I.  103,  1. 

1143.  Arnold  of  Brescia  effects  the  expulsion  of  the  Pope  from  Rome, 

I.  96,  6. 
1145-53.  Eugene  III.,  Pope,  I.  96,  6. 
1146.   Fall  of  Edessa,  I.  94,  2. 

Second  Crusade,  Conrad  III. ;  Louis  VIII.,  I.  94,  2. 

1149.  Henry  of  Lausanne,  ob.,  I.  108,  3. 

1150.  Decretum  Gratiani,  I.  99. 
1152-90.   Frederick  I.,  Barbarossa,  I.  96,  6. 

1153.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  ob.,  I.  103,  1. 

1154.  Vicelin,  ob.,  I.  93,  2. 
1154-59.  Hadrian  IV.,  Pope,  I.  96,  6. 

1155.  Arnold  of  Brescia  condemned  to  death,  I.  108,  3. 

1156.  Peter  the  Venerable,  ob.,  I.  98,  1. 

The  Order  of  Carmelites  founded,  I.  98,  3. 

1157.  Christianity  introduced  into  Finland,  I.  93,  3. 
1159-81.   Alexander  III.,  Pope,  I.  96,  6. 

1164.  Peter  Lombard,  ob.,  I.  104,  2. 

Meeting  of  the  Estates  at  Clarendon,  I.  96,  6. 

1165.  Cathnrian  Council  at  Toulouse,  I.  108,  1. 
1168.  The  Island  of  Riigen  christianized,  I.  93,  3. 
1170.   Thomas  a  Becket  murdered,  I.  96,  6. 
1176.   Battle  of  Legnano,  I.  96,  6. 

1179.  Eleventh  (Ecumenical  Council  (III.  Lateran),  I.  96,  6. 

1180.  John  of  Salisbury,  ob.,  I.  103,  3. 

1182.  The  Maronites  unite  with  Rome,  I.  73,  3. 

1186.  Meinhart  in  Livonia,  I.  93,  3. 

1187.  Saladin  takes  Jerusalem,  I.  94,  3. 

1189.  Third  Crusade  (Fred.  Barb.),  I.  94,  3. 
1190-97.   Henry  VI.,  Emperor,  I.  96,  6. 

1190.  Establishment  of  the  Teutonic  Knights,  I.  98,  6. 
1194.   Eustathius  of  Thessalonica,  ob.,  I.  68,  3. 

1198-1216.  Innocent  III.,  Pope,  I.  96,  7. 

THIRTEENTH    CENTURY. 

1202.  Joachim  v.  Floris,  ob.,  I.  108,  4.     The  Order  of  the  Brethren  of 
the  Sword  founded,   I.   93,  3.     Genghis  Khan  overthrows  the 
kingdom  of  the  Presb.  John,  I.  93,  4. 
1201.  Amalric  of  Bena,  ob.,  I.  108,  2. 
1204-61.   The  Latin  Empire  in  Constantinople,  I.  94,  4. 

1207.  Stephen  Langton,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  I.  96,  7. 

1208.  Peter  of  Castlenau  slain,  I.  109,  1. 

id* 


426  CHRONOLOGICAL     TABLE. 

A.  D.  Vol.  and  Paragraph. 

1209-29.  Crusade  against  the  Albigenses,  I.  109,  1. 

1209.  The  Council  of  Paris  against  the  sect  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Erigena 
condemned,  I.  108,  2.  Christian  commences  his  mission  among 
the  Prussians,  I.  93,  3. 

1212.  Battle  of  Tolosa,  I.  95,  2. 

1213.  John  of  England  receives  his  kingdom  as  a  papal  fief,  I.  96,  7. 
1215-50.  Frederick  II.,  Emperor,  I.  96,  7,  8, 

1215.  Twelfth  (Ecumenical  Council  (IV.  Lateran),  I.  96,  2. 

1216.  The  Dominican  Order  confirmed,  I.  98,  4. 
1216-27.   Honorius  III.,  Pope,  I.  96,  8. 

1217.  Fourth  Crusade.     Andrew  II.  of  Hungary,  I.  94,  4. 
1223.   The  Franciscan  Order  confirmed,  I.  98,  4. 

1225.  Francis  of  Assisi,  ob.,  I.  98,  4. 

1226-70.  Louis  IX.,  St.,  I.  96,  6;  94,  6. 

1277-41.  Gregory  IX.,  Pope,  I.  96,  8. 

1228.  Fifth  Crusade  (Fred.  II.),   I.  94,  5.     Settlement  of  the  Teutonic 

Knights  in  Prussia,  I.  93,  3. 

1229.  The  Synod  of  Toulouse,  I.  109,  2. 

1231.  St.  Elisabeth,  ob. 

1232.  The  Inquisition,  I.  109,  2. 

1233.  Conrad  of  Marburg  slain,  I.  109,  2. 

1234.  Crusade  against  the  Stedingers,  I.  109,  2.     Decretum  Gregorii, 

I.  99. 
1237.  The  Union  of  the  Order  of  the  Sword  with  the  Teutonic  Knights, 
I.  98,  6. 
1243-54.  Innocent  IV.,  Pope,  I.  96,  8. 

1245.   Thirteenth  Oecumenical  Council  (I.  Lyons),  I.  96,  8. 

Alexander  of  Hales,  ob.,  104,  1. 
1248.   The  corner-stone  of  the  Cologne  Cathedral  laid,  I.  106,  6. 
Sixth  Crusade  (Louis  IX.),  I.  94,  6. 

1253.  William  Ruysbroek  (de  Ilubruquis)  among  the  Mongols,  I.  93,  4. 
Robert  Grosstete,  ob.,  104,  3. 

1254.  Condemnation  of  "  The  Everlasting  Gospel,"  I.  108,  4. 
1260.   The  first  march  of  the  Flagellants  at  Perugia,  I.  114,  1. 

1260-82.  Michael  Pai^eologus,  Emperor,  I.  67,  4. 

1261-64.  Urban  IV.,  Pope,  I.  96,  8. 

1262.  Arsenian  Schism,  I.  70,  1. 

1268.  Conradin  on  the  scaffold,  I.  96,  8. 

1269.  Pr.igmatic  Sanction  of  Louis  IX.,  I.  96,  8. 

1270.  Seventh  Crusade  (Louis  IX.),  I.  94,  6. 
1271-76.  Gregory  X.,  I.  96,  8. 

1272.   Italian  Mission  to  the  Mongols.     Marco  Polo,  I.  93,  4. 
1273-91.   Rudolph  of  Hapsbiirg,  Emperor. 

1274.  Fourteenth  tEcumenical  Council  (II.  Lyons),  I.  67,  4. 
Bonaventura,  ob.,  I.  104,  1.     Thos.  Aquinas,  ob.,  I.  104,  1. 
Robert  of  Sorbonne,  ob.,  I.  104,  3. 

1275.  The  Strassburg  minster,  I.  105,  6. 


CHRONOLOGICAL     TABLE. 


427 


A.  D.  Vol.  and  Paragraph. 

1280.  Albertus  Magnus,  ob.,  I.  104,  1. 

1282.  The  Sicilian  Vespers,  I.  96,  8. 

1283.  Prussia  subjugated,  I.  93,  3. 

1286.  Barhebraeus,  ob.,  I.  73,  2.     Raymund  Martini,  ob. 

1291.  Fall  of  Acre,  I.  94,  3.     John  de  Monte-Corvino  goes  to  the  Mon- 
gols, I.  93,  4. 

1294.  Roger  Bacon,  ob.,  I.  104,  3. 
1294-1303.  Boniface  VIII.,  Pope,  I.  110,  1. 

1296.   The  Bull  Clericus  laicos,  I.  110,  1. 

1300.  The   First  Roman  Jubilee,  I.  115.     The  Lollards  in  Antwerp,  1. 
114,  1.     Gerhard  Segarelli  burned,  I.  108,  4. 


FOURTEENTH    CENTURY. 

1302.  The  bull  Unam  sanctam,  I.  110,  1. 

1305-14.  Clement  V.,  Pope,  I.  110,  2. 

1307.  Dolcino  burned,  I.  108,  2. 

1309-77.  The  Popes  in  Avignon,  I.  110,  2. 

1311-12.  Fifteenth  (Ecumenical  Council  in  Vienne,  L  110,  2.     The  Order 
of  Templars  dissolved,  I.  112,  3. 

1315.  Raymund  Lullus,  ob.,  I.  93,  5. 

1316-34.  John  XXII.,  Pope,  I.  110,  2. 

1321.  Dante,  ob.,  I.  114,  4. 

1322.  The  Franciscan  Order  split,  I.  112,  2. 
1322-47.  Louis  the  Bavarian,  Emperok,  I.  112,  2. 

1329.  Master  Ekkart,  ob.,  I.  117,  1. 

1332.  William  Durandus,  ob.,  I.  116,  1.     John  do  Monte-Corvino,  ob., 
I.  93,  4. 
1334-42.  Benedict  XII.,  Pope,  I.  110,  2. 

1335.   Bishop  Hemming  in  Lapland,  I.  93,  3. 

1338.  Electoral  Union  in  Rhense,  I.  110,  2. 

1339.  Union  Negotiations  at  Avignon.     Barlaam,  I.  67,  5. 

1340.  Nicholas  v.  Lyra,  ob.,  I.  116,  2. 

1341-51.  Hesychast  Controversy  in  Constant.,  I.  69,  5. 
1342-52.  Clement  VI.,  Pope,  I.  110,  2. 
1347-78.  Charles  IV.,  Emperor,  I.  110,  2. 

1347.  Cola  di  Rienzi,  I.  110,  2.     Emperor  Louis,  ob.,  I.  110,  2.     Wil- 

liam Occam,  ob.,  I.  116,  1. 

1348.  University  of  Prague  founded,  I.  119,  2. 
1348-50.  The  Black  Death.     Flagellant  processions,  I.  114,  1. 

1349.  Thomas  Bradwardine,  ob.,  I.  116,  2. 

1355.  Charles  IV.  renounces  all  imperial  supremacy  over  the  territory 
of  the  Church,  I.  110,  2. 

1360.  Wycliflfe  opposes  the  mendicant  Friars,  I.  119,  1. 

1361.  John  Tauler,  ob.,  I.  117,  2. 
1365.  Henry  Suso,  ob.,  I.  117,  2. 

1369.  John  Palaeologus  enters  the  Latin  Church,  I.  67,  5. 


428  CHRONOLOGICAL     TABLE. 

A.  D.  Vol,  and  Paragraph. 

1374.  The  Dancers,  I.  114,  1. 
1378-1409.  The  Papal  Schism,  I.  110,  3. 

1380.  Catharine  of  Siena,  ob.,  I.  112,  2. 

1384.  Wycliffe,  ob.,  I.  119,  1.     Gerhard  Groot,  ob.,  I.  112,  6. 

1386.  Introduction  of  Christianity  into  Lithuania,  I.  93,  3. 

1400.  Florentius  Radewin,  ob.,  I.  112,  6. 


FIFTEENTH    CENTURY. 

1402.  Hus  appointed  preacher  of  Bethlehem  Chapel,  I.  119,  3. 

1409.  General  Council  at  Pisa,  I.  110,  3.     Emigration  of  the  Germans 
from  Prague,  I.  119,  3. 
1410-15.  John  XXIII.,  Pope,  I.  110,  2. 
1410-37.  Sigismund,  Empkbor,  I.  110,  3. 

1412.  Indulgence  traffic  in  Bohemia,  I.  119,  3. 

1413.  Papal  ban  against  Hus,  I.  119,  3. 
1414-18.   General  Council  of  Constance,  I.  110,  3. 

1415.  Martyrdom  of  Hus,  I.  119,  3. 

1416.  Martyrdom  of  Jerome  of  Prague,  I.  119,  3. 

1417.  Vinceutius  Ferreri,  leader  of  the  Flagellants,  I.  114,  1. 
1417-31.  Mabtin  V.,  Pope,  I.  110,  3. 

1420.  Calixtines  and  Taborites,  I.  119,  4. 

1423.  General  Council  of  Paria  and  Siena,  I.  110,  3. 

1424.  Ziska,  ob.,  I.  119,  4. 

1425.  Peter  d'Ailly,  ob.,  I.  118,  1. 
1429.  Gerson,  ob.,  I.  118,  1. 

1431-43.  General  Council  at  Basel,  I.  110,  3. 

1433.  Basel  Compacts,  I.  119,  4. 

1434.  Defeat  of  the  Hussites  at  Bohmischbrod,  I.  119,  4. 

1438.  Papal  Council  at  Ferrara,  I.  110,3.     Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Bour* 

ges,  I.  110,  3. 

1439.  Union  Council  at  Florence,  I.  67,  6. 
1453.  Fall  of  Constantinople,  I.  67,  6. 

1456.  Laurentius  Valla,  ob.,  I.  120,  1. 

1457.  Francis  of  Paula  founded  the  Order  of  the  Minimi,  I.  112,  4. 
1458-64.  Pius  II.,  Pope,  I.  110,  4. 

1459.   General  Council  of  Mantua,  I.  110,  4. 
1464-71.  Paul  II.,  Pope,  I.  110,  4. 

1467.   Convention  of  the  Bohemian  Brethren  at  Lhota,  I.  119,  5. 

1471.   Thomas  a  Kempis,  ob.,  I.  118,  1. 
1471-84.  Sixtus  IV.,  Pope,  I.  110,  4. 

1482.  Rudolph  Agricola,  ob.,  I.  120,  2. 

1483.  Luther  born  Nov.  10,  II.  2,  1.     Spanish  Inquisition,  I.  115,  1. 
1484-92.  Innocent  VIII.,  Pope,  I.  110,  4. 

1484.  Malleus  Maleficarum,  I.  115,  2.     Zwingli  born,  Jan.  1,  II.  10.  1 
1489.  John  Wessel,  ob.,  I.  119,  6. 

1492-1503.  Alexander  VI.,  Pope,  I.  110,  4. 


CHRONOLOGICAL     TABLE.  429 

A.  B.  Vol.  and  Paragraph. 

1492.  Fall  of  Granada,  I.  95,  2. 
1493-1519.   Maximilian  I.,  Emperor,  I.  110,  4. 
1495.   Gabriel  Biel,  ob.,  I.  116,  1. 

1497.  Melanchthon,  b.,  II.  2,  5. 

1498.  Savonarola  at  the  stake,  I.  119,  7. 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY. 

1502.  University  of  Wittenberg  founded,  II.  2,  1. 

1503-13.  Julius  II.,  Pope,  I.  110,  4. 

1508.  Luther  appointed  Professor  in  Wittenberg,  II.  2,  1. 

1509.  Calvin,  b.,  II.  8,  1. 

1509-47.  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  II.  9,  4. 

1510.  Luther  visits  Rome,  II.  2,  1. 

1511.  Council  of  Pisa,  I.  110,  4. 

1512.  Luther  made  a  doctor  and  appointed  preacher,  II.  2,  1.    The  Fifth 

General  Lateran  Council,  I.  110,  4. 
1513-21.  Leo  X.,  Pope,  I.  110,  4. 

1514.   Reuchlin's  Controversy  with  the  Dominicans,  I.  120,  2. 
1515-47.  Francis  I.  of  France,  II.  19,  7. 

1516.  Epistolae  obsc.  virorum,   I.    120,   2.     Erasmus'  N.  T.,   I.   120,  3. 

Zwingli,  preacher  at  St.  Mary's  Church  in  Einsiedelra,  II.  10,  1. 

1517.  The  Lateran  Council,  I.  110,  4.    Luther's  theses,  Oct.  31,  II.  2,  2. 

1518.  Luther  in  Heidelberg,  and  before  Cajetan  in  Augsburg,  Miltiz,  II. 

2,  3.     Melanchthon  Prof,  in  Wittenberg,  II.  2,  5. 

1519.  Disputation  in  Leipsic,   II.   2,    4.     Zwingli   in   Zurich,  II.   10,  1. 

Olav  and  Lorenzo  Peterson  in  Sweden,  II.  19,  1. 
1519-56.   Charles  V.,  Emperor,  II.  3,  3. 

1520.  Papal  bull  against  Luther,  II.  3,  1.     Preaching  free  in  Zurich,  II. 

10,  2.     Christian  II.  in  Denmark,  II.  19,  2. 

1521.  Luther  at  Worms,  II.  3,  4.     Melanchthon's  Loci,  II.  4,  1.     Igna- 

tius Loyola  wouuded,  II.  29,  2.     Reformation  in  Riga. 
1521-2.  Luther  at  the  Wartburg,  II.  3,  5. 

1522.  The  Zwickau  prophets  in  Wittenberg,  II.  4,  1.     Reuchlin,  ob.,  I. 

120,  2. 
1522-23.   Hadrian  VI.,  Pope,  II.  6,  1. 

1523.  Thomas  Miinzer  in  AUstiidt,   II.  4,  4.     Luther's  controversy  with 

Henry  VIII.,  II.  5.  Reformation  in  Livonia,  II.  19,  3.  The 
first  martyrs,  H.  Voes  and  J.  Esch,  II.  8,  1.     Fall  of  Sickiugen, 

11.  4,  2. 

1523-34.  Clement  VII.,  Pope,  II.  6,  3. 

1524.  Staupitz,  ob.,  I.  117,  2.     Carlstadt  in  Orlamunde,  II.  4,  3.    Eras- 

mus opposes  Luther,  II.  5,  1.  Diet  of  Nuremberg,  and  over- 
throw of  the  regency  of  the  Empire,  II.  6,  3.  Regensburg 
league,  II.  6,  4.  Hans  Tausen  in  Denmark,  II.  19,  2.  The 
Order  of  Theatines  founded,  II.  29,  3. 


130  CHRONOLOGICAL     TABLE. 

A.  D.  Vol.  and  Paragraph 

1525.  Controversy  about  the  Lord's  Supper,   II.  11,  1.     Luther's  mar- 

riage, II.  9.     Albert  of  Prussia,  hereditary  duke,  II.  4,  5.     The 
Order  of  Capuchins  founded,  II.  29,  4. 
1525-32.  John  the  Constant,  Elector  of  Saxony,  II.  5,  5. 

1526.  Synod  of  Homburg,   II.  7,  2.     The  Torgau  Confederacy,  II.  6,  5. 

Diet  of  Spires,  II.  6,  7.     Disputation  at  Baden,  II.  10,  6. 

1527.  Diet  of  Odense,  II.  19,  2;   of  Westeras,  II.  19,  1. 

1528.  The  fraud  of  Pack,  II.  12,  1.     Disputation  in  Berne,  II.  10,  6. 

1529.  Church  visitation  in  Saxony,   II.  7,  1.     Diet  of  Spires,  II.  12,  3. 

Marburg  colloquy,  II.  12,  4.     First  peace  of  Cappel,  II.  10,  9. 

1530.  Diet  of  Augsburg.     Confessio  Augustana,  II.  12,  2. 

1531.  The  Sraalcaldic   league,   II.   13,  1.     Zwingli,  ob.     Second  Cappel 

peace,  II.  10,  9. 

1532.  John  Frederick  the  Magnan.,  Elector,  II.  13,  2.     Religious  peace 

of  Nuremberg,  II.  13,  2.     Farel  in  Geneva,  II.  18,  1.     Henry 
VIII.  renounces  allegiance  to  the  Pope,  II.  19,  4. 

1534.  Luther's  complete  translation  of  the  Bible,  II.  9,  1.     The  Refor- 

mation in  Wiirtemberg,  II.  13,  2.     Jacob  Horter  in  Transylva- 
nia, II.  19,  11. 

1534-35.   Anabaptist  disorders  in  Miinster,  II.  13,  6. 

1534-49.  Paul  IV.,  Pope,  II.  14. 

1535.  Vergerius  in  Wittenberg,  II.  14,  1.     Calvin's  Institutes,  II.  18,  5. 

1536.  Erasmus,  ob.,  I.  120,  3.      Wittenberg  Concord,  II.  13,  8.     Calvin 

in  Geneva,   II.  18,  2.     Diet  of  Copenhagen,   II.  19,  2.     Menno 
Simons  baptized,  II.  27,  2. 

1537.  Articles  of  Smalcald,  II.  14,  1.    Antinomian  Controversy,  II.  21,  2. 

1538.  The   Nuremberg  league,  II.  14,  2.     Calvin   driven   from  Geneva, 

II.  18,  3. 

1539.  The  Frankfort  suspension,  II.  14,  3.     Reformation  in  Albertinian 

Saxony,  II.  14,  4.    Joachim  II.  reforms  Brandenburg,  II.  14,  6. 
Diet  of  Odense,  II.  19,  2. 

1540.  The   Society  of  Jesus,   II.  29,  2.     The   Landgrave's   bigamy,    II. 

15,  1.     Religious  conferences  at  Spires,  Hagenau,  and  Worms, 
II.   15,  2. 

1541.  Carlstadt,  ob.,  II.  4,  3.     The  Regensburg  Interim,  II.  15.  3.     The 

Naumburg  See,  II.  15,  5.     Calvin  recalled  to  Geneva,  II.  18,  3. 

1542.  Reformation  in  Brunswick,  II.  15,  6.     States'  convention  in  Bonn, 

II.  15,  7.     Francis  Xavier  in  the  East  Indies,  II.  30,  1. 
1544.  Diet  at  Spires ;    Peace  of  Crespy ;    Wittenberg   Reformation,  II. 
15,  9.      Diet  at  Westeras,  II.  19,  1. 
1545-47.   Council  of  Trent,  II.  16,  4. 

1544.   Regensburg  Colloquy;   murder  of  John  Diaz,  II.  15,  10.     Synod 

at  Erdod,  II.  19,  10. 
1546.  Luther,  ob.,  Feb.  18,  II.  15,  11.     Reformation  of  the  Electoral 
Palatinate,  II.  15,  0.     Herman  of  Cologne  under  the  ban;  he 
resigns,  II.  15,  2. 
1546-47.   Smalcaldic  war,  II.  16. 
1 547-49.  Council  of  Bologne. 


CHRONOLOGICAL      TABLE.  431 

"•  "■  Vol.  and  Paragraph. 

1547-53.  Edward  VI.  of  England,  II.  19,  4. 
1548-72.   Sigismund  Augustus  of  Poland,  II.  19,  8. 

1548.  The  Augsburg  Interim,  II.  16,  5.     The  Leipsic  Interim,  II.  16,  7 

Adiaphoristic  Controversy,   II.  21,  4.     Priests  of  the  Oratory. 
II.  29,  3. 

1549.  Consensus  Tigurinus,  II.  18,  7.     Andr.  Osiander  in  Konigsberg, 

II.  21,  3.     Jesuit  mission  in  Brazil,  II.  30,  3. 
1550-55.  Julius  III.,  Pope,  II.  16,  8. 

1550.  Brothers  of  Mercy,  II.  29,  3. 

1551-52.  Resumption  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  II.  16,  8. 

1551.  Majorist  Controversy,  II.  21,  5.     The  first  Jesuits  in  Germany, 

II.  31,  2. 

1552.  Treaty  of  Passau,  II.  17,  3.     The  Crypto-Calvinistic  Controversy 

begun,  II.  21,  7.     Francis  Xavier,  ob.,  II.  30,  1. 
1553-58.   The  Catholic  Mary  of  England,  II.  19,  4. 

1553.  The  Elector  Maurice,  ob.,  II.  17,  1.     Servetus  burned,  II.  28,  2. 

1554.  Consensus  pastorum  Genevensium,  II.  18,  7.     John  Frederick  the 

Magnanimous,  ob. 

1555.  Religious  peace  of  Augsburg,  II.  17,  5.     Commencement  of  the 

Synergistic  Controversies,  II.  21,  6. 
1555-98.   Philip  II.  of  Spain,  II.  19,  12. 
1556-64.  Ferdinand  I.,  Emperor,  II.  31,  1. 

1557.  States'   diet  at  Clausenburg,    II.  19,  11.     Confessio  Hungarica, 

II.  19,  10. 
1558-1603.   Elizabeth  of  England,  II.  19,  4. 
1559-65.   Pius  IV.,  Pope,  II.  29,  1. 

1559.  Gustavus  Vasa's  mission  in  Lapland,  II.  22,  6.     Confessio  Galli- 

cana,  II.  19,  7. 

1560.  Confessio  Scotica,  II.  19,  5.     John  a  Lasco,  ob.,  II.  19,  8.     Cal- 

vinism in  the  Palatinate,  II.  24,  1.     Melanchthon,  ob.'  II.  21,  7. 

1561.  Gotthard  Kettler,  Duke  of  Courland,  II.  19,  3.     Religious  confer- 

ences at  Poissy,  II.  19,  7. 
1562-63.  Resumption  and  close  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  II.  29,  1. 

1562.  Confessio  Belgica,    II.   19,  6.     Edict  of  St.  Germain,  II.   19,  7. 

The  39  Articles  of  the  Anglican  Church,  II.  19,  4.  Calviniz'ing 
of  Bremen,  II.  24,  2.  The  Heidelberg  Catechism,  II.  24,  1. 
Laelius  Socinus,  ob.,  II.  28,  4. 

1563.  Act  of  Uniformity,  II.  19,  4.' 

1564.  Calvin,  ob.,  II.  18,  4.     Michael  Angelo,  ob.,  II.  29,  7.     Professio 

fidei  Tridentina,  II.  29,  6.    Cassander's  union-project,  II.  31,  1. 
1564-76.  Maximilian  II.,  Empepor,  II.  31,  1. 

1566.  Corpus  doctr.   Pruthenicum,  II.  21,  3.     Catechismus  Romanus, 

II.  29,  6.  Confessio  Helvetica  posterior,  II.  18,  7.  The  league 
of  the  Guises,  II.  19,  6. 

1567.  The  writings  of  Mich.  Baius  condemned,  II.  29,  5. 

1570.  General  Synod  at  Sendomir,  II.  19,  8.     Third  peace  of  St  Ger- 
main, II.  19,  7. 


432  CHRONOLOGICAL     TABLE. 

A.  D.  Vol.  and  Paragraph. 

1572-85.  Gregory  XIII.,  Pope,  II.  29,  1. 

1572.  John   Knox,   ob.,   II.  19,  5.     St.  Barthol.   massacre,   Aug.  24,  IX 

19,  7. 

1573.  Pax  dissidentium  in  Poland,  II.  19,  8. 

1574.  Maulbroun  convention,  II.  21,  9.     Restoration  of  Catholicism  in 

Eichsfelde,  II.  31,  2. 

1576.  The  Torgau  Book,  II.  21,  9.     Pacification  of  Ghent,  II.  19,  6. 
1576-1612.   Rudolph  II.,  Emperor,  II.  31,  1. 

1577.  The  Form  of  Concord,  II.  21,  9.     Restoration  of  Catholicism  in 

Fulda,  II.  31,  2. 

1578.  Passewin,  the  Jesuit,  in  Sweden,  II.  31,  3. 

1579.  The  Union  of  Utrecht,  II.  19,  6. 

1580.  The  Book  of  Concord,  II.  21,  9.     Possewin  in  Russia,  II.  31,  3. 
1582.  Second  attempt  to  reform  Cologne,  II.  17,  6.     Matthew  Ricci  in 

China,  II.  30,  2.     The  calendar  changed,  II.  29,  1. 
1585-90.  Sixtus  V.,  Pope,  II.  29,  1. 

1586.  The  Feuillants,  II.  29,  4. 

1587.  Mary  Stuart  beheaded,  II.  19,  5. 

1588.  Louis  Molina,  II.  29,  5. 
1589-1610.  Henry  IV.,  of  France,  II.  19,  7. 

1589.  Patriarchate  of  Moscow,  II.  72,  4. 

1590.  Margrave  Jacob  of  Baden  embraces  Catholicism,  II.  33,  4. 

1592.  Articles  of  the  Saxon  Visitation,  II.  21,  10. 

1593.  Meeting  of  the  Estates  in  Upsala,  II.  19,  8. 

1594.  Synod  of  Brzesc,  I.  72,  4. 

1595.  Synod  of  Thorn,  II.  19,  8. 

1597.  The  principalities  of  Anhalt  adopt  Calvinism,  II.  24,  3.     Congre- 

gatio  de  auxiliis,  II.  29,  5. 

1598.  The  Edict  of  Nantes,  II.  19,  7. 

1600.  Giordano  Bruno  burned,  II.  26,  3.     The  Society  of  the  Piarista 
founded,  II.  35,  2. 

SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 

1604.  Maurice  makes  Hesse -Cassel  Calvinistic,  II.  34,  1.     Faustus  So- 

cinus,  ob.,  II.  28,  2. 

1605.  The  Gunpowder  plot,  II.  33,  3. 

1606.  The  peace  of  Vienna,  II.  19,  10. 

1608.  The  Jesuits  found  the  State  of  Paraguay,  II.  35,  3. 

1609.  The  letter  of  Majesty,  II.  19,  9. 
1610-43.  Louis  XIII.,  of  France,  II.  33,  2. 

1610    Remonstrants  and  Contra-remonstrants,  II.  40,  1. 
1611.   1'eres  de  l'Oratoire,  II.  35,  2. 

1613.  Transition  of  the  Elector  John  Sigismund  of  Brandenb.,  II.  34,  8. 

George  Calixtus  in  Ilelmstadt,  II.  38,  2. 

1614.  Confessio  Marchica,  II.  SI,  3. 
1616.   Leonhard  Hutter,  ob.,  II.  39,  2. 


CHRONOLOGICAL     TABLE  433 

■*  D-  Vol.  and  Paragraph. 

1618.  The  Maurines  in  France,  II.  35,  2. 

1618-48.  The  Thirty  Years'  War,  II.  33,  1. 

1618-19.  The  Synod  of  Dort,  II.  40,  1. 

1619-37.  Ferdinand  II.,  Emperor,  II.  33,  1. 

1620.  The  Valteline  massacre,  II.  33,  1. 

1621.  John  Arndt,  ob.,  II.  39,  1. 

1622.  Francis  of  Sales,  ob.,  II.  36,  1.     Congregatio  de  propaganda  fide, 

II.  35,  3. 

1624.  End  of  the  controversy  concerning  the  ksi/owij  and  xptyis,  II.  38,  1. 

Jacob  Bohine,  ob.,  II.  39,  2. 

1625.  The  Jesuits  in  Abyssinia,  II.  32,  1. 

1628.  Adam  Schall  in  China,  II.  35,  3. 

1629.  The  edict  of  Restoration  by  Ferdinand  II.  ;   II.  33,  1. 

1631.  Religious  conference  at  Leipsic,  II.  34,  4. 

1632.  Gustavus  Adolphus  slain  at  Liitzen,  II.  33,  1. 

1637.  John  Gerhard,  ob.,  II.  38,  4. 

1638.  The  school  of  Rakov  broken  up,  II.  28,  4.    Cyrillus  Lucaris  stran- 

gled, II.  32,  2.     Scottish  Covenant,  II.  34,  4. 

1641.  Irish  massacre,  II.  33.  3. 

1642.  Condemnation  of  the  Jansenist  Augustine,  II.  36,  2. 
1643-1715.   Louis  XIV.  of  France,  II.  33,  2. 

1643.  The  Orthodox  Confession  of  Peter  Mogila,  II.  32,  3.     Westmins- 

ter Con. 
1645.  Hugo  Grotius,  ob.,  II.  40,  4.     Religious  conference  at  Thorn,  IL 
33,  5. 

1649.  Charles  I.    of  England  beheaded,   II.  33,  3.     The  Quakers    IL 

42,3. 

1650.  Descartes,  ob.,  II.  43,  1. 

1652.  Liturgical  reform  of  the  patr.  Nikon,  II.  42,  5. 

1653.  Innocent  X.  condemned  the  five  Jansenist  theses,  II.  36,  2. 

1654.  Christian  of  Sweden  embraced  Catholicism,  II.  33,  4.     John  VaL 

Andrea,  ob.,  II.  39,  1. 

1655.  Consensus  repetitus  fidei  vere  Lutherange,  II.  38,  2. 

1656.  George  Calixtus,  ob.,  II.  38,  2.    Pascal's  Lettres  provinc,  II.  36,2. 

1660.  Vincent  de  Paula,  ob.,  II.  35,  2. 

1661.  Religious  Conference  at  Cassel,  II.  34,  4. 
1664.  The  Order  of  Trappists  founded,  II.  35,  2. 
1666.  Spener  in  Frankfort,  II.  38,  3. 

1669.   J.  Cocceius,  ob.,  II.  40,  3. 
1673.   The  Test-act,  II.  33,  3. 

1675.  Formula  Consensus  Helvetici,  II.  40,  2. 

1676.  Paul  Gerhard t,  ob.,  II.  34,  4.     Gisb.  Voetius,  ob.,  II.  40,  3. 

1677.  Spinoza,  ob.,  II.  43,  1. 

1682.  Quartuor  propositiones  Cleri  Gallicani,  II.  35,  1.    Penn.  settled. 

1685.  Abrogation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  and  expulsion  of  the  Waldensea 

from  Piedmont,  II.  33,  2. 

1686.  Spener  in  Dresden  and  the  Collegia  philobiblica  in  Leipsic,  II.  38,  3. 

Abr.  Calov,  ob.,  IL  38,  4. 
80 


434  CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE. 

A.  D.  Vol.  and  Paragraph. 

1G87.   Michael  Molinus  compelled  to  abjure,  II.  36,  1. 

1689.  Toleration  Act,  England,  II.  34,  5. 

1690.  The  Pietists  driven  from  Leipsic,  II.  38,  3.     John  Eliot,  ob.,  U 

41,  2. 

1691.  Spener  in  Berlin,  II.  38,  3. 

1693.  Quesnel's  New  Testament,  II.  44,  9. 

1694.  The  University  of  Halle  founded,  II.  38,  3. 

1697.  Frederick  Augustus  the  Strong,  of  Saxony,  embraces  Catholicism, 

II.  33,  4. 
1699.   Fe"n£lon's  propositions  condemned,  II.  36,  1. 

EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY. 

1701.  Thomas  of  Tournon  in  the  East  Indies,  II.  35,  3. 

1702.  Loscher's  Unschuldige  Nachrichten,  II.  46,  1.     Eva  Buttlar's  sect, 

II.  49,  4. 

1703.  Collegium  caritativum  in  Berlin,  II.  48,2.    Peter  Codde  deposed, 

II.  44,  6. 

1704.  Bossuet,  ob.,  II.  33,  5. 

1705.  Spener,  ob.,   II.  38,  3. 

1706.  Lutheran  Mission  founded  in  Tranquebar,  II.  46,  7. 

1707.  The  praying  children  in  Silesia,  II.  46,  1. 
1709.   Port  Royal  abolished,  II.  36,  2. 

1712.  Richard  Simon,  ob.,  II.  37,  1.    The  Mechithartist  congr.,  II.  44,  2. 

1713.  The  Constitution  Unigenitus,  II.  44,  6. 

1714.  Godfr.    Arnold,    ob.,    II.    39,  2.     The    Inspiration    congregations 

founded  in  Wetteraw,  II.  49.  2. 
1715-74.  Louis  XV.  of  France,  II.  44,  4. 

1715.  F6ne*lon,  ob.,  II.  36,  1. 

1716.  Leibnitz,  ob.,  II.  43,  1. 

1717.  Mad.  Guyon,  ob.,  II.  36,  1.    Gottfr.  Arnold,  ob. 

1721.  The  holy  Synod  at  St.  Petersburg,  II.  45.     Hans  Egede's  mission 

to  Greenland,  II.  46,  7. 

1722.  Herrnhut  founded,  II.  47,  2. 

1727.  A.  H.  Franke,  ob.,  II.  46,  6.     Thomas  of  Westen,  ob.,  II.  39,  6. 

Formation  of  the  Brethren's  (Moravian)  Church,  II.  47,  2. 

1728.  Callenherg's  Institution  for  the  conversion  of  the  Jews,  II.  46,  7. 

1729.  Fr.  Buddeus,  ob.,  II.  46,  2.     The  Methodist  society,  II.  48,  1. 

1731.  Emigration  of  the  Evang.  Salzburgers,  II.  44,  4. 

1732.  Moravian  Mission  to  St.  Thomas,  II.  47,  6. 

1733.  Moravian  Mission  to  Greenland,  II.  46,  7. 

1736.  John  Clericus,  ob.,  II.  40,  4.     Zinzendorf  banished,  II.  47,  3. 
1740-86.   Frederick  II.  of  Prussia,  II.  40,  3. 

1741.  Special  Covenant  of  the  Brethren  with  the  Lord  Jesus,  II.  47,  4. 

1749.  The  Moraviaus  (Brethren)  recognized  in  Saxony,  II.  47,  3. 

1750.  Seb.  Bach,   ob.,   II.  46,  5.     The  Jesuit  government  of  Paraguay 

terminated,  II.  44,  3. 


CHRONOLOGICAL     TABLE.  435 

A.  D.  "Vol.  and  Paragraph. 

1751.  Semler  prof,  in  Halle,  II.  50,  4. 

1752.  J.  A.  Bengel,  ob.,  II.  46,  2. 

1754.  Chr.  v.  Wolf,  ob.,  II.  46,  2.     Winckelmann  a  convert,  II.  44,  5. 

1755.  J.  L.  Mosheim,  06.,  II.  46,  2. 
1758-69.  Clement  XIII.,  Pope,  II.  44,  2. 

1759.  The  Jesuits  banished  from  Portugal,  II.  44,  7. 

1760.  Zinzendorf,  ob.,  II.  47,  3. 

1762.  Judicial  murder  of  Jean  Calas,  II.  44,  4. 

1765.    Universal  German  library,  II.  50,  3. 
1.765-90.  Joseph  II.,  Emperor,  II.  44,  8. 
1769-74.  Clement  XIV.,  Pope,  II.  44,  7 

1772.  Swedenborg,  ob.,  II.  49,  5. 

1773.  The  Order  of  Jesuits  abolished,  II.  44,  7. 
1775-99.   Pius  VI.,  Pope,  II.  44.  8. 

1774.  Wolfenbiittel  Fragments,  II.  50,  4. 

1775.  Chr.  A.  Crusius,  ob.,  II.  46,  2. 

1776.  Order  of  Illuminati  founded,  II.  44,  10. 
1778.   Voltaire,  ob.     Rousseau,  ob.,  II.  44,  10. 

1780.  Joseph  II.,  Monarch,  II.  44,  8. 

1781.  Joseph  II.,  edict  of  toleration,  II.  44,  8. 

1782.  Pius  VI.  in  Vienna,  II.  44,  8. 

1786.  Ems  punctuation  and  Synod  of  Pistoja,  II.  44,  8. 

1787.  Edict  of  Versailles,  II.  44,  4. 

1788.  Religious  edict  of  Wollner,  II.  50,  2. 

1789.  The  French  Revolution,  II.  44,  9. 

1791.  Wesley,  ob.,  II.  48,  1.     Semler,  ob.,  II.  50,  4. 

1792.  Spangenberg,  ob. ,  II.  47,  5. 

1793.  The  Christian  Religion  abolished  in  France.    Temple  de  la  Raison, 

II.  44,  10. 

1794.  Le  peuple  Francais  reconnait  l'Etre  supreme  et  1'immortalit^  da 

l'ame,  II.  44,  10. 

1795.  The  London  Miss.  Society  founded,  II.  51,  5. 

1799.  Pius  VI.   a  prisoner  in  France,   II.   44,  9.     Schleiermacher'a  dis- 

courses on  Religion,  II.  56,  1. 

1800.  Stolberg,  a  convert,  II.  44,  5. 

NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

1800-23.  Pius  VII.,  Pope,  II.  57,  1. 

1801.  French  concordat,  II.  57,  1. 

1804.   The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Soc.  founded,  II.  54,  9. 

Kant,  ob.,  II.  50,  7.     The  pope  crowns  Napoleon,  II.  57,  1. 
1806.   End  of  the  German  Empire. 

1809.  Napoleon  banished  ;   the  pope  captured,  II.  57,  1. 

1810.  The  American  For.  Miss.  Soc.  established  at  Boston,  II.  54,  1ft 

Schleiermacher  prof,  in  Berlin,  II.  56,  1. 

1811.  French  National  Council  in  Paris,  II.  67,  1. 


436  CHRONOLOGICAL     TABLE. 

A.  D.  Vol.  and  Paragraph. 

1812.  Neander  the  historian  called  to  Berlin,  II.  56,  1. 

1813.  Second  French  concordat,  II.  57,  1. 

1814.  Congress  of  Vienna.     The  pope  restored.    The  Jesuits  reinstated 

II.  57,  1. 

1815.  The  Holy  Alliance,  II.  52. 

1816.  The  Mission  School  at  Basel,  II.  54,  10.     The  House  of  Refuge  iq 

Diisselthal,  II.  54,  9. 

1817.  Harmes'  Theses,  II.  54,  1.     Frederick  William  III.  and  the  Union, 

II.  54,  3.  The  venerable  Corapagnie  in  Geneva  prohibits  preach- 
ing  upon  the  divinity  of  Christ,  original  sin,  and  predestination, 
etc.,  II.  55,  5. 

1818.  The  Congregation  of  Dissenters  founded  at  Kornthal,  II.  55,  4. 
1822.   The  Prussian  Liturgy  introduced,  II.  54,  3.     Society  of  Lyons  for 

the  spread  of  the  Gospel,  II.  57,  6. 
1823-29.  Leo  XII.,  Pope,  II.  57,  1. 

1825.  The  Book  of  Mormon,  II.  60,  7. 

1826.  Tholuck  goes  to  Halle,  II.  55,  3. 

1827.  Hengstenberg's  Evang.  Kirchenzeitung,  II.  54,  1. 

1829.  Emancipation  bill,  England,  II.  58,  4.    Mission  institution  at  Bar- 

men, II.  54,  10. 
1829-30.  Pius  VIII.,  Pope,  II.  57,  1. 

1830.  The  July  Revolution,  France,  II.  55,  10.     London  Conference,  II. 

59.     The  Halle  controversy,   II.  54,  1.     Abbe"  Chatel  in  Paris, 
II.  57,  5.     The  slave-trade  abolished,  II.  54,  10. 
1831-46.  Gregory  XVI.,  Pope,  II.  57,  1. 

1831.  Hegel,  ob.,  II.  53,  1. 

1832.  Dr.  Scheibel  driven  from  Breslau,  II.  54, 4.  J.  M.  Sailer,  ob.,  II.  57, 4. 

1833.  Commencement  of  the  Puseyite  agitation,  II.  55,  8.     The  Synod 

of  Nauplia,  II.  59. 

1834.  Schleiermacher,  ob.,   II.  56,  1.     Boutain  recalled   to  Strassburg, 

II.  57,  7. 

1835.  Strauss'  Life  of  Christ,  II.  56,  4.     Hermesianism  condemned,   It. 

57,  7.     Edward  Irving,  ob.,  II.  60,  6.     Persecution  of  Chris- 
tians in  Madagascar,  II.  54,  10. 

1836.  The  Dresden  Mission  institution  founded,  II.  54,  10.     Society  of 

deaconesses  at  Kaiserwerth,  II.  54,  9. 

1837.  The  Zillerthal  emigrants,   II.  55,  6.     Commencement  of  the  Co- 

logne disturbances,  II.  58,  7. 

1838.  Archb.  Durim  of  Posen,  II.  58,  7.    Emigration  of  the  Stephanites, 

II.  55,  2.  The  Altenburg  rescript,  II.  55,  2.  J.  A.  Mohler, 
ob.,  II.  57,  7.     The  English  Tithe-bill,  II.  58,  4. 

1839.  Dr.  Strauss  called  to  Zurich,  II.  55,  5.     The   Synod   of  Polozk, 

II.  59. 

1840.  Frederick  William  IV.  of  Prussia,  II.  58,  7. 

1841.  Schelling  goes  to  Berlin,  II.  53,  1.     Organization  of  the  Lutherans 

who  separated  from  the  Prussian  State  Church,  II.  54,  4. 
Establishment  of  the  Evangelical  See  in  Jerusalem,  II.  54,  Id, 
The  Gustavus  Adolphus  Society  founded,  II.  54,  5. 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE.  437 

A.  D.  Vol.  and  Paragraph. 

1843.  The  Free  Church  of  Scotland  establised,  II.  55,  8. 

1844.  German  Catholic  Church,  II.  57,  5.     Wislicenus,  ob.,  Schrift,  ob., 

Geist,  II.  53,  1.     Nauvoo  destroyed,  II.  60,  9. 

1845.  Free  Church  of  Vaud,  II.  55,  5.    Assembly  of  the  German  Catho- 

lic Church  in  Leipsic,  II.  57,  5.     The  Maynooth  bill,  II.  58,  4 
1845-46.  Conversions  in  Livonia,  II.  55,  11. 

1846.  Pius  IX.,  Pope,  II.  57,  1.     The  Evangelical  Alliance  established 

in  London,  II.  54,  5.  The  Evangelical  Conference  in  Berlin, 
II.  54,  5.     Prussian  General  Synod  in  Berlin,  II.  55,  1. 

1847.  Toleration  patent   of   Prussia,    II.   55,  1.     The   Swiss    "  Sonder- 

bund"  war,  II.  58,  8.     The  Lola-Montez  scandal,  II.  55,  7. 

1848.  The  March  Revolution,  II.  53.     Establishment  of  the  Evangelical 

Church  Diet  in  Wittenberg,  II.  54,  5.  The  Missionary  institu- 
tion of  Dresden  removed  to  Leipsic,  II.  54,  10.  Pius  societies 
formed  by  the  Catholics,  II.  57,  6. 

1849.  Home  Republican,   II.  57,  1.     Formation  of  Lutheran  provincial 

societies  in  Prussia,  II.  54,  6.  First  convention  for  Home  Mis- 
sions, II.  54,  9. 

1850.  Installation  of  the  Supreme  Consistory  in  Berlin,   II.  55,  1.     Re- 

turn of  the  pope  to  Rome,  II.  57,  1.  Church  title-bill  of  Eng- 
land, II.  58,  4. 

1851.  Memorial  letter  of  the  bishops  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  II.  58,  6. 

1852.  Eisenach  Conference,  II.  54,  5.     Division  of  the  Prussian  Supreme 

Consistory  according  to  their  confessions,  II.  55,  1.     Commence- 
ment of  the  Catholic  disturbance  in  Baden,  II.  58,  6. 
1852-70.  Napoleon  III.  Emp.  of  the  French. 

1853.  The  Church  diet  in  Berlin  adopts  the  Augustana,  II.  54,  5.     Un- 

favorable decision  of  the  king  of  Prussia  regarding  the  Luther- 
ans, II.  55,  1.  Founding  of  the  Hermansburg  Miss,  institution, 
II.  54,  10. 

1854.  Founding  of  the  Melanchthonian  Church,  II.  54,  7.     Sanction  of 

the  Immaculate  Conception,  II.  57,  1. 

1855.  Monastery  law  of  Sardinia,   II.   58,  1.     Austrian   Concordat,   II. 

58,  5.     Alexander  II.  of  Russia  assumes  the  Empire,  II.  52. 

1856.  The  Turkish  Hatti-Humayun,  II.  59. 

1857.  Giinther's  philosophy  condemned,  II.  57,  7.     The  Evangelical  AN 

liance  in  Berlin,  II.  54,  5.  The  Church  agitation  in  Bavaria,  IL 
55,  7. 

1858.  Prince  Regent  William  of  Prussia    assumes  the  government,   IL 

55,  1.     Liturgical  agitation  in  Baden,  II.  55,  4. 

1859.  The  Franco-Austrian  war  in  Italy. 

1860.  Christians  persecuted  in  Syria.     Concordat  with   Baden  abro- 

gated. 

1861.  The    Austrian    Patent.     Ecclesiastical    Constitution    of   Baden 

Radama  II.  in  Madagascar.     Lutheran  Schism  in  Prussia. 

1862.  The  Catecketic  Scandal  of  Hanover.     Reuan's  Life  of  Jesus. 

1863.  Catholic  Congress  at  Munich. 
80* 


438  CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE. 

A   d_  Vol.  and  Paragraph. 

18G4.  Encyclica  and  Syllabus.     Strauss  and  Schenkel's  Life  of  Jesus. 

1865.  The  First  Protestant  Diet  at  Eisenach. 

1866.  The  North  German  Confederation. 

1867.  St.  Peter's  Centenary  at  Rome. 

1869.  Irish  Church  Bill. 

1870.  Proclamation  of  Papal  Infallibility.    Austrian  Concordat  abrogated. 

Fall  of  the  Papal  States. 

1871.  The  New  German  Empire  founded.    First  Old  Catholic  Congress  at 

Munich.     The  Pulpit  Paragraph. 

1872.  The  Prussian  School  Law.     The  Roman  Disputation.     The  German 

Law  against  the  Jesuits. 

1873.  The  Four  Prussian  Ecclesiastical  Laws.     Removal  of  Mermillod  and 

Lachat.      The  Old  Catholic  Church  constituted  in  the  German 
Empire.     The  Swiss  Old  Catholic  Congress. 

1874.  The  Austrian  Ecclesiastical  Law.    The  London  Sympathy  Meetings. 

Ledochowski's  removal  from  Office. 


ADDENDA. 


1.  (Vol.  L,  p.  65.)      Was  Peter  in  Borne  ? 

Galatians  II.  shows  that,  as  late  as  A.  d.  50,  Peter  was  still  in  Jeru- 
salem. Irenaeus,  Eusebius,  Rufinus,  and  the  Apostolic  Constitutions 
agree  that  Linus,  not  Peter,  was  the  first  Bishop  of  Rome.  It  has  not 
been  proved  that  Peter  was  even  a  successor  to  Linus.  It  is  quite 
likely  that  Peter's  first  Epistle  was  written  (66)  in  Babylon  (1  Pet.  v. 
23).  Clement,  of  Rome,  states  the  fact,  but  not  the  place  of  Peter's 
martyrdom.  And  while  Dionysius,  of  Corinth,  Caius,  of  Rome,  Ire- 
naeus, and  Tertullian,  assert  that  Peter  died  at  Rome,  their  testimony 
is  rendered  almost  valueless  by  the  many  false  dates  mingled  with  it. 
This  much,  however,  is  proved,  that  Peter  was,  in  the  second  century, 
supposed  to  have  been  put  to  death  with  Paul  at  Rome. 

2.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  91.)     Maximian  and  the  Legio  Thebaica. 

The  Martyrologies  assert  that  by  Maximian's  command,  a  legion  of 
6,600  men,  composed  entirely  of  Christian  soldiers,  was  put  to  death 
with  their  leader,  St.  Mauritius.  The  story  first  appeared  in  the  fifth 
or  sixth  century,  and  its  credibility  is  disputed. 

3.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  109.)     Muni. 

We  have  recent  information  in  regard  to  Mani,  through  the  labors 
of  Chwolsohn  and  Fl'iigel,  from  Arabic  sources,  of  which  that  from 
the  learned  historian  of  the  tenth  century,  Mohammed-en-Nedim, 
who  had  access  to  the  writings  of  Mani  himself,  is  of  special  interest. 
These  authorities  agree  with  the  Persian  as  to  the  history  of  Mani 
and  his  sect,  but  confirm  the  Western  writers  in  the  statements  of  his 
doctrinal  system.  Mani  was  taught  the  tenets  of  the  Elkesaites  by 
his  father  Fonnak,  who  belonged  to  that  sect.  Through  divine  visions, 
he  was  called  to  proclaim  a  new  revelation.  En-Nedim  supposes 
that  Mani  drew  his  system  from  Scythianus. 

4.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  128.)  We  find  even  in  the  Shepherd  of  Hennas 
the  beginnings  of  the  later  distinctions  between  divine  commands 
and  evangelical  counsel. 

5.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  130.)  The  Shepherd  of  Hermas  has  lately  been 
ascribed  by  Zahn  to  a  Roman  of  the  same  name  (a.  d.  97),  otherwise 
unknown.     That  the  Greek  copy  recently  brought  from  Greece  is  the 

439 


440  ADDENDA. 

original,  has  lately  been  proved  by  Teschendorf,  who  found  in  a 
Sinaitic  MS.  of  the  Bible  of  the  fourth  century  a  fragment  of  the 
original  Creek  of  Hennas.     It  contains,  however,  many  Latinisms. 

6.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  152.)     Consiantine. 

Constantine's  tolerance  toward  heathenism  seems  more  like  political 
craft.  He  forbade  only  such  worship  as  was  immoral,  and  granted 
the  Christians  but  few  temples. 

7.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  173.)     Cyril,  of  Jerusalem,  and  Jerome. 

Cyril,  of  Jerusalem,  though  first  an  Arian,  became  orthodox.  He 
was  deposed  by  his  Arian  Metropolitan,  because  he  had  sold,  during 
a  famine,  certain  unneeded  church  furniture  for  the  relief  of  the  poor. 
He  was  present  at  the  General  Council  of  Constantinople  381,  and 
died  386,  in  possession  of  his  diocese.  Jerome  learned  Hebrew 
from  Bar  Hanina,  and  was  the  only  scholar  in  this  language  of 
Christian  antiquity. 

8.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  261.)  Mohammed  II.  invested  the  Patriarch  (Gen- 
nadius,  cf.  I.  \  68,  5)  with  both  spiritual  and  secular  jurisdiction  over 
all  the  orthodox  Rajah  of  the  Turkish  Empire.  Jerusalem  and 
Antioch  were  made  coordinate  in  religious  affairs,  but  politically  sub- 
ordinate to  Constantinople.  A  synod  of  twelve  Archbishops,  four  of 
whom  resided  in  Constantinople,  chose  the  Patriarch,  subject  to  the 
Sultan's  approval.  Talk  of  union  was  now  over.  The  scattered 
Grecian  fugitives  in  the  West  either  entered  the  Catholic  church,  or 
constituted  churches  of  their  own  (United  Greek),  securing  their  old 
ecclesiastical  constitution  and  liturgy  by  recognizing  the  Romish 
dogma  and  the  Papal  supremacy. 

9.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  266.)     Barlaam  and  Josophat. 

The  romance  of  Barlaam  and  Josophat  was  groundlessly  ascribed 
during  the  Middle  Ages  to  John  Damascenus.  An  Indian  Princess, 
Josophat,  was  converted  through  the  labors  of  Barlaam,  an  Asiatic 
hermit.  The  story  aims  to  show  the  power  of  Christianity  over  the 
temptations  of  sin,  and  its  superiority  over  other  religions.  In  un- 
critical times  it  was  received  as  historical,  and  its  heroes  were  revered 
as  saints.  But  Liebrecht  has  lately  discovered  that  the  honored  tale 
was  but  a  partially  christianized  reproduction  of  the  legendary  his- 
tory of  the  founder  of  Buddhism. 

10.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  266.)  Saracens,  equivalent  to  Orientals,  were  called 
Arabs  early  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  name  came  afterward  to  desig- 
nate all  Mohammedans,  including,  too,  at  times,  heathen  nations. 

11.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  337.)     St.  Meinrad. 

St.  Meinrad,  in  Switzerland,  was  such  a  hermit.  He  was  murdered 
by  robbers  (861),  and  his  cell  became  changed  into  a  Benedictine 
cloister  of  the  hermits  of  Mary. 

12.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  340.)     The  Spurious  Decretals. 


ADDENDA.  441 

While  the  Spurious  Decretals  are  all  from  one  mould,  they  are  not 
pure  fiction.  The  materials  were  gathered  from  the  entire  range  of 
theological  and  ecclesiastical  literature  of  the  day.  These  were  changed 
as  required,  and  grouped  into  a  whole. 

13.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  373.)  The  Greenland  Mission  prospered  four  hun- 
dred years.  About  1408  its  fall  was  brought  about  through  the  in- 
cursions of  the  Esquimaux,  and  the  severity  of  the  winters. 

14.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  384.)  The  descendants  of  the  Crusaders,  born  in 
the  Holy  Land,  the  so-called  Pullani,  were,  in  particular,  a  cowardly 
and  treacherous  race. 

15.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  387.)  Judaism,  on  the  other  hand,  could  not  be 
suppressed,  either  by  constant  persecution  from  the  state,  and  repeated 
massacres  by  the  rabble,  or  by  the  zealous  efforts  of  the  Theologians 
to  instruct  and  convert  the  nation  of  the  covenant. 

16.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  390.)  There  was  nothing  of  Papal  Infallibility  in 
the  systems  of  Gregory  VII.  or  Innocent  III.  But  Thomas  Aquinas 
ascribed  to  the  Pope  alone  the  right  to  develop  the  confession  of 
faith.  John  XV.  (993)  was  the  first  to  claim  the  exclusive  right  of 
canonization.  Alexander  III.  secured  it  as  permanently  belonging 
to  the  Pope.     Innocent  IV.  invested  the  Cardinals  with  the  red  hat. 

17.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  407.)  The  union,  with  the  Greek  church,  was 
meaningless,  and  the  Pope  strove  in  vain  to  revive  zeal  for  the  Cru- 
sades. On  the  other  hand,  the  new  German  Emperor,  Rudolph  of 
Habsburg  (1273-91),  in  order  to  suppress  the  political  disorders  at 
home,  offered  to  surrender,  in  favor  of  the  papacy,  the  important 
points  in  the  long  controversy  between  the  two  thrones.  Nicholas 
III.  (1277-80),  accordingly,  brought  about  a  concordat,  in  which  the 
Emperor  formally  renounced  all  imperial  rights  over  the  states  of  the 
church. 

18.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  428.)  On  leaving  his  chair,  William  retired  to  St. 
Victor's  chapel,  in  Paris,  where  he  founded  a  cloister,  under  the  rule 
of  St.  Augustine. 

19.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  431.)  Abelard,  trusting  to  his  dialectic  skill,  became 
zealous  to  undertake,  without  further  preparation,  the  difficult  task 
of  expounding  the  prophecy  of  Ezekiel.  He  succeeded  to  the  satis- 
faction of  his  pupils,  but  was  forbidden  by  Anselm  to  complete  his 
lectures. 

20.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  435.)  Philosophy  and  Theology  became  almost 
identical.  There  sprang  up  in  Paris  a  reaction  against  this  coalition, 
in  the  doctrine  of  twofold  truth,  viz.,  that  a  proposition  could  be  at  the 
same  time  philosophically  true  and  theologically  false,  and  conversely. 

21.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  440.)  But  Alexander  of  Hales  recognized  baptism 
and  communion  as  the  only  sacraments  instituted  by  Christ,  though 
he  admits  other  sacraments  not  instituted  by  Christ. 


442  ADDENDA. 

22.  (Vol.  L,  p.  479.)  It  is  not  known  when  or  how  that  legend 
arose  according  to  which  the  "  scala  santa"  at  Rome  were  the  marble 
steps  of  Pilate's  prsetorium.  There  were  before  Luther  fourteen  trans- 
lations of  the  Bible  in  High  German,  and  six  in  Low  German.  They 
are  really,  however,  but  slightly  varied  forms  of  a  single  translation 
from  the  Vulgate.  The  translators,  one  or  many,  are  unknown.  The 
language  is  generally  clumsy,  and  the  sense  often  obscure.  Many 
passages,  however,  are  better,  and  Luther  seems  to  have  intentionally 
retained  them.  There  were  also  translations  in  English  by  Wicliffe; 
in  Bohemian  by  Huss;  in  Spanish  by  Bonif.  Ferrer;  in  Italian  by  the 
Benedictine,  Nic.  Malherbi ;  and  in  French  by  Faber  Stapulensis. 

23.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  483.)     The  Maid  of  Orleans. 

Born  of  peasant  parents,  even  as  a  child  she  was  led,  by  what  she 
supposed  to  be  a  heavenly  voice,  to  vow  eternal  chastity.  More  fre- 
quent visions,  in  which  the  saints  appeared  to  her  and  other  voices 
were  heard,  called  her  to  be  the  deliverer  of  her  oppressed  father- 
land. France  had  been  torn  asunder,  under  the  erratic  King  Charles 
VI.,  and  still  more  after  his  death  (1422),  by  the  ambitious  parties  of 
the  Armignacs  and  Burgundians.  The  first  fought  for  the  rights  of 
the  Dauphin,  Charles  VII.  The  others  allied  themselves  to  the  Queen 
Mother  Isabella,  and  the  English  King  Henry  V.  Joan  of  Arc  ad- 
hered zealously  to  the  Dauphin.  When  Charles  was  driven  by  the  Eng- 
lish into  Orleans,  his  last  stronghold,  and  closely  pressed  (1428),  Joan 
heard  the  voice,  directing  her  to  rescue  Orleans,  and  to  lead  the  Dauphin 
to  Rheims  for  coronation.  She  now  made  public  her  mission,  hitherto 
concealed.  Breaking  through  every  difficulty,  and  recognized  as  a 
heavenly  messenger,  she  placed  herself,  clad  in  armor  and  bearing 
the  standard  of  the  lilies,  at  the  head  of  the  enthusiastic  troops,  and 
gloriously  realized  her  twofold  mission.  In  the  later  course  of  the 
war  she  was  captured  by  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  who  delivered  her  up 
to  the  English.  At  Rouen,  after  a  four  months'  trial  by  a  clerical  court, 
she  was  condemned  to  death  as  a  heretic.  Her  courage  failed  her  in 
face  of  the  stake,  and  she  recanted,  whereupon  her  sentence  was  com- 
muted to  imprisonment  for  life.  But  a  week  later  she  was  never- 
theless executed  at  the  stake.  She  died  bravely,  and  resigned  to  her 
fate,  1431.  At  the  solicitation  of  her  family,  afterwards  elevated  to 
nobility,  a  revision  of  her  trial  was  secured,  1450,  and  she  was  de- 
clared to  be  innocent. 

24.  (Vol.  I.,  p.  498.)  Among  the  friends  of  reform  in  Germany 
was  Jacob  von  Jiiterbogk,  of  1465.  He  had  been  a  Cistercian  in 
Poland,  and  a  theological  instructor  at  Krakau,  and  was  afterwards 
Carthusian  Friar  at  Erfurt.  Throughout  his  life  he  was  an  earnest 
defender  of  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Basle,  at  which  he  was 
present,    1441.      His    reformatory  writings    leave   the   ecclesiastical 


ADDENDA.  443 

dogmas  untouched,  but  are  all  the  more  earnest  and  powerful  against 
the  political  and  moral  corruptions  of  the  papacy  and  monasticism. 
He  opposed  the  covetous  misuse  of  indulgences,  favored  placing  the 
Pope  under  the  General  Councils,  to  be  deposed  by  them  when  neces- 
sary. And  he  said,  that  to  dispute  this  was  to  teach  that  Christ  had 
committed  the  church  to  a  sinful  man  as  a  bridegroon,  who  should 
deliver  his  bride  to  the  absolute  will  of  a  soldier. 

25.  (Vol.  II.,  p.  60.)     Bollinger's  Tribute  to  Luther. 

The  celebrated  Catholic  Historian  Ign.  Bollinger,  who,  in  his  "Res. 
Gesch.,"  had  with  ultramontane  animosity  defamed  Luther,  could  not 
refrain,  in  a  public  speech  twenty  years  later,  from  eulogizing  him  as 
the  mightiest  man  of  the  people  Germany  ever  produced.  And  in 
1871,  he  said  of  him,  "  Luther's  overpowering  greatness  and  wonderful 
versatility  made  him  the  man  of  his  time.  No  German  understood 
so  profoundly  the  German  people,  and  in  return  none  was  ever  so 
laid  hold  of  by  them  as  this  Augustine  monk  of  Wittenberg.  The 
German  taste  and  the  German  spirit  his  hand  touched  as  an  artist 
sweeps  the  lyre.  No  other  in  Christian  times  gave  to  his  people  such 
gifts — language,  Bible,  sacred  song.  Each  attack  and  each  defence  of 
adversaries  became  weak  and  flat  beside  his  passing  eloquence.  They 
stammered;  he  spoke.  Only  he  could  indelibly  stamp  the  German 
mind,  as  he  had  done  the  German  tongue.  Even  those  Germans, 
who  in  their  heart  of  hearts  despised  him  as  the  mighty  teacher  of 
error  and  corrupter  of  religion,  were  compelled  to  speak  with  his 
words  and  to  think  with  his  thoughts." 

26.  (Vol.  II.,  p.  162.)      Clement  VIII.  (1592-1605.) 

He  took  an  active  part  in  the  political  movements  of  his  time,  and 
succeeded  in  bringing  about  a  reconciliation  between  France  and 
Spain.  The  Jesuits  have  been  charged  with  his  death,  but  on  insuf- 
ficient grounds.  Clement  had  incurred  their  displeasure  through 
favoring  the  Dominicans  in  the  strife  "  de  auxiliis  gratiae,"  and  by 
refusing  to  canonize  Loyala. 

27.  (Vol.  II.,  p.  165.)  The  Jesuits  held  Pelagian  views  of  sin  and 
grace.  They  defended  the  doctrine  of  Immaculate  Conception,  and 
were  zealous  supporters  of  Papal  Infallibility.  They  were  exceedingly 
active  in  securing  chairs  of  instruction  at  the  Gymnasia  and  Uni- 
versities, as  well  as  in  founding  schools  of  their  own.  They  thus 
sought  to  fill  the  ranks  of  their  own  order,  and  to  train  up  for  it  friends 
and  patrons. 

28.  (Vol.  II.,  p.  169.)  In  regard  to  Papal  Infallibility,  Pope  Had- 
rian VI.  wrote  that  it  was  quite  possible  for  a  Pope  to  err,  even  in 
matters  of  faith.  Cardinal  Cajetan,  however,  zealously  contended 
that  the  entire  Church,  without  the  Pope,  could  more  easily  err  than 
the  Pope  without  the  Church.    And  the  Jesuit  general,  Lainez,  strove 


444  ADDENDA. 

at  Trent,  earnestly,  but  in  vain,  to  secure  for  Papal  Infallibility  eccle- 
siastical recognition. 

29.  (Vol.  II.,  p.  185.)      Galileo  and  the  Inquisition. 

Galileo  Galilei  (ob.  1642)  was  Professor  of  Mathematics  at  Pisa  and 
Padua.  He  rendered  numerous  and  brilliant  services  in  mathematics, 
astronomy,  and  physics,  and  was  tbe  pioneer  defender  of  the  Coper- 
nican  system.  On  this  account,  charged  by  the  Jesuits  with  heresy, 
Paul  V.  threatened  him  with  the  Inquisition,  if  be  should  continue  to 
defend  his  heresy.  Afterwards  he  was  compelled  to  recant,  and  for  a 
short  time  was  imprisoned.  The  stories  that  he  was  driven  to  recan- 
tation by  the  rack,  and  that  after  the  torture  was  over,  gritting  his 
teeth,  and  stamping  his  feet,  he  said,  " E  pur  si  muove,"  are  doubt- 
less false.  Not  so,  however,  that  the  Index  lib.  Prohib.  declared  the 
Copernican  doctrine  false,  preposterous,  and  throughout  contradictory 
of  the  Bible,  and  that  in  1GG0  Pope  Alexander  VII.  formally  con- 
firmed this  decree,  and  not  until  1820  was  it  abrogated  by  tbe  Papal 
Court,  and  in  a  new  edition  of  the  Index,  1835,  the  works  of  Galileo 
and  Copernicus  were  left  out. 

30.  (Vol.  II.,  p.  211.)  Hugo  Grotius,  while  standing  firmly  with 
the  Remonstrants,  strove  earnestly,  but  without  success,  for  a  recon- 
ciliation between  the  Arminians  and  Calvinists,  as  well  as  with  all 
the  Protestant  parties.  For  a  long  time  he  cherished  decided  aversion 
to  tbe  Catholics,  but  intimate  intercourse  with  prominent  Catholics, 
especially  during  his  voluntary  exile  in  France,  induced  him  to  change 
his  attitude  toward  them.  He  spoke  with  ever  growing  favor  of  their 
faith  and  their  institutions,  and  in  his  "votum  pro  pace"  he  recom- 
mends, as  the  only  possible  way  of  restoring  ecclesiastical  unity,  a 
return  to  the  Catholic  church,  though  demanding,  of  course,  certain 
concessions  from  the  Catholics. 

31.  (Vol.  II.,  p.  232.)      The  old  Catholic  Church  of  the  Netherlands. 
Tbe  first  Jesuits  came  to  Holland  in  1592.     The  peculiar  piety  of 

the  clergy,  handed  down  from  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,  as 
well  as  the  comparatively  independent  position  of  the  Archbishopric 
of  Utrecht,  were  to  them  alike  fundamentally  distasteful.  They  were 
soon  brought  into  conflict  with  the  clergy,  through  their  political 
and  religious  machinations.  Vosmeer,  the  Archbishop,  i.  p.,  and 
after  his  deposition,  his  successors,  strenuously  opposed  the  attempt 
to  abolish  the  see  of  Utrecht,  and  to  place  the  church  of  Holland 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  papal  Nuncio  at  Cologne.  Meanwhile 
the  Jansenist  controversy  in  France  had  completed  its  first  stage. 
The  Dutch  officials  bad  received  with  favor  the  accused  book  of  their 
pious  and  learned  countryman,  though  in  the  further  course  of  the 
controversy  they  had  submitted  without  opposition  to  the  papal  bann 
against  the  five  sections,  and  yet  not  agreeing  that  Jansen  had  taught 


ADDENDA.  445 

these  in  the  sense  supposed.     The  Jesuits,  accordingly,  charged  them 
with  Jansenistic  heresy,  and  insinuated  in  an  anonymous  memorial, 
1697,  that  Jansenism  had  taken  its  rise  in  Holland.     They  traced  its 
beginnings  to  a  visit  of  Arnauld  in  Holland,  1681.     It  was  fostered, 
they  said,  by  Bible  reading;  by  the  general  contempt  for  the  worship 
of  Mary,  for  indulgences,  for  the  holy  pictures,  relics,  etc.     Codde, 
the  Archbishop,  was  allured  to  Rome,  to  be  blinded  by  dissembling 
favors  and  demonstrations,  while  behind  his  back  his  deposition  was 
determined  on.     But  the  chapter  refused  to  recognize  his  successor, 
and  the  estates  of  Holland  demanded,  on  pain  of  the  expulsion  of  all 
Jesuits,  the  immediate  return  of  their  Archbishop.     Codde  was,  in- 
deed, sent  back  with  a  papal  blessing,  but  was  followed  with  a  formal 
decree  of  deposition,  1703.     His  rival,  De  Cock,  was  obliged  to  flee 
from  a  charge  of  high  treason.     But,  because  of  conscientious  scruples, 
Codde  refused,  to  his  death,  1710,  to  exercise  again  the  functions  of 
his  office.     For  thirteen  years  the  see  remained  vacant.     The  vacant 
pulpits  were  filled  with  emissaries  of  the  Jesuits,  at  the  nomination  of 
the  Nuncio  in  Cologne.     Thousands  of  the  people  were  caught  in  the 
nets  of  the  Jesuits,  and  fell  over  to  Ultramontanism.     At  last,  1723, 
the  chapter  took  courage,  and  chose  Cornelius  Steenhowen  to  be 
Archbishop.     After  waiting  a  year  and  a  half  without  receiving  an 
answer  to  their  request  for  papal  confirmation,  he  was  ordained  by 
the  French  missionary,  Bishop  Varlet.     The  same  was  done  with  his 
next  three  successors.     In  order  to  secure  legitimate  ordination  for 
future  Archbishops,  after  Varlet's  death,  1742,  a  Bishop  was  conse- 
crated by  the  Haarlem  chapter,  which  had  left  their  right  of  choice 
unexercised,  and  in  1758  the  new  bishopric  of  Deventer  was  provided 
with  an  occupant.    Meanwhile  the  second  and  last  act  of  the  Jansen- 
istic tragedy  in  France  had  been  played.     Many  persecuted  appel- 
lants sought  refuge  in  free  Holland,  and  the  friendly  reception  they 
received  seemed  to  justify  the  long  loved  charge  of  Jansenistic  heresy 
against  Utrecht.     The  accused  continued  to  repel  the  charge  with  all 
energy,  but  refused  expressly  to  recognize  the  bull  of  Alexander  VII., 
and  the  acceptance  there  demanded  of  Papal  Infallibility.    And  thus 
were  thwarted  all  efforts  at  reconciliation,  which  had  been  set  on  foot. 
The  church  of  Utrecht  prospered,  and  at  a  Council,  1765,  declared 
itself  to  be  the  Old  Boman  Catholic  Church  of  the  Netherlands.     The 
Pope  was  acknowledged,  in  spite  of  his  ban  against  Utrecht,  as  the 
visible  head  of  the  Christian  Church.     A  confession  was  produced 
corresponding  in  detail  to  the  decrees  of  Trent,  and  sent  with  all  the 
acts  of  the  Council  to  Rome,  as  evidence  of  orthodoxy.     The  Jesuits 
succeeded  in  counteracting  the  good  impression  which  this  transaction 
had  at  first  created  at  Rome.     Clement  XIII.  declared  the  Council 
void,  and  its  participants  stiff-necked  children  of  iniquity.     But  the 
81 


446  ADDENDA. 

church  still  lives,  with  five  or  six  thousand  souls,  nineteen  parishes, 
under  two  Bishops,  and  an  Archbishop. 

32.  (Vol.  IT.,  p.  299.)  The  English  Naturalist,  Darwin,  threw  into 
the  arena  of  natural  science  the  magic  formula,  "  Natural  Selection," 
according  to  which  it  is  supposed  that  the  present  variety  of  animal 
life  has  arisen  through  a  process  of  development,  continued  through 
millions,  perhaps  milliards  of  years,  from  some  primary  marine 
animal  springing  from  a  minute  cell. 

33.  (Vol.  II.,  p.  303.)  In  Italy  the  amiable  Akss.  Manzoni  (ob. 
1873),  though  himself  more  of  a  Christian  than  a  Catholic,  gave  to 
Catholic  Christianity,  in  his  "Iiini  Sacri,"  and"Promessi  Sposi,"  the  no- 
blest expression.  The  celebrated  poet,  Silvio  Pellico  (ob.  1854),  in  "Le 
mie  Prigioni"  offered  noble  testimony  of  the  power  of  Christianity. 

34.  (Vol.  II.,  p.  304.)  Among  the  pupils  of  the  Munich  school, 
Julius  Schnorr  (ob.  1872)  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  religious  material. 
His  "Bible  in  Pictures"  is  a  masterpiece  of  biblical  illustration. — 
Phil.  Veith  left  an  immortal  monument  to  his  memory  in  numerous 
frescoes  and  altar-paintings  in  Germany  and  Italy.  From  Will  v. 
Kaulbach  we  have  The  Battle  of  the  Huns,  Tlie  Destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem,and  the  staircase  paintings  of  the  Museum  at  Berlin.— Lessing  has 
won  the  honor  of  being  the  painter  of  reformatory  ideas  in  his  Burn- 
ing of  the  Papal  Bull  by  Luther,  and  in    The  Leipsic  Disputation. 

35.  (Vol.  II.,  p.  306.)     Interconfessional  Relations. 

The  Evangelical  and  the  Catholic  churches  were  both  of  them 
enriched  during  the  present  century,  each  at  the  cost  of  the  other,  by 
numerous  conversions.  The  Protestants,  on  the  one  hand,  freely 
recognized  their  opponents,  cherishing  sometimes  such  admiration 
for  individual  Catholic  institutions  as  to  throw  into  the  shade  the 
dignity  of  their  own  church.  Even  in  Germany  many  Bomanizing 
tendencies  appeared.  The  sometimes  absurd  suspicions  of  lurking 
Jesuitism  were  not,  it  would  seem,  without  some  justification  in  the 
case  of  the  Court  Preacher  Stark,  of  Darmstadt.  And  there  were  not 
wanting  those  who  formally  went  over  to  the  Catholics,  and,  too,  from 
the  best  of  men,  e.  g.  Fr.  Schlegel,  Adam  Midler,  H.  L.  von  Haller, 
and  others.  But  the  Catholics  did  not  return  the  liberal  recognition 
they  received.  The  Ultramontanes  were,  on  the  other  hand,  un- 
wearied in  heaping  abuse  and  slander  upou  even  the  noblest  of  Prot- 
estant labors  and  Protestant  men.  Ketteler,  in  a  pastoral  letter,  1855, 
compared  the  Germans  to  the  Jews,  who,  by  crucifying  their  Lord, 
lost  their  high  calling  in  the  kingdom  of  God,  because  in  the  Ref- 
ormation they  had  torn  asunder  the  unity  of  faith  grounded  by  St. 
Boniface.  Cardinal  Riccabona  asserted  that  Luther  gathered  round 
his  standard  the  most  depraved  reprobates  of  Europe,  treading  under 
foot  the  blood  of  the  Redeemer.  Prof.  Michelis,  in  Miinster,  com- 
pared Protestantism  to  Antichrist.    Nevertheless,  many  truly  pious 


ADDENDA.  447 

men  were  led,  in  their  longing  after  salvation,  to  examine  the  Protest- 
ant doctrines,  and  sometimes  to  enter  the  fold  of  the  Protestant 
Church.  Such  were  Martin  Boos,  Goossner,  Henhofer,  Duke  Leop. 
von  Seldnitzky,  and  others.  The  Vatican  sanction  of  infallibility 
moreover  drove  many  sober-minded  men  into  the  evangelical  church. 

Pius  IX.  invited  both  Greek  and  Protestant  Bishops  to  the  Vatican 
Council,  but  not,  as  at  Trent,  to  participate  in  the  proceedings,  but  to 
return  like  the  prodigal  son  to  his  father's  house.  In  a  letter  to  the 
German  Emperor,  1873,  he  said  that  all  who  had  been  baptized, 
Catholic  or  not,  even  the  Emperor  himself,  "belonged  to  the  Pope." 

Thoughts  of  union  appeared  at  times  among  the  Old  Catholics  as 
hopeless  as  ever,  indeed,  but  looking  only  to  the  long  future  for  any 
material  result.  Of  like  character  were  similar  propositions  between 
the  Oriental  Orthodox  Church  on  the  one  side,  and  the  Koman  Catho- 
lic and  Anglican  on  the  other. 

36.  (Vol.  II.,  p.  310.)     Tlie  Revival  Period  of  1857—61. 
Following  in  the  footsteps  of  a  financial  crisis,  there  appeared  in 

North  America,  toward  the  close  of  the  year  1857,  a  religious  move- 
ment of  so  great  dimensions,  of  such  continuance  and  energy,  and 
such  remarkable  results  in  repentance  and  conversion,  as  to  surpass 
all  that  had  been  seen  before  even  in  America,  the  land  of  revivals. 
Along  with  that  which  was  merely  ecstatic,  there  appeared  much  of 
genuine  and  healthy  repentance.  The  movement  spread  to  the  West 
Indies,  West  and  South  Africa,  and  the  East  Indies.  And  in  Europe, 
especially  Ireland,  it  was  almost  as  fruitful  as  in  America. 

37.  (Vol.  II.,  p.  323.)     Foreign  Missions. 

Among  the  Protestant  sects,  the  Methodists  and  Baptists  have  been 
most  zealous  in  the  missionary  cause,  though  the  Moravians  have  lost 
nothing  of  their  former  activity.  The  results  of  evangelical  missions 
for  the  last  eighty  years  are  estimated  at  800,000  or  900,000  converts 
from  heathendom.  That  these  results  are  so  much  less  than  might 
have  been  looked  for  in  return  for  the  zeal  and  labor  put  forth,  is 
owing  in  part  doubtless  to  the  rigidity  of  the  Protestant  methods  of 
labor.  Only  such  heathen  were  admitted  to  baptism  as  had  been  fully 
enlightened  and  converted,  and  the  efficacy  of  baptismal  grace  was 
lightly  esteemed.  Guiana,  in  South  America,  was  a  field  too  difficult 
and  dangerous  for  anything  but  the  patience  of  the  Moravian  mis- 
sionaries, though  in  the  British  parts  the  London  Missionary  Society 
labored  not  without  result.  In  Madagascar  (p.  325),  Radama  II.,  the 
Christian  son  of  the  bloody  Ranavalona,  ascended  the  throne  in  1861, 
and  recalled  the  Christians  and  missionaries  driven  out  by  his  mother. 
Ranavalona  II.  abjured  heathenism,  and  was  baptized  in  1869,  when 
she  became  queen.     The  next  year  she  burned  the  national  idols. 

After  the  complete  suppression  of  the  military  insurrection  of  East 
India,  1857  (p.  325),  the  mission  there  flourished  even  more  than  before. 


448  ADDENDA. 

The  Island  of  Ceylon  was  in  large  part  christianized, but  only  nomi- 
nally under  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch.  The  American  Baptists  sent 
numerous  missionaries  to  India,  among  whom  Judson  and  his  heroic 
wife  were  specially  distinguished.  Their  labors  among  the  Burmans 
and  Carens  belong  to  the  noblest  of  Protestant  missions. 

In  Java,  also,  the  Baptists  have  been  quite  active,  and  with  good 
results.  In  spite  of  the  treaty  of  1858,  in  China  (p.  326)  the  Regent 
Prince  Kung  could  not  prevent  further  bloody  persecutions.  In  1865 
he  was  himself  deposed.  A  new  treaty,  1868,  similar  to  the  other, 
included  North  Germany  among  the  favored  powers.  In  Japan,  all 
edicts  against  Christianity  and  Christians  Avere  formally  revoked  in 
1873.  In  1809  was  formed  the  London  Society  for  the  Spread  of  the 
Gospel  among  the  Jews,  which  labored  with  varying  results  in  London, 
Poland,  Germany,  Holland,  France,  and  Turkey. 

38.  (Vol.  II.,  p.  327.)  The  Conflict  with  Ultramontanism  in  the 
New  German  Empire. 

The  glorious  day  of  Sedan,  September  2,  1870,  resulted  in  the  over- 
throw of  the  civil  power  of  the  Pope,  and  in  the  establishment  of  a 
new  hereditary  German  Empire  in  the  Protestant  dynasty  of  the 
Prussian  Hohenzollerns,  January  18,  1871.  German  Ultramontanism, 
displeased  alike  with  both  of  these  results,  demanded  of  the  German 
Emperor  the  restoration  of  civil  power  to  the  Pope.  This  demand 
was  not  complied  with,  and  formal  war  was  declared  against  the 
Empire  through  the  press  at  the  command  of  the  Ultramontanes, 
but  only  to  be  met  with  defeat  after  defeat  at  the  energetic  hands  of 
the  attacked.  The  Chancellor  Prince  Bismark  said  in  regard  to  these 
demands,  "  We  go  not  to  Canossa."  And  the  Emperor,  in  his  letter  to 
Lord  Russell,  February,  1874,  thanking  him  for  the  sympathies  ex- 
pressed by  the  English  people,  announced  his  firm  and  royal  deter- 
mination to  fight  out  to  the  end  the  thousand  years  war  between  the 
Pope  and  the  German  Empire. 

While  in  South  Germany  the  Ultramontanes,  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  war,  expressed  their  sympathies  with  France,  and  at  its  close 
strove  to  prevent  the  alliance  of  Bavaria  to  the  Empire,  in  North 
Germany  different  tactics  were  employed.  There  the  Ultramontanes 
hoped  to  use  the  Empire  to  advance  their  own  ends.  Even  the  Pope 
congratulated  the  new  Emperor,  expressing  the  hope  that  he  would 
labor  for  the  good  of  all  Europe,  including  the  protection  of  the 
rights  and  liberties  of  the  Catholic  religion.  The  conflict  resulted, 
among  other  things,  in  the  enactment  by  the  Imperial  Diet  of  the  cele- 
brated Jesuit  Law,  and  of  the  so-called  Pulpit  Paragraph.  The  latter 
(1871)  threatened  with  two  years'  imprisonment  every  misuse  of  the 
pulpit  or  clerical  office  for  political  agitation.  The  former  (1872) 
dissolved  the  Jesuits  and  kindred  orders,  banishing  all  foreign  mem- 
bers from  the  Empire,  and  prescribing  the  others  to  a  limited  resi- 


ADDENDA.  449 

dence.  But  other  measures  being  required,  Ultramontanism  was  laid 
hold  of  in  its  schools  and  seminaries.  In  order  to  put  an  end  to  the 
despotic  power  of  the  Bishops  in  matters  of  ecclesiastical  discipline 
and  church  appointment,  they  were  placed  under  civil  oversight  and 
jurisdiction  through  the  four  Prussian  Ecclesiastical  Laws. 

39.  (Vol.  II.,  p.  352.)  The  left  wing  of  Schleiermacher's  school 
became  of  greater  importance  to  theology  after  its  union,  in  1854, 
with  the  older  representatives  of  the  historico-critical,  aesthetic,  and 
philosophic  rationalism,  as  well  as  with  the  younger  generation  of  the 
Bauer  school,  and  a  number  of  capable  men,  who  had  at  first  belonged 
to  the  moderate  theology,  but  in  the  course  of  their  theological  devel- 
opment had  become  more  and  more  estranged  from  it.  From  this 
union  there  came  forth  the  Free  Protestant  Theology  of  the  latest  date. 

40.  (Vol.  II.,  p.  366.)  Strauss'  second  "Life  of  Jesus,  1864,  for  the 
German  people,"  was  too  full  of  clumsy  criticism  for  the  people  for 
whom  it  was  designed,  not  excepting  the  more  educated  classes  among 
them  ;  and  for  science  it  could  not  win  the  importance  granted  to  the 
first,  published  twenty-five  years  before.  He  published,  in  1872, 
the  most  radical  of  all  his  books,  "  The  Old  Faith  and  the  New," 
in  which  he  makes  Christianity  a  mere  reproduction  of  Judaism. 
Strauss  died  1874. 

41.  (Vol.  II.,  p.  37(3.)  The  Vatican  Council  and  the  Old 
Catholics. 

After  the  announcement  of  Pius  IX.,  at  the  centenary  of 
St.  Peter,  1867,  in  regard  to  .an  Ecumenical  Council  at  no  distant 
future,  the  statements  of  the  Romish  Civilta  Cattolicd  soon  left 
no  room  for  doubt  that  the  first  work  of  the  Council  was  to  con- 
firm the  Syllabus  of  1864,  to  sanction  the  absolute  fulness  of 
the  Papal  power  in  the  sense  claimed  by  Boniface  VIII.,  in  his 
bull  Unum  Sanctum  (Vol.  I.  §  110,  1),  and  to  proclaim  Papal 
Infallibility.  When  the  Council  actually  assembled,  December 
8, 1869,  all  imaginable  means  were  brought  to  bear  on  the  Oppo- 
sition— the  cunning  and  intrigue  of  the  Jesuits,  the  persuasives 
and  threats  of  the  Pope,  aiming,  in  case  it  should  prove  im- 
possible to  win  them  over,  at  least  to  suppress  their  opposition 
by  force.  In  numbers,  the  members  of  the  Opposition  were  not 
inconsiderable,  and  they  far  outweighed  the  other  side,  both 
in  theological  attainments,  moral  character,  and  ecclesiastical 
position  ;  but  the  schemes  of  the  Pope  and  his  counsellors  were 
mightier  than  they.  But  fifty  out  of  the  one  hundred  and  fifty 
in  the  Opposition  continued  in  their  protest  to  "the  close  of  the 
81* 


450  ADDENDA. 

Council,  and  even  these  cowardly  withdrew  from  the  deciding 
battle,  and  afterwards  declared,  from  their  bishoprics  at  home, 
their  most  devoted  agreement  to  the  dogma. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  Germany  (Prussia,  Bavaria,  Baden,  and 
Hesse),  and  in  Switzerland,  a  reaction  arose  against  the  Council 
and  its  decisions,  from  the  liberal  circles  of  .the  Catholics,  in  the 
so-called  Old  Catholic  movement.  The  movement  was  set  on 
foot  by  highly-respected  and  distinguished  scientific  men,  and 
has  advanced  with  ever-growing  favor.  In  Germany  it  has 
already  resulted  in  an  independent  and  well-organized  church, 
and  in  Switzerland  hastens  towards  the  same  goal  on  compara- 
tively a  wider  scale. 

1.   The  Council  before  its  Assembly. 

Pius  IX.  announced  to  the  Bishops  assembled  at  the  centenary  of 
St.  Peter  that  he  purposed,  in  the  near  future,  to  call  an  Ecumenical 
Council.  The  Bishops,  in  reply,  expressed  the  hope  that  such  a  Coun- 
cil might  prove,  through  the  intercession  of  the  Immaculate  Virgin,  a 
wondrous  source  of  unity,  peace,  and  holiness.  The  formal  procla- 
mation followed  the  next  year,  1868,  on  Peter-Paul's  day,  June  29th. 
The  purpose  in  view  was  stated  in  general  to  save  the  Church 
from  all  threatening  evils  ;  to  uproot  all  modern  errors,  and  to  over- 
throw all  godless  enemies  of  the  Church  and  the  Apostolic  See.  The 
General  Council  of  Catholics,  at  Bamberg,  assembling  soon  after  this 
proclamation,  recorded  their  opinion,  that  a  new  era  in  the  world's 
history  would  begin  with  the  Council  of  the  Vatican,  for  "  Either  sal- 
vation would  be  brought  to  the  world  through  this  Council,  or  there 
is  no  salvation  for  the  world."  But  this  hope  was  far  from  being 
general  throughout  the  Catholic  world.  The  learned  Bishop  in  parti- 
bus,  Maret,  Dean  of  the  Theological  Faculty  at  Paris,  appeared  in  the 
arena  with  an  eloquent  defence  of  the .Gallican  liberties.  And  even 
Count  Montalembert,  hitherto  a  strict  Catholic,  astounded  the  world 
with  his  hostility  to  the  Council.  Six  days  before  he  died,  March  7, 
1870,  he  earnestly  protested  against  the  intrigues  of  the  Jesuits,  and 
the  proposed  dogma  of  Infallibility.  But  the  greatest  stir  was  created 
by  the  pseudonymous  work,  entitled,  "  Der  Papst  und  das  Council  von 
Janus,  Leipzig,  1869."  It  was  probably  written  by  Dollinger,  Fried- 
rich,  and  Huber,  and  brought  to  bear  against  the  plans  of  the  Papal 
Court  the  heavy  artillery  of  a  far-reaching  acquaintance  with  eccle- 
siastical history.  The  Papal  Secretary,  Cardinal  Antonelli,  quieted 
the  foreign  ambassadors  at  Rome,  with  the  assurance  that  neither 
the  confirmation  of  the  Syllabus  nor  the  definition  of  the  dogma  of 
Infallibility  was  purposed  by  the  Pope.  Prince  Hohenlohe,  of  Bavaria, 
urged  the  oilier  Towers  of  Europe  to  unite  in  preventive  measures 


ADDENDA.  451 

against  every  encroachment  of  the  coming  Council  upon  the  rights  of 
the  states.  But  he  urged  in  vain.  The  Powers  thought  best  to  wait, 
and,  not  until  it  was  too  late,  uttered  their  protests  aud  their  threats. 

2.    The  Organization  of  the  Council. 

Seven  hundred  and  sixty-seven  of  the  ten  hundred  and  forty-four 
invited  prelates  made  their  appearance  at  the  Council.  Of  these, 
one  hundred  and  nineteen  Bishops  in  partibus  were  sworn  satellites 
of  the  Papal  Court.  A  still  greater  number  were  Missionary  Bishops, 
who  had  come  to  Rome  at  the  expense  of  the  Holy  Father,  and 
were  quartered  with  attendants  at  the  Propaganda.  The  sixty-two 
Bishops  of  the  States  of  the  Church  were  doubly  dependent  on  the 
Pope,  and  it  was  said  in  Rome,  of  the  eighty  Spanish  and  South 
American  Bishops,  that  at  the  demand  of  the  Pope  they  would 
define  the  Trinity  as  consisting  of  four  persons.  Then  there  were 
forty  Italian  Cardinals,  and  thirty  Generals  of  Orders.  The  Romans 
were  represented  with  more  than  six  hundred  votes,  and  all  Germany 
had  some  fourteen.  For  the  first  time  since  ecumenical  councils 
were  held,  the  laity  were  entirely  shut  out  from  the  proceedings 
of  the  Council.  The  regulations  imposed  by  the  Pope  aimed 
throughout  at  laming  the  Opposition.  The  right  of  making  motions 
was,  indeed,  granted  to  all  the  Fathers  of  the  Council,  but  a  Deputa- 
tion chosen  by  the  Pope  decided  as  to  what  motions  might  be  admit- 
ted.' Drafts  of  the  decrees  came  from  the  Special  Commissions,  whose 
chairmen  the  Pope  nominated,  to  the  General  Congregation,  where  the 
president  could  at  will  interrupt  any  speaker,  and  deprive  him  of  the 
floor.  Instead  of  the  unanimity  demanded  by  the  canonical  laws  in 
decrees  relating  to  faith,  voting  by  simple  majority  was  introduced. 
A  solemn  protest,  by  the  minority,  against  this  and  similar  acts  of 
violence,  received  no  attention.  The  proceedings  were  stenographi- 
cally  recorded,  but  even  the  members  of  the  Council  were  not  allowed 
access  to  these  records.  The  resolutions  of  the  General  Congregations 
were  returned  to  the  Special  Commissions  for  final  revision,  and  at  last 
came  to  vote  without  discussion  at  the  Public  Sessions,  by  the  simple 
Placet  or  Non-Placet.  The  right  transept  of  St.  Peter's  Church,  where 
the  acoustic  properties  were  as  poor  as  possible,  was  used  as  the  hall  of 
assembly,  and  the  Pope  steadfastly  refused  to  change  to  a  better 
location.  Added  to  this,  was  the  great  variety  of  pronunciation,  and 
in  many  cases  a  scanty  knowledge  of  Latin.  In  spite  of  the  obliga- 
tions imposed  of  strict  secrecy,  a  tolerably  complete  insight  into  the 
daily  proceedings  of  the  Council  was  obtained  in  certain  circles  at 
Rome,  by  carefully  gathering  up  all  that  was  told  here  and  there. 
Out  of  these  sources  came  the  "  Roman  Letters,"  written  probably  by 
Lord  Acton,  a  friend  and  pupil  of  Dollinger.  They  were  sent  by 
trusted  messengers  beyond  the  bounds  of  the  Papal  territory,  and 
then  forwarded  to  Munich,  where  they  were  revised  by  Dollinger  and 


452  ADDENDA. 

his  friends,  and  then  made  public  in  the  columns  of  the  Augsburger 
Attg.  Zeitung.  Professor  Friedrich,  who  had  accompanied  Cardinal 
Hohenlohe  to  Rome,  as  Theological  Adviser,  published  in.  his  "Tage- 
buch  Wahrend  d.  Vat.  Cone,"  second  edition,  Nordl.,  1873,  what 
information  he  had  received  from  the  Bishops  and  Theologians. 

3.   The  Proceedings  of  the  Council. 

The  first  Public  Session  occurred  December  8,  1869,  and  the  second 
on  January  6,  1870,  when  the  Confession  of  Faith  was  presented.  The 
first  proposition  was  the  Scheme  of  Faith,  the  second  the  Scheme  of 
Ecclesiastical  Discipline.  Then  followed  the  Scheme  of  the  Church  and 
the  Primacy  of  the  Pope.  Three  articles  presented  the  supremacy  of 
the  Church  over  the  State;  the  absolute  power  of  the  Pope  over  the 
whole  Church  according  to  Pseudo  Isidore  (Vol.  I.,  \  87,  2),  and  the 
claims  of  Gregory  VII.,  Innocent  III.,  and  Boniface  VIII  ;  the 
principal  points  of  the  Syllabus  of  1864;  and  the  sketch  of  a  cate- 
chism for  the  instruction  of  the  youth  throughout  the  Church.  On 
March  6th,  as  a  fourth  article  to  the  Scheme  of  the  Church,  the  sketch 
of  the  decree  of  Infallibility  was  presented.  An  agitation  on  this 
point  had  commenced  shortly  after  the  opening  of  the  Council. 
An  address  to  the  Pope,  originating  in  the  Jesuit  College,  in  behalf 
of  Infallibility,  received  four  hundred  signatures.  An  address 
on  the  other  side  was  signed  by  one  hundred  and  thirty-seven 
names.  Leading  the  agitation  for  the  Infallibility  were  Archbishops 
Manning,  of  Westminster;  Deschamps,  of  Mechlin  ;  Spalding,  of  Bal- 
timore; and  Bishops  Fessler,  Secretary  of  the  Council;  Senestry,  of 
Regensburg;  Martin,  of  Paderboru ;  and  Mermillod,  of  Geneva. 
Among  the  leaders  of  the  opposition  were  Cardinals  Rauscher,  of 
Vienna;  Schwarzenberg,  of  Prague;  Mattieu,  of  Besancjon;  and 
Foster,  of  Breslau;  Archbishops  Sclierr,  of  Munich;  Melchers,  of 
Cologne;  Darboy,  of  Paris;  and  Kenrick,  of  St.  Louis;  and  Bishops 
Ketteler,  of  Mayence;  Dinkle,  of  Augsburg;  Hefele,  of  Rottenburg; 
Strossmayer,  of  Sirmium;  Dupanloup,  of  Orleans,  etc. 

The  Scheme  of  Faith  was  carried  unanimously  at  the  third  Public 
Session,  April  24th.  Discussion  over  the  Scheme  of  the  Church  was 
commenced  May  10th,  and  was  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  ques- 
tion  of  Infallibility.  While  attempts  were  made  to  find  some  basis 
in  the  Scripture  and  in  tradition  for  the  dogma,  the  great  argu- 
ment was  built  upon  its  necessity  arising  from  the  office  of  the  Pope 
as  vicar  of  Christ.  The  Opposition  did  not  so  much  attack  the 
doctrine  of  Infallibility  on  its  own  merits,  as  question  the  expediency 
of  its  formal  declaration.  They  thus  greatly  weakened  their  cause, 
some  of  them  not  wishing  to  offend  the  Pope,  and  others  anxious  to  leave 
open  a  way  of  retreat,  which  was  sure  to  be  needed.  The  longer 
the  debate  continued,  the  more  decided  ground  in  favor  of  the  dogma 
was  taken  by  the  Pope.     He  coaxed  and  threatened  as  he  thought 


ADDENDA.  453 

best.  He  upbraided  tbe  opponents  as  enembs  to  the  Churcb  and  the 
Apostolic  See,  and  placed  over  against  the  fears  of  schism  his  confi- 
dence in  the  assistance  of  the  Holy  Virgin.  To  the  question  whether  he 
looked  upon  the  definition  as  expedient,  he  replied,"No,  but  necessary." 
It  was  notorious,  he  said,  that  the  whole  Church  through  all  times  had 
taught  the  Infallibility  of  the  Pope.  Long  ago  he  had  believed  in 
Infallibility,  and  as  Pope  he  felt  it.  July  13th,  the  final  vote  was 
reached  in  the  General  Congregation,  with  three  hundred  and  seventy- 
one  votes  simply  Placet,  sixty- one  Placet  Juxte  Moclum,  and  eighty- 
eight  Non-Placet.  After  a  final  and  hopeless  attempt  to  secure 
agreement  to  a  milder  form  of  the  decree,  the  fifty  members  of  the 
minority,  who  had  continued  steadfast,  left  Rome,  leaving  behind 
them  a  written  declaration  that,  while  they  were  obliged  to  maintain 
their  former  objections  to  the  dogma,  out  of  respect  for  the  Pope  they 
would  not  protest  at  the  Public  Session.  On  the  following  day,  July 
18th,  the  fourth  and  last  Public  Session  occurred.  Five  hundred  and 
forty-seven  Fathers  voted  Placet,  and  only  two  (Puccio,  of  Cajazzo, 
and  Fitzgerald,  of  Little  Bock),  Non-Placet.  A  fearful  storm  break- 
ing out  during  the  session,  Pius  IX.  announced,  amidst  thunder  and 
lightning,  as  "second  Moses"  (Ex.19:  16),  the  absolute  power  and 
Infallibility  of  himself,  and  of  all  his  predecessors  and  followers.  It 
was  the  same  day  on  which  Napoleon  III.  declared  war  against 
Prussia,  in  consequence  of  which  the  Pope  lost  the  last  vestige  of 
secular  power,  and  every  hope  of  regaining  it. 

4.  The  Recognition  of  the  Decrees  of  the  Council. 

All  protests  which  had  been  made  became  legally  worthless,  be- 
cause they  were  not  maintained.  And  nothing  remained  for  the 
dissenting  Bishops,  but  to  accept  at  last  what  they  had  so  long 
refused.  And  this  they  did.  As  for  the  Civil  Powers,  not  one  of  them 
has  so  far  recognized  the  Council. 

5.  The  Constitution  of  an  Old  Catholic  Church  in  Germany. 

So  early  as  August,  1870,  Prof.  Michelis,  in  Braunsberg,  openly 
charged  Pius  IX.  with  heresy,  and  by  the  end  of  the  month  he  was 
joined  by  several  prominent  theologians,  among  whom  were  Dollin- 
ger,  Fried  rich,  Reinkens,  Weber,  and  others,  who  declared  at  Nurem- 
berg that  the  Vatican  Council  could  not  be  looked  upon  as  ecumenical, 
nor  the  new  dogma  as  Catholic.  Forty-four  instructors  at  the  University 
of  Munich  responded  to  this  declaration,  as  also  others  from  Breslau, 
Freiburg,  Wiirzburg,  and  Bonn.  April  14,  1871,  Dollinger  was  ex- 
communicated. September,  1871,  the  first  General  Congress  of  the  Old 
Catholics  met  at  Munich,  with  five  hundred  deputies  present,  gathered 
from  all  Germany.  They  agreed  to  retain  the  faith,  worship,  and 
constitution  of  the  Old  Catholic  Church.  They  declared  the  decrees 
of  the  Vatican  Council  invalid,  and  recognized  the  Old  Catholic 
Church  of  Utrecht.     They  expressed  the  hope  of  a  union  with  the 


454  ADDENDA. 

Greek  Church,  and  of  agreement  with  the  Protestants.  In  spite  of 
Dollinger's  opposition,  they  determined  to  institute  independent 
worship,  and  an  episcopal  jurisdiction  of  their  own,  as  early  as  pos- 
sible. At  the  second  General  Congress,  1872,  at  Cologne,  representa- 
tives were  present  from  the  Anglican  Church  in  England  and  America, 
from  the  Orthodox  Church  of  Russia,  from  France,  Italy  and  Spain, 
either  to  express  their  sympathies  or  to  participate  in  the  proceedings 
as  deputies.  It  was  the  uniform  opinion  that  a  thorough  reform  was 
demanded,  both  in  constitution,  discipline,  and  worship.  Prof.  Fried- 
rich  said:  "In  the  dogma  of  Infallibility,  we  wrestle  not  against  one 
single  error,  but  against  the  whole  Papal  system,  whose  false  develop- 
ment, through  a  thousand  years,  had  reached  its  climax  in  this 
dogma."  It  was  agreed,  however,  that  the  first  duty  was  the  selec- 
tion of  a  Bishop.  The  synodal  and  ecclesiastic  arrangements  provided 
for  a  yearly  synod,  to  be  called  by  the  Bishop,  in  which  all  the 
clergy  should  participate,  and  to  which  the  churches  should  send 
deputies,  one  representative  for  every  two  hundred.  A  permanent 
synodal  representation,  consisting  of  five  clergymen  and  seven  laymen, 
was  to  stand  at  the  right  hand  of  the  Bishop.  The  churches  were  to 
choose  their  own  clergyman,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Bishop. 
Prof.  Reinkens  was  chosen  Bishop  the  next  year,  1873. 

42.  (Vol.  II.,  p.  378.)  Downfall  of  the  States  of  the  Church.  By 
a  popular  vote,  Romagna  was  annexed  to  Sardinia,  1860,  and  in  Sep- 
tember of  the  same  year  a  revolution  broke  out  in  Umbria  and  the 
Marches,  in  consequence  of  which  Victor  Immanuel  took  possession 
of  these  Papal  provinces  also.  So  that  only  two  of  the  five,  Rome  and 
the  Campagna,  were  left  to  the  Pope,  and  the  possession  of  these  de- 
pended entirely  on  the  uncertain  continuance  of  the  French  troops 
in  Italy.  When,  in  December,  1866,  these  troops  had  departed,  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  to  liberate  Italy  from  the  Papal  rule. 
Garibaldi  appeared  at  the  head  of  the  movement,  but,  through  the 
interposition  of  Napoleon,  it  failed.  A  French  garrison  continued 
to  protect  Rome  until,  in  August,  1870,  it  was  compelled  to  with- 
draw to  the  helpless  defence  of  France  itself.  An  Italian  army  occu- 
pied the  Papal  territory,  in  order  to  protect  it  against  fresh  outbreaks. 
But,  after  the  battle  of  Sedan,  all  Italy,  to  a  man,  demanded  Rome 
for  their  capital,  and  Victor  Immanuel  had  to  concede.  The  Pope 
sought  help  near  and  far,  from  Catholic  and  non-Catholic  powers,  but 
in  answer  from  all  sides  came  the  echo  of  the  Pope's  own  stereotyped 
expression,  "Non  posswnus."  After  a  four  hours'  cannonade,  breaches 
were  made  in  the  walls  of  the  Eternal  City.  The  white  Hag  was  raised, 
and  amidst  the  shouts  of  the  populace  the  Italian  troops  entered. 
A  popular  vote  in  the  remaining  Papal  territory  resulted  in  133,681 
votes  for,  and  1507  against,  the  annexation.  In  Rome  the  vote  was 
40,785  to  46,  in  favor  of  annexation. 


INDEX. 


[TJie  Figures  refer  to  the  Page.) 


Abolitionists,  348 
Abraham  St.  Clara,  194 
Abyssinia,  171,  175 
Aeceptants,  232 
D'Achery,  194 
Adiaphoristic  contr.,  135 
iEpinus,  John,  138 
Agenda,  Prussian,  310 
Agricola,  John,  100,  133 

Martin,  145 

Agrippav.  Nettesh.,  155 
Aguirre,  194 

Able,  208 

Alba,  duke,  99,  121 

Alberti,  205 

Alberus,  144 

Albinus,  206 

Albert  of  Bavaria,  173 

Brandenburg,  105 

Mayence,  33 

Prussia,  52,  56 

Albrights,  the,  351 
D'Albret,  123 
Aleander,  39 
D'Alembert,  236 
Alexander  I.  II.  293,  294 

of  Jerusalem,  325 


Dr.  J.  Addison,  348 

Allatius,  Leo,  194 
Allegri,  Greg.,  194 
Allendorf,  2  IS 
Alliance,  Holy,  294 
Evangelical,  313 

Torgau,  52 

Alombrados,  189 
Alzog,  391 

Amen  Society,  412 
American  Catholic  Miss., 

170-71 
Amesius,  216 
Amling,  153 
Amnion,  v.,  358 
Amsdorf,  91,  135 


Amyrault,  211,  216 
Anabaptists,  42,  65,  157- 

60 
Anderson.  116 
Andrea,  Jacob,  138 
Val.,  203 


Angela  of  Brescia.  166 

Angelo,  Michael,  169 

Angelus,  Silesius,  189, 
207 

Anhalt,  79,  152 

Anna  of  Prussia,  183 

Antinomian  controversy, 
133 

Anti-hierarchical  move- 
ment in  Germany,  234 

Anti-papal  aggression, 
396 

Anti-Trinitarians,  158 

Anthony  of  Navarre,  122 

Paul,  199 

Apocryphal  controversy, 
323 

Apology  for  the  Augsb. 
Conf.,  74 

Apostoolians,  218 

Appellants,  232 

Appenfeller,  273 

Arcanum  regium,  268 

Armenians.  210 

Arnold,  191 

Arnold,  Gottf.,  201,  204 

Arnoldi,  38?.  402 

Articles,  the  XXXIX, 
120 

Asseburg,  270 

Auberleon,  369 

Augsburg  Conf.,  74 

Augustus  of  Saxony, 137, 
139 

Augusti,  361 

Augustine,  Trappist  ab- 
bot, 380 


Augustinianism,    oppes* 

ed,  167 
Avenarius,  146 

Baadiir,  Fr.,  388 
Baboef,  416 
Bach,  Seb.,  250 
Bacon       of       Verulam, 

223 
Baden,  333,  399 
Baden-Baden,  173 
Bahrdt,  280,  282 
Baier,  Dr.,  75,  201 
Baius,  167 
Balde,  195 
Ballenstedt,  298 
Balsac,  302 

Balthasar  of  Fulda,  173 
Baltzer,  389 
Baluze,  194 
Bampfield,  219 
Banez,  Dom.,  167 
Baptists,  219,  349,  278 
Barclay,  219 
Barkers,  276 
Barnabites,  165 
Barnim    of    Pomerania, 

(13,  4),  79 
Baronius,  169 
Barriere,  167 
Barth,  303 

Bartholomew's  Eve,  123 
Basedow  Basel,  63,  324, 

280 
Basuage,  216 
Bassi,  166 
Bathori,  St.,  125 
Bauer,  Bruno,  296,  364 

Lorenzo,  283 

Baumgarten,       Crusius, 

360 


Michael,  331,  374 

Bauer,  F.  C,  364 
(455) 


456 


INDEX 


Bauer,  Gustavus,  364 
Bautain,  388 
Bavaria,  336,  397 
Baxter,  226 
Bayle,  226 

Beaulieu,  Teace  of,  123 
Beaumont,  232 
Becanus,  193 
B^ck,  Fr.,  302 

J.  Tob.,  369 

Beethoven,  305 
Becker,  Balth.,  213 
Belgium,  344,  395 
Bellarmine,  165,  168 
Benedict,    XIII.,     XIV., 

popes,  228 
Bengel.  Alb.,  245 

E.  G.  v.,  360 

Benno  v.  Meissen,  60 
Berg,  John,  180 
Bergie  Book,  138 
Berleberg  Bible,  271 
Berlin,    General    Synod, 

327 
Berne,    Reformation   in, 

64 
Bermudez,    Cath.    patri- 
arch, 171 
Bertheau,  360 
Berthold    of   Chiem-see, 
47,  168 

. Leonard,  283 

Berylla,  Peter,  186 

Besehi.  230 

Bespopowtschini,  222 

Besser,  323,  373 

Bethmann-Holweg,  299, 
315 

Beuggen,  322 

Beyschlag,  3!  4 

Beza,  112,  149,  150 

Bibles,  annotated,  323 

Bible  Societies,  322 

Biblical   Theol.,    Roman 
Cath.,  238 

JfSickell,  299.  332 

Bienemann,  Cnspar,  144 

Bilderdijk,  342 

Billik,  95 

Billroth,  364 

Birken,  v..  206 

Bitzius,  303 

Blandrata,  159 

Blaurer.  49,  79,  149 

Bleek,  370 

Blondel,  212,  216 


Blount,  226 
Blumhnrt,  333 
Bobadilla,  163 
Bochart,  Samuel,  215 
Bockelson.  81 
Bodin,  Jean,  159 
Bogatzky,  248,  251 
Bolim,  Charles,  411 
Bohme,  Jacob,  203-4 
Bohme,  Martin,  144 
Bohemia,  125,  177,  336 
Bohmer,     Justus     Hen- 

ning,  247 
Bohemian  Brethren,  125 
Boleyn,  Anna,  119 
Bolingbroke.  278 
Bolland,  194 
Bollandists,  194 
Bolsec,  Jerome,  112 
Bona,  Card.,  194 
Bonfrere,  193 
Boniface  Society,  385 
Book  of  Common  Prayer, 

120 
Book  Society  of  Berlin, 

322 
Boos,  Martin,  381 
Bora,  Catharine,  v.,  59 
Bonier,  238 
Bordelum  sect,  273 
Borgia,  Francis,  1 64 
Borromeo,  Charles,  169 
Borromeo  Society,  385 
Bossuet,   181,  185,  190, 

193,  231 
Botskai.  Stephen,  126 
Bourdaloue,  194 
Bourignon,  190 
Bouthillier  de  Rance\187 
Boyle,  Robert,  226 
Brandenburg,  86,  182 
Brandt,  323 
Braniss,  297 
Brazil,  171 
Braun.  John,  216 

Josiah,  387 

Breckling,  221 
Breithaupt,  200 
Bremen,  56,  152 
Brendel,  Dan.,   108,  173 
Brentano,  302,  380 
Brenz,  John,  69,  72,  142, 

in; 

Brest,  Synod  of,  174 
Brethren,  Christ,  school, 
187 


Bretschneider,  298,  358 
Breviarum      Romanum, 

167 
Bridaine,  194 
Briegel,  209 
Brischar,  386 
Broad  Church  party,  339 
Biochmand,  201 
Brown,  Tliomas,  226 
Browne,  Robert,  120 
Bruccioli,  127 
Brack,  Dr.,  75 
Briicker.  251 
Bruder,  200 
Biiiggeler's  sect,  273 
Bruno,  Giordano,  156 
Brunsfeld,  Otto.  50 
Brunswick,  56,  91 
Bucer,  44,  69,  72,  82,  88, 

89,  92,  119 
Buchanan,  414 
Buchel.  274 

Buchfuhrer,  George,  58 
Buddeus,  245 
Buffalo,  Synod  Lutheran, 

351 
Bugenhagen,  50,  56,  79, 

118,  142 
Biilau,  St.,  118 
Bullinger,  83,  113 
Bundschuh,  the,  45 
Bunsen,  314,  319,  371 
Buren,  152 
Burmann,  216 
Burnet,  Gilbert,  211 
Buscher,  Statius,  198 
Busenbaum,     Hermann, 

165 
Buttlar,  the  sect,  273 
Buxtorf.  212,  214 
Byron,  303 

Cabkt,  416 
Cajetan,  Cardinal,  34 
Ca'las,  Jean,  230 
Calazanze,  186 
Calderon,  199 
Calender,  Reform  of,  162 
Calixtus,  Geo..  180,  201 
Ulrich,  198 


Callenberg.  252 
Calmet,  238 

Calov,  198.200,201,204 
Calw.    publication    6oc, 

322 
Calvin,  109,  etc. 


INDEX 


457 


Calvinism,  318 
Camerarius,  146 
Camisards,  178 
Campanella,  222 
Campanus,  158 
Campe,  280 
Campeggio,  50,  51.  74 
Camp-meetings,  349 
Canisius,  1G8 
Canova,  305 
Canstein,  250 
Canticles,  206       * 
Canus,  168 
Canz.  246 
Capellus,  212,  214 
Capito,  44,  63,  69,  150 
Cappadose,  342 
Cappel,  peace  of,  67 
Capuchins,  166 
Caraffa,  165 
Cardley,  314 
Carl,  Dr.,  271 
Carlstadt,  35,  42,  43,  69, 

117 
Carmelites,     barefooted, 

166 
Carpentarius,  58 
Carpzov,  J.  B.,  199,  246 

J.  G.,  245 

Casas,  Las,  171 
Casimir  of  Brandenbura, 

52 

Berleburg,  270 

Caspare,  374 
Cassander,  172 
Cassel  Colloquy,  183 
Castellio,  Sebastian,  112, 

150 
Castellus,  214    • 
Catharine    of    Arragon, 

119 

de  Medici,  122 

II.  of  Russia,  234 

Catechism,     Heidelberg, 

151 

Lutheran,  55 

Roman,  167 

Chaise,  la,  189 
Chalmers,  341 
Chalybiius,  296 
Chamier,  216 
Chandler,  278 
Channing.  of  Boston,  406 
Chantal,  186 
Charles     V.,     Emperor, 
82 


Charles  I.,  II.,  of  Eng- 
land, 179,  184 

IX.  of  France,  123 

IX.  of  Sweden,  116 

-  XX.  "         230 

Albert  of  Sardinia, 


393 


Alexander  of  Wiir- 

tem..  231 

Chateaubriand,  238 

Chatel,  Abb6,  383 

Chemnitz,  133,  134,  138, 
142,  146 

Cherbury,  225 

Chiere"gati,  49 

Children,  Praying,  461 

China,  170,  172,  188,326 

Chinese  mission,  188 

Chlistowtschini,  222 

Choral  music,  145,  320 

Christian  II.  III.,  117 

Christian  Germ.  Society, 
292 

Christians,  275 

Christiern  II.  of  Den- 
mark, 115 

Christopher  of  Wiirtem., 
78 

Chubb,  278 

Chytraeus,  146 

Cistercians,  166 

Clara,  Abr.  de  St.,  194 

Clarenbach,  58 

Clarke,  225 

Claude,  212 

Claudius,  Matthew,  288 
of  Savoy,  159 


Clausen,  Prof.,  342 
Clausenberg,  diet  of,  126 
Clausnitzer,  205 
Clement  VIII.,  167,  192 

XIII.,  XIV.,    233, 

324 

F.  J.,  389 


Clericus  (le  Clerc),  John, 

215 
Cluniacensians  (Clugny), 

229 
Cocceius,  213,  214 
Cochlseus,  60,  75 
Cock,  Henry  de,  342 
Codde,  232 

Coena  domini.  bull,  234 
Coleridge,  340 
Coligny,  122 
Collegia  philobiblica, 199 


Collegia  pietatis,  199 
Collegiate  system,  247 
Collegiants,  219 
Collegium     caritativum, 

268 
Collenbusch,  291 
Collins,  278 
Coin,  von,  359 
Cologne,  92,  98,  173 
Columbus,  170 
Comenius,    John    Amos, 

255 
Communists,  415 
Compactates,  Basel,  63 
Compromise,  121 
Conception,  immaculate, 

378 
Concord,  Wittenberg,  82 
Form  of,  138 


Conde\  122 

Louisa -de,  380 


Confessio        Augustana, 
(Augsburg),  74 

Belsica,  121 

GalTicana,  122 

Hafnica,  117 

Helvetica,  I.,  83 

"         II.,  113 

Hungarica,  126 

Marchica,  183 

Saxonica,  103 

Scotica,  121 

Sigismundi,  183 

Tetrapolitana,  75 

of  Wiirtemburg,  103 

Conference  of  Eisenach, 

316,  319 

Evangelical,  316 

of  Reichenbach,317 

Confederation,  314 
Confutation  of  the  Augs- 
burg Conf.,  75 
Congregatio  de  auxil  167 

de    propag.     fidei, 

187 

Congregationalists,  120, 

348 
Conscientiarii,  226 
Consensus  Genev.  et  Ti- 

gurin,  113 
Sendomir,  124 

repetitus,  198 

Consistories,  141 
Constance,  107 
Contarini,  89,  128 
Contraremonstrants,  211 


458 


INDEX 


Converts  to  Romanism, 
177,  231,  380 

Convocation,  London,  120 

Cop,  Nicholas,  111 

Copenhagen,  diet  of,  117 

Copernicus,  299 

Coquerel,  344 

Cornelius  a  Lapide,   193 

the  painter,  305 

Corpus  Cath.  et  Evang., 
109 

doctr.  Pruthen.,134 

Corvinus,  142 

Cossart,  194 

Costa,  342 

Coster,  168 

Coudrin,  386 

Cour,  Didier  de  la,  186 

Corn-land,  118 

Covenant,  184 

Cowper,  292 

Cramer,  289 

Cranach,  Louis,  142 

Cranmer,  119 

Crasselius,  248 

Credner,  K.  A.,  358,  371 

Crell,  J.,  160 

Nicholas,  139 

Creuger,  300 

Critici,  sacra,  214 

Cromwell,  184 

Cruciger,  102 

Criiger,  Crusius  William, 
359 

Crusius,  Martin,  129 

Chr.  Augustus,  281 

Culling,  Eardley,  314 

Cunaeus,  215 

Cuvier,  298 

Cyprian,  Solomon  Er- 
nest, 245,  268 

Czenger,  council  at,   126 

Czersky,  383 

Dacii,  Simon,  193,  205 
Daille\  212,  216 
Daniel,  319 
Dannecker,  305 
Dannenmayer,  237 
Dannhauer,  201 
Dantzic,  124 
Danz,  360 
Darby,  412 
Daub,  363 
Daumer,  381 
David,  Christian,  252 


David,  Sultan,  171 

Davy,  298 

Deaconess    Institute    of 

Kaisersw.,  322 
Decius,  Nicholas,  143 
Decker,  145 
Deism,  225,  278 
Delitsch,  317,  374 
Demetrius,  Pseudo,  175 
Denck,  158 
Denecke,  202 
Denicke,  205 
Denmark,   116,  117,  342 
Dentzinger,  390 
Dernbach,  Balth.  v.,  173 
Descartes,  212,  223 
Deseret,    (Territory  of), 

413 
Dessau  Conference,  52 
Dessler,  248 
Deutinger,  390 
Deutschmann,  241 
De  Valenti,  299,  322 
Devay,  126 
De  Wette,  358 
Deyling,  245 
Diaz,  95 
Diderot,  236 
Didier  de  la  Cour,  186 
Didymus,  Gabriel,  42 
Dieckhoff,  317,  373 
Diepenbrock,  302 
Dieringer,  390 
Diestel,  408 
Diesterweg,  304 
Dietenberger,  168 
Dietrich,  145 
Veit,  142 


Dinter,  304 
Dippel,  272 
Disputation  at  Baden,  65 

■  Basel,  63 

Berne,  65 

Leipsic,  35 

Zurich,  62 


Dissenters,  120 

Dober,     Leonard,     247, 

260,  266 
Doderlein  of  Jena,  284 
Dodwell,  216 
Dollinger,  300,  391 
Domenichius    (the  pain- 
ter), 169 
Dominicans,  49,  188 
Dominus  ac  red.,  233 
Doring,  302 


Dorner,  368 
Dornum,  Ulric  v.,  56 
Dorpat,  374 
Dort,  Synod  of,  211 
Drechsler,  374 
Drecknieyer,  Henry,  182 
Dresden   Miss.    Society, 

324 
Drese,  Adam,  207,  249 
Drey,  390 
Droste-Hiilshof,  302 

-Vischering,     387, 


401 

Drummond,  409 
Drusius,  214 
Dubois,  232 
Duchoborzens,  239 
Dumpier,  315 
Dunin,  Archbishop,   402 
Diirer,  A.,  142 
Dusseldorf     school    of 

painting,  305 
Diisselthal,  304 
Duvergier,  191 

East    India    Missions, 
170,  230,  251,266,325 

Ebel,  408 

Ebeling,  208 

Eber,  Paul,  102,  142 

Eberhard,  280,  283 

Eberlin,  of  Giinzb.,  49 

Ebrard,  318,  338,  367 

Eck,  34,  35,  38,  65,  75, 
89,  168. 

Eccart,  145 

Edelmann,  278 

Edward  VI.,  119 

Egede,  .Hans,  252 

Egidius,  Juan,  127       . 

Egypt,  171 

Eichhorn,  J.  G.,  283 

preacher,  333 

Eichsfeld,  173 

Eisenach  Conference, 316 

Eisennieyer,  215 

Elia,  Paul,  119 

Elizabeth    of    Branden- 
burg, 58 

of  Caleuberg,  87 


Eller,  Elias,  274 
Eliot.  John,  217 
Eltester,  371 
Elvenich,  387,  388 
Elzevir,  214 
Emancipation  bill,  396 


INDEX. 


459 


Emilie,  Julianna,  248 
Emmerich,       Catharine, 

381 
Ems  Punctuation,  234 
Eraser,  Jerome,  40,  168 
Encyclopedists,  236 
Enfantin,  415 
Engelbrechtsen,  118 
England,  119,  338,  396 
English  ladies,  the,  187 
Engstfeld,  302 
Ennemoser,  299 
Enzina,  127 
Episcopal  system,  246 
Episcopius,  210 
Erasmus,  38,  46 
Erhkam,  329 
Erich  of  Calenberg,  96 
Ernesti,  281 
Ernestine  Bible,  209 
Ernest  the  Pious,  209 
Ernest  of  Liineberg,  52 
Esch.  John,  58 
Eschatology,   244 
Espinasse,  345 
Esthonia,  118 
Estius,  168 
Euler,  284 
Evangelical  Alliance,313 

for  Germany,  314 

Church  diet,  314 

Church  party,  Eng- 
land, 339 

Evangelist  schools,  322 
Ewald,  II.,  350,  371 

Miss,     among    the 

Jews,  325 

Eyth,  304 

Fabkr,  John,  65,  75 

Peter,  163 

Fagius,  119 
Familists,  156 
Fanatics    in     Germany, 

270 
Farel,  64,  109-10 
Fathers  of   the    oratory 

of  Jesus,  186 
Febronius,  137 
Feclu,  241 

Federal  theology,  213 
Feine,  252 
F6n61on,  190 
Ferdinand  1.,  50,51,82, 

89,  125,  126,  172 
II.,  173,  177 


Ferdinand    IV.    (I.)    of 

Naples,  377 
Ferrara,      Renata      de, 

127 
Feuerbach,  296,  364 
Feuillants,  166 
Fichte,  286,  295 
Fink,  Solomon,  182 
Finkenstein,  408 
Finuland,  117 
Firniian.  Count,  Archb., 

230 
Fi  sch  art,  147 
Fischer,  297 
Fisher,  Bishop,  119 
Flacius,    M.,    132,    136, 

146 
Flatt,  J.  Fr.  v.,  360 
Flechier,  194 
Flemming.  Paul,  205 
Flemingians,  218 
Fletcher,  267 
Fleury,  193,  232 
Fliedner,  232,  322 
Florencourt,  F.  v.,  381 
Flysteden,  58 
Fo'rbes,  Bishop,  341 
Formula  Concordise,  138 

Consens.  Helv.,212 

Forster,  146 
FouquS,  M.  de  la,  300 
Fourier,  416 
Fox,  George,  219 
France.    122,    178,    233, 

344,  395 
Francis  I.  II.  of  France, 

82 
Francis  of  Paris,  232 
Franciscans,  49 
Franck,  John,  206 

Sebastian.  156 

Francke,  Aug.  Hermann, 

199,  244,  250,  279 

Henry,  251 

Frankfort  suspension,  85 
Fransoni,  393 
Frederick  I.  of  Prussia, 

215 
II.,  234,  279,  280 

III.,  280,  310 

William   IV.,    311, 

327,  402 

II.,  III.,  IV.  of  the 


Frederick  Ancustus  the 

Strong,  180^ 
the  Magnanimous, 


the  AVise,  35 

William    of    Bran- 


denb.,  183 
Free  Congregations,  308 
Church     of     Scof 

land,  341 

Ch.  of  Vaud,  334 


Freemasons,  277 
Freethinkers,  225,  279 
Freiligrath,  301 
Freilinghausen,  248,249, 

250 
French  Convention,  235, 

236 

Directory,  235 

Evangel.  Soc,  322 

National  Ass.,  235 

Reformed  Ch.,  344 

Revolution,  235 

Fresne,  du,  194 
Freundsberg,  71 
Freyburg,  64 
Friedenstein,  convention 

at,  52 
Friends  (Quakers),  220 

of  Light,  308 

Fries,  295,  342,  356 
Friesland,  124 
Frith,  119 

Fritsch,  Ahasuerus,  203 
Fritsche,  K.  Fr.  A.,  358 
O.  F.,  360 


Palatinate,  89,  95,151, 
152 
—  I.  of  Denmark,  117  I  Gass,  371 


Froment,  Anthony,  110 
Frcreisen,  257 
Fry,  Elizabeth,  322 
Fulda,  173 
Funk,  John,  134 

Gabler,  Th.  A.,  283 

Andrew,  364 

Gabriel,  Didymus,  42 
Gcetano  de  Thiene,  165 
Galenists,  218 
Galenus  de  Ilsen,  218 
Gall,  St..  64,  65,  66 
Galle,  117 
Galilean  Church,  liberty 

of,  185 
Gallitzin,  289 
Garve,  Christ.,  280 
K.  B.,  302 


4G0 


INDEX, 


Gassner,  236 

Gebhard  of  Cologne,  109, 
174 

Geffkcn,  320 

Geibel,  302 

Geier,  200 

Geissel,  388 

Gellert,  287,  290 

General     Synod,     Prus- 
sian, 327 

Baptists,  219 

Geneva,    Consensus    of, 
110,  112,  113 

Evang.   Society  of, 


345 

Reformed  Church, 

334 

Gentilis,  Val..  159 
George  of  Anhalt,  79 

of  Brandbg.,  58,  74 

of  Saxony,  36,  57, 

85 
Gerhard,  John,  200,  203 
Gerhardt,  Paul,  183,  206 
Gerike.  John,  183 

Paul,  125 

Gerlach,    Ludwig,    307, 

376 
Otto,  v.,  323 

Stephen,  129 

St.  Germain,    Peace    of, 

122 
German  Philosophy,  286 

Catholic      Church, 

384 

Gervinus,  371 
Gesenius,  Justin,  205 
Gfrorer,  300,  381 
Gichtel,  John,  204,  221 
Gieseler,  360,  371 
Giessen,  182,  332 
Gil  (Egidius),  Juan,  127 
Gildermeister,  383 
Glapio,  39 
Glarus,  64 
Glassius,  200 
Glaubrecht,  O.,  303 
Gobat,  325 
Gobel,  318 
Gobet,  236 
Godeau,  193 
Gomarus,  210 
Goodwin,  215 
Gorham,  340 
Sikres,  Guido,  300,  302 
-?-  Joseph,  382 


Goschel,  296,  298,  316, 

303,  364,  375 
Gosehen,  299 
Gossner,  324,  326,  381 
Goethe,  287,  300 
Gotter,  A.,  248 
Gotteskasten,  312 
Gotthelf,  Jeremiah,  303 
Gottingen,  56 


Gotze,  285 
Grabau,  pastor,  351 
Granvella,  89 
Gras,  Louisa  le,  186 
Gratias,  Ort,  35 
Graumann,  143 
Grebel,  Conrad,  65 
Greece,  403,  404 
Greeks,  United,  174,  404 
Greenland,  252,  324 
Gregory  XIII.,  123,  162, 
174 

XV.,  185,  188 

-  XVI.,  378 
Christian,  264 


Grimm,  William,  360 
Griesbach,  282 
Groninger,  342 
Groot,  Hofstede  de,  342 
Gropper,  89,  92 
Grutius,  200,  215 
Gruber,  E.  L  ,  271 
Grubenhagen,  53 
Grumbach,  A.  v.,  50 
Gruntvig,  pastor,  342 
Griineisen,  319,  320 
Grynaeus,  Simon,  82 
Guantalla,  Countess  de, 

166 
Guericke,  308,  316,  372 
Guido,  Reni,  169 
Guise,  121,  122 
Guizot,  344 
Giinther,  Anthony,  388 
Cyriacus,  207 


Gunzburg,  Eberlin  of,  49 
GustavusAdolphus  slain, 
177 

Society,  312 


Giiterslok.  304 
Giitzlatf,  326 
Gutzkow,  353 
Guyon,  Mad..  190,  270 
Gymnasia,  304 

Haag,  334 

Haas,  Joseph,  406 


Hadrian  II.,  49 
Hagenau,  88,  89 
Hagenbach,  C.  R.,  367 
Hahn,  Aug.,  307,  361 

Michael,  290 

Missionary,  325 


Ilahnenfeld,  G.  v.,  408 
Hahn-Hahn,  Ida,  380 
Hakspau,  200 
Haldane,  275 
Haldanites,  275 

Orphan  House.  250 

University  of,    190, 


191 
Haller,  Berthold,  64,  65 

Albert,  284,  298 

Lewis,  298,  380 


Halt,  284 
Hamann,  288 
Hamburg,  56,  137 
Hamilton,  Patrick,  120 
Hammerschmidt,  208 
Hanau.  332 
Handel,  250 
Hiinlein,  283 
Hanover,  330 
Hardenberg,  137,  152 
Harless,  317,  330,   337, 

373 
Harms,  Claus,  317,  372 
Ilarnack,       Theodosius, 

317,  373 
Hase,  Charles,  307,  356, 

371 
Hasenkamp,  291 
Hasenpflug,  332 
Hassler,  Leo,  145 
Hattemisten,  276 
Hauber,  320 
Haug,  271 

Hauge,  Niels.  292,  343 
Hausmann,  Nicholas,  79 
11'avernick,  363 
Haydn,  305 
Haynau,  336 
Heart  of  Jesus,  worship 

of,  229 
Hebel,  288,  303 
Heber,  Bishop,  326 
Hedinger,  271 
Hedio,  Caspar,  63 
Herrmann,  J.,  205 
Hefele.  391 
Hegel.  296,  298 
Hezelians,  Young,  297 
Heidanus,  216 


INDEX 


461 


Heidegger,  212,  216 
Heidelberg     Catechism, 

151,  152 
Heideloff,  304 
Hoira,  J.,  64 
Heine,  Henry,   301,  415 
Heinrichs,  283 
Held,  II.,  205 

Vice-Chancellor,84 

Helding,  Michael,  100 
Helmbold,  144 
Helmstadt,  198 
Helsen,  383 

Helvetic  Confession,    I., 

83 
Helvetius,  236 
Hensstenberg,  307,  315, 

323.  329,  3()0 
Henhofer,  381 
Henke.  283 
Henkel,  332 
Henry  VIII.  of  England, 

46,  60,  119 

III.  (of  Anjou)   of 

France,  124,  125 

IV.  of  France,  123, 


124 

—  of  Brunswick,    52, 
92,  95 

—  of  Kettcrback,  49 
of  Saxony,  86 


Henschen.  194 
Hensel,  Louisa,  302 
Heppe      (of     Marburg), 

318,  309 
Herbart  (of  Kcinigsberg), 

297 
Herberger,  144,  203 
Herbert,  Edward,  225 
Herbst,  186 
Herder,  285 

Hermann,  Nicholas,  144 
of   Wicd,    Elector, 

80,  92 
Hermannsberg,  325 
Hermes,  387 
Hermits  of  the  Min.  Br., 

10b' 
Herrnschmidt,  248 
Herwegh,  301 
Hess.  John  Jacob,  285 
Hessen,    182,   285,   332, 

399 
Hessels,  167 
Hesshus,  151,  152 
Hetairia,  the  Greek,  402 

82* 


Hetzer,  65.  158 

Heubner,  360 

Heusenstaur,    Sebastian 
of,  95 

Heyling,  Peter  (Mission- 
ary), 209 

Hezel,  J.  W.  F.  (of  Dor- 
pat),  282 

Hicks,  Elias,  220 

High-Churchmen,  339 

Hildesheim,  174 

Hilgenfeld,  365.  366 

Hille,  J    G.,  249 

Hiller,  249 

Himioben,  385 

Hintze,  Jacob,  208 

Hippel,  289 

II irschberger  Bible,  251 

Hirscher,  382,  387 

Hitzig,  359,  374 

Hobbes,  225 

Hochmann,  270 

Hoe  v.  Hoenegg,  183 

Hofacker,  275 

Hoffman,  Melchior,  118 

in  Riesen,  333 

Fr.,  388 


Ilofmann,  317,  374 
Hofmeister,  64 
Honing,  317,  373 
Hofstede  de  Groot,  342 
Hohenlope,  381 
Holbach.  236 
Holbein,  142 
Holland  s.  Netherlands. 
Holleaz,  245 
Hollenberg,  366 
Holstensius,  194 
Holy  League,  83 
Homhurg,  55 

Christ..  206 

Home  Missions,  320,  322 

Congress  for,  321 

Honter,  Jacob,  126 
Hontheim,  234 
Hoogstraten,  14 
Hooper.  John,  411 
Hoornbeck,  215,  216 
Hopfner,  183 
Horoh,  G.,  276 
Horneius,  201 
Hospital,  L\  122 
Hottinger,  214 
Houhigant,  238 
Huber,  Samuel.  140 
Ilubnieier,  64,  65 


Huetius,  193 
Hufnagel,  283 
Hug,  L.,  387 
Huguenots,  122 
Huglin,  58 
Hugo,  Victor,  302 
Hiilsemann,  180,  196 
Hulsius,  216 
Humanists,  35,  127 
Humboldt,  Alex,  v.,  299 
Hume,  278 
Hundeshagen,  367 
Hunnius,  Algid.,  140 

Nicholas.  201 

Ulric.  193 


Hurter.  299.  300,  380 

Huschke,  317 

Husites.  Bohemian.    36, 

125 
Huther,  370 
Hutten,  Ulric  v.,  35,  36, 

37,  64 
Hutter,  L.,  183,  200 
Hymnology,  142,  289 
Hyperius,  150,  182,  225 
Hypocrites  (sect  of),  408 

Iceland,  118 
Illgen,  360 
Ilkiminati,  236,     91 
Illumination,  235,  277 
Immaculate  Conception, 

378 
Impostores,  tres,  159 
Independent,  120,  348 
Index  Prohibitarum,162 
Indulgences,  32 
Infants,  Asylum  for,  332 
Infralapsarians,  210 
Ingolstadt,  173 
Innocent  X.  XI.  XII.  185 
Inspired,  the,  271 
Interim,  100,  101 
Ireland,  128,  339,  396 
Irving,  Edward,  409 
Isabella  of  Spain,  393-4 

Zapoyla,  126 

Isenbiehl,  237 
Isenburg,  325 
Israelites,  New,  406 
Italy,  127-8,  345,  392 
Itinerants,  French,  322 
Ittig,  201 

Jablonsky,  256 

Jacob  III.  of  Baden,  180 


462 


INDEX 


Jacobi,  Fr.  II.,  288 
Jacoby,  350 
Jacobson,  '299 
Jahu,  Gustavus,  302,303 

John,  238 

James  I.  II.  of  England, 

156,  179,  184,  238 
Jiinike,  324 
Janow,  Matthias  of,  86 
Jansen,  Cornelius.  1  91 
Jansenists,  191,  231 
Japan,  326 
Jarcke,  380 
Jay,  Le,  192 
Jean,  Paul,  288 
Jedinoweizeu,  221 
Jena,  University  of,  133, 

198,  332 
Jeremiah  II.,  Patriarch, 

129 
Jerusalem,  F.  W.,  283 

Evang.,  see  of,  325 

New,  Church,  407 

Jesuits,  163,  172,  379 
Order       abolished, 


233 


restored,  377 


Jews  in  England,  340 

Joachim  I.   of  Brandb., 
58 

II.,  90,  100 

John    III.    of    Portugal, 
228 

V.,  of  Port,,  90, 100 

, George  of  Anhalt- 

Dessau,  152 

Casimir,  152 

de  Dio,  166 

Elector,  78 

Ernest,  152 

Frederick  of   Sax- 
ony, 78 

of  the  Cross,  166 

of  Leydeu,  157 

-  Presbyter,  77 
Sigismund,  182 


Jonas  of  Berlin,  371 
Justus,  40,  72,  74, 


76,  142 
Jones,  David,  325 
J  org,  E.,  299,  382 
Joris,  D.,  156,  157 
Joseph  I.  of  Austria,  228, 

379 

II.  of  Aust.  234,238 

Juda,  Leo,  63,  83,  150 


Juliana  of  Rudolst.,  248 
Julian  de  Medici,  50 
JUlicrs-Cleve-Berg,  178 
Julius  III.,  162 
Jumpers,  275 
Jung-Stilling,  288 
Junius,  Francis,  150 
Jus  circa  sacra,  228 
Jiiterbock,  34 
Juvenile  asylums,  321 

Kadan,  Peace  of,  78 

Kahnis,  317,  373 
Kaiserswerth,  322 
Karg  Controversy,  138 
Kiiser,  58 
Kaulbach,  305 
Keerl,  323 
Keil,  375 
Keith,  G.,  219 
Keller,  399 
Kellner,  311 
Kempen,  Stephen,  49 
Kepler,  298 
Kerner,  Justin,  310 
Kessler,  43,  64 
Kettelar,  Baron  v.,  399 
Kettenbach,  49 
Kettler,  Gotth.,  118 
Keymann,  206 
Keyset",  Jacob,  67 
Kirschenhardhof,  333 
Klehitz,  137,  151 
Klee,  390 
Kleuze,  304 
Kleuker,  284 
Kliefoth,  317,  319,  320, 

373 
Klopstock,  287,  289 
Kluge,  323 
Knack,  G.,  302 
Knapp,  Alb.,    195,    302, 

319 

G.  Chr.,  284 


Kneeling  Order,  336 
Knipperdolling,  81 
Ktiobel,  359,  371 
Kniipken,  118 
Know-Nothings,  348 
Knox,  121 
Knutzen,  226 
Kocher,  320 
Kodde,  219 
Kohlbriigge,  319 
Kohler,  Gabr.,  273 
Kolb,  Fr.,  64 


Kolping,  386 
Konig,  201 
Konigsberg,  198 
Koppe,  283 

Koppen,  Albert,  284,  41* 
Kornthal,  332 
Kortholt,  201 
Kottwitz,  360 
Krabbe,  O.,  317,  373 
Krafft,  336 
Krapf,  325 
Krause,  371 
Krauth,  350 
Krechting,  81 
Kreuser,  385 
Kriidener,  309,  334 
Krummacher,    Fr.    Ad  , 
SI  8 

Fr.  W.,  314,  318 

G.  D.,  318 


Kugelmann,  145 
Kuhlmann,  221 
Kuhn,  390 

Lababie,  220 
Labbie,  193 
Labrador,  324 
La  Combe,  190 
Ladenberg,  328 
Ladies,  English,  187 
Lainez,  122,  163 
Lamartine,  302 
Lambert  of  Avignon,  49 

55,  62 
Lamennais,  382 
Lammer,  Hugo,  381 
Lammists,  218 
Lampe,  Fred.  Ad.,  269 
Lamy,  193 
Lancelot,  201 
Langbecker,  183 
Lange.  John  P.,  302,  367 
Joachim,  244,  248 


Lankisch,  200 
Lapland,  148,  324 
Lardner,  278 
L'asare,  342 

Lasco,  John  a,  119,  124 
Latitudinarians,  211 
Latter-day  Saints,  412 
Laufen,  78 
Laurentii,  207 
Lavater,  285,  288 
Layritz.  319,  320 
Lazarists,  186 
Lazaro,  St.,  229 


INDEX 


463 


Leade,  Jane,  220 
League,  Holy,  83,  123 
Lee,  A..  27lf 
Legacy  bill,  269,  395 
Lehnius,  24S 
Lehr,  Fr.,  248 
Leibnitz,  181,  223 
Leipsic  Interim,  135 

Gen.  Convoc,  383 

Relig.  Confer.,  183 

Leland,  J.,  269,  278 
Lemgo,  80,  182 
Lenau,  Nicholas,  302 
Lengerke,  360 
Leo  X.,  32,  38,  39 

XII..  377 

Henry.  300 

Leopold  I.,  181 

of  Tuscany,  235 

Lepp,  300 

Less,  284 

Lessing,  Ephr.,  282 

Charles    Fr.,    287, 

305 
Lestrange,  Henry  de,  380 
Letters  of  Majesty,  125 
Lewis  V.  of  Hessen,  182 

of  Hungary,  126 

VI.   of  the   Palat., 

152 

Leydecker,  216 
Leyden,  John  of,  157 
Leyscr,  Polyc,  146,  183 
Liberia.  325 
Libertinism,  376 
Liebig,  299 
Liebner,  368 
Light,  Friends  of,  308 
Lightfoot,  214 
Liguarians,  229,  379 
Lilienthal,  284 
Lindanus,  William,  168 
Lindberg,  342 
Lippe,   the  principality, 

182,  332 
Lisco,  323 
Liturgy,  Prussian,  320 

early  Lutheran.  142 

Livonia.118,177, 263,346 

Lobwas.ser,  149 

Loci  Communes,  43 

Locke,  223,  278 

Loffler,  283 

Lohe,  W.,317,  322,  337, 

350,  373 
Lohnmiiller,  118 


Lola  Montes,  337 

Long,  Le,  238 

Loscher,  241,   244,  248, 

256 
Louis  XIII. 

178 
XIV.. 


of   Fiance, 

178,  185, 
188,  232,  235 

XV.,  XVI.,  231 

Louisa  Henr.  of  Orange, 
184,  217 

Low  Church  party,  339 

Lowcnstern,  205 

Loyola,  163,  185 

Lii'bben,  184 

Liibeck,  56 

Lubker,  300 

Lucaris,  176 

Liicke,  367 

Ludamilie  Elisab.,  206 

Lude,  273 

Ludwig,  333 

Luft,  Hans.  60 

Liineberg.  54 

Luther,  32,  etc.,  54, 143, 
etc. 

Lutheran  theology,  224 

Lutherans,  sep.  Prus- 
sian, 116-17 

Luthardt,  374 

Liitkens,  provost,  268 

Lutterbeck,  388 

Lucerne,  64 

Lyons.  38 

Union  Society,  386 

Mabillon,  194 
Madagascar,  325 
Madai,  346 
Magdeburg,  53,  56 

centuries,  147 

Magnus  of  Mecklenb.,  87 
Maier,  A.,  391 
Maintenon,  190 
Maistre,  J.  de,  382 
Major,  G.,  95,  135 
Majorist      Controversy, 

135 
Makowsky,  215 
Malacani,  239 
Malachi's,  St.,  prophecy, 

162 
Maldonatus,  John,  162 
Malvenda,  89.  95 
Mandeville,  278 
Mansi,  238 


Mantua,  Council  of,  83 
Manuel,     Nicholas,     64, 

147 
Manz,  Fel.,  65 
Marburg  Colloquy,  72 

University  of,  55 

Marca,  P.  de,  194 
Marck,  J.,  159 
Maresius,  212,  215 
Marezoll,  283 
Margaret  of  Parma,  121 
of  the  Saal,  88 


Marheineke,  296,  364 
Mariana,  John,  165,  168 
Mavloratus,  150 
Marot,  Clement,  149 
Marsay,  271 
Marsden,  326 
Martham,  215 
Martene,  194 
Martensen,  369 
Martian  ay,  238 
Martin,  St.,  238 
Martin  institut.,  322 
Martinuzzi,  126 
Martyr,  Peter,  150 
Marx,  42 

Mary  of  England,  119 
Stuart,  121,  184 


Masch,  of  Halle,  238 
Massacre,  the  Irish,  179 

of  Stockholm,  115 

of  Thorn,  230 


Massilon,  194 
Matthias,  Emp.,  177 
Mathys,  80,  81 
Mathesus,  142,  144 
Matthew,  father,  396 
Maulbroun  formula,  13^ 
Maurice  of  Hessen,  182, 
217 

—  of  Orange,  121 
of  Saxony,  90,  97 


Maurines,  186 
Mauritius,  325 
Maximilian    II.. 
125,  126,  172 

I.  of  Bavaria,  174 

-  king,  337 


Emp., 


Mayence,  38,  173 
Mayer,  Frederick,  24.1 
Maynooth  Bill,  396 
Measures,  new,  349 
Mechitarists,  228 
Mecklenburg,  87,  331 
Schwerin,  402 


4G4 


INDEX. 


Megerle,  194 

Meissen.  91 

Mejer.  299,  373 

Mekhitar,  228 

Melanchthon,  36,  72, 
134,  136,  etc. 

Melanchthonian  Church, 
318 

Melanchtlion  and  Cal- 
vinism, 318 

Mellisander  (Briene- 
tnann),  144 

Mendelsohn,  280 

Barthold,  305 

Mendez,  175 

Menken,  291 

Menno,  Simon,  157 

Mennonites,  157,  218 

Menochins,  193 

Mentjer,  J..  249 

Balth.,  197 

Menzel,  Adam,  300 
Mercerus,  150 

Mercv.  Brothers  of,  186 

■ Sisters  of,  186 

Merlean,  Eleanor  v.,  270 
Merle,  d'Aubigne,  314 
Merseburg.  50 
Mesmer,  299 
Messner,  366 
Methodists,  267.  349 
Mettrie  (La),  236 
Meyer,  Fr.  v.,  299.  302 

-  IT.  A.  W..  370 

Sebast.,  64 

Meyffart,  205 
Michaelis.  J.  D.,  281 

J.  H.,  245 

Michelians,  237 
Michl,  237 
Miguel,  Don,  394 
Miltiz,  37 
Milton.  217 
Minorites,  166 
Missionary  Institute  of 

Hermansb.,  324 
Societies,  292,  323, 

324,  384 
Missions,    Amer.    Board 

of,  324 

heathen,  187 

■ Priests  of,  186 

Missouri  Synod    (Luthe- 
ran), 330,  350 
Moderate  Party,  338 
Mogila,  Petpr,'l76 


Mohler,  390 

Mokucz.  battle  of,  126 

Molanus,  181 

Moleschatt,  299 

Molina,  167 

Molinos,  189 

Molitor,  388 

Mollenhok,  81 

Moller,  M.,  144 

Momiers,  334 

Momma,  215 

Monads,  224 

Moniteur,  the,  345 

Monod,  344 

Montalte,  L.  de,  191 

Montalto,  Cardinal,  162 

Montanus,  Arias,  168 

Montesquieu,  236 

Montaubon,  150 

Montpelier,  150 

Moravians,  253,  256, 
etc.,  323 

More,  Sir  Thomas,  119 

Morelschiki,  the,  222 

Morinus,  192 

Morlin,  134 

Mormons,  412 

Morrison,  326 

Morrone,  89,  107 

Mortara,  381 

Morus,  284 

Moser,  J.  J.,  249,  251 

Mosheim,  238,  245 

Moulin,  P.  du,  212 

Movers,  387 

Moves,  302 

Mozart,  305 

Mucker,  408 

Miihlberg,  91 

Muhlenberg,  349 

Muhlhausen,  45 

Miihlheisen,  64 

Miihler,  299 

Miiller.  Adam,  380 

II.,  203 

John  v.,  288 

Julius,  368 

Missionary,  326 

Miinchmeyer,  317 

Mundt,  Tii.,  415 

Munich  school  of  pain- 
ters, 305 

Miinscher,  359 

M unster.  city  of,  80,  81, 
157.  174 

Sebastian,  150 


Miinzer,  42.  44,  45,  65 
Muratori,  238 
Murner,  the,  47,  65,  147 
Musteus,  John,  201 
Simon,  152 


Musculus,  Andr.,  138 
Wolfg.,  140 


Music,     169,    239,    290, 

305 
Myconius  (Mecum),  49 
Oswald,  83 


Mysos,  Demetr.,  129 
Mysticism,  German,  189, 
202,  203 

Nagelsbacii,  300 
Nantes,    Edict    of,    124, 

178 
Napoleon  I.,    231,    344, 

376-7 

III.,  395 


Nassau,  334 

Nast,  351 

Natali«,  Alex.,  193 

Nathusius,  Mary,  303 

National  Assem.,  French, 

376 
— —  Convention,  235-6 
Natives,  348 
Natorp,  320 
Naturalization,  225 
Naunibnrg  see,  91 
Nauvoo,  41  2 
Neander,  Aug.,  354,  360 

Joachim,  21 7 

Nebraska  Bill,  348 
Neobulus,  88 
Neri,  166,  194 
Netherlands,    120,    341, 

396 

Anabaptists,  218 

Neuenberg,  67 
Neumann,  C,  269 
Neumann,  Caspar.  269 
Neumark,  G.,  206 
Neutneister,  241,  248 
Nevin,  J.  W..  351 
New  Israelites.  406 

Jems.  Church,  374 

Zealand.  324 

Newmaim,  339,  340 
Newton.  298 

Nicole,  193 

Nicolai  Book-store,  280 

Henry,  156 

Philip,  144,  146 


INDEX. 


465 


Nicolai,  St.,  Church,  183 
Nidda,  80 
Niedner,  388 
Niemeyer,  2S3,  304 
Nikon,  patriarch,  221 
Nimpstch,  59 
Nismes,  Edict  of,  178 
Nitsch,  G.,  251,  328 
Nitschmann,  D.,  256, 261 
Nitzsoh,  320,  326,  368 
Noailles,  231,  232,  390 
Nohili,  170 
Nobreya.  Email.,  171 
Non-conformists,  184 
Non-intrusionists,  341 
North  America,  347,  396 
Norway,  118,   252,  291, 

343 
Nosselt,  284 
Note-hooks  (music),  320 
Novalis,  301 
Nuremberg,  56 

Diet,  49,  50 

League,  88,  90 

Kelig.  Peace,  77,  82 

Oates,  Titds,  179-80 
Oberlin,  288 
Ochino,  119.  128,  166 
O'Connell.  396 
Odense,  Diet  of,  117 
CEcolampadius,    64,    65, 

72.  150 
(Erebro,  116 
(Erstedt,  299 
(Ertel,  Wm.,  303 
CEtengerl,  274 
Oiscliinger,  390 
Oldenbarnveld,  21 1 
Oldenburg,  331 
Olevian,  Caspar,  151 
Olevitanus,  Rob.,  110 
Olshausen,  362,  408 
Chicken    (of   Hamburg), 

405 
Opitz,  205 
Oratories,  194 
Oratory,  Fathers  of,  106, 

186 

Priests  of  the,  165 

Organs,  145 
Orlnraiinde,  43-4 
Osiander,    52,    92,    134, 

197 
Osiandrian  controversy, 

134 

82* 


Otterbein,  351 
Ottheinrich,  92 
Overbeck,  305 
Owen,  Robert,  407,  415 
Oxford,  339 

Pabst,  J.  H.,  388,  389 

Pachelbel,  209 

Pack,  O.,  57,  70 

Paderborn,  80,  168 

Paez,  1 75 

Pagi,  Anthony,  193 

Pagninus  Sanctus,  167 

Painting,  305 

Pajon,  212 

Palatinate,  the,  91,  151. 

177-8 
Palestrina,  167 
Papebroch,  194 
Paracelsus,  156 
Paraguay,  188,  230 
Parallel  formulary,  328 
Paris  polysrlott,  192 
Parma,  233 
Parker.  Theodore,  406 
Particular  Baptists,   219 
Pascal,  191,  193,  233 
Passau,  treaty  of,  105 
Passavant,  299 
Paul  III  ,  83,  162 

V.,  167.  185 

Jean,  288 

Paula,  Vincent  de,  186 
Paulus,  Dr.,  358 
Pax  dissident.,  125 
Pearson,  214 
Peasants'  war,  65 
Peith,  389 
Pellicanus,  150 
Penn,  William,  220 
Peretti,     Felix     (Sixtus 

V.),  162 
Perkins  (of  Cambridge), 

216 
Perrone,  388 
Pestalozzi,  289,  303 
Pestavins,  193 
Peter,  Marg,  406 
I.  of  Russia,  239 


Petersen,  J.  W.,  270 
Peterson  Brothers,  115 
Petri,  Adam,  317,  331 
Olaus,  116 


Pfaff,  M.,  245,  247,  268 

Bible,  the,  251 

Pfefl'erkorn,  248 
Pfeffinger,  136 
Pfeitfer,  Augustus,  200 
Pfeil,  I,,  v.,  249 
Pfenninger,  285 
Pflugk,  Julius  v.,  89,  91, 

95,  100 
Philadelphia  Society,220 
Philip  II.  of  Spain,  121, 
127 

of  Anhalt,  79 

of  Ilessen,   52,   78, 

87.  88,  90,  182 
Philippi,  317,  373,  374 
Philippists.  132 

Philipps,  299,  380 

Philology,  oriental,  214 

Piarists,  186 

Pick,  Israel,  412 

Picpus   association,    Pa- 
ris, 386 

Pideritz,  80 

Piedmont,  178,  345 

Pietism,  244 

Pietistic        controversy, 
199,  241 

Pilgrim  Fathers,  348 

Pin,  du,  194 

Pirstinger.  47,  168 

Pischon,  371 

Pistoja,  Synod  of,  229 

Pitzipios  of  Scio,  404 

Pius  IV.,  162 

VI.,  234,  235,  239 

VII.  VIII.  IX.,  377 


378 


Societie,  384 


Petrowitsch,  239 
Peucer,  137,  153 
Peyrerius,  216 


Place,  La(Placfeus),212 
Planck,  284,  360 
Plater,  Th.,  64,  65 
Platner,  280 
Platon.  239 
Plettenberg,  118 
Pliitschau,  251 
Plymouth  Brethren(Dar- 

byitesl,  412 
Pocci,  302 
Pococke,  214 
Podiebrad,  56,  270 
Poiret,  P.,  190.  220 
Poissy,  Rel.Conf.  at,  122 
Pole,  Matth.,  214 
Poliander,  144 
Polozk,  Synod  of,  403 


46G 


INDEX 


Polns,  Reginald,  128 
Polyglott     Bibles,     168, 

191,  214 
Pomare,  326 
Pom hul,  233 
Pomerania,  79 
Pontian  v.  Hatten,  276 
Pordage,  220 
Porst,  J.,  251 
Port  Royal,  191 
Portugal,  233,  394 
Poschl,  406 
Possevin,  116,  174 
Pott,  Gebr.,  271 

Jul.,  283 

Prsecep'tor  Germ.,  36 
Prietorius,  Jacob,  146 

Jerome,  145 

Stephen,  203 

Pratt,  Orson,  413 
Prayer-meetings,  323 
Pregeziani,  291 
Presbyterians,  120,  348 
Prieri'as,  34 
Priestly.  406 
Probabilism,  165 
Professi,  164 
Professio  fid.  Trid.,  107 
Prokopowicz,  239 
Proli,  407 
Propaganda,  188 
Protestants,  7  1 
Protestant  Friends,  308 
Proudhon,  41 6 
Province    of   the    Upper 

Rhine,  399 
Prussia,  56,  327,  401 
Prussian  General  Synod, 

327 
Publication    Society    of 

Caleo,  322 
Puchta,  299 
Pufendorf,  Samuel,  247 
Purists,  200 
Puritans,  120,  218 
Pusey,  340 
Puseyites,  339 

Qiiakkrs,  218.  219 
Quedlinburg,  80 
Quenstedt,  201 
Quesnel,  231 
Quietists,  189 

Radama,  R.,  325 

Uahtmanu,  203 


Racov  Catechism,  160 
Rarabach,  J.  J..248,  251 
Ranavalona,  325 
Railed,  186 
Rapp,  G.,  407 
Rapperschwyl.  68 
Raskolniken,  221 
Rationalism,    277,    307, 

357 
Raumer,  298,  304,  319 
Ravaillac,  124 
Headers,  343 
Rechenberg,  201 
Recke,     Volmarstein, 

Count,  321 
Redemptorists     (Liqua- 

rians),  229,  379 
Redwitz,  O.,  302 
Reformed  Ch.  Societies, 

324 
Refugie"s,  178 
Regensburg  Colloq.,   89, 

95 

Confeder.,  57 

Convent.,  51 

Diet.  77,  89 

Interim,  90 

Reformation  of,  92 

Regulations,      Prussian, 

304 
Reich  enbachConference, 

317 
Reichlin-Meldegg,  3S7 
Reimarus,  282 
Reinbeck,  246 
Reinhard,  Martin,  117 
Fr.    Volkni.,    284, 

366 
Reinke,  391 
Reland,  269 
Remonstrants,  211 
Renata  of  Ferrara,  111, 

127 
Renatus,  Chr.,  265 
Repeal  association,  396 
Reservations,  eccles.  108 
Restitution,  Edict  of,  177 
Reuchlin,  36 
Reumann,  206 
Reuss,  Edw.,  370 

G..  219 

Reussner,  144 
Renter,  366 
Revivals,  347 
Reybaud,  415 
Rhaw,  G.,  145 


Rhegius,  Urb.,  50 
Reinthal,  68 
Rheinthaler,  322 
Rheinwald,  357,  366 
Rheitmayer,  391 
Rhynsburger,  219 
Ricci,  Lor.,  233 

Matth.,  170 

Scipio,  235 

Richelieu,  178 
Richter,  Chr.  Fr.,  248-8 
Fr.,  364 

Gregory,  204 

in  Barmen.  323 

Ludw.  A.,  299 

Ridley,  119 

Rieger,  251 

Riffel,  300 

Riga,  118 

Rigdon,  Sidney,  413 

Ping.  Melchior,  116 

Ringwald,  144 

Ringeis,  299,  398 

Rinkart,  205 

Rio  do  Janeiro,  151 

Rist,  J.,  205 

Ritter,  Erasmus,  64,  66 

Charles,  300 

Ritschl,  365 
Robespierre,  236 
Rock,  Saddler,  271 
Rodigast,  205 
Rodrigruez,       Christo- 
pher, 171 

Simon,  163 

Rogasden,  304 
Rohr,  308,  330,  357 
Roll,  Al.,  212 
Roman  Cath.  theol.,  237 
Romance  literature,  300 
Romano,  F.  S.,  127 
Rouge,  John,  383 
Ronsdorf  sect,  274 
Poos,  M.  Fr.,  285 
Rosamund  of  Asseb.,  270 
Rosenbach,  271 
Rosenkranz,  Charles, 364 
Rosenkreuger,  203 
Rosenmuller,  John,  208 
J.  G.,  283 

F.  K.,  3(H) 

Rosenroth,      Knorr     v., 

206,  249 
OSSi,  de. 


R 


238 


Rostock,  56 

Rotach,  league  of,  72 


INDEX. 


467 


Rothe,  J.  A.,  249,  255 

Charles,  411 

Richard,  369 

Rothenmoor,  317 
Rothweil,  64 
Rottmann,  80,  81 
Roublin.  William,  63 
Rough  House,  Hamburg, 

322 
Rousseau,  236 
Royko,  237 

RUckert,  Fr.,  302,  371 
Rudelbach,  317,  329,372 
Rudolf     II.,     Emperor, 

125,  126,  173,  177 
Ruge,  Arnold,  296 
Ruinart,  194 
Rumpf,  335 
Rupp,  308.  312 
Russel,  Lord  John,  340 
Russia,  346,  403 
Russian  sects,  221 

Sabbatarians,  219 
Sach,  F.  A.,  283 
Sachs,  Hans,  143,  147 
Saghed,  175 
Sagittarius,  201 
Sailer,  M.,  237,  380,  381 
Saints,  Latter-day,  412 
Sales,  Fr.  v.,  106,   189, 

191 
Salesianesses,  186 
Salle,  J.  B.  de  la,  187 
Sailer,  301 
Salmasius,  216 
Salmeron,  Alphonso,  163 
Salzburg,  230 
Salzmann,  280 
Sanchez,  Thomas,  165 
Snnctis,  Dr.  de,  346 
Sand,  George,  302,  356 
Sandwich  Islands,  326 
Sardinia,  346,  393 
Sarpi,  P.,  185,  194 
Sartorius,  372 
Saurin,  269 
Savigny,  299 
Saxony,  Allenberg,  330 

Elector  of,  54,  329 

Schade,  Ch.,  241 
Schaff,  Ph.,  351 
Schaffer,  350 
Schaffhausen,  64-67 
Schall,  Adam,  188 
Sohaller,  364 


Schalling,  144 
Scharnabeek  Diet,  56 
Schartlin,  97 
Schefer,  Leop.,  301 
Scheffler,  189 
Schegg,  391 
Scheibel,  189,  336,  372 
Scheidemann,  145 
Schein,  207 
Schelling,  287,  297 
Schelwig,  240 
Schenck,  302 
Schenkel,  367 

Daniel,  334 


Schulteus,  269 

Schulz  of  Gielsdorf,  280 

David,  359 

Stephen,  252 


Schulze,  283 
Schurmaun,  220 
Sohutz,  H.,  208 
Jacob,  207 


Schenkendorf,  301 
Scherlock,  278 
Sclierzer,  201 
Scheurl,  299 
Schiebler,  K.  W.,  204 
Schiller,  287 
Schinkel,  304 
Schirmer,  206 
Schlachtorp,  80 
Schlatter,  Michael,  349 
Schlegel,  F.,  301,  380 

J.  Ad.,  289 

Schleiermacher,274,298, 

353,  307 
Schleswig,  56,  343 
Schlichtling,  160 
Schlottmann,  311 
Schmid,  Leop.,  388,  399 
Schmidt,  Chr.,  360 

Christopher,  303 

Erasmus,  200 

Lorenzo,  279 

Sebastian,  200 


Schwabach  Artt.,  72 

convent,  72 

Schwarz,  Chr.  Fr.,  233 

Charles,  330 

Schwenkfeld,  155 
Sclvwerin,  328 
Scotland,  120 

EstablishedChurch, 


Schmieder,  323 
Schmolcke,  249,  251 
Schmucker,  350 
Schneckenburger,  367 
Schneesing,  143 
Schneider,  Th.,  366 
Schnepf,  69,  78 
Schnorr,  305 
Scholastics,  164 
Schonherr,  408 
School-Brethren,   Chris- 
tian, 187 

Sisters,  poor,  380 


Schop,  208 
Schrockh,  285 
Schroder,  J.  H.,  248 
Schubert.  G.  H.  v.,  289, 

298,  303 
Schuderoff,  283 


341 


Free  Ch.,  341 


Scriver,  203 
Scultetus,  Martin,  56 
Sebastian  of  Heusenst., 

95 
Seckendorf,  201 
Sects,  218 
Seculars,  164 
Sedan, 150 
Segned,  175 
Seidel,  302 
Seiler,  285 
Selden,  215 
Selle,  208 

Selnecker,  138,  144,  146 
Semler,  281 

Sendonier  consens.,  124 
Synod  of,  124 


Senfl,  L.,  145 
Sengler,  390 
Sepp,  302 

Serrarius,  Nich.,  168 
Servetus,  159 
Seventh-day       Baptists, 

219 
Severius,  Wolfg.,  173 
Shaftesbury,  278,  314 
Shakers,  275 
Sherlock,  278 
Sibour,  304 
Siccardi,  -393 
Sickingen,  36,  43,  63 
Sierra  Leone,  324 
Sigismund    of    Brandb., 

182 

I.  of  Poland,   116, 


124 


Aug.,  124 
Aug.  III.,  125 


4G8 


INDEX 


Silesia,  54,  177,  228 
Simon,  Richard,  192-3 
VI.,  VII.,  of  Lippe, 


Simon,  St..  415 
Simons    Merino,  157 
Simson,  360 
Siutenis,  308 
Sirmond,  194 
Sixtiua  editio,  192 
Sixtus  V.,  162,  192 

of  Siena,  168 

Skopsi.  222 

Slave-trade,  171,324.348 
Smalcald  Articles,  83,  84 

League  of,  81 

War,  96 

Smets,  302 
Smith,  Joseph,  412 
Socialism,  415 
Socinians,  160,  184 
Socinus,  160 
Soest  Reformat.,  80 
Sohr,  P.,  208 
Sollicitudo  Omnium,  379 
Sollure,  68 
Solo th urn,  67 
Somnambulism,  299 
Sonderbund  war,  403 
Southcote,  406 
Sozzini,  158 

Spain,  126.  223,  345,  393 
Spalatin,  74,  142 
Spalding,  283 
Spangenberg,  262 
Spanheim,  212,  216 
Spee,  Ft\,  195 
Spencer,  215 
Spener,  19S,  203 
Spengler,  Laz.,  56,  142 
Speratus,  143 
Spiegel,  Archb.,  401 
Spiera,  Fr.,  128 
Spinola,  198 
Spinoza,  223 
Spires,  53,  88,  94 
Spirit  rappings,  299 
Spiritualism,  348 
Spitta,  302 
Spittler,  283 
Springer  sect,  406 
Stach,  252 
Stackhouse,  269 
Stahl,  299,  370 
Stancarus,  134 
6tapfer,  269 


Staphylus.  134,  172 
Starek,  Benj.,  245 
Starke,  Christopher,  251 
Staroobradzi,  221 
Starowerzi,  221 
Staudenmaver,  390 
Staudlin,  284,  360,  391 
Staufen,  Argul.,  50 
Staupitz,  33 
Stegmann,  205 
Steiger,  363 
Stein,  Freih.  v.,  307 
Steinbart,  280.  283 
Steinbiihler,  237 
Steinnietz,    Abbot,    251, 

257 
Stephan,  Martin,  329 
Stephanists,  329 
Steudel,  360 
Stier,  319,  323,  363 
Stilling,  288 
Stip,  319 
Stirner,  416 
Stobaeus,  145 
Stober,  303 
Stockfleth,  209,  324 
Stolz,  Alban.,  303 
Stohr,  Seb.,  65 
Stollberg,  L.  v.,  231 
Amette  v.,  87 


S torch,  Nich.,  42 
Storr,  284,  360 
Strassburg.  344,  345 
Strauch,  198 
Strauss,   296,  335,   364, 
375 

Victor,  302 

Strigel,  Victor,  146 
Stuart,  Mary,  121,  184 

Moses,  348 

Stiibner,  42 
Sture,  Sten,  115 
Sturm,  Jul.,  302 
Sue,  Eugene,  302 
Sumists,  218 
Supernaturalists,  360 
Supralapsarians,  210 
Swabian  league,  78 
Sweden,  115 
Swedenborg,  270,  274 
Switzerland,  63-68,  212 
Sydow,  376 
Syncretism,  198 
Synergists,  135 
Synod,    Holy    directing, 
239 


Table-moving,  299 
Tafel,  275 
Tahiti,  326 

Tamul  New  Test,  251 
Tasso,  169 
Tauber,  Casper,  58 
Tausen,  Hans,  117 
Taute,  297 
Teachers'  Bible,  323 
Teetotallers,  396 
Tegetmeier,  118 
Teller,  Abr.,  280,  283 
Rom.,  251 


Tellier,  Le,  231 
Templers,  New,  407 
Tennhardt,  270 
Territorial  system,  246 
Tersteegen,  269 
Test-act.  179,  184 
Tetzel,  32 
Theatines,  165 
Theiner,  Augustine,  379 
Thenius,  Otto,  360 
Theophilanthropists,  236 
Theophylact  of  Moscow, 

239 
Theosophy,  203 
Theresa,  166 
Thibaut,  299,  320 
Thiersch,  375 
Thilo,  205 
Tholuck,  360 
Thomas  Institute,  345 
Thomasius,       Christian, 

200,  244,  247 

Gottfr.,  317,  373 

Thomassinus,  193 
Thorn,     declaration     of, 

125,  180 

Lampert,  58,  198 

massacre  of,  230 

religious   colloquy, 

180 
Thorwaldsen,  305 
Thurgovia.  67,  68 
Tiedge,  307 
Tieftruck,  283 
Tieck,  300 
Tienti,  326 

Tigurine  consensus,  113 
Till,  Solomon,  216 
Tillemont,  193 
Tillotson,  211 
Timann,  152 
Tindal,  Matth.,  278 
Tindale,  William,  119 


INDEX 


4G9 


Tippleskirch,  408 
Tirinus,  193 
Tischendorf,  370 

Titian,  169 
Tithe-bill,  39G 
Title-bill,  397 
Tittman,  360 
Tobler,  283 
Toggenburg,  67 
Toland,  278 

Toleration-act,  Eng  and, 
184 

patent,  328 

Toletus,  165 
Tollner,  281 
Torelli,  Louisa,  166 
Torgau  articles,  74 

Book,  138 

League,  52-3 

Tournon,  188 
Tract  societies,  322 
Transylvania,  126 
Trappists,  186,  379,  380 
Tremellius,  150 
Trent,    Council    of,    94, 

164 
Trepton  Diet,  79 
Treves,  173 

Tridentinse  prof,  fid.,  167 
Trolle,  Gustavus,  115 
Tschirner,  360 
Tiibingen,  79 

Jahrbucher,  365 

Tuch,  359 
Tucher,  320 
Tuchfeldt,  270 
Tunkers,  275 
Turretin,  Alphonso,  269 

Fr.,  212,  216 

Tuscany,  346 

Leopold  of,  235 

Twesten,  368 
Tyndale,  119 

Ubiquitism,  137 
Uhland,  301 
Uhlich,  308 
Ulenberg,  192,  193 
Ulmann,  334,  366,  368 
Ulrich  of  Dornum,  56 

Wiirtemb.,  78 

Ulrici,  297 
Ultramontism,  344,  376, 

381 
Dmbreit,  366,  368,  3"0, 

376 

83 


Uniformity,  act  of,  120 
Unigenitus,  231 
Union,  Form  of,  138 

N.  German,  322 

-  Protestant,  310 
schemes,  176,  183 


United  Brethren,  351 

Greeks,  174,  403-4 


Unitarians,     158,     etc., 

405,  etc. 
Unitas  Fratrum,  253,  etc. 
Univers,   the,   of    Paris, 

345 
Upsala,  Disputat.  of,  116 
Urban  VIII.,  175,  185 
Urlsperger,  John,  292 
Ursinus,  Zacharias,  151, 

268 
Ursulines,  166 
Usher,  215 
Utah,  413 
Utrecht,  Church  of,  232 

Vadian,  64,  66 
Valais,  64 
Valdez,  126,  128 

Valenti,  de,  299 
Valer,  Rodr.,  126 
Valette,  la,  233 
Valsanite,  380 
Vanne,  St.,  Congreg.  of, 

186 
Variata,  C.  A.,  133 
Vasa,  Gustavus,  114, 148 
Vasquez,  165 
Vassar,  193 
Vaud,  334 
Vega,  Lope  de,  195 
Veeze,  J.  v.,  85 
Veith,  305,  389, 
Veltline  massacre,  177 
Venice,  185 
Venturini,  282 
Vergerius,  83,  128 
Vermillio,  119 
Vernet,  305 

Versailles,  Edict  of,  231 
Verschooren,  305 
Veuillot,  304,  382 
Veyth  (the  painter),  305 
-  J.  Eman,  389 
Hermann  v.,  400 


Vicari,  384 
Victor,  Eman.,  393 
Vienna  compact,  82 
congress,  327 


Vienna  council,  377 

peace  of,  126 

Vienne,  385 
Villegagnon,  150 
Vilmar,  317,  332,  373 
Vincent  de  Paula,  186 
Vinet,  335 
Viret,  Peter,  110 
Virves,  126 

Visitation,     eccl.     rules 
for,  122 

Order  of,  186 

Vitringa,  214,  215 
Voes,  H.,  58 
Voetius,  213,  215 
Vogt,  Charles,  299 
Voigt,  J.,  300 
Volck,  257 
Voltaire,  231,  236 
Von  Horn,  303 
Vos,  Mir.,  276 
Voss,  288 
Vulgate,  92,  167 
Vulpius,  145 

Wackernagkl,  319 
Wagner,  An  dr.,  299 
_  Rud.,  299 


Walch,  Fr.,  285 

j.  G.,  245,  257 

Waldeck,  Fr.  v.,  80 
Waldensians,  345 
Waklshut,  65 
Walter,  Ferd.,  299 
Walther,  F.  W.,  350 

Hans,  145 

Michael.  200 

Walton,  Br.,  214 
Wandsbecker,  Bote,  288 
Warburton,  278 
Ward,  Mary,  187 
Wartburg,  40-1 
Wasserschleben,  299 
Waterlandians,  218 
Wegelin,  205 
Wes;leiter,    Christopher, 

207 
Wegscheider,  358 
Weigel,  156 
Weishaupt,  236 
Weismann,  245,  268 
Weiss,  M.,  264 
Weisse  (in  Leipsic).  297 

371 

Michael,  144 

Weissel.  205 


470 


INDEX 


Weitling,  416 
Weller,  Jacob,  198 

. Jerome.  142 

Wei  to,  391 
Wendelld,  215 
Werner,  Gharlps,  390 

Zach.,  301 

Wertheimer,  279 
Wesley,  267,  349 
Wessenberg.  382,  387 
Westeii,       Thomas       v., 

209 
Westeras,  Diet  of,  116 
Westphal,  Joach.,  137 
Westphalia,     Peace     of, 

177 

Ref.,  79 

Wet  Quakers,  220 
Wette,  (le,  358 
Wetstein,  269 
Wetterau,  256.  270,  271 
Whitefield,  267 
Wichern,  321 
Wieland,  287 
Wieseler,  370 
Wigand,  132,  136 
Wilberforce,  324 
Wild,  303 
Wildenhahn,    183,    203, 

303 
Wildenspuch      (village), 

406 
William  of  Bavaria,  93, 

96,  101 

of      Brandenburg, 

118 

of  Hessen,  182 

I.  of  Orange,   121, 

184 

III.  of  Orange,  180, 

184 

Prince,    regent   of 

Prussia,  328 


William  II.  of  Saxe  Wei- 
mar, 20(5 
Williams,  326 
Willieh,  M.,  183 
Willmeyer,  II.  A.,  370 
Wilson,  292 
Winipina,  34 
Winckelmann,  231,  304 
Winckler,  J.  J.,  248 
Winebrennariaus,  351 
Winer,  358 
Winkler,  58 
Winter,  273 
Winterfeld,  290,  320 
Wion,  163 
Wirth,  297 
Wiseman,  397 
Wislicenus,  308 
Wissowatius,  160 
Wittmann,  Mich.,  380 
Witschel,  307 
Witsius,  216 
Wittenbach,  269 
Wittenberg  Concord,   82 

Fanaticism,  42 

Reformat,  94 

University,  33,  183 


Wittgenstein,  271 
Wittig.  216 
Wizel,  172 
WladislaalV.  of  Poland, 

180 
Wolf,  Christ,  v.,  245 
J.  Chr.,  245,  273 


Wolff,  237 
Wolfenbuttel  Fragm.  282 
Wolfgang  of  Auhalt,  79 
Wolhier,  280 
Wohnar,  Melch.,  110 
Woltersdorf,  248 
Wolzogen,  160 
Woolston,  278 
Wordsworth,  303 


Worms,  Diet  of,  39,  40, 
94 

—  Edict  of,  40 

Itelig.  colloquy,  88 


Wullenweber,  117 
Wurtemberg,     78,     289, 

332 
Wurzburg  Conf.,  384 
Wurzen,  91 
Wyttenbach,  269 

Xavier,  163,  170 

Young,  Buigiiam,  413 
Germany,  301 

Zaccaria,  Mart,  166 
Zapoyla,  126 
Zealand,  New,  326 
Zeisberger,  266 
Zeller,  Ed.,  335,  365 

in  Beuggen,  322 

Zenner,  145 
Ziegenbalg,  251 
Zillerthal,  336 
Zimmermaun,  Ch.,  312, 

357 

E..  357 

Zinzendorf,     256,     272, 

273,  278 
Zionites,  273 
Zollikofer,  283 
Zolticon,  65 
Zschocke,  303,  307 
Zurich,  61,  62,  65 
Zutphen,  H.  v.,  58 
Zweibrucken,  338 
Zurick,  John,  149 
Zwickau    Prophets,    42, 

65 
Zwingli,  60,  65,  68   87 

137 
Zwiruer,  305 


IBl    119. 


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